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byShehab Hassan
Assistant Lecturer of psychiatry
Supervised by Prof. Wageeh Abdel
NasserProfessor of Psychiatry
Assiut University
State of the art of genetics in psychiatry
Agenda
Introduction
The Field of Psychiatric Genetics
Study Designs for Genetic Research on Mental
Disorders
The concept of Endophenotypes in psychiatry
Epigenetics in psychiatry
Pharmacogenetics
Future directions
2
Introduction
3
Introduction
In recent years, mental health professionals have become
increasingly aware of the importance of genetic factors in the
etiology of mental disorders. Since the Human Genome Project
began its mapping of the entire sequence of human DNA in 1990,
the implications of its findings for psychiatric diagnosis and
treatment have accumulated rapidly.
4
A new subspecialty known as biological psychiatry (also
called physiological psychology or psychiatric genetics) has emerged
from the discoveries of the last three decades. Biological psychiatry
got its start in the late 1980s, when several research groups identified
genes associated with manic depression and schizophrenia
respectively. These studies ran into difficulties because of the
complexity of the relationship between genetic factors and mental
illness.
5
Why complex?
Psychiatric diagnosis relies on a doctor's human judgment and
evaluation of a patient's behavior or appearance.
There is no blood or urine test for schizophrenia.
Diagnostic questionnaires do not have the same degree of precision or
objectivity as laboratory findings.
Mental disorders almost always involve more than one gene. Studies
have shown that one mental disorder can be caused by different
genes on different chromosomes in different populations.
6
Genes associated with mental disorders do not always show the
same degree of penetrance , which is defined as the proportion
of individuals carrying a particular variant of a gene (allele or
genotype) that also express an associated trait (phenotype).
Genetic factors in mental disorders interact with a person's
family and cultural environment.
7
The Field of Psychiatric Genetics
8
The Field of Psychiatric Genetics:
The Four Paradigms
Since the early 1980s, several distinct paradigms have
emerged in psychiatric genetics, from different perspectives,
by which investigators have sought to understand the role of
genetic factors in the etiology of psychiatric disorders (Kendler
2005).
9
Paradigm 1:Basic Genetic epidemiology
The goal of basic genetic epidemiology is to quantify the
degree to which individual differences in risk for
developing illness result from familial effects (as assessed
by a family study) or from genetic factors (as determined
by twin or adoption studies) (Busjahn 2002).
10
Paradigm 2: Advanced Genetic Epidemiology
The goal of advanced genetic epidemiology is to explore the nature
and mode of action of these genetic risk factors. Some of the many
possible questions that can be asked in advanced genetic epidemiology are
as follows (Kendler, 2001):
1. Are the genetic risk factors specific to a given disorder or shared with
other disorders?
2. Do the genetic risk factors impact on disease risk similarly in males and
females?
11
3. Do the genetic risk factors impact on disease risk by altering the
probability of exposure to environmental risk factors?
5. Does the action of the risk factors change as a function of the
developmental stage of the individual?
6. for disorders with multiple stages (i.e., alcohol consumption must
precede but does not always lead to alcohol dependence), what is the
relationship between the genetic risk factors for these various stages?
12
Paradigm 3: Gene Finding
The goal of gene-finding methods is to determine the locations
in the genome of genes (or more technically, loci) that, when variation
occurs, influence liability for developing psychiatric disorders.
By examining the distribution of genetic markers within families
or populations, these methods (linkage and/or association) allow us to
infer the probability that a locus in the genomic region under
investigation contributes to disease liability (Kendler 2005).
13
Paradigm 4: Molecular Genetics
The goal of the molecular genetic paradigm is to trace the
biological mechanisms by which the DNA variant identified
contributes to the disorder itself.
The first task is to identify the change in gene function and/or expression resulting
from the identified DNA variant.
The subsequent task is to trace, using a range of available methods (e.g., molecular,
pharmacological, imaging), the etiological pathway(s) from the DNA variant to the
abnormal brain/mind functioning that characterizes the disorder (Kendler 2005).
14
15
Genetic Models of Familial Transmission
Mendelian Genetic Models:
Assumes that all relevant genetic variation is due to the presence of
alleles at a single locus and that environmental variation is either irrelevant
or unique to an individual.
Diseases transmitted through a single major locus are referred to as
Mendelian diseases, as the pattern of inheritance in families follows the
rules of Mendelian segregation and can usually be recognized through
visual inspection of pedigrees (Robin Marantz, 2009).
