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www.jases.org
e-ISSN 2360-8013
e-ISSN:2360-8013
Volume 2 Issue 5, 2016
Journal of Applied Sciences &
Environmental Sustainability
Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability www.jases.org e-ISSN 2360-8013
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JASES Volume 2, Issue 5, is a Special Issue Publication covering selected and revised papers after Peer-reviewed
by Scientific Committee from The International Conference on Science, Engineering, and the Social Sciences
(ICSESS) convened at Universiti Teknologi Malaysia in 2016 and also after Peer-reviewed by reviewers of JASES.
The ICSESS served as an academic platform for championing the pursuit of excellence in various research areas
basically from fields including Engineering and Environment. Special thanks to the Chief Guest Editor and Guest
Editors who have made this possible.
Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability www.jases.org e-ISSN 2360-8013
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JASES Editorial Board
Editor-in-Chief
Dr. Ibraheem Dooba
Co-Editor
Prof. Dr. Malay Chaudhuri
Emeritus Professor, Universiti Teknologi Petronas, Malaysia
Managing Editor
Dr. Augustine Chioma Affam
University College of Technology Sarawak, Malaysia
Technical Editor
Dr. Ahmed Abba Haruna
Universiti Teknologi Petronas, Malaysia
Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability www.jases.org e-ISSN 2360-8013
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ICSESS Guest Editor-in-Chief:
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mohd Zin Bin Kandar
ICSESS Guest Editors:
Dr. Yakubu Aminu Dodo
Dr. Ar. Elina Mohd Husini
Dr. Wallace Imoudu Enegbuma
Dr. Opaluwa Yusuf Drisu
Moveh Samuel
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CONTENTS
A Brief Study on Survey of Housing Policies in Nigeria and Malaysia 1 - 5
Aisha Haladu Bornoma, Amamata Zakari, Hannatu Idris Abdullahi
Spatial Quality in Space Design for Promoting Self-Healing In Malaysia 6 - 14
Siti Athirah Binti Jaapar, Yakubu Aminu Dodo, Aminatuzuhariah bte Megat Abdullah,
Mohd Zin Kandar
Perspectives on Natural Ventilation and Thermal Comfort in Buildings 15 - 26
Abbas Sa’id El-nafaty, Isah Abdul Anakobe, Mohd Hamdan Ahmad, Malsiah Hamid
Post Occupancy Evaluation of Public Mass Housing Estate in Minna, Nigeria 27 - 38
Adama Unekwu Jonathan, Ogunbode Ezekiel Babatunde, Ernest Ituma Egba,
Fabunmi Foluke Olanike, Abeku D.M.
Risk Management in Public Private Partnership Building Construction Projects 39 - 48
Ernest Ituma Egba, Ogunbode Ezekiel Babatunde, Fabunmi Foluke O., Adama Jonathan U
Neighbourhood Quality and Residential Mobility in Penang 49 - 58
Nur Syuhada Mahasan, Nazhan Nazran, Sarofil Abu Bakar
Reviewing the Factors of the Increasing Needs for Residential Housing in the Gaza Strip 59 - 75
Abdalrahim M. Shehab, Mohd Zin Kandar
Using Green Roofs to Mitigate the Effect of Urban Heat Island 76 - 88
Jibril Danazimi Jibril, Musa Ali Jogana, Halliru Faruk, Faizah Mohammed Bashir
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An Appraisal of Socio-Cultural Housing Features of Space Utilization in a Multi-Ethnic
Setting in Nigeria 89 - 101
Abubakar Danladi Isah, Tareef Hayat Khan, Abdullah Sani Ahmad, Alkali Ibrahim Abubakar
Small-Scale Palm Oil Processing in West and Central Africa: Development and Challenges 102 - 114
Hassan, M. A., Njeshu, G, Raji, A., Zhengwuvi, L and Salisu, J.
Proposed Market Survey Framework for Build Green 115 - 125
Rozana Zakaria, Yakubu Aminu Dodo, Rosli Ahmad, Nur IzieAdiana binti Abidin
An Appraisal of the Benefits of Building Information Modelling (BIM) in Architecture 126 - 137
Anumah John James, Anumah Lesado, Gofwen, Chalya, Melchizedek Malson
The Factors Influencing Thermal Performance of Coatings on Roofing Materials 138 - 147
Anumah John James, Anumah Lesado, Benjamin, Gideon Koyan, Odoala, Michael
Thermal Insulation Boards from Camel’s Foot (Piliostigma Thonningii L.) Leave fibres
For Lagging Application 148 - 159
A. Musa, A. Rajiand M.A. Hassan
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Research Article
A Brief Study on Survey of Housing Policies in Nigeria and Malaysia
Aisha Haladu Bornoma1*, Amamata Zakari2, Hannatu Idris Abdullahi3
1Department of Architecture, School of Environmental Science, Modibbo Adama University of
Technology, P.M.B. 2076 Yola, Nigeria.
2Department of Estate Management, Federal Polytechnic, Bauchi. PMB. 0231 Bauchi, Nigeria
3Department of Architecture, Baze University Faculty of Environmental Sciences
*Corresponding Author: aisha_haladu@yahoo.com
ARTICLE INFO
Article history
Received: 12/10/2016
Accepted: 02/12/2016
A b s t r a c t
This study shows a brief survey on the affordability elements in the current
low cost housing policies of Malaysia and Nigeria. Where a comparism of the
affordability elements in Malaysia and Nigeria were pointed out so as to study
the relationship among the low cost housing affordability elements in Malaysia
and Nigeria; and propose a sustainable low cost housing affordability policy.
The survey discovered that there are no laws, rules or guidelines regulating the
affairs of low cost housing. The design does not reflect user need; it did not
conform to their culture, family background and size. No provisions for public
participation were provided in the policy documents. An example is in the cost
houses located in the same neighbourhood with medium and high cost houses
in Batu Pahat Malaysia and enjoy all facilities, utilities and services there.
However, the situation is not the same in Bauchi town, where low cost houses
are located separately at the peripheries outside of the town trekking distances
which repel beneficiaries because of the awkward location. Residents in Batu
Pahat have higher earnings, less number of dependants than those at Bauchi
who have higher number of dependants and lower income level.
© Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability. All rights
reserved.
Affordability, low cost, housing, policy
1. Introduction
Housing being a basic need is widely understood in the broader context of the shelter fabric together with
the living environment. The significance of housing is manifested in its components of being both an
economic and social good. Being an indicator of development and welfare in a country, it has an economic
value which makes it an economic investment (Njathi, 2011). In fact housing contributes largely towards
poverty reduction through employment generation, raising incomes, improvement of health and increasing
productivity of the labour force (Chirchir, 2006).Housing being a relatively labour intensive venture retains
the highest employment generation potential in any given developing country necessitating most countries
to consider adequate housing as a priority national development Goal (Syagga and aligula, 1993).
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Government in a bid to providing housing are relatively limited in the number of policy supported actions
they are able to take in supporting the housing needs and aspirations of their citizenry. It is evident over the
years, that Nigeria has developed and implemented a number of housing policies and strategies, in an
attempt to address the housing situation of its citizens and particularly the low-income groups (LIGs).
Consequently, a fatal failure of the public housing scheme to house Nigerians occurred (Agbola 1990;
Awotona, 1990; Ogunshakin & Olayinwola, 1992; Ikeojifor, 1999b; Ogu, 1999). There were writings from
the World Bank and allied scholars in propagating the idea that through supporting policies, the private
sector can adequately tackle the persistent inadequate response from the supply side (World Bank, 1993;
Pugh, 1994a; Ogu, 1999; Ogu & Ogbuozobe, 2001). Nigeria have taken the directives dictated by the
international agencies most especially the World Bank, to henceforth refrain from direct role in housing and
adopt market driven policies
to enable housing provision in their countries (World Bank, 1993; Sandhu and Aldrich, 1998). In this
instance, many of the opponents of neo-liberalism through the World Bank condemn the strategy on the
grounds of its likely deepening of exclusionist trends it would further generate on the poor and LIGs in the
developing countries (Baken and Linden, 1993; Ortiz, 1996; Mukhija, 2001, 2004). However, from the little
available in the Nigerian housing literature, the Organised Private Sector (OPS) are recognized to have
much concentration on housing the upper-and medium-income groups (Ikeojifor, 1997) and generally
display the tendency of profit maximization (Keivani & Werna, 2001a). Scholars have begun to express
cynicism that the desired objective might not be achievable from the participation of the OPS (Keivani &
Werna, 2001a; Aribigbola, 2008). In contrast, however, Malaysian housing programs have focused largely
on the eradication of poverty and restructuring of the society through the integration of the various ethnic
communities. The government has provided a settlement policy to keep pace with Malaysia‘s rapid
economic growth ―to eradicate hard-core poverty, to bring a better quality life to her people and to
conserve her forest eco-system for future generations (Ezeanya, 2004). As such, the role of private sector
developers became more significant and resulted in the formation of a consultative committee on housing
and construction between public and private sectors. The scope of development undertaken by developers
has increased from encompassing traditional housing projects to condominiums, townships, towering
commercial complexes, shopping malls, state-of-the art golf courses, hospitals, theme parks and industrial
estates.
2. Scope of the survey
The study vehemently focused on low cost housing in Batu Pahat, Malaysia under the Municipal Council
and low cost housing in Bauchi, Nigeria also under the Municipal Council. Emphasis was given to elements
that negate affordability of the housing units by lower income groups of these two municipalities by
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assessing their literacy level, dependency level, income level versus expenditure, family tie, ethic and race.
This has shown the extent of the achievements and sustainability of the housing policies.
Table 1.1 Population and Geographical Area of the study area
Figure 1.1 Administrative Map of Batu Pahat, Malaysia. Source: Figure 1.2 Administrative Map of Bauchi, Nigeria. Source: Google maps:
http://zodml.org/Nigeria/Geography/Bauchi%20State/#. (2012). Google maps:http://www.google.com.my/imgres?imgurl (2012).
3. Goals of Low Cost Housing Policy
Whichever future policy designed to achieve sustainable housing development for the low cost housing
should necessarily be designed to meet the following objectives:
Must provide the basis for household improvement. Few poor families fail to notice if the effect of
such policy led to an improvement or otherwise in their particular case. That is the acid test for the
lower income groups. Site and services failed because it left the lowest one fifth of the income
distribution behind, this forgotten fifth integral part of the population participate in the
improvement as well (UN Habitat, 2000).
Policies could result in sustainable housing development concerned with the improvement of poor
people. At least 50% of the urban population in the developing world has been marginalized. Not
only they must be heard by decision makers, they must have influence on matters affecting their
future destinies (UN Habitat, 2000).
Policies must be to psychologically give this lower segment a feeling of self-worth (UN Habitat,
2000).
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3.1 Concept of Low Cost Housing Affordability for the Low Income Groups
Affordable housing means the need for assistance to lower income household employed (Berry, et.al, 2004).
Universal Declaration of Human Rights declared that: ―Everyone has right to a standard of living adequate
for health and wellbeing of himself and his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and
necessary social services‖ (UN-HABITAT, 2002). In the UK housing policy context, in their statement in
their White Paper: Fair Deal for Housing in 1971, policy aimed to achieve a ―Decent home for every
family at a price within their means‖. However, the Department of Environment, Transport and Regions
(DETR, 2000), defined Affordable Housing as follows: Affordable housing can be classified as a social
housing at typically low, sub market rents and can also include other forms of sub market housing such as
intermediate rent and low cost ownership such as shared ownership.
3.2 Low Cost Housing Affordability Plan
Low cost housing unit is the dependent variable in respect of which all the affordability elements which are
the independent variables in this study represent the inputs or causes, tested to see the extent to which they
determine either affording or otherwise. Smart Home Design enables different people to live a better life
(Dewsbury, 2001). It is important to facilitate matching of low cost housing Design to user needs (Curry et
al. 2001; Doughty, 2000). Adaptation of culture in new Site & situations (Scott and Tilly, 1998) is equally
important in the design of low cost houses for the low income earners. These scholars suggest that low cost
housing should be design bearing in mind the family bond of the low income groups or beneficiary of the
components. Affordability is the next hurdle for the LIGs as their earning is usually low because of low
education level. They opt for any available facility for their mission to be accomplished. No scrutiny
whatsoever regarding the interest rate on the facility, they accept the facility, with all the accumulating and
hidden charges to gain roof over their heads.
4. Conclusion
Low cost housing Affordability by Low Income Groups is not usually highlighted in the current practiced
Housing policies. However, physical and socio-economic elements hinder the sustainability and efficiency
of housing policies. This eventually affects the realization of the Goals and affordability of the housing
units by lower income groups of both Malaysia and Nigeria. Economic indicators like Income, Literacy
level, Dependency ratio, ethics, family ties and race, posed a problem to the housing policies. Family
members don‘t seem to leave their ancestral compound to new locations. This survey ensure a sustainable
low cost housing policy by the government through the enhancement of sustainability elements such as
literacy/income level, dependency burden on the low income groups that impede affordability.
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References
Abdul-Aziz, W. (2007). Low-cost housing policy in Malaysia: a challenge in delivery. Unpublished Ph. D
thesis University of Dundee 308 pp.
Ader, H.J. (2008). Phases and initial steps in data analysis. In H.J. Adèr & G.J. Mellenbergh (Eds.) (with
contributions by D.J. Hand), Advising on Research Methods: A consultant's companion (pp. 333–356).
Huizen, the Netherlands: Johannes van Kessel Publishing.
Agbola, T. (1990). Affordability and cost recovery in shelter projects: the case of Nigeria. Third World
Planning Review, 12 (1), 59- 73. An analysis of Abuja Master Plan scheme and the revalidation of
certificate of occupancy. Housing Studies Association Conferences, 9th- 10th September. Belfast, U.K.
Agus, M. R. (1997). Housing the Nation: Historical Perspective on Housing Development. Cagamas
Berhad, Kuala Lumpur.
Archambault, S. & Schloesser, N. (2000). Psychology Department, Wellesley College Publishers.
Aribigbola, A. (2008). Housing policy formulation in developing countries: evidence of programme
Implementation from Akure, Ondo state, Nigeria. Journal of Human Ecology, 23 (2) 125- 134.
Awotona, A. (1990). Nigerian government participation in housing: 1970- 1980. Habitat International, Vol.
14(1) 17-40.
Ball, M. & Harloe, M. (1992). Rhetorical Barriers to Understanding Housing Provision: What the Provision
Thesis is and is not. Housing Studies (7) No. 1. 3-15.
Baken, R., & Van der Linden, J. (1993). Getting the incentives right. Third World Planning Review, 15, 1-
22. Batu Pahat, (2012). Batu Pahat Municipal Council. Majlis Perbanderan, Batu Pahat.
Berry, M. Whitehead, C. Williams, P. and Yates, J. (2004). Financing Affordable Housing: A Critical
Comparative Review of the UK and Australia. Housing and Urban Research Institute. Swinburne-Monash,
Ahuri Research Center, Melbourne.
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Research Article
Spatial Quality in Space Design for Promoting Self-Healing In Malaysia
Siti Athirah Binti Jaapar, Yakubu Aminu Dodo, Aminatuzuhariah bte Megat Abdullah,
Mohd Zin Kandar
Department of Architecture, Faculty of Built Environment, 81310 Skudai, Johor, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
Corresponding Author: sitiathirahje@gmail.com
ARTICLE INFO
Article history
Received: 12/10/2016
Accepted: 02/12/2016
A b s t r a c t In most of the healthcare centre found in Malaysia, the building were designed
mostly less therapeutic and studies has shows that the environment in those
healthcare frequently heighten levels of stress in patients, staff and families. Besides,
there are lacks of design consideration on spatial quality in restoring the occupants’
mental wellness and reducing the stress which could help in fostering the recovery
duration. Recent studies shows that appropriate healing environment in healthcare
setting could help enhance the sensory input to stimulate the body capabilities to heal
itself, also known as self-healing. The main focus in this study is to highlight
possible architectural solutions to create healing environment through spatial quality
in space design. The natural environment is frequently discussed related with healing
environment; by integrating nature inside the building that could improves the Indoor
Environmental Quality (IEQ) this can help in enhancing the well-being of the
occupants. Through a critical review of literatures from secondary sources, examples
of the integration of plants with architecture through biophilic architecture, it shows
that there exist strong connections between human and man-made environments in
relationship to spatial quality in space design. Some design considerations were
identified for consideration in future design of healthcare building for promoting self-
healing.
© Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability. All rights reserved.
Keywords: spatial quality, space design, IEQ, healing environment, biophilic design
1. Introduction
Originally, the concept of healing environment was introduced and developed by Florence Nightingale in
1859; she leads a corps of nurses to treat the fallen soldier during Crimean War. She is widely known for
her vision on creating a clean and healthy environment within health care area. At that time, she manages to
prove that clean environment and healthy food can reduce the death rate at that time.
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Thus, she come out with a theory to manipulate the environment to be therapeutic by listing the elements
that create healing environment that is to include light, clean air, quiet and good diet. Since then, the
hospital design started to take the considerations especially on the window ventilation.
However, in these modern days the current healthcare environment were shown as harsh and rigid thus,
making the occupants to feel depressed and heighten their level of stress. Besides, people are commonly can
relate themselves with bad experience when involve with these common buildings such as clinics and
hospitals.
A lot of study has shown that the healing environment has been always related with nature and other natural
elements, such as fresh air, daylight and quietness (Berg, 2005). As people are mostly spend their in
indoors, the indoor environmental quality is very important in related to health and well beings of the
occupants.
1.1 Research Questions
Before conducting the study on this topic, I identify some research questions that will be
the guidelines for this study;
(i) What are the environmental factors that influence the people psychologically?
Architecture vs. Healing vs. Human
(ii) How the design of healthcare environments can be improved to promote mental wellbeing?
(iii)How nature environment can effects the indoor environmental quality and human well-
being?
1.2 Research Objectives
Therefore, my objectives of doing this study are: (i) to identify the casual relationship between human
health and environment, (ii) To understand how the design and sensory experience of architectural space
can affect the behaviour and wellbeing of its occupants, (iii) Integrating the plants in a living space can
improve Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ).
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1.3 Problem Statement
1.3.1. Spatial Quality
Spatial quality is defined as strategies in designing spaces. The spatial qualities of form, color, texture,
sound and light would affect the human behaviour in the enclosed space. In architecture, a space is not just
a simple physical space, the architects take a lot of considerations in designing a space that had the spatial
quality whether it is a good space or bad space.
In relations of creating a space that can influence people psychologically, it is called experimental or
sensory space by enhancing all five senses through visual, acoustic, olfactory, thermal or tactile. Hence, in
designing a space there are a lot considerations will take place such as the location of windows, type of
materials for walls and floors, lighting and depth of the space.
1.3.2. Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ)
Indoor environmental quality (IEQ) is very important in building environment because normally human
would spend a lot of their time indoor more than outdoor. So, they would breathe in the physical and
chemical nature of indoor air which then could affect the state of mental, physical and social well-being of
the occupants.
Study has shown that indoor air especially with cooling systems (i.e. with windows shut, with full air-
conditioning systems), is more polluted than the air outside. The indoor air quality is a dynamic
interrelationship between thermal comfort needs, physical factors and chemical and biological factors.
Hence, it is very important for our health and well-being.
According to Green Building Index (GBI), the factors that effecting indoor environment quality (IEQ) are
air quality, thermal comfort, lighting, visual and acoustic comfort. All this factors become the requirements
in order to improve the IEQ.
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2. Literature Review
2.1. Research Background
Studies have shown that exposure to the natural environment, or so-called green space, has an independent
effect on health and health-related behaviours. Plants and natural landscapes have shown to have a powerful
impact on people who are ill by creating soothing healing environments.
Figure 1: The relationship between stress reduction and passive encounter with the natural environment.
A study performed by Roger Ulrich found that a view of a park outside a patient’s window helped
patients recover faster, requiring less pain medication compared to patients who viewed a brick wall. By
perceived natural environment, the patients would feel calmer and it reduced their stress. When the level
of stress decrease it helped fastens healing process and improved the health of the patients.
Besides, plants and elements of nature were representing healing, growth, and hope. They offer an
attitude of the mind. A plant can be a representation of how we can feel and how we can change how we
see ourselves. How natural environments, or so-called green spaces, might affect health and health-
related behaviour has received a lot of attention from a range of field, including epidemiology and
psychology. Hence, there have been a lot of healthcare nowadays tried to create the green space as one of
their therapeutic elements in the facility. Throughout the study regarding how the natural environment
could improve health, the paper would investigate more on how can natural environment can improve the
indoor air quality and improve the wellbeing of the occupants.
3. Research Methodology
3.1. Introduction
This study will be more to descriptive because it reviewing others researches related with healing
environment and indoor environmental quality (IEQ). The data collected will be analyses in order to answer
research questions as shown in chapter 1.
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3.2. Qualitative Approach
The data collected through qualitative approach required the researchers to think critically in order to get
the data as they are not numerical in nature. By referring to all studies done by other researchers, the data
would be analysing in order to solve the research question for this paper. The reason for using qualitative
methods in this study was to understand and describing what are the factors that affected the indoor air
quality (IAQ) and to prove that natural environment helped improved the occupant’s health.
3.2.1. Content Analysis
The content analysis was conducted by collecting few researches related with the objectives of this study in
order to understand the relationships between indoor environmental quality (IEQ) and healing environment.
The data collected for this study will answer the research objectives mention in chapter 1.
4. Research Findings and Discussion
This chapter presents the results of the content analysis that I gathered from reviewing few researches
related to healing environment and indoor environmental quality (IEQ). From that, the discussion will be
derived from the analysis of the data that I had collected.
Research Objective: (i) To identify the casual relationship between human health and environment
Study 1: Natural Environments Healthy Environments? An Exploratory Analysis of the Relationship
between Greenspace and Health
The study was conducted in Dutch to find out if living in greener areas is healthier than living in less green
areas? Three global health indicators were use in this study that is number of symptoms experience in last
14 days, perceived general health and score of the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) (Sjerp, 2003).
Based on the overall study done by the researchers, they find out that a significant effect were found in
urbanity, as the people were living in a highly urban areas they tends to have more symptons and their
mental health were highly affected.
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The analyses also found that the people in a greener environment were reported to has a fewer symptons
and perceived a better general health. Furthermore, their mental health appears to be better. Each
environment also shows different physical activities involve in their daily life. As the people living in green
environment, they do more physical activities than those who live in urban area such cycling, gardening,
walking and socialize with people surrounding. Hence, we can conclude that people reacts differently in
different environment in terms of physiologically and psychologically.
Research Objective: (ii) To understand how the design and sensory experience of architectural space can
affect the behaviour and wellbeing of its occupants.
As been mentioned before in Chapter 1, the spatial quality is very important in order to create sensory
experience that would affect human behaviour and their well-being. In spatial qualities, there are light and
dark, solid and void, opaque and transparent, and condensed and expansive. These are the basic elements in
designing a space.
Study 2: The Influence of Sensory Gardens on the Behaviour of Children with Special Educational Needs
The study explore on how can sensory experience affect people behaviour and wellbeing? The researcher
makes use of sensory gardens to observe the behaviour of the children with special educational needs in
Lyndale Special School. The sensory garden was divided into 4 zones of different types of landscape that
can stimulate the sensory experience and influence their behaviour. The study found out that the users spend
a longer time at a green space where the sensory experiences were emphasized which shows a positive
reaction compare to other zones that offer more hard landscape compare to this zone. We can conclude that
people would react positively when engage with spaces that offer sensory experiences involving all of their
senses.
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Research Objective: (iii) Integrating the plants in a living space can improve Indoor Environmental Quality
(IEQ).
NASA researchers are exploring the possibility of long-term space habitation; It became clear that the air in
the sealed space capsule to be contaminated with chemicals faster, such as volatile organic compounds
(VOCs).
Table 3: Benzene Removed by Marginata from a Sealed Experimental Chamber during a 24 Hours
Exposure Period.
Initial Final Percent
Removed
Full Foliage 0.152 0.051 66
Full Foliage with
Potting Soil Covered with Pea Gravel
0.171 0.085 50
Uncovered Potting Soil with Foliage Removed 0.278 0.194 70
Potting Soil Control 0.206 0.164 20
Table 3: Chemicals Removed by Houseplants from a Sealed Experimental Chamber during 24 Hours
Exposure Period.
Formaldehyde (ppm)
Initial Final % removed
Mass Cane 20 6 70
Pot Mum 18 7 61
Gerber Daisy 16 8 50
Warneckei 8 4 50
Ficus 19 10 47.4
Leak Control 18 17.5 2.8
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This study is about the use of plants such as air and water purification systems where it’s located in a closed
environment during space missions. Typical indoor plants show that they can provide a natural way to
remove the toxic agents.
The study found three commonly found toxins in indoor that affect human health:
• Trichloroethylene – effect similar to alcohol poisoning: headaches and dizziness, with long term
damage to liver and kidney.
• Formaldehyde – headaches, watery eyes and difficulty breathing
• Benzene – drowsiness, dizziness, vomiting and unconsciousness
Based on the findings, it supports the relationship between nature and health. The indoor plant was found
to be able act more self-sustaining, flexible and become a bio filtration system in filtering unwanted
components in the air which affecting human health and wellbeing.
• The indoor plant really does reduce or eliminate volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from indoor
air within 24 hours.
• The reduction of the VOCs helps improving human health and increase the productivity.
• When the indoor air quality improving, all those sickness due to the VOCs decrease and it reduce
the stress of the occupants of the space.
5. Conclusion
Findings have shown that the casual relationship can affect people physiologically and psychologically
depending on what environment they were in. It also shows that the relationship between indoor air quality
(IEQ) and healing environment would affect the well-being and health of the occupants.
In summary, the good indoor environmental quality (IEQ) is important in creating healing environment,
where people feel comfortable and feel that their stress is restore. By integrating plants inside a healing
space, it helps improves the healing process as the occupants would feel more calm and able to breathe in
fresh air than medical smells.
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References
Norhidayah, A. Lee Chia-Kuang, M.K. Azhar, S. Nurulwahida, S. (2013). Indoor Air Quality and Sick
Building Syndrome in Three Selected Buildings. Universiti Malaysia Pahang.
Berg, A.V.D. (2005). Health impacts of healing environments - A review of evidence for benefits of nature,
daylight, fresh air and quiet in healthcare settings.