16
Multilocus Diseases and Complex Inheritance
The general multifactorial model proposes genetic factors that each
make a small relative contribution to the total variance attributable to
genetic factors.
Most mental disorders are presumed to be inherited under such a
polygenic model.
With complex multifactorial inheritance, consideration of
environmental factors becomes a relevant component of disease
models.
17
The general complex trait multifactorial model assumes that all
relevant genetic and environmental contributions to variation can
be combined into a normally distributed variable termed liability.
Familial inheritance is modeled through correlations in liability
between family members, with the following assumptions:
18
1) relevant genes act additively and are each of small effect in relation to
the total variation;
2) environmental contributions are similarly due to many events whose
effects are additive; and
3) there may be multiple thresholds, such that individuals with scores
between threshold values represent milder phenotypic or “spectrum”
cases.
(Balding DJ, 2007)
19
Epistasis
epistasis is a phenomenon in which the expression of one
gene depends on the presence of one or more "modifier
genes.“
A gene whose phenotype is expressed is called epistatic,
while one whose phenotype is altered or suppressed is
called hypostatic.
20
When multiple genes contribute to risk, the presumption of
additivity (as in the liability-threshold model) serves as a convenient
mathematical baseline but may not at all reflect the underlying
biological reality. Complex interactions among loci of major or minor
effect, termed epistasis, may occur. This refers to the scenario in which
multiple risk alleles combine to confer greater risk than the additive
model would predict.
(Burmeister et al., 2008)
21
Study Designs for Genetic Research on
Mental Disorders
22
Study Unit of Analysis Goal
Population Subjects in the general population Establish lifetime cumulative incidence
Family Pedigrees Establish familiarity; estimate mode of transmission, risks to relative classes
Twin Monozygotic and dizygotic twins Distinguish genetic from environmental effects
Adoption Adoptees; adoptive and biologic relatives of adoptees
Distinguish genetic from environmental effects
Linkage Nuclear and/or extended pedigrees Establish chromosomal location of a disease locus
Association Unrelated affected individuals and controls
Identify a specific disease locus
Transgenic Gene expression in model systems e.g., worm, fly, zebrafish, mouse
Implicate genes, molecules, pathways, neural circuits
Study Designs for Genetic Research on Mental Disorders
23
Family Studies
Family studies for mental and other disorders begin with
affected persons (probands) selected from, for example,
consecutive hospital inpatient admission or a psychiatric case
registry. Available relatives are located and assessed for
psychopathology with structured or semistructured diagnostic
instruments. Recurrence risks are expected to increase as the
degree of relatedness between relatives increases.
24
monozygotic twins (zero degree), share 100 percent identical DNA sequence at the level of
their genes.
Full siblings (including DZ twins) and parents and children are first-degree relatives who
share one-half of their genetic material in common.
Second-degree relatives of affected individuals grandparents, grandchildren, uncles, aunts,
nieces, nephews, and half-siblings—share one-quarter of their genetic material in common.
(Faraone et al., 1999), (Kendler & Prescott, 2006).
25
26
Diagnostic category Populationprevelance
Twinconcordance
Heritability Heritability is the proportion of variance in familial risk attributable to genes.
Schizophrenia: 1% MZ: 40–50%;DZ: 14%
70–85%
Bipolar disorder (BP): 1% MZ: 70%;DZ: 19%
60–85%
Major depressive disorder:
5–15% MZ: 46%;DZ: 20%
40%
Autism and autismspectrum disorders:
Strict: 0.04%;spectrum: 0.8%
MZ: 36–82%;DZ: 6%
90%
Eating disorders: AN: 0.6%; BN 1%; tenfold more commonin women
MZ: 55% (AN), 23% (BN);DZ: 7% (AN), 9% (BN)
AN: 55%;BN: 60%
Anxiety disorders: All anxietydisorders:29%Panic 1–3%
MZ: 23–73%(panic disorder);DZ: 0–17%(panic disorder)
40–50%(panic disorder)
Obsessive compulsivedisorder:
1–3% MZ: 50–80%;DZ: 20–40%
60–70%
27
Twin Studies
Some ways that twins have been used for research purposes
include:
Twins reared-together
Twins reared-apart
The co-twin control method
28
1-The Twin Method (twins reared-together)
The twin method compares the trait resemblance of reared-
together MZ twin pairs (also known as monozygotic, or
identical), who share 100% genetic similarity, versus the
resemblance of reared-together same-sex DZ twin pairs (also
known as dizygotic, or fraternal), who average a 50% genetic
similarity (Joseph, 2004; Plomin et al., 2008).