Groningen: University Hospital Groningen.
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Handbook of Environmental Psychology. New York: John Wiley, 571-610.
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Research Article
Perspectives on Natural Ventilation and Thermal Comfort in Buildings
Abbas Sa’id El-nafaty 1,2, Isah Abdul Anakobe2, Mohd Hamdan Ahmad1
Malsiah Hamid1
1Dept. of Architecture, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor, Malaysia
2Dept. of Architecture, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, University, PMB 0248, Bauchi, Nigeria
Email: elnafatyabbas@gmail.com Tel +6 017 786 2327
ARTICLE INFO
Article history
Received: 12/10/2016
Accepted: 02/12/2016
A b s t r a c t
Natural ventilation (NV) is the natural flow of air into buildings generated by
buoyancy forces, and static pressure. Ventilation is a key determinant of indoor
air quality providing building occupants with comfort and contaminant free air
[3]. Therefore, the delivery of energy efficient and environmentally friendly
ventilation is vital for providing safe, healthy and comfortable indoor
environment and thermal comfort of occupants in buildings. Therefore, this
paper seeks to explore the conceptual relationships between naturally
ventilation and thermal comfort in naturally ventilated buildings (NVB). It
presents perspectives on NV and Thermal Comfort in Buildings as well as a
summary of current standard techniques for assessing thermal comfort. The
study showed that ventilation under natural environmental conditions enhance
occupant comfort in buildings. Furthermore, NV is an energy efficient and
environmentally friendly approach for cooling and heating buildings. The
findings will avail architects, engineers and policy makers with perspectives on
improving the sustainable ventilation of future buildings.
© Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability. All rights reserved.
Thermal Comfort, Energy Efficiency, Naturally Ventilation, Naturally Ventilated Buildings
1. Introduction
The delivery of safe, healthy and comfortable indoor environment in buildings is typically achieved by
ventilation systems (Chenari, Carrilho, & da Silva, 2016; Etheridge, 2010). In addition, ventilation is a
major determinant of indoor air quality providing building occupants with comfort and contaminant free air
(Awbi Hazim, 2003). This is dependent on the efficiency of air exchange distribution, removal of pollutants
and heat experience in the building (Cao et al., 2014). Building ventilation systems (BVS) are broadly
classified into natural, mechanical or hybrid systems (Awbi, 2003; Hall, 2010).
Natural ventilation (NV) is defined as air flow through buildings due to natural wind and static pressure
initiated by differences on the exterior and indoor area of buildings. It is typically ascribed to natural air
flows generated by the forces of buoyancy and wind through envelope openings in buildings (Etheridge,
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2010). In contrast, mechanical ventilation (MV) is conveyed through fans, blowers or air-ventilation
systems powered by electricity (Op’t Veld, 2008). In addition, MV systems are classified according to
function for extracting, supplying or a combination of both extracting-supplying air into buildings
(Etheridge, 2010). Lastly, hybrid ventilation (HV) is a combination of both natural and mechanical
ventilation (Cao et al., 2014). According to Turner and Awbi (2015) HV systems are novel systems that
supply clean air into buildings through natural and mechanical driving forces. In these systems, mechanical
devices are employed to recompense lack of natural airflows during adverse conditions (Chenari et al.,
2016).
The major drawback of MV and HVS is the substantial energy consumption, high costs and burden the
systems have on the environmental. Furthermore, indoor air quality as determined by the inflow, exchange,
and distribution of air into buildings ventilated by such systems is a major challenge. Hence, the removal of
pollutants and heat experience required to ensure occupant comfort in buildings remains is paramount. In
the same vein, the global attention on lowering greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and energy consumption
is vital to reducing the environmental burden of buildings. Current data estimates buildings account for 40%
of energy resources consumption yearly (Omer, 2008a). Similarly, the UN Environment programme
estimates that over 50% of global electricity consumption is utilized for heating air-conditioning and
ventilation in buildings (UNEP-SBCI, 2016). The study also reveals over 30% of GHGs worldwide are
emitted from buildings. Hence, it is imperative to address the challenges facing mankind and its
environment particularly against the backdrop of the growing threats of global warming and climate change
(McCarthy, Best, & Betts, 2010; Pérez-Lombard, Ortiz, & Pout, 2008). This philosophy forms the major
objective of Paris Agreement which aims to reduce GHGs by 46 billion by the year 2050 (COP21, 2015).
Therefore sustainable, low cost solutions are required to address the imminent challenges associated with
the built environment to ensure low carbon efficient energy consumption in buildings (Dodo et al., 2015; Li
& Colombier, 2009).
Several studies have examined the use of renewable energy technologies (Figueiredo & Martins, 2010;
Zahedi, 2006), low cost materials (Gustavsson & Sathre, 2006; Kuznik, David, Johannes, & Roux, 2011)
and sustainable design practices (Chwieduk, 2003; Deru & Torcellini, 2004) to lower the environmental
burden (Dahlstrøm, Sørnes, Eriksen, & Hertwich, 2012; Ortiz, Castells, & Sonnemann, 2009; Winistorfer,
Chen, Lippke, & Stevens, 2007) of current building structures. Others have explored the used of ICT
(information and communication technologies), and smart energy technology systems to monitor energy,
emissions and environmental impact of buildings (Aghemo et al., 2013; Häkkinen et al., 2007). However,
the deployment of these technologies into buildings particularly in developing countries is expensive,
complex and time consuming (Bobbo, Ali, Garba, & Salisu, 2015; Omer, 2008b; Torcellini, Pless, Deru, &
Crawley, 2006). In addition, these techniques are not sufficiently robust to provide occupant comfort, low
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energy consumption and pollutant emissions in future buildings. Since, these metrics significantly influence
indoor air quality, it is paramount to explore simpler, cheaper, and sustainable solutions to address the
outlined challenges posed by current buildings on the environment. The use of natural ventilation (NV) can
potentially address the problems currently associated with buildings. Furthermore, NV can be efficiently
and cost effectively integrated into the design and construction of future buildings. Similarly, the robustness
of this approach can benefit even older existing buildings thereby lowering emissions, energy consumption
and occupant discomfort.
Therefore, the main objective of this study is to examine the potential of deploying natural ventilation (NV)
in future buildings. The study will also explore the conceptual relationships between NV and Thermal
Comfort in Buildings in the tropics. Lastly the study will present an overview of the concept of NV and
current standard techniques for assessing thermal comfort in buildings. It is envisaged that the study will
avail building experts with novel approaches for improving sustainability in the built environment.
2. Naturally Ventilated Buildings
Naturally ventilated buildings are designed based on passive cooling strategies (Pfafferott, Herkel, &
Wambsganß, 2004). In hot and humid tropical environments, NVBs have certain limitations in providing
thermal comfort. The limitations are typically linked to three factors namely (Feriadi, 2004);
Dependency,
Unpredictability,
Controllability.
First, NVBs dependent on the characteristics of the climatic regions. Predictably, external environmental
factors such as wind, air temperature, humidity, and solar energy significantly influence indoor conditions.
Therefore, it is difficult to estimate and safeguard comfortable thermal condition due to unpredictable
nature of the climate. Furthermore, it is impossible to completely control the fluctuation of indoor condition
continually within a narrow thermal comfort range. No matter how excellent the naturally ventilated
building is designed, there will be certain extreme natural conditions which cannot be controlled by passive
cooling strategies. Despite the limitations of NVB provide thermal comfort. Secondly, several studies have
demonstrated adaptive and innovative building design, particularly traditional architecture in tropics,
provide better thermal comfort (Abdullah & Wang, 2012; Chancellor, 1994; Kazmerski, Gallo, Sala, &
Sayigh, 1998). Furthermore, evidence indicates that precise control is unnecessary for occupant comfort in
the buildings. This supports the adaptive concept which considers that occupants play an active role in
achieving thermal comfort through their activity, clothing and behavioural. In addition, previous researchers
have observed the tendency of occupants to trade-off higher temperatures over other benefits in a well-liked
building (Humphreys, 1976). Therefore, occupants are willing to accept nominally uncomfortable
conditions when control devices that improve conditions such as operable windows, light switches or
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curtain blinds are accessible. Based on these findings, there is a better chance for NVB to accommodate
occupant control needs and in return thermal satisfaction over environment will be improved.
However, it is important to cautiously assess the level of environment control in NVB and incorporated
from design process to ensure the expected thermal performance is achieved without sacrificing other
performance such as lighting. Thirdly, recent studies reveal there is a statistically higher prevalence of sick
building syndrome in the air-conditioned buildings compared to naturally ventilated buildings (Barrozo
Costa & Da Rocha Brickus, 2000; El-nafaty, Ahmad, Hamid, & Shika, 2014; Wouters, 1999). The findings
show some positive aspects, not only because of healthier indoor spaces for particular occupants but also
wider advantage in terms of lower impacts on the environment. In addition, energy consumption and
pollutant emissions from NVBs are typically lower thereby contributing to more sustainable environment
and well-being. Furthermore, occupants of NVBs are given are better placed to decide and create the
conditions for thermal comfort. For example, some studies have demonstrated the choice of clothing and
indoor activities of building occupants can influence thermal neutrality even at different temperatures. In
NVBs, the indoor conditions tend to vary with outdoor climate, often to the preference of occupants
naturally responsive to the latter (F. Nicol & Raja, 1996). In addition, people working for long hours in air-
conditioned buildings tend to prefer open spaces which are naturally ventilated.
Therefore, understanding the issue of thermal comfort in NVBs is more complicated since numerous factors
directly and indirectly influence the process. The factors can be classified into four namely;
Physiology,
Psychology,
Climate and
Building design.
The outline factors are considered the most influential factors that influence thermal comfort. Furthermore,
the factors significantly contribute to occupant’s thermal comfort perception with varying levels of
interdependency and dynamic influences as illustrated in Figure 1 (Feriadi, 2004).
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Figure 1: Major factors influencing Thermal Comfort.
Table 1 shows in brief how the four inter-dependent factors affect Thermal comfort perception in naturally
ventilated buildings.
Table 1. Interdependency of Factors that influence Thermal Comfort in NVBs. (Feriadi, 2004)
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Physiology and psychology are human factors that interact dynamically in response to thermal sensation in
the environment. However, climatology covers a wide range of natural setting of macro environmental
impacts that cannot be easily modified. People, as a part of the natural ecosystem need to adapt to climatic
conditions in their environment. In addition, the design of buildings, towns, and settlements are influenced
by climatic conditions typifies its role in promoting thermal comfort and energy efficiency (Perry & Smith,
1997). Building enclosure provides protection from harsh outdoor conditions thereby creating comfortable
interior spaces in the micro-environment. Similarly, the built environment affects local and regional climate
change, which can influence comfort and health (Bosselmann, Arens, Dunker, & Wright, 1995). Hence, the
design of buildings significantly influences thermal comfort of occupants.
3. Human Comfort in Buildings
According to Moujalled, Cantin, and Guarracino (2008) human beings are more comfortable under natural
environmental conditions. Similarly, Brager and de Dear (1998) demonstrated that natural ventilation is a
practical alternative for cooling and heating of buildings due to its potential for low energy consumption.
Other studies have also shown that NV provides good indoor air quality (Finnegan, Pickering, & Burge,
1984; Santamouris, 2013; Wong & Huang, 2004). Additionally, Yang and Zhang (2008) discovered that
lack of adequate ventilation caused discomfort among building occupants. The study further highlighted
that thermal comfort as one of the major parameters that contributes to human comfort in buildings. Other
significant and interdependent parameters that influence occupant comfort are visual lighting, acoustic, and
spatial comfort design (R. J. de Dear & Brager, 2002; El-nafaty, Dodo, Khandar, & Ahmad, 2014;
Johansson, 2006). Due to the importance of occupant comfort studies, researchers have developed methods
to measure the quantitative impacts of the parameter on comfort levels. To this effect, some researchers
have devised rating scales based on quantitative and qualitative methods to measure indoor environmental
acceptability (Rohles Jr, Woods Jr, & Morey, 1989; Winakor, 1982). However, other researchers have
focused on studying interdependency impacts between two or more comfort parameters (Yamazaki,
Nomoto, Yokota, & Murai, 1998). Figure 2 presents an example of the dynamic interaction among comfort
parameters.
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Figure 2: Interactions of Comfort Parameters Figure 3: Comfort and Related Sensation
in a Building.
Sources: (Feriadi, 2004)
This demonstrates that the interaction between parameters on occupant comfort which is more prevalent
and critical in NVBs. In such buildings, natural ventilation is maximized by opening the windows and doors
to allow wind to enter into interior spaces. However, this can result in outside noise, solar radiation, and
pollution. In addition, the interdependency of the parameters creates ambiguity in the accepted definitions
of thermal or occupant comfort. Therefore, the definition of common terms used in thermal comfort have
been widely discussed and defined (ASHRAE, 2004; ISO, 2005). Some important definitions are;
Thermal comfort: “Condition of the mind that expresses satisfaction with the thermal
environment. Conditions wherein the average person does not experience the feeling of
discomfort.”
Satisfactory thermal environment: One that provides occupants a minimum of 80% thermal
satisfaction.
Thermal sensation: A conscious feeling commonly categorised by 7 points of -3 to +3 (cold,
cool, slightly cool, neutral, slightly warm, warm, and hot).