29
2-Twins Reared-Apart
Reared-apart twin studies have assessed twin resemblance for
psychological traits such as IQ and personality, but have not
assessed twin concordance for psychiatric disorders. This is due
to the difficulty of obtaining a large enough sample of reared-
apart twins to perform such studies (Bouchard et al., 1990).
30
3 -co-twin control method .
This method looks at environmental factors that might lead
to different outcomes for twins. For example, researchers
might wish to study the smoking habits of a pair of MZ twins,
one of whom has been diagnosed with lung cancer (Herrell et
al., 1999).
31
Adoption Studies
Adoption studies permit the comparison of the effects of different
types of rearing on groups who are assumed to be similar in their genetic
predispositions.
The underlying principle of an adoption study is its assumed ability
to make a clean separation of genetic and environmental influences, since
adoptees inherit the genes of their biological (birth) parents, but are reared
in the environment of another (adoptive) family with whom they share no
genetic relationship (Jay Joseph, 2006).
32
The two most frequently used adoption study models in
psychiatric genetics are the Adoptees method, and the
Adoptees’ Family method.
1-The Adoptees method: begins with parents (usually
mothers) diagnosed with the disorder in question. The
researchers then determine the prevalence of this disorder
among their adopted-away biological offspring (index group).
33
The prevalence of the disorder is then compared with that of a control
group consisting of the adopted-away biological offspring of parents not
diagnosed with the disorder. The re-searchers conclude that a statistically
significant higher rate of the disorder among index versus control
adoptees suggests a role for genetic factors in causing the disorder.
(Rosenthal et al., 1971; Tienariet al., 2003)
34
2-The Adoptees’ Family method begins with adoptees diagnosed
with the disorder in question. A control group of non-diagnosed
adoptees is also established. The investigators then attempt to
identify and diagnose the biological and adoptive relatives in each
group, and make statistical comparisons between these groups.
35
Researchers then compare the diagnostic rates of the biological
versus adoptive relatives of the index adoptee group:
‘‘If the biologic relatives of ill adoptees have higher rates of illness than
the adoptive relatives of ill adoptees, then a genetic hypothesis is
supported.
If the adoptive relatives show higher rates of illness, then an
environmental hypothesis gains support’.
(Faraone & Tsuang, 1995)
36
Linkage studies: Establish chromosomal location of a disease locus
Rest on the principle that large blocks of DNA are inherited
unchanged by meiotic crossover in the offspring. Thus, a single
DNA marker can be used to trace transmission of one of these
blocks from parents to offspring. Linkage studies take several-
hundred polymorphic DNA markers and observe whether specific
parental alleles are inherited within a family by ill offspring, i.e.
the marker alleles co-segregate with illness within the family.
37
If certain markers show this pattern across families more than would be
predicted by chance, the marker is said to show linkage to the clinical
phenotype and presumably to the gene responsible for it. These
markers are usually microsatellites (regions within DNA where short
sequences of nucleotides are tandemly repeating), but they also may be
SNPs. Linkage studies are usually conducted using the DNA from nuclear
and extended families and measures allele sharing within families.
(Dawn Teare M and Barrett JH, 2005)
38
Association Studies: Identify a specific disease gene locus
association is linkage at very small distance. Association
studies identify whether or not an allele of a marker (or a few
markers) in a small segment of DNA is itself the disease-
causing mutation or is close to it (i.e. in linkage disequilibrium
with it). Association studies accomplish this by measuring
whether a hypothesized disease allele is more frequent in
Unrelated affected individuals relative to the control
population (Kruglyak et al., 2008).
39
Candidate gene
The choice of candidates is informed by existing knowledge of pathways or
molecules thought to be involved in a specific disease.
A biological candidate gene might be involved in the neurotransmitter
system that is implicated by the psychoactive drugs used to treat a disorder
(for example, serotonin system genes for depression).
A positional candidate gene is any gene that maps within a chromosomal
region that is implicated by linkage.
(Alarcon M et al., 2008)
40
The concept of Endophenotypes in
psychiatry
41
Endophenotypes
It is a measurable biological (physiological, biochemical,
and anatomical features), behavioral (psychometric pattern) or
cognitive markers that are found more often in individuals with a
disease than in the general population.
The major use of the term was in psychiatric genetics, to
bridge the gap between high-level symptom presentation and low-
level genetic variability, such as single nucleotide polymorphisms.
(Hasler G et al., 2004)
42
Some other terms which have a similar meaning but do not
stress the genetic connection as highly are "intermediate
phenotype", "biological marker", "subclinical trait",
"vulnerability marker", and "cognitive marker".
The strength of an endophenotype is its ability to
differentiate between potential diagnoses that present with
similar symptoms.
43
Criteria that a biomarker must fulfill to be called an endophenotype include:
1) The endophenotype is associated with illness in the population.
2) The endophenotype is heritable.
3) The endophenotype is primarily state-independent (manifests in an individual whether or not illness is
active).
4) endophenotype and illness co-segregate Within families,.
5) The endophenotype found in affected family members is found in nonaffected family members at a higher
rate than in the general population.
(Gershon ES, Goldin LR, 1986 and Gottesman II, Gould TD, 2003)
44
45
Depression
Anhedonia (Impaired Reward Function)
Anhedonia seems to be a relatively specific feature of depression
(Fawcett et al, 1983), and even in patients with schizophrenia, anhedonia
has been related to the depressive syndrome rather than to the deficit
syndrome (Loas et al, 1999).
Associations between dysfunctions of the brain reward system and
anhedonia are the basis of the biological plausibility of anhedonia-related
endophenotypes.
46
Epidemiological research provides clues for state-independence, heritability,
and familial association of dysfunctions of the brain reward system as
endophenotype for MDD.
Anhedonia Symptoms Often Precede The Onset Of MDD.
Anhedonia Symptoms Seem To Be Relatively Stable Over Time (Oquendo Et Al, 2004).
The Associations Between Impairments Of Brain Reward Pathways And Addiction,
Lifetime Comorbidity Of Substance Use Disorders And MDD (Brook Et Al, 2002) Also
Suggest Persistent Familial Abnormalities Of Brain Reward Pathways In MDD.
47
48
For schizophrenia
Anatomical
Cerebellar abnormalities.
Olfactory bulb volumes.
Ventricular enlargement.
Decreased grey matter in insular and left entorhinal cortex.
Temporal lobe grey matter abnormalities.
Electrophysiological
Exploratory eye movement.
Event-related potential : P300 and P50 Responses.
49
Metabolic Niacin skin test.
Sensory Olfactory sensitivity.
Activity of magnocellular visual pathway.
Smooth pursuit eye movements
Psychological Executive performance
Spatial and verbal memory.
Verbal and spatial attentional processes.
50
Bipolar disorder
Anatomical MRI hyperintensities
Metabolic Basal intracellular calcium levels
Reduced 5-HTT (5-hydroxy- tryptamine) function
Psychological Response to tryptophan depletion
Prefrontal cognitive function (measured by WCST)
Subthreshold mood lability
51
Epigenetics in psychiatry
52
Epigenetics
Epigenetics is the study of changes in gene expression or cellular
phenotype, caused by mechanisms other than changes in the
underlying DNA sequence.
Recent research has demonstrated that complex ‘epigenetic’
mechanisms, which regulate gene activity without altering the
DNA code, have long-lasting effects within mature neurons ((Van
2002).
53
Most psychiatric disorders share important features, including
a substantial genetic predisposition and a contribution from
environmental factors.
Recent researches have raised the notion that epigenetic
mechanisms, which exert lasting control over gene expression
without altering the genetic code, could mediate stable
changes in brain function (Jaenisch and Bird 2003).
54
Overview of epigenetic mechanismsThe epigenome
Within the nucleus of a cell, the DNA sequence lies wrapped around
histone proteins. The complex of DNA, histones and non-histone proteins
forms a highly condensed structure called chromatin. The basic unit of
chromatin is the nucleosome, which consists of a histone octamer with a
standard length of 147 base pairs of DNA wound around it. Histone
octamer exists of two copies of each of the core histone proteins H2A, H2B,
H3 and H4. (Jenuwein and Allis 2001)
55
The nucleosomal structure and the remodeling mechanisms of
chromatin allows DNA to be accessible to the transcriptional machinery.
In simplified terms, chromatin exists in:
An inactivated, condensed state, heterochromatin, which does not
allow transcription of genes.
An activated, open state, euchromatin, which allows individual genes
to be transcribed.
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Gene expression
Without altering the genetic code, diversifications in the patterns
of gene expression give rise to differentiating tissues. Epigenetic
mechanisms drive this cellular development and differentiation,
and are therefore at the heart of genetic expression.
Epigenetic processes activate some genes and inhibit others and
genetic expression becomes increasingly more defined,
restricting the properties of the cell.