Despite the widely varied definitions, some physical parameters contribute to human thermal sensation but
may not be defined appropriately. For example descriptions for humid, stuffy, dry, still, breezy, and windy
conditions. Kuno (1987) warned about the difficulties which might be relied on insufficiency of semantic
(verbal expression) to represent a particular thermal sensation.
Figure 3 presented the interactions between the parameters. The solid lines refer to information channels
and dashed lines to interdependencies. With increase in the temperature and humidity levels, the human
skin will accept and detect the change of thermal sensation. However, inside the human body, integrated
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and sensitive sensors in spinal cord, mid brain, hypothalamus, and deep core receptors send signals to the
vasomotor to maintain (regulate) body temperature by sweating for hotter temperature and shivering for
cooler temperature. During the thermoregulation process, interactive information for building cognitive
assessment of comfort and discomfort of the current condition are executed. However, these approaches for
assessing thermal comfort are unpredictable prompting the development of standard methods for measuring
thermal comfort in buildings.
4. Standards for Thermal Comfort
The three most widely used international standards that relate specifically to thermal comfort studies are
(Olesen & Parsons, 2002); ASHRAE standard 55 (2004), ISO standard 7730 (2005), and CEN standard
EN15251 (2007).
4.1 ISO 7730
The International Standards Organization (ISO) is the predominant source of standard, each of which
becomes a national standard for the member states. ISO 7730 sets out the calculation and use of the
PMV/PPD index, including criteria for local comfort considerations. The standard is categorised into
classes (A, B, and C). It is aimed at estimating the thermal sensation and discomfort of persons exposed to
mid-level thermal indoor environments (R. De Dear, 2004).
4.2 European Standard EN15251
Standard EN15251 was developed by the Comite Europeen de Normalisation (CEN) for the European
Union for standards to back up the energy performance of buildings Directive (EPBD). It considers in
addition other factors that contribute to energy consumption in buildings. The standard aims in general to
specify input design parameters for the assessment of energy performance in indoor environments (J. F.
Nicol & Wilson, 2011). The typical parameters serve to examine acoustics, lighting, and indoor air quality
in thermal environments and their effect on occupant thermal comfort (F. Nicol & Humphreys, 2010).
4.3 ASHRAE 55
The ASHREA standard 55 is controlled and sponsored by the American Society of Heating Refrigeration
and Air conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) (ASHRAE, 2004). It is the first international standard to
include an adaptive component based on the extensive work of R. J. De Dear, Brager, Reardon, and Nicol
(1998), and data from ASHRAE project RP-884. On this basis, an adaptive standard was developed that
applies to NVBs. An acceptable zone for indoor temperature in naturally conditioned buildings is
determined by this standard. This is based on the relationship between indoor comfort temperature and the
outdoor temperature in NVBs using windows as the major source of indoor temperature control.
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5. Conclusions
The paper explored the conceptual relationships between naturally ventilation and thermal Comfort in
naturally ventilated buildings. In addition, an outline of the current standard techniques for assessing
thermal comfort in buildings was highlighted. The findings indicate that occupant comfort is enhanced
under conditions akin to natural environment. In addition, NV is an environmentally friendly, and energy
efficient approach for cooling and heating of buildings. In addition, indoor air quality and occupant thermal
comfort can be enhanced by adopting NV in the design of future buildings.
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Research Article
Post Occupancy Evaluation of Public Mass Housing Estate in Minna, Nigeria Adama Unekwu Jonathan1, Ogunbode Ezekiel Babatunde*2, Ernest Ituma Egba3, Fabunmi Foluke Olanike1,
Abeku D.M.2
1Department of Estate Management and Valuation, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger state, Nigeria.
2Department of Building, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger state, Nigeria.
3Department of Technology and Vocational Education, Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki, Ebonyi state, Nigeria.
ARTICLE INFO
Article history
Received: 12/10/2016
Accepted: 02/12/2016
A b s t r a c t
The incessant increase of people in the urban area and the diversity of their
needs make the issue of housing a recurring problem. These days, housing
provision for civil servant and masses is one of the major problems facing
most of our urban areas. These studies report the post occupancy evaluation of
mass housing residential estate in Minna metropolis in terms of its use and
responses. The objectives of this study are to evaluate level of adequacy of
housing design and construction for users’ satisfaction, and to examine the
quality of mass housing in terms of its user’s response to the facilities and
services provided. The questionnaire survey approached was adopted in
acquiring the data required for the analysis. A total of 150 questionnaire copies
were administered randomly. The findings indicate that lack of good water
supply, good drainage system and lack of regular waste disposal, adequate
ventilation, poor management and maintenance are major challenges
encountered by public mass housing estate users.
© Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability. All rights reserved.
civil servants, housing provision, mass housing, post occupancy evaluation.
1. Introduction
Many buildings do not perform as planned, and this can impact on running costs, staff and client
satisfaction and performance, health, safety and comfort (Eziyi et al., 2013; Akinluyi, 2013). The concept
of Post Occupancy Evaluation (POE) is about procedures for determining whether or not design decisions
made by the architect are delivering the performance needed by those who use the building (Ilesanmi,
2010). It is a systematic manner of evaluating buildings after they have been built and occupied for duration
of time (Preiser, 2002, 1995,). Voordt and Wegen, (2005) opines that POE represents the vital diagnostic
step needed to feed the prescriptive tools of planning and programming. The gap between the actual
performance of buildings and explicitly stated performance criteria constitute the evaluation (Preiser et al,
1998). One of the applications of POE is the comparison between the use that the house was designed for
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and the actual use. Vischer (2002) suggests that POE can be used to determine building defects, formulate
design and construction criteria, support performance measures for asset and facility management, lower
facility life cycle costs by identifying design errors that could lead to increased maintenance and operating
costs, and clarify design objectives. It helps to empower users to negotiate building issues and reduce
maintenance works and cost (Hewitt et al, 2005; Vischer, 2002; Bordas and Leaman, 2001). POE gives
feedback into existing projects in such a way that it can be considered as a diagnosis, the applied use of the
results being a form of treatment (Wohwill and Weisman, 1981).
However, despite the preponderance of research in the context of building performance, POE as a
systematic method of collecting data on buildings in use has not found wide usage for public housing in
Nigeria (Ilesanmi, 2010). Since, POE is the process of obtaining feedback on a building's performance in
use, the value of POE cannot be overemphasised and it is becoming mandatory on many public projects.
POE is valuable in all construction sectors, especially healthcare, education, offices, commercial and mass
housing, where poor building performance will impact on running costs, occupant well-being and business
efficiency. POE highlights any immediate teething problems that can be addressed and solved. It identifies
any gaps in communication and understanding in building operation. It also provides lessons that can be
used to improve design, procurement on future projects and act as a benchmarking aid to compare across
projects and over time. POE involves the building users in defining how buildings function for them
(Watson, 2003).
The prime intent of constructing buildings by the owner is to offer the users comfort, convenience and
safety as they conduct their activities and daily endeavours. This is why the design, planning, construction
and managing of buildings in accordance to statutory standards and specifications is paramount and
expedient (Meir et al., 2009; Zeiler and Boxem, 2008; Ukoha and Beamish, 1997; Kaitilla, 1993). However,
previous studies have shown that sometimes these standards and specifications given by the experts,
professionals and government officials or institutions does not align to the shifting desires and anticipations
of the users of the built environment, mostly the housing estates and its facilities (Eziyi, 2013; Ukoha and
Beamish,1997; Kaitilla, 1993). The users, thus raise complains of their dissatisfaction of the performance of
the buildings the abode in. Studies have shown various consequence associated with living in an
environment or house that the performance are below the expectation or satisfaction of the residents. Such
consequences are sick building syndrome and building allied illness (Kian et al., 2001). Additionally, this
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shortfall in building performance triggers the craving for abandonment or modifications or remodelling of
completed and occupied buildings (Kim et al., 2005). Such practice amounts to waste of resources, energy
and some-times even adverse damage to the building envelope components and the surrounding
environment (Mitterer et al., 2012).
One of the major reasons that causes the poor performance and low satisfaction derived from buildings and
its facility by this users is the lack of adequate knowledge of users’ shifting needs and inclinations by
developers and building professionals who makes paramount decisions during the pre-design and design
stage of building projects. Most time they exempt salient aspects in the design which affects the buildability
and maintainability of the building. Adequate knowledge on user’s desires is requires for building
developers and designers to be able to provide functional, comfortable and convenient building structures
and its accompanying facilities. Therefore, Kim et al. (2005), and Fatoye & Odusami (2009) advocated that
in other to improve the generally performance of buildings and its facilities, the building professionals,
property developers, development control officers, and the urban planners must understand the building
users’ desires, anticipations and aspirations through regular performance evaluation referred to as post
occupancy evaluation (POE).
In the past decade, resident satisfaction has been used as an important indicator in evaluating public mass
housing, quality and services. However, in the recent past, the housing deficit syndrome and the need to
make housing available for all has made the practice of POE questionable. It has been noticed that in some
public mass housing projects, modification and extensive remodelling of the houses starts even before the
end users move into the houses. This is an economic waste, which can be avoided. Therefore, the paper
presents a report of POE that was conducted based on two specific objectives, namely: to evaluate level of
adequacy of housing design and construction for users’ satisfaction, and to examine the quality of mass
housing in terms of its user’s response to the facilities and services provided. The findings of the study
could provide a platform for proffering solutions to the challenges of public mass housing projects at
conception and preplanning stage.
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2. Methodology
The population from which the samples was obtained are three bedrooms, two bedrooms, in Wushishi estate
in Minna, Niger State. A research structured questionnaire on Post Occupancy Evaluation was design to
covered paramount issues such as available facilities, level of satisfaction of the end user, condition of
facility and client value ranking. A total number of 150 questionnaire copies were administered to the end-
users in each area considered. The statistical frequency and percentage were used to analyse the date.
3. Result and Discussions
3.1 Demography of the users of the housing estate
This study highlights the functionality, convenience and comfortability of the use of structure, spaces and
facilities provided for an emblematic mass housing estate. The physical and facility elements performance
and level of satisfaction of the users are determined by conducting the post occupancy use. The response of
users of these facilities in the housing estate of different socio-economic characteristic were presented and
analysed below.
Table 1: Occupation of respondents
Occupation Respondents Percentage %
Employed 102 68
Unemployed 7 4.6
Self-employment 25 16.7
Retired 16 10.7
Total 150 100
Table 2: Income level of respondents
Income level Respondents Percentage %
N20,000-N30,000 15 10
N31,000-N40,000 33 22
N41,000-N50,000 68 45.3
N51,000-N60,000 14 9.3
Above N60,000 20 13.4
Total 150 100
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Table 1, Table 2 and Figure 1 presented the demographic background of the users of the housing estate
studied. Table 1 shows the occupation status of the respondents residing in the housing estate. Table 2
shows that most inhabitants of this estate are medium income earners (45.3%) and they are majorly civil
servants. Most inhabitants of the estate actually acquired their structures through the housing scheme
instituted by Dr Muazu Babangida Aliyu administration who also gave the self-employed with a medium
income earning means an opportunity to acquire too.
Figure 1: Tenure type of respondents
The tenure type of the respondents as shown in Figure 1 indicates clearly that majority of the respondent
who are the inhabitants of the estate are owners of the building they abode with a percentage of 65%.
However, it was seen that 30% rented the apartment and 5% are dependents (squatters).
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3.2 Post occupancy evaluation of building, facility and Space condition of the Housing estate
Table 3: To evaluate level of adequacy of housing design and construction for users’
Satisfaction within the Housing estate.
Facilities provided for the residents
Rating
Frequency
Percentage
(%)
Quality of building materials
EA 0 0.0
VA 1 0.6
A 6 4.0
FA 109 72.7
PA 34 22.7
T 150 100.0
Level of Natural illumination in the rooms
EA 20 13.3
VA 25 16.7
A 63 42.0
FA 39 26.0
PA 3 2.0
T 150 100.0
Level of Ventilation in the rooms
EA 23 15.3
VA 21 16.7
A 71 47.4
FA 20 13.3
PA 15 10.0
T 150 100.0
Level of Convenience and Comfort
EA 12 8.0
VA 15 10.0
A 37 24.7
FA 69 46.0
PA 17 11.3
T 150 100.0
Level of Aesthetics appearance
EA 7 4.7
VA 12 8.0
A 31 20.7
FA 53 35.3
PA 47 31.3
T 150 100.0
Size of the room
EA 0 0.0
VA 5 3.3
A 50 33.3
FA 70 46.7
PA 25 16.7
T 150 100.0
Key: EA= Excellently Adequate, VA =Very Adequate, A=Adequate, FA = Fairly Adequate,
PA= Poorly Adequate, T= total.
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It is observed from Table 3 that 22.7% of the respondents rate the Quality of building materials
used in constructing the structures to be poorly adequate, 72.7% to be fairly adequate, 4% to be adequate,
0.6% to be very adequate, while 0% of the respondents rate the level of Quality of building materials used
in constructing the structures to be excellently adequate.
According to the table above, 13.3% of the students rate the level of ventilation to be fairly
adequate, 47.4% to be adequate and 10% to be poorly adequate, while 15.3% of the students rate the level
of ventilation to be excellently adequate, 16.7% of the students rate the level of natural Illumination within
the room to very adequate, 42% to be adequate, 2% to be poorly adequate, while 13.3% of the respondents
rate the level of natural illumination to excellently adequate.
The distribution shows that 10% of the students rate the level of Convenience and Comfortability
generally to be very adequate, 24.7% to be adequate, 46% to be fair, 11.3% to be poorly adequate and just
8% of the respondents rate the level of Convenience and Comfortability generally to be excellently
adequate. The distribution in table 3 shows that, 20.7% of the respondents rate the level of aesthetics of the
buildings within the estate to be adequate and 35.3 to be fair, 31.3% to be poorly adequate while just 4.7%
of the students rate the aesthetics of the buildings within the estate to be excellently adequate. The above
distribution shows that, 3.3% of the respondents rate the size of their rooms to be very adequate, 46.7% to
be fairly adequate, 16.7% to be poorly adequate, 33.3% to be adequate and 0% to be excellently adequate.
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Table 4: To examine the quality of mass housing in terms of its user’s response to the facilities and
services provided within the Housing estate.
Key: EA= Excellently Adequate, VA =Very Adequate, A=Adequate, FA = Fairly Adequate,
PA= Poorly Adequate, T= total.
Facilities and services provided for the residents Frequency Percentage
%
Level of Drainage system in the estate
EA 18 12.0 VA 23 15.3 A 34 22.7
FA 68 45.3 PA 7 4.7 T 150 100.0
Level of Parking Facilities
EA 12 8.0 VA 75 50.0 A 43 28.7
FA 18 12.0 PA 2 1.3 T 150 100.0
Level of availability of Electricity
EA 9 6.0 VA 13 8.7 A 72 48.0
FA 22 14.7 PA 35 23.3
T 150 100.0
Level of Waste Disposal
EA 27 18.0 VA 65 43.3 A 32 21.3
FA 15 10.0 PA 7 4.7 T 150 100.0
Level of water Supply
EA 22 14.7 VA 48 32.0 A 29 19.3
FA 32 21.3 PA 19 12.6 T 150 100.0
Level of Road Facilities
EA 3 2.0 VA 7 4.7 A 50 33.3
FA 54 36.0 PA 36 24.0 T 150 100.0
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Table 4 shows that 45.3% of the respondents rate the level of drainage system to be fairly adequate, 22.7%
to be adequate, 15.3% to be Very adequate, 4.7% to be poorly adequate, while 12% of the respondents rated
the level of drainage system to be excellent.ly adequate Also, the table shows that 12% of the respondents
rate the level of the parking facilities to be fairly adequate, 50% to be Very adequate and, 28.7% to be
adequate, 1.3% to be poorly adequate. While just 8% of the respondent’s rate the level of parking facilities
to be excellently adequate. It could also be observed from the Table that, 33.3% of the students rate the
level of road to be good, 4.7% to be Very adequate, 36% to be fairly adequate, 2% to be excellently
adequate while just only 24% of the respondents rated the level of road facilities to be poorly adequate.
Table 5 also shows that 48% of the respondents rate the level of electricity supply to be good and 14.7% to
be fairly adequate, 23.3% to be poorly adequate while 6% of the respondents rate the level of electricity to
be excellently adequate. Further inspection of the table shows that 10% of the respondents rate the level of
waste disposal to be fairly adequate and 43.3% rated it to be very adequate, 21.3% to be adequate while
4.7% of the respondents rate the level of waste disposal to be poorly adequate. While just 18% of the
respondents rate the waste disposal to be excellently adequate.
Also the table shows that, 21.3% of the respondents rate the level of water supply to be fairly adequate,
19.3% to be adequate, 32% to be very adequate, 12.6% to be poorly adequate, while 14.7% of the
respondents rate the level of water supply to be excellently adequate.
Information from the respondents (occupant) shows that all respondents that reside in the estate evaluated
showed that the majority of the occupants are between the ages of 31-50. As these two characteristics are
two important socioeconomic characteristics of the users in accessing and evaluating the user use and
response pattern to spaces within the estate.
Findings of these research has shown that most housing estate use space (bedroom) does not function well
and they are not supportive in design aspect such as conformability, size of the unit, arrangement of fixtures
and furniture number per unit, ease of movement, ventilation and privacy required by individual users. It is
observed that, the design is not flexible to accommodate more number of users.
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It was observed that, if attention is paid to services and facilities such as electricity, waste disposal, parking
facilities and good road, it could have resulted in more comfortable and higher housing satisfaction by the
residents. Living spaces should offer adequate services as well as functional and aesthetic satisfaction to
users. From the finding, the estate evaluated performed just above average as good quality ratings of the
aspects used in the evaluation outweighed the poor quality ratings. Also, findings showed that lack of good
water supply, good drainage system and lack of regular waste disposal, adequate ventilation, poor
management and maintenance are major issues highlighted by the occupants as constrains of their estate.
4. Conclusion
This research has investigated the post occupancy evaluation of housing estate in FCT Abuja. From the
analysis of the result obtained in this research, it can be concluded that the users are satisfied. To an average
extent, the performance of the estate was satisfactory despite the merit problems of poor sanitary facilities,
lack of privacy, and lack of good water supply and small size of the unit. There is a high probability that
buildings never work out as planned; however, complaints are not necessarily the result of bad design. They
could be the result of an outdated design concept, because it has been realized that post occupancy stage is a
dynamic model, and changes overtime can cause different effects. In view of the above finding, the
following conclusions are reached:
(i) The problems of overcrowding can be addressed by producing more accommodation. There should be
proper and adequate orientation for estate users on importance of good maintenance culture of fixture,
furniture and other facilities provided.
(ii) The use of space in estate’s housing should be functional, comfortable and flexible to a degree so that it
will be able to serve generations of estate users.
(iii) Finally, the lack of adequate knowledge of users’ shifting needs and inclinations by developers and
building professionals has to be bridged through further intensive study on POE.
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References
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Case Study of Obafemi Awolowo Hall of Residence Ile-Ife. Greener Journal of Science, Engineering
and Technology Research. Vol. 3(1), Pp. 1-11.
Bordas, B. and Leaman, A. (eds.) (2001). Assessing building performance in use. Building
Research and Information. 29 (2).
Eziyi O. I., Akunnaya P. O., Albert B. A., Dolapo A. (2013). Performance evaluation of residential
buildings in public housing estates in Ogun State, Nigeria: Users' satisfaction perspective.
Frontiers of Architectural Research. Vol. 2 (2). Pp. 178–190.
Fatoye, E.O., Odusami, K.T., (2009). Occupant’s satisfaction approach to housing performance
evaluation: the case of Nigeria. In: Proceedings of the RICSCOBRA Research Conference,
University of Cape Town, 10 –11 September, 2009.
Hewitt, D., Higgins, C. and Heatherly, P. (2005). A Market-friendly Post Occupancy Evaluation:
Building Performance Report. Washington: New Buildings Institute.
Ilesanmi, O. A. (2010). Post–Occupancy Evaluation and Residents’ Satisfaction with Public Housing in
Lagos, Nigeria. Journal of Building Appraisal. Vol. 6, 2, 153-169.
Kaitilla, S., (1993). Satisfaction with public housing in Papua New Guinea: the case of West Taraka
housing scheme. Environment and Behaviour. 25 (4), 514–545.
Kim, S., Yang, I., Yeo, M., and Kim, K., (2005). Development of a housing performance evaluation model
for multi-family residen- tial building in Korea. Building and Environment. 40, 1103–1116.
Mitterer, C., Kunzel, H.M., Herkel, S., and Holm, A., (2012). Optimizing energy efficiency and occupant
comfort with climate specific design of the building. Frontiers of Architectural Research. 1, 229–235.
Preiser, W. F. E. (1995). Post occupancy evaluation: How to make buildings work better. Journal of
Facilities. 13 (11):19–28.
Preiser, W. F. E., Rabinowitz, H. Z. and White, E. T. (1988). Post Occupancy Evaluation. New York: Van
Nostrand. Reinhold Company.
Preiser, W. F. E. (2002). The Evolution of Post Occupancy Evaluation: Towards Building Performance and
Design Evaluation, Chapter 2. Washington: Federal Facilities Council, National Academy Press, pp. 9 – 22.
Ukoha, O.M. and Beamish,J.O.,(1997). Assessment of resident’s satisfaction with public housing in
Abuja,Nigeria. Habitat International. 21(4), 445–460.
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Wohlwill, J. F. and Weisman, G. D. (1981). The physical environment and behaviour: an annotated
bibliography and guide to the literature. New York: Plenum Press
Van der Voordt, T.JM, van Wegen H.BR, (2005), Architecture in Use, An introduction to the
programming, design and evaluation of buildings, Elsevier, UK.
Vischer, J. (2002). Post Occupancy Evaluation: A Multifaced Tool for Building Improvement,
Chapter 3. United States.
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Research Article
Risk Management in Public Private Partnership Building Construction
Projects
Ernest Ituma Egba1, Ogunbode Ezekiel Babatunde2, Fabunmi Foluke O3., Adama Jonathan U3.
1Department of Technology and Vocational Education, Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki, Ebonyi State, Nigeria. 2Department of Building, School of Environmental Technology, Federal University of Technology, Minna. Niger
State, Nigeria. 3Department of Estate management and Valuation, School of Environmental Technology, Federal University of
Technology, Minna. Niger State, Nigeria.
Corresponding author: onbodmail@yahoo.com
ARTICLE INFO
Article history
Received: 12/10/2016
Accepted: 02/12/2016
Abstract
The study examines risk management in Public Private Partnership (PPP)
projects carried out in the federal capital city of Nigeria. A questionnaire
survey approached was adopted in acquiring the data required for the analysis.
A total of 155 copies of questionnaire were administered. The analysis shows
that the public sector preferred to retain most political, legal and project
selection risks, while the private sector preferred to retain most construction
risk and operation risk. It was also established that both parties preferred to
share the economic risks and market risks. The findings indicate that PPP is a
good approach in building construction projects. Also, the findings show that
adequate allocation of risk is necessary for the smooth implementation of any
PPP model. The paper provides investors a better understanding of risk
preferences among the stakeholders in the Nigerian construction industry so
that they could better adjust and plan their strategies according to the specific
risk factors and achieve better value for money when executing PPP projects. © Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability. All rights reserved.
Construction risk,
Risk management,
PPP projects,
Nigeria,
Stakeholders
1. Introduction
Several infrastructures and building construction projects have been implemented by the Nigerian
Government and its different agencies using Public Private Partnership (PPP) approach. For example, the
domestic terminal of Murtala Muhammed International Airport, Lagos, which was partially destroyed by
fire in 2000, was re-built through a syndicated medium-term refinancing facility from a consortium of six
Nigerian banks. The banks that were involved are Zenith Bank Plc, Oceanic Bank Plc, Guaranty Trust Bank
Limited, Access Bank Limited and First City Monument Bank. In recognition of the potential role for PPP
in infrastructure development in Nigeria, the government in 2008 established the Infrastructure Concession
Regulatory Commission (ICRC) to develop and lead on the development of a harmonised PPP policy in the
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country (Akinyemi et al., 2009). Several other projects at the federal and state government have benefited
from the scheme.
The World Bank (2009) gave a generally accepted definition of partnership as “a collaborative relationship
between entities to work together towards shared objectives through mutually agreed division of labour”.
Though, this definition is not a precise one since it does not specifically mention several other important
areas of partnership such as shared responsibility, joint investment of resources, shared risk taking and
mutual benefits (Demirjan, 2008), however, it has really helped in clarifying that partnerships is different
from other relationships. For this reason, several researchers had to further highlight additional aspects of
partnering. For example, Demirjan (2008) appears to provide an alternative definition based on the
perspective of shared objectives. This is especially true as risk-sharing among governments, utility, lenders
and developers is often at the heart of most reservations or debate about Public-Private Partnership projects
(Malhotra, 1997; Akintoye et al., 2003). Literature indicate that there is no single accepted definition of risk
(Rockett, 1999), resulting in the fact that risk is a generally misunderstood concept having been used
interchangeably with other related terms such as harm, hazard, threat, and uncertainty Khattab et al., (2007).
The concept of risk has been studied intensively by researchers across all known schools of thought leading
to a focus on three key areas, namely: risk assessment, risk management and risk perceptions. It is
particularly important to highlight the fact that risk perception generates considerable interest in cognitive
and behavioural psychology (Keil et al., 2000). The reality is that major infrastructure projects, because of
their complexity (Pipattanapiwong et al., 2003), are highly risky. To understand the impact of these risks, it
is necessary to conduct an exploration of the various independent parameters that impact on decision-
making (Grimsey and Lewis, 2004). The adoption of PPPs by governments around the world is a recent
phenomenon and it is important that good practice is maintained among the parties involved (Reeves and
Ryan, 2007). Consequently, the objectives of this paper are to examine the effectiveness of PPP models on
building construction projects, determine preferred risk allocation in public private partnership projects, and
measure the effects of public private partnership building project execution.
2. Methodology
The Federal Capital Territory of Nigeria, Abuja was used as the study area due to its peculiar status, state of
act construction process and product adopted therein, to provide for the need of the ever-increasing
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population in Abuja. The rapid growth in the Nigeria construction industry as well as the application of
more PPP projects is not an exception. Also, several PPP projects are on-going and some completed.