59
As in other cells, epigenetic mechanisms are essential to the
development of the nervous system. The epigenetic machinery
drives both embryonic and postnatal neural development. It is
involved in neurogenesis (Kuwabara, Hsieh et al. 2004),
neuronal differentiation, cell fate specification (Fan, Beard et
al. 2001) and development of dendrites (Wu, Lessard et al.
2007).
60
The course of development of the epigenetic profile is
influenced by environmental factors in utero. In different species
environmental factors such as temperature or the presence of
predators, have been shown to affect the phenotype of the offspring.
In humans and mice, the physiology of the baby is affected by the
nutritional state of the mother. Maternal stress in rats also alters the
phenotype of their offspring (Dolinoy, Weidman et al. 2007).
61
such epigenetic developmental plasticity may involve preparing
the offspring for the type of environment they are likely to live in
(Bateson, Barker et al. 2004). it is now clear that these mechanisms are
dynamically regulated.
Epigenetic remodeling takes place throughout adult life, under
the influence of environmental factors such as nutrition, drugs, and
chemical, physical and psychosocial factors (Dolinoy, Weidman et al.
2007; Sutherland and Costa 2003).
62
In addition, psychiatric disorders such as depression
and schizophrenia appear to be modulated by epigenetic
alterations (Rutten and Mill 2009). Since environmental
factors are known to contribute to these diseases, epigenetic
regulation may be the field where genes and environment
interact, to produce a psychiatric phenotype.
63
Epigenetic mechanisms
There are two major types of epigenetic mechanisms that regulate gene expression
in the nervous system.
The first is posttranslational modification of histones.
The second is DNA methylation.
Histone modifications and DNA methylation interact to modify the structure of the
epigenome, determining the accessibility of DNA to transcription.
(Gibney and Nolan 2010)
64
Posttranslational modification of histones:
Posttranslational histone modifications take place at the histone tail of
the nucleosome. The most common are the small covalent modifications:
Acetylation.
Methylation.
Phosphorylation.
(Tsankova, Renthal et al. 2007)
65
1-Histone acetylation
Histone acetyl transferases (HATs) catalyze the addition of acetyl groups.
Histone hyperacetylation is associated with decondensation of
chromatin and an increase in gene activity.
Hypoacetylation correlates with repression of chromatin and a decrease
in gene activity. The balance between the opposing activity of HATs and
HDACs on histone tails, is an important factor in regulating transcription
(Sleiman, Basso et al. 2009).
66
Defects in this interplay can lead to neurodegenerative diseases.
Restraint stress
Induces decreased levels of total BDNF mRNA in the hippocampus
and decreased acetylation at histone H3 at the BDNF gene, associated
with reduced levels of BDNF protein (Angelucci, Brene et al. 2005).
67
Elevated HDAC1 expression levels are detected in the
prefrontal cortices of schizophrenia subjects. The mRNA
levels of glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) show a strong
and negative correlation with the mRNA levels of HDAC1,
HDAC3 and HDAC4 (Sharma, Grayson et al. 2008).
68
2-Histone methylation
Interestingly, methylation of different lysine residues can
achieve opposite effects on gene activity; it can cause both
repression and activation depending on which lysine residue
of the histone tail is methylated. In psychiatric epigenetics,
focus lies on methylation of histone H3. (Mosammaparast
and Shi 2010).
69
3-Histone phosphorylation
several nuclear protein kinases and protein phosphatases are known that
add or remove phosphate groups from the histone tail.
The protein kinase MSK 1 (mitogen- and stress-activated protein kinase)
and the protein phosphatase inhibitor DARPP-32 (dopamine and cAMP-
regulated phosphoprotein) have been shown to regulate phosphorylation
in the brain.
Phosphorylation of histones is associated with the promotion of
transcriptional activity. (Renthal and Nestler 2009).
70
Stress induces phosphoacetylation at the BDNF gene in the
hippocampus. This is regulated by the GABAA and the NMDA
receptor, as drugs that target these strongly affect levels of
phosphoacetylation, suggesting that GABA and glutamate can set
intracellular mechanisms into action to alter BDNF-associated
chromatin (Chandramohan et al. 2010)
71
DNA methylation
It is catalyzed by DNA methyltransferases (DNMT) DNA
methylation is associated with transcriptional repression, and this
process is enhanced by methyl-binding proteins. These proteins bind
specifically to methylated DNA, and further repress genetic
transcription by recruiting chromatin-remodeling complexes.