Data were collected from both primary and secondary sources for analysis. The primary data include
reconnaissance survey and structured questionnaire obtained from selected professionals in Abuja
representing the Nigeria construction industry. A total number of 155 copies of questionnaire were
administered. The sampling method adopted is the simple random sampling in order to eliminate the
incidence of bias. Secondary data were obtained from extensive literature review of relevant seminar paper,
reports, textbook, and journals both published and unpublished.
The respondents were categorized by education background, years of experience, and profession. Also,
project cost was utilized as a variable. In the education background category, 49% of the respondents have
BSc/HND qualification, 13% are PGD Holders, 26% are MSc holders, while the remaining 12% have PhD.
In the years of experience category, 40% of the respondents have 5-10 years’ experience, while 60% of the
respondents have above 10 years’ experience. From the survey, it was revealed that 20% of the projects the
respondents are engaged in worth 5-10 million, 28% of projects worth 30-50 million, while the projects
above 50 million are 52%. Table 1 shows the profession distribution of the respondents. Out of a total of
155 respondents, 19.36% are Architects, 23.23% are Builders, 9.03% are Civil Engineers, and 22.58% are
Estate Managers, while Quantity surveyors are 25.80%. Most of the respondents are Quantity surveyors.
Table 1: Profession Distribution of Respondent
Profession of respondent No Administered to respondents Percentage (%)
Architect 30 19.36
Builder 36 23.23
Civil engineer 14 9.03
Estate Surveyor 35 22.58
Quantity Surveyor 40 25.80
Total 155 100.00
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3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Effectiveness of PPP models
The result of the effectiveness of supply and management contracts as a form of PPP model is shown in
Figure 1. The result shows that 22% of the respondents were of the opinion that it’s averagely effective for
project delivery. Also, the result of the effectiveness of turnkey contracts as a form of PPP model is
presented in Figure 2. The result indicates that 70% of the respondents were of the opinion that it’s
averagely effective for project delivery, while 30% were not sure.
Figure 1: Supply and management contracts Figure 2: Turnkey contract PPP model
PPP model
Figure 3 shows the effectiveness of lease/affermage contracts as a form of PPP model. From the survey,
70% of the respondents were of the opinion that it’s averagely effective for project delivery, 12% went for
not effective, while 18% were not sure. In addition, the effectiveness of concession contracts as a form of
PPP model is shown in Figure 4. From the survey, it was established that 62% of the respondents are of the
view that it’s very effective for project delivery, while 38% believe it’s strongly effective.
0
5
10
15
20
25
frequency
percentage
0
20
40
60
80
averagely
effective
not sure
frequency
percentage
0
20
40
60
80
noteffective
averagelyeffective
not sure
frequency
percent
0
20
40
60
80
stronglyeffective
very effective
frequency
percent
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Figure 3: Lease/Affermage Figure 4: Concession contracts
Table 2 shows the effectiveness of private ownership of assets contracts as a form of PPP model. From the
survey, 62% of the respondents were of the view that it’s averagely effective for project delivery, 8% of the
respondents believe it is not effective, while 30% said they were not sure.
Table 2: Private ownership of assets contract
Frequency
Percent (%)
Not effective 4 8
Averagely effective 31 62
Not sure 15 30
3.2 Preferred Risk Allocation
Table 3 illustrates respondents view on how political risks are to be allocated to the public sector, private
sector or risk to be shared by both parties. 62% of the respondents are of the opinion that political risk
should be the responsibility of the public sector, 10% delegated it to the private sector, while 28% believe it
should be shared among both parties. Table 4 illustrates respondents view on how construction risks are to
be allocated to the public sector, private sector or risk to be shared by both parties. 62% of the respondents
were of the opinion that construction risk is the responsibility of the private sector, 8% said it should be
delegated to the public sector while 30% believe this risk should be shared by both parties. Table 5
illustrates respondents view on how legal risks that are to be allocated to the public sector, private sector or
risk to be shared by both parties. 60% of the respondents were of the view that legal risk was preferred to be
assigned to the public sector 10% went for private while 30% believe it should be shared by both parties.
Figure 5 illustrates respondents view on how economic risks are to be allocated to the public sector, private
sector or risk to be shared by both parties. 62% of the respondents were of the view that economic risk
should be shared, 10% went for private while 28% went for public sector.
Table 6 illustrates respondents view on how operational risks are to be allocated to the public sector, private
sector or risk to be shared by both parties. 62% of the respondents were of the opinion that operational risk
should be taken care of by the private sector, 28% went for shared while 10% went for public. Figure 6
shows the respondents view on how market risks are to be allocated to the public sector, private sector or
risk to be shared by both parties. 62% of the respondents went for shared, 16% went for private, while 22%
went for public. Figure 7 illustrates respondents view on how project finance risks are to be allocated to the
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public sector, private sector or risk to be shared by both parties. 60% of the respondents were of the opinion
that project finance was the duty of the public, 30% went for private while 10% went for shared. Figure 8
illustrates respondents view on how project selection risks are to be allocated to the public sector, private
sector or risk to be shared by both parties. 70% of the respondents were of the opinion that project selection
was the delegation of the public, 10% went for private while 20% went for shared. Figure 9 shows the
respondents view on the preferred risk allocation for relationship. 60% were of the opinion that this risk is
better suited for the private sector, 20% went for public, while 20% went for shared. Figure 10 shows
respondents view on the allocation of natural risk. 80% of the respondents strongly believe that this risk
should be shared by both parties, 10% went for public while 10% went for private.
Table 3: Political risk Table 4: Construction risk
Frequency Percent (%)
Public 31 62
Private 5 10
Shared 14 28
Table 5: Legal risk Table 6: Operational risk
Frequency Percent (%)
Public 30 60
Private 5 10
Shared 15 30
Figure 5: Economic risk Figure 6: Market risk
Frequency Percent (%)
Private 31 62
Public 4 8
Shared 15 30
Frequency Percent (%)
Public 5 10
Private 31 62
Shared 14 28
0
20
40
60
80
public private shared
frequency
percent
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Figure7: Project finance Figure 8: Project selection
Figure 9: Relationship risk Figure 10: Natural risk
3.3 Effects of PPP on project outcome
Figure 11 shows respondents view on how PPP affects the outcome of a project. Majority of the respondent
were of the view that the proper application of PPP as a means of project delivery brings about the
provision of projects at improved standard time and cost with emphasis on the better cost management and
cost efficiency in terms of construction cost, operational cost, as well as cost of maintenance as it is private
sector driven. 72% of the respondents were of this view.
0
20
40
60
80
frequency
percent
0
20
40
60
80
public private shared
frequency
percent
0
50
100
frequency
percent
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0
20
40
60
80
time cost
frequency
percent
Figure 11: How PPP affect project outcome
The findings indicate that PPP is a good approach in building construction projects. Also, the findings show
that adequate allocation of risk is necessary for the smooth implementation of any PPP model. The findings
agree with the submission of Akintoye et al., (2003).
4. Conclusion
Based on the research carried out it was observed that risk involved in PPP projects can be categorized into
ten risk factors. The risk factors were carefully studied in relation to the response of the sampled
professionals. The identified risks were looked at with their preferred allocations. Analysis of the
effectiveness of PPP models indicates that different PPP models have different efficiency. As a result of
findings, the following recommendations were made:
Early measures should be taken to identify unforeseen risks likely to occur in order to make
contingencies for them.
Risks factors should be assigned accordingly to bring about proper implementation and increased
project performance.
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References
Akintoye, A., Beck, M. and Hardcastle, C. (2003). Public Private Partnerships: Managing Risk and
Opportunities. Oxford: Blackwell Science Limited.
Akinyemi, B., Ojiako, U., Maguire, S., Steel, G. and Anyaegbunam, A. (2009). Nigerian Banks and the
Perception of Risk in PPP Project Delivery. Journal of Finance and Management in Public Services, 8(2):1-
20.
Demirjan (2008) in B. Akinyemi, U. Ojiako, S. Maguire,G. Steel and A. Anyaegbunam (2009). Nigerian
Banks and the Perception of Risk in PPP Project Delivery Journal of Finance and Management in Public
Services, 8(2).
Grimsey, D. and Lewis, M. (2004). Public Private Partnerships: The Worldwide Revolution in
infrastructure Provision and Project Finance. Cheltenham Glos: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited.
Keil, M., Wallace, L., Turk, D., Dixon-Dandall, G., and Nulden, U. (2000). An Investigation of Risk
Perception and Risk Propensity on the Decision to Continue a Software Development Project. The Journal
of Systems Software, 53(2):145-157.
Khattab, A. A., Anchor, J, and Davies, E. (2007). Managerial Perceptions of Political Risk in International
Projects. International Journal of Project Management, 25(7):734-743.
Malhotra, A. K. (1997) Private Participation in Infrastructure: Lessons from Asia's Power Sector, Finance
and Development, 34(4), 33-35.
Pipattanapiwong, J., Ogunlana, S., and Watanabe, T. (2003). Multi-Party Risk Management Process for a
Public-Private Partnership Construction Project in Asia, cited in Akintoye, A., Beck, M. and Hardcastle,
C. (2003). Public-Private Partnerships: Managing Risks and Opportunities. Oxford: Blackwell Science
Limited.
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48 | P a g e
Reeves, E. and Ryan, J. (2007). Piloting Public-Private Partnerships: Expensive Lessons from Ireland's
Schools' Sector. Public Money and Management, 27(5): 331-338.
Rockett, J. P. (1999). Definitions Are Not What They Seem. Risk Management: An International Journal,
1(2):37-42.
World Bank (2009). Project Information Document (PID) Concept Stage. Nigeria Public/Private
Partnership Initiative. Report No. AB4443.
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Research Article
Neighbourhood Quality and Residential Mobility in Penang
Nur Syuhada Mahasan*, Nazhan Nazran, Sarofil Abu Bakar
Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor Bharu, Malaysia.
*Corresponding author email: syuhadamahasan@gmail.com
ARTICLE INFO
Article history
Received: 12/10/2016
Accepted: 02/12/2016
A b s t r a c t
Neighbourhood quality is a major factor that influences the process of
residential mobility. Research has shown that quality of neighbourhood is one
of the motivating triggers for relocation. The main objective of this research is
to examine the effect of quality of neighbourhood, vis-a-vis its social features,
on the process of residential mobility. The study area is located in a
neighbourhood of Penang comprising low-cost, middle-cost and high-cost
residential housing. Consequently, a total of 135 respondents consisting of 67
respondents each from low-cost and middle-cost along with one respondent
from high-cost residential housing were sampled. Using survey data, the
logistic regression analysis showed that motivations arising from work-related
factors, neighbourhood and housing-related reasons significantly influence the
decision making process of relocation from current residences to other places.
This was consistent in both low and middle-income residences demonstrating
that neighbourhood factors influence residential mobility.
© Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability. All rights reserved.
PFI, Benefits, Strategy, Value for money, public procurement
1. Introduction
Over the years, Malaysia has achieved major successes in the quest for political stability, socioeconomic
growth and sustainable development. In line with this level of advancement is the expectation that all
citizens are entitled to a certain quality of life. This includes a high neighbourhood quality usually
characterised by safe living environment, peaceful social interaction, adequate facilities and social
infrastructure. It is the combined effect of these factors that influence residents decision to either stay or
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move into a particular neighbourhood. As a result, neighbourhood quality has become an important
measure for determining the factors that influence the mobility or relocation process.
However, research on the influence of quality of neighbourhood on decision of residents to relocate in
Malaysia is lacking. In this study, the researchers aim to investigate the role of neighbourhood quality in the
residential mobility process. Therefore, the main objective of the study is to evaluate the factors that
influence residential mobility in a neighbourhood in Penang, Malaysia. In addition, it is an attempt to
answer some pertinent questions such as; why do people move? Can neighbourhood factors influence
residents to relocate from their current environment? What neighbourhood elements are key to making the
decision to move?
2. Literature Review
Neighbourhood quality has become one of the core of questions that influence the mobility process.
Previous research has shown that neighbourhood quality is one of the motivating factors that influence
movement from the current neighbourhood, especially in terms of providing a suitable environment for
raising children, safety and facilities (Shefer and Primo1985; Skogan, 1990; South and Crowder, 1997).
Neighbourhood conditions influence households and play a significant role in decisions on the choice of
residential environment. Furthermore, the quality of neighbourhood shapes individual outcomes including
mobility (Ellen, 1997). Some scholars have shown that the households that are not satisfied with their
present neighbourhood environment are more likely to move to another neighbourhood. Parkes et al.,
(2002) also mentions that households in low-income neighbourhoods are more dissatisfied than those in
better neighbourhoods while dissatisfaction was higher in high density residential neighbourhoods than low
density. The quality of life also has a relation with residential mobility and neighbourhood. Marans and
Rodgers (1979) and Marans and Spreckelmeyer 1981 observed that the relationship between neighbourhood
satisfaction, decisions to move, and quality of life is a chronological process with neighbourhood
satisfaction predicting mobility and mobility affecting quality of life.
This view is corroborated by the research of Barrett et al., (1994) on the context of residential
neighbourhood mobility. The study demonstrated that, the decision of residents to either remain or relocate
is influenced by neighbourhood quality. Barrett and co-workers also observed that the perception of
neighbourhood quality as either subjective or objective measures plays an important role in the decision to
relocate. However, the study observed that only one of the subjective measures has a direct effect on actual
mobility whereas other measures influence or forecast mobility.
The study by Clark et al., (1996) reported that residential mobility is a fundamental transition in human
lives whereas neighbourhood transitions are due to outcomes of aggregated individual mobility (Clark and
Dieleman, 1996). The movement of people through various commuting patterns, land use patterns, and
traffic flow results in the establishment of neighbourhood or mobile communities (Clark, 2005). In simple
terms, events or adjustments in life such as moving into ‘better’ or ‘worse’ neighbourhoods influence
neighbourhood quality. Furthermore, the quality of the neighbourhood in an area affects economic, social
and health outcomes of residents. For example, a husband’s loss of job results in immediate loss of income,
but if he moves into a poorer neighbourhood the effect is also felt by family. Residents’ dwelling
satisfaction and the neighbourhood quality are likely to ‘slow down’ residents’ propensity to move. This is
only to the extent that their propensity to move is affected by environmental factors, not by changes in the
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life cycle of households, labour market career or other factors that bear no direct relationship with the
neighbourhood.
There is empirical evidence to support the need for attractive housing with career opportunities in
neighbourhoods dominated by cheap multi-family dwellings. Residents of single-detached homes
particularly new developments are less likely to move compared to multi-family residents (Dekker & Bolt,
2005); Green et al., 2005). This indicates that the quality of housing, type and quality of neighbourhood are
connected to mobility. In big cities particularly in the United States of America (USA), the reason for
moving is usually due to the need to escape crime, congestion and other negative external factors (Skogan,
1990) In general, people’s desire to live and raise their children in safe ‘better’ neighbourhoods is a critical
factor. Duncan et al., (1994) proved that poor neighbourhoods negatively affect children’s achievement
levels. The study also revealed that neighbourhood element significantly influence residents' satisfaction
(Fernandez and Kulik 1981).
3. Methodology
The study relies on primary data collected from two sources namely; survey questionnaire and face-to-face
interview. The survey targeted respondents living in low and medium-cost housing who filled the
questionnaire forms. Hence, data for the study was obtained from personal interview technique using set
questions to gain information from the respondents. However, the face-to-face interview was conducted on
the respondent from the high-cost housing due to safety and privacy concerns from the management office.
Table 1: Total population of case study.
The survey was conducted using Stratified Random Sampling (SRS). The SRS technique was used to select
the sample and classify (stratify) the population into smaller groups known as strata. In SRS, the strata are
formed based on specific attributes characteristic to each respondent from low, medium or high-cost
housing. As such, the case study has an equal chance of being selected in each neighbourhood.
Next, structured questions were used design and prepare the questionnaire for the survey and interview. The
questions were constructed in a simple and straight manner to avoid bias resulting from questionnaire
design. Nevertheless, the interviewers explained and clarified certain points to respondents to ensure high
level of consistency during in the interview.
Type of Housing Location No. of unit No. sample
Low Cost Hamna 1284 67
Medium Cost Desa Permai 1057 67
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The level of satisfaction of neighbourhood environmental satisfaction section was measured on a five-point
Likert scale ranging from “1” for very worse, “2” worse, “3” neutral, “4” good and “5” very good. Using
the mean values of the scale, 3 is considered the midpoint. Thus, any value above 3 is considered somewhat
satisfied but of lower level. Similarly, values below 3, were considered lower level or unsatisfactory.
The statistical software SPSS-15 was used for data analysis. In addition, a number of other statistical
techniques including Point estimates (frequencies), Pearson chi-square tests or fisher’s exact test, and Cross
sectional data binary logistic regressions were also used for data analysis. The frequencies were computed
for descriptive analysis. The Pearson chi-square tests or fisher’s exact test (if more than 20% of the cells
contained expected cell count less than 5) was used to examine bivariate association for categorical
measures. Cross sectional data binary logistic regressions were conducted to examine the association
between mobility (outcome variable) and other factor predictors.
The factors chosen include; socio-demographic factors, neighbourhood society, leisure activities with
neighbours and neighbourhood environmental factors. The Odds Ratios (ORs) were also calculated at and
95% confidence intervals, whenever appropriate. Significant probability was defined as α < 0.05. All
analyses were stratified based on low and middle cost residence. However, the data from high-cost
residential housing was excluded from the analysis since there only one respondent in this category.
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Table 2: Influence of Socio-Demography Factors on Mobility among Low and Middle cost Families
Predictor Agree to move
Low Cost Residential Middle Cost Residential
Gender
Male
Female
22 (66.7%)
20 (58.8%)
*P=0.507
10 (41.7%)
22 (51.2%)
*P=0.456
Race
Malay
Others
37 (64.9%)
5 (50.0%
*P=0.482
10 (71.4%)
22 (41.5%)
*P=0.046
Age group
18-24
25-35
36-45
46-55
56-65
5 (55.6%)
16 (80.0%)
14 (73.7%)
6 (50.0%)
1 (14.3%)
*P=0.021
3 (50.0%)
7 (50.0%)
14 (63.6%)
5 (33.3%)
3 (30.0%)
*P=0.317
Education
Primary, no schooling, others
Secondary
University
7 (53.8%)
24 (61.5%)
11 (73.3%)
*P=0.553
7 (50.0%)
13 (37.1%)
12 (66.7%)
*P=0.123
Marital status
Married
Others
32 (62.7%)
10 (62.5%)
*P=0.986
19 (38.8%)
13 (72.7%)
*P=0.015
Household size
4 household
More than 4 household
18 (62.1%)
24 (63.2%)
*P=0.927
16 (41.0%)
16 (57.1%)
*P=0.193
Household income
<3000
>=3000
33 (58.9%)
9 (81.8%)
*P=0.189
13 (44.8%)
19 (50.0%)
*P=0.675
Job sector
Government and Public
Self and Pensioners
Others
33 (73.3%)
5 (45.5%)
4 (36.4%)
*P=0.037
16 (53.3%)
7 (36.8%)
9 (50.0%)
*P=0.518
Ownership
Owned by you or someone in
your household
Rented
31 (60.8%)
11 (68.8%)
*P=0.565 (N=67)
15 (34.9%)
17 (70.8%)
*P=0.005
Motivation for decision to
move
Work-related reasons
Neighbourhood-related
(N=67)
1 (10.0%)
14 (73.7%)
11 (73.3%)
*P=0.003 (N=67)
2 (6.3%)
8 (72.7%)
18 (94.7%)
*p<0.00
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4. Results and Analysis
Influence of Socio-Demography Factors, Neighbourhood Relationships and Interaction, Leisure and
Activities with Neighbours on Mobility among Low and Middle-cost respondents
This section illustrates the various factors such as socio-demography, neighbourhood relationships and
interaction, leisure and activities with neighbours and neighbourhood satisfaction that influence mobility of
respondents from both low- and middle-cost housing. The results in Table 1 revealed that among low cost
respondents, the socio-demographic factors like age group and job opportunities are significantly linked to
mobility. However for middle cost respondents, race and marital status are more significant. Furthermore,
no significant association was observed between neighbourhood relationships and interaction on mobility
among low and middle cost respondents. Similarly, leisure and activities with neighbours had no significant
correlation to mobility among low and middle cost respondents. In addition, the results demonstrate that
among middle-cost respondents, ownership of residence, motivation, and area of relocation were
significantly associated with mobility (p<0.05), whereas only motivation and area of relocation were
significantly associated with low-cost respondents.
Table 3 illustrates the logistic regression findings of various factors such as socio-demography,
neighbourhood relationships and interaction, leisure and activities with neighbours and neighbourhood
satisfaction influencing mobility of the respondents from both low and middle cost residents.
Table 3: Impact of Social demography, neighbourhood relationship, interaction, leisure and activities
and neighbourhood satisfaction on mobility
reasons
Housing-related reasons
Other
16 (69.9%) 4 (80.0%)
Place to move
In the same neighbourhood
Another neighbourhood same
city
In another city
In another state/ country
(N=67)
2 (20.0%)
19 (76.0%)
10 (62.5%)
11 (68.8%)
*P=0.019 (N=67)
3 (60.0%)
12 (92.3%)
12 (52.2%)
5 (19.2%)
*p<0.001
Mobility
Low Cost
P, Unadjusted OR (95% CI
Middle cost
P, Unadjusted OR (95%CI)
Gender
Male
Female
P=0.508
1
1.4(0.52-3.79)
P=0.456
1
0.68 (0.25-1.87)
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Race Malay
Others
P=0.373
1
0.54 (0.14-2.09)
P=0.054
1
0.28(0.08-1.02)
Age group 18-24
25-35
36-45
46-55
>56
P=0.063
1
3.20 (0.58-17.71)
2.24 (0.42-11.84)
0.80 (0.14-4.53)
0.13 (0.01-1.61)
P=0.330
1
1.00 (0.15-6.77)
1.75 (0.28-10.81)
0.50 (0.07-3.43)
0.43 (0.05-3.48)
Education Primary, no schooling, others
Secondary
University
P=0.559
1
1.37 (0.39-4.87)
2.36 (0.48-11.45)
P=0.133
1
0.59 (0.17-2.07)
2.00 (0.48-8.39)
Marital status Married
Others
P=0.986
1
0.99 (0.31-3.16)
P=0.019
1
4.10 (1.26-13.37)
Household size
4 household
More than 4 household
P=0.927
1
1.05 (0.39-2.84)
P=0.195
1
1.91 (0.72-5.12)
Household income
<3000
>=3000
P=0.167
1
3.14 (0.62-15.88)
P=0.675
1
1.23 (0.47-3.25)
Job sector
Government and Public
Self and Pensioners
Others
P=0.085
1
0.30 (0.79-1.18)
0.21 (0.52-0.84)
P=0.262
1
0.51 (0.16-1.65)
0.87 (0.27-2.81)
Know Neighbors P=0.135
0.72 (0.48-1.10)
P=0.235
0.63 (0.30-1.35)
Important level of interaction
Not too important
Important
Very important
P=0.670
1
1.33 (0.20-8.92)
0.81 (0.11-5.99)
P=0.142
1
0.68 (0.12-3.73)
2.50 (0.35-18.04)
How often go public amenities
Daily
Once a week
Twice a week
P=0.165
1
3.55 (0.88-14.12)
2.18 (0.70-6.85)
P=0.958
1
(0.27-3.78)
1.17 (0.31-4.43)
Social activities
No
Yes
P=0.986
1
1.01 (0.32-3.22)
P=0.680
1
1.28 (0.39-4.21)
Frequency of social activities
Yes
No
P=0.554
1
0.98 (0.93-1.04)
P=0.624
1
1.02 (0.94-1.11)
Ownership
Owned
Rented
P=0.566
1
1.42 (0.43-4.70)
P=0.006
1
4.53 (1.54-13.36)
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The increasing motivation among low cost respondents revealed odds of 1.77 (95% CI: 1.08 - 2.88),
indicate they are more likely to move from the current residence. However, this was higher among middle-
cost respondents with odds of 9.98 times (95% CI: 3.84 – 25.93) and hence more likely to move.
From the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents, gender distribution was almost equal among
low cost respondents, but females were higher (64.2%) among middle cost respondents. Malays were high
in low cost residential (85%) whereas Chinese were higher in middle cost residential. More than 70% of the
respondents were between the ages of 25-55 years. This was consistent between both low and middle-cost
participants. In each type of housing more than half of the respondents’ had secondary school education or
higher. In majority of the houses the numbers of households ranged from 3 to 5 whereas half of all low and
middle-cost respondents were married.
In terms of neighbourhood relationship and interaction among neighbours, more than half of the
respondents from both low and middle cost respondents had good or very good relationship with their
neighbours. In addition, almost 80% or more respondents indicated that social interaction among
neighbours is important or very important. This was almost consistent with both types of housing. The
results also indicated that more than 60% of the respondents from both low and middle cost residential were
more likely to use public amenities daily or weekly. Accordingly, more than 75% of our respondents
believed they need more social activities with their neighbours. This is almost consistent among both low
and middle cost respondents. It should be noted that more than half of the middle cost respondents know
only about 0 to 5 families from their neighbourhoods whereas almost 70% of the low cost respondents
know their neighbours.
On the aspect of leisure activities with neighbours, 60% of the middle-cost respondents indicated they
spend time with their neighbours once a month or less. Although about 25% of the low-cost respondents
have never meet their neighbours. In contrast, about 73% of the middle-cost respondents invite their
neighbours to their homes once a month and less, where as 54% of the low cost respondents did same less
often than once a month and never. About 62% and 70% of low and middle-cost respondents, respectively,
had attended parties at their neighbours’ once a month and less. Nearly half of low-cost respondents and
around 64% middle-cost respondents visit their neighbours once a month or less. It was also observed that a
small number of low and middle-cost respondents do volunteer work in their neighbourhood. Compared to
middle-cost residential people, low-cost residents were more likely to visit religious places.
In terms of neighbourhood satisfaction, 76% of low-cost and 64% of middle-cost respondents live in their
own houses. About 63% of low-cost residential respondents and 48% of middle-cost respondents were more
likely to move to other places. Majority of the middle-cost residential respondents reported that the main
motivational factors for relocation are work and neighbourhood related reasons (16.4%) in both cases.