(Gibney and Nolan 2010)
72
The synthesis of catecholamines is mediated by the Catechol-O
methyl transferase (COMT) enzyme, and the COMT gene has often
been associated with schizophrenia. COMT has two isoforms
encoded by the same gene:
Membrane Bound (MB)-COMT, mainly expressed in the brain.
Soluble (S)-COMT, which is predominantly expressed in
peripheral cells.
73
MB-COMT promoter DNA is frequently hypomethylated in
schizophrenia and bipolar disorder patients, particularly in the
left frontal lobe. This corresponds with an increase in transcript
levels of MB-COMT in both schizophrenia and bipolar disorder
patients, and a decrease in expression of the dopamine
receptor gene DRD1 (Abdolmaleky, Cheng et al. 2006).
74
Genomic imprinting
For most genes, we inherit two working copies one from mother
and one from father. But with imprinted genes, we inherit only
one working copy.
Depending on the gene, either the copy from mom or the copy
from dad is epigenetically silenced.
Silencing usually happens through the DNA methylation during
egg or sperm formation. (Goos LM, Ragsdale G. 2008)
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Pharmacogenetics
78
Pharmacogenetics
Pharmacogenetic studies are driven by several distinct motivations:
1) pharmacogenetic influences on differential treatment response can help clinicians use
appropriately targeted treatments for specific individuals;
2) determining predictors of adverse effects can help clinicians’ to avoid treatments for
specific individuals;
3) deepening our understanding of how treatments work can assist with the discovery of
new targets for treatment development;
4) predicting metabolic profiles can help with medication or dosage choices.
(Apud et al., 2012)
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Pharmacogenetics represent the variability in drug response and metabolism
due to genetic variant. The overall aim of Pharmacogenetics is to contribute to
drug choice and dosage according to the individual genetic makeup, thus
leading to a personalized, more efficacious, and less harmful therapy (Klotz, U.
2007)
So, Treatment according to pharmacogenetics Right Drug Right Dose Right Patient
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Pharmacogenomics: is the technology that analyzes how the genetic
makeup of an individual affects his/her response to drugs.
It combines the knowledge of pharmacology and of genomics.
It is the technology that deals with the influence of genetic variation on drug
response in patients by correlating gene expression with a drug's efficacy or
toxicity.
Pharmacogenomics aims to develop rational means to optimize drug therapy,
with respect to the patients' genotype, to ensure maximum efficacy with
minimal adverse effects.(wang l , 2000).
82
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According to study in this April, 2001 Nature Genetics. Up to
70 percent of the population may have a genetic abnormality
that causes them to metabolize many of the drugs on the market
particularly slowly-meaning that chemicals hang around in the
body longer and have more time to toxic effects.
84
Pharmacogenetics Individualized drug therapies:
Genes affected the way drugs are handled in the body
>2 million people hospitalized in one year (1994 ) because of
reactions to properly prescribed drug
There is currently a great effort to define gene sequence
differences (SNPs) that influence drug metabolism.
There are about 3 million single base difference in DNA
sequence between any two people –SNPs
85
What does this mean for medication?
Opportunity!
To understand how single genes influence health, disease
and response to treatment
To understand how groups of genes work together to
influence patient outcomes
To understand how to optimize treatment for every patient
86
Most Psychotropic Medications are metabolized by the
p450 Enzymes
True of all common SSRI’s.
True of common tricycles antidepressants.
True of some benzodiazepines and antipsychotic.
87
Polymorphic Drug-Metabolizing Enzymes
More than 50 CYP genes, about 10 of them are of major
importance in psychiatry each is coded for by a specific
gene.eg.: (CYP 3A, CYP 2D6, CYP2C19, CYP1A2, CYP2C9, )
There is extensive variability in allele distribution of some of
these genes. (Nelson D, 2003)
There is considerable variability in the distribution of these
polymorphisms across different ethnic groups.
88
CYP2D6 and CYP2C19 belong to the Cytochrome P450 oxidase
family.
CYP2D6 has over 100 variants, 2C19 has mainly three.
They are responsible for the majority of the inter-individual
variability in the ability to metabolize drugs.
89
Key polymorphisms of these genes are associated with variability in
the Effectiveness of metabolism and the four phenotypes of CYP2D6:
Poor Metabolizers (PM)
Intermediate Metabolizers (IM)
Extensive Metabolizers, Those with normal function (EM)
Ultrarapid Metabolizers (URM)
90
For CYP2C19, there are only two phenotypes: PM and EM.
If a substrate of the enzyme is given to the patient as a
medication, and if the patient has reduced CYP2D6 or
CYP2C19 activity, the patient will have elevated drug
concentration in their body, and therefore severe side effects
may occur. On the other hand, for the UM patient, the drug
concentration might be too low to have a therapeutic effect.
91
Genetic basis of variability
The genetic basis for extensive and poor metaboliser
variability is the CYP2D6 allele, located on chromosome 22.
Subjects possessing certain allelic variants will show normal,
decreased, or no CYP2D6 function, depending on the allele.
92
CYP2D6 allele and enzyme activity
Allele CYP2D6 activity
CYP2D6*1 normal
CYP2D6*2 increased
CYP2D6*3 none
CYP2D6*4 none
CYP2D6*5 none
CYP2D6*9 decreased
CYP2D6*10 decreased
CYP2D6*17 decreased93
Ethnic factors in variability
Ethnicity is a factor in the occurrence of CYP2D6
variability.
The prevalence of CYP2D6 poor metabolizers is
approximately 6–10% in white populations, as they have
the non-functional CYP2D6*4 allele.
but is lower in most other ethnic groups such as Asians
(2%).
94
50% of Asians possess the CYP2D6*10 allele, which produces
decreased CYP2D6 function as intermediate metabolisers.
In blacks, the frequency of poor metabolizers is greater than
for whites.
The occurrence of CYP2D6 ultrarapid metabolisers appears to
be greater among Middle Eastern and North African
populations.
95
Poor Metabolizers
Poor Metabolizer (PM) range in severity and can result in a serious
inability to clear medications that can result in serious side effects.
Intermediate Metabolizers
Some have fairly adequate capacity to produce sufficient enzymes
while others are more vulnerable. Inhibition by other medications
in intermediate metabolizers is a more serious concern.
96
Extensive Metabolizer
(EM) are “normal”. Molecular biologists refer to them as
“wild types”. In most Caucasian population they are in fact the
most common genotype. Current dosing schedules assume that
the patient is an extensive metabolizer.
Ultrarapid Metabolizers
(URM) rapidly clear medication and can minimize or
eliminate the therapeutic response.
97
2D6
A critical enzyme for fluoxetine, paroxetine and the tricyclic
antidepressants .
A highly variable gene with more than 100 identified
polymorphisms.
Located at a chromosomal site on chromosome 22 where
crossovers occur frequently.
98
Dextropmethorphan is Metabolized by 2D6
Dextromethorphan clearance has been used as a pharmacokinetic
assay to identify 2D6 metabolic variation.
Dextromethorphan abuse in poor metabolizers is more likely
lead to psychiatric symptoms including psychosis.
2D6 Is Inhibited By:FluoxetineParoxetineHaloperidol
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AmpliChip CYP450 Test is a clinical test from Roche. The
test aims to find the specific gene types (a genotype) of the patient
that will determine how he or she metabolizes certain medicines,
therefore guides the doctors to prescribe medicine for best
effectiveness and least side effects.
The AmpliChip CYP450 Test determines the genotype of the
patient in terms of two cytochrome P450 enzymes: 2D6 and 2C19.
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With the recent FDA clearance of the AmpliChipCYP450 Test,
physicians can, for the time, base their dose and drug selection
on scientific criteria, with data obtained from a small blood
sample.
Instead of relying on lengthy trial-and error approaches for
optimizing first drug therapy, physicians may achieve earlier
success using their patient's metabolic profile as a guide to
dosing.
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Future Directions
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1-Use of Endophenotypes for Classification
There is abundant research on comorbidity, dimensional
classification of disorders, and inclusion of subthreshold
diagnostic categories and diagnostic spectra in the DSM-V. As
this effort continues, research on the classification of the
phenotype for genetic and other biologic studies should
increasingly strive for classification that may more closely
represent expression of underlying biologic systems.
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Endophenotypes, as it give more direct expressions of
underlying genes and the broader disease phenotype, will help
to unravel the complexity of transmission of the mental
disorders.
Progress in understanding and identification of endophenotypes
may bridge the gap between the genetic and biological factors
and the manifest phenotypes of mental illness
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2-Genotyping
Genotyping of the cytochrome P-450 2D6 gene is the first
pharmacogenomic test to be widely used. It is available to
practicing clinicians at the Mayo clinic Medical Laboratories.
Mayo Medical Laboratories has expanded its capabilities to include
pharmacogenomic tests for the cytochrome P-450 2C19 gene, the
cytochrome P-450 2C9 gene, the serotonin transporter gene
(SLC6A4), and two of the serotonin receptor genes (2A and 2C).
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Indications for 2D6 Genotyping
To identify ultra-rapid metabolizers of these same medications.
If a patient metabolizes a drug too quickly, the drug doesn’t
have the intended effect.
Poor 2D6 metabolizers are believed to be at increased risk for
manic or hypomanic symptoms.
Poor 2D6 metabolizers are more susceptible to sexual
dysfunction and are at increased risk for the development of
common side effects such as headaches and diarrhea.
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Children are more vulnerable to the side effects of
medications than adults because their complaints are often
taken less seriously. By testing children, physicians can
help them avoid adverse reactions.
Pharmacogenomic testing is particularly indicated for
children whose mother or father has been shown to be
either a poor or ultra-rapid 2D6 metabolizer
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Older patients also may benefit from pharmacogenetic testing:
They may not remember which medications they have taken.
Whether they suffered side effects from those medications.
Whether they responded well to them.
Geriatric patients often take many medications and may be at risk for drug
interactions. for patients who are poor metabolizers, these interactions can be
dangerous.
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3-Gene Therapy
A functioning gene is introduced into the patient’s cell
aiming to correct an inborn genetic error, or introduce a
new function in the cell.
Leading to permanent genetic alteration of cells.
Produce definite alteration of genotype and phenotype.
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Application in psychiatry
The transplanted neural progenitor cells engineered to over express and
secretes NGF into the nucleus basalis of middle-aged rats. Remarkably, led
to enhanced spatial learning in old age in these animals.
Over expression of the dopamine signal transduction molecule CREB (by
means of microinjection of a herpes simplex virus 1 vector into the nucleus
accumbens) decreased the reward properties of cocaine (Carlezon et al.,
2000).
CREB (cAMP response element-binding protein) is a cellular transcription factor.
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Difficulties
there are some big hurdles to overcome before such techniques can be
routinely used in patients, and especially in patients with psychiatric
disorders:
we have all the neurons we are ever going to have by age 4 or 5, and
that ends up being a huge limitation in gene therapy for the simple reason
that almost all gene therapy techniques used are built around the need of
cells still dividing, replicating their DNA, because that is the point where
you slip in the novel DNA.
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there are no ways to get therapeutic genes and their transporters
into the human brain without injecting them through the skull.
If such material is injected into the bloodstream or
cerebrospinal fluid, it cannot cross the brain’s blood-brain
barrier to get inside the brain. The same holds true for material
inhaled through the nose.
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gene therapy is not capable of exerting such long-term effects at
this point in its development. for instance, unless gene therapy is
given to a rat within four hours of having a stroke, it does not work.
several genes may play a part in turning other genes on and off. for
example, certain genes work together to stimulate cell division and
growth, but if these are not regulated, the inserted genes could
cause tumor formation and cancer.
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viral vectors must be carefully controlled lest they infect the
patient with a viral disease. Some vectors, like retroviruses,
also can enter cells functioning properly and interfere with the
natural biological processes, possibly leading to other diseases.
Other viral vectors, like the adenoviruses, often are recognized
and destroyed by the immune system so their therapeutic
effects are short-lived.
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4-HDAC inhibitors
HDAC inhibitors might function as antidepressants, or effectively
enhance the action of existing antidepressants.
The tricyclic antidepressant imipramine increases histone
acetylation at specific promoters of the gene encoding BDNF, in part
by reducing levels of HDAC.
increasing histone acetylation within the hippocampus may reverse
the social avoidance observed in mice subjected to chronic stress.
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valproic acid (VPA) is commonly used in the treatment of
epilepsy and bipolar disorder. It increases GABAergic activity
by inhibiting GABA transaminase. Moreover, VPA is a potent
HDAC inhibitor of class I and II HDACs and the most
extensively investigated inhibitor in psychiatric epigenetics.
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5-DNMT inhibitors
Some evidence indicates that DNMT inhibitors may be useful in
psychiatric therapy. compounds 5-aza-dC (AZA), zebularine and
doxorubicin inhibit DNMT1 and DNMT3 and decrease DNA
methylation of the reelin promoter in neural progenitor cells. This
dramatically increases reelin and GAD67 mRNA levels, showing
that the expression of the reelin and GAD67 genes is mediated by
DNMTs. DNMT3 (Tian, Hu et al. 2009).
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