However, among low-cost respondents the work related reason was the main motivational factor. Majority
of the middle-cost respondents were willing to move to another city whereas low-cost respondents were
willing to move to other neighbourhoods in the same city.
Motivation P=0.023
1.77 (1.08-2.88)
P<0.001
9.98 (3.84-25.93)
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5. Conclusion
The study was aimed at investigating the role of neighbourhood quality and the factors that influence the
process of residential mobility process in low and middle-cost housing in Penang, Malaysia. The results
revealed that motivational factors such as work concerns, neighbourhood, and housing related reasons
significantly influenced the decision of residents to either move from their current residences to other
places. This was consistent among both low and middle-cost residents. The results indicate that research
objectives have been achieved since neighbourhood factors are correlated to residential mobility. However,
the authors recommend that future studies extend the scope of this study to investigate how the effects of
physical and economic features of neighbourhood quality affect mobility.
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Research Article
Reviewing the Factors of the Increasing Needs for Residential Housing
in the Gaza Strip
Abdalrahim M. Shehab, Mohd Zin Kandar
Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor, Malaysia Corresponding author: sh77eng@gmail.com; mzin@utm.my
ARTICLE INFO
Article history
Received: 12/10/2016
Accepted: 02/12/2016
A b s t r a c t
It is very important to consider housing as an important factor that plays a
major role in resilience of the inhabitants on their land. This study aims to
identify the factors of increasing the needs for residential housing in the Gaza
Strip and estimate the residential housing needs after the last war in the Gaza
Strip via critically reviewing several international reports and research papers.
Relevant data for the study were obtained through secondary sources which
include academic journals, conference papers, and articles. A total of 36
research articles from several international journals and reports were reviewed
and identified via comprehensive review of relevant literature. The study finds
that Gaza needs more than 150,000 housing units to make up for the shortfall
as a result of the destruction of thousands of housing units Israeli war on Gaza,
and to meet the needs of the annual population growth in Gaza. Furthermore,
various factors of increasing needs of residential housing are found in this
study such as the trends of population growth; and the prospective expectations
of housing in the future, the blockade of Gaza.
© Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability. All rights reserved.
Factors, Needs, Residential
Housing, Gaza.
1. Introduction
The Israeli military operation that lasted from July 8 to August 26, 2014 in the Gaza Strip has led
to massive displacement and destruction of buildings and urban systems (ex. water, electricity,
sanitation). This has greatly exacerbated an already precarious situation as the long blockade of the
Gaza Strip had resulted in acute vulnerabilities, including a serious housing shortfall. On one hand,
neighbourhoods have been partially or completely abandoned and return will depend on restoring
of basic functionalities and emergency housing support. In some cases quick return will not be
possible in view of the scale of destruction.
Countries have been interested with housing needs due to the increasing demand for, which is
related to population growth and changes of the size and characteristics of the population at any
locative level either national, regional or local, or institutional and where housing is one of the
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basic requirements of the population and one of the basic needs like food, clothing, etc. (Al-
Habees, 2012).
Housing needs are based on standards of accommodation considered basic for human health,
safety and well-being. It is considered one of the essential requirements of life; it comes in third
place in the human fundamental physical necessities. Housing, according to Golubchikov and
Badyina (2012), is the basic social condition that defines the quality of life and welfare of the
people and places. Poudyal et al. (2009) also opined that residential housing prices determination
depends largely first on access to those locations which support related uses, such as proximity to
work place, shopping centers, distance to schools, nearness to recreational facilities, accessibility
to public transport, open space, proximity to place of entertainment, place of worship, among
others.
The residential need is considered as the number of housing units that must be constructed or
maintained to ensure the stability of the housing situation within the required level. This stability is
by methods of development and urban renewal or replacement of residential areas (Bourne, 1981;
Abu-ayanah, 1981; Wanaasi, 2009). Housing need drivers include demographic trends such as
migration rates, population age structures and household headship rates. However, economic
factors are also relevant – both directly and indirectly in terms of their influence over demographic
outcomes such as household formation. Hence, any comprehensive housing needs model must
include both demographic and economic variables ().
General characteristics of housing include average monthly housing costs, types, locations, size
and conditions of the units influence the housing affordability. This implies that household should
be able to support the direct costs of the housing unit without neglecting other essential needs
(Kurraz and Ziara, 2007). Therefore, a need arises to determine the needs for residential housing in
the Gaza Strip, thereby determining which factors are important that influence on housing needs in
future development in the Gaza Strip.
Palestine, similar to developed countries, faces housing challenges and limitation especially in
dealing with low-cost housing. The population census for the Palestinian areas conducted in 1997
showed that the population in the West Bank and Gaza Strip are 1,600,100 and 1,001,569 anima,
respectively (PCBS, 2000). Based on available information the annual needs for housing units in
Palestine range from 20,000 to 34,000 (Ziara, 1997).
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Gaza was chosen as a case study for this report series because of its long history of urban
displacement. The majority of the population of the Gaza Strip are registered refugees (over 70%),
and so already live in displacement. Unlike cities where the vulnerabilities of the displaced
population relate to the refusal of local authorities to accept their presence and provide for their
needs, for several decades refugees have themselves driven the expansion of built-up areas with
the acceptance and support of national and international authorities. Gaza is highly urbanised and
military operations have often targeted densely populated areas. Urban displacement has therefore
been the norm, rather than the exception (Haysom and El Sarraj, 2012).
Thus, this Study attempts to highlight the significance of factors of the increasing needs for
residential housing in the Gaza Strip after the recent war on 2014, but with extremely limited
resources due to conflict and blockade region. In addition to minimize the hazards associated and
provide comprehensive insight for understanding problems and challenges to the housing needs.
2. Background of Gaza Strip
The Gaza Strip is a narrow region of the state of Palestine; it is located along the south-western
part of the Palestinian coastal plains region. The total area of Gaza is about 360 km2 (Figure 1). It
has borders with Egypt on the south west for 13 km and with Israel across the east and north for 59
km and it has a 40 km long coastline. The total population of Gaza is 1.8 million and it has one of
the highest population growth rates in the World standing at 3.48%. By 2020, Gaza’s population is
projected to reach 2.13 million (UN-Habitat, 2014). Gaza has experienced multiple Israeli military
incursions and bombing campaigns since the unilateral withdrawal by Israel in 2005. Including the
2014 Israeli war on Gaza, there have been seven military operations since 200617, resulting in
over 4,200 Palestinian casualties (both civilian and non-civilian) (Government of Palestine, 2014
In July 2014, the Israeli army launched a military operation in Gaza which lasted for seven weeks
of air strikes and ground operations. The war has killed more than 2,100 Palestinians and displaced
more than 500,000 persons at the height of conflict. It had also destructed more than 13,000 homes
and affected another 100,000 (UNDP, 2014), which led to the high rate of increase in demand for
residential housing units in Gaza.
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Figure 1 Location Map of the Gaza Strip
2.1 Problem
Housing needs is one of the most important issues among serious challenges in Gaza. Thus, the
problem of this study is to identify the housing needs in Gaza due to the critical situation and
limited available resources over there. The problem becomes clear when answering the following
question: what is the most important factors influencing of the increasing needs for the residential
housing in Gaza.
2.2 Objectives
An understanding the increasing needs for residential housing provides the basis for an appropriate
and effective development plan of housing. This research study reviews the factors of residential
housing needs for the Gaza Strip after the recent war launched by Israel. In order to achieve this
objective, the present study investigated the factors influence of the factors of the increasing needs
for residential housing in the Gaza Strip.
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2.3 Significance
The outcome of this research study will have an impact on housing policy; this study will
contribute furthermore to the existing literature on conflict areas as in the Gaza Strip; the
significance of this research study lies in its attempts to providing preliminary insight into how can
the housing needs in the Gaza Strip can be estimating while it is consider as unstable region and it
faces many serious problems.
2.4 Overview of the Housing Situation in the Gaza Strip
Gaza strip is known as one of the longest conflict area in the world since 1948. It has witnessed
deterioration not only physical and infrastructures of the country but also in socio-economic
conditions due to the repeated aggressions and continuous blockade by Israeli regime. The 1.8
million people living on limited areas of 360 sq. km. Gaza is known as one of the most populated
land in the world with 3.5% annual population growth rates. Currently poverty rate reached 38.3%,
unemployment has reached to 31% and about 57% of the population facing insecurity of basic
needs. High population growth demands sufficient facilities for housing sector –in particular- in
the society. Gaza faces great challenges in providing facilities and infrastructure to provide
sustainable living for all level of society.
The humanitarian Shelter Cluster in Gaza estimates that the current housing shortfall stands at
71,000 units (UN Shelter Sector, 2011). By 2017, Gaza will require 153,000 additional housing
units (Asfour, 2012). In the meantime overcrowding is a widespread problem given the lack of
mobility of the population, the high population growth rate, the destruction of housing stock and
the difficulties caused by the blockade in constructing new housing. While wealthy Palestinians in
Gaza are able to build through the private construction sector and materials available on the local
market, low-income housing is provided by public, UN and NGO actors through international
funding. Both Hamas, the UN and NGOs have plans to build housing, but the UN and NGOs are
constrained by the blockade, under which materials such as cement and aggregate, which Israel
considers ‘dual-use’ materials, must undergo an onerous approval process to pass through the
Kerem Shalom crossing.15 Although these materials are widely available in the Gaza Strip,
restrictive donor policies prevent the UN and NGOs from purchasing them locally, forcing them
instead to bring in all such items through Kerem Shalom, the sole official crossing for goods
(Haysom and El Sarraj, 2012).
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The continuously growing housing shortage in Gaza is driven by conflict and rapid natural
population growth. Construction and reconstruction cannot accommodate the needs due to the lack
of building materials. The human dignity crises increases day by day and has resulted in
widespread difficulties foe Gaza residents to access their right to adequate housing. Overcrowding
is now a major issue in context where long term and chronic overcrowding can lead to greater
protection concerns including increased domestic violence, gender based violence and the general
breakdown of social and cultural norms. The lack of access to adequate raw building materials
resulting from the Israeli and Egyptian blockade remains the major reason for the chronic lack of
progress in Gaza, the shelter sector in Gaza has recently carried out this study which calculates
over 70,000 additional housing units are required (UN Shelter Sector, 2011). Starting in 2007
Israel restricted the import of building materials into Gaza including cement, aggregate and steel,
halting almost all housing construction in Gaza until late 2010. While restrictions on some imports
have eased in limited instances, they have not yet eased enough to meet the building needs in the
Gaza Strip. Since 2007 till now import restrictions greatly reduced the supply of housing units
(Badawy, 2015).
2.5 Housing Needs
Housing needs can be defined as the overall number of homes required to meet historical
affordable accumulated housing need (often referred to as the “backlog”) and newly arising need
for affordable housing over the short term. In reviewing the literature, very little data was found on
the definition of housing needs. Morris and Winter (1975), claims that housing needs are seldom
explicitly defined. They further indicate that for some writers the definition of housing needs
appears to be based on biological needs for protection from weather and predators. However they
argue that housing needs may be reasonably equated with cultural norms for housing. Therefore
this section presents the literature which addresses housing needs in various perspectives.
Furthermore, Kitchen and Milbourne (2006) define housing need in terms of housing units as ‘’the
quantity of housing needed to house those households currently lacking their own housing, or
living in unsuitable housing, and who cannot afford to buy or rent housing without assistance’’.
The nature and extent of housing need in a community is largely determined by population growth
and demographic characteristics such as age, household size, occupation, and income. Cultural
factors may also affect housing preferences.
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Several studies dealt with the housing needs issue, including; Al-Habees (2012) finds out that there
are significant differences in terms of the distribution of population and housing on the urban
communities identified by his study. It also revealed that the concentration of population increases
in the city of Amman. McDonald (2001) deals with methodology of producing estimates of
demand for medium-and long-term housing. It also highlights the importance of the expectations
of the potential housing needs. Zubair (2001) argues that housing construction is a stimulus for
economic growth, particularly in urban areas. Kintrea (2007) investigates the issue of deserted
housing in England. He finds out that housing needs are constantly growing, and the gap increases
between the number and quality of ancient, modern, and rented housing. Winters and Elsinga
(2008) indicates the continued survival of the housing need in the future in Belgium. It also
indicates that it is necessary to increase the incomes of the population to obtain adequate housing
through improving housing association revenues and focus on the needy and unable people who
cannot afford the cost of housing. Besides, Noreen (2007) and ALRabdawi (2010) tackles the
increases of the dwellings number in Sultanate of Oman and how they are distributed due to type
of construction materials used. On the other hand, UN Shelter Sector (2011) shows that, by the end
of 2011, a total of 71,234 housing units are required in Gaza to address current population needs.
This includes 67,151 units needed since June, 2007, and an accumulated shortage of 4,083 units
prior to 2007. The results show that about 79% of the housing needs are due to natural population
growth, and about 9% are due to destruction of housing during and prior to the 2008/2009 “Cast
Lead” military operation. Replacement of substandard and depreciated units account for 7% of the
caseload, and requirements to relieve over-crowded units accounts for 5%. Besides, A report was
done by Health (2014), It provides information on some of the main factors which influence
demand and need for housing, including economic, social and demographic factors.
2.6 Factors Influencing Need for Housing
This current research study uses various factors basis of extensive literature review. The study
proposed these several factors based on the literature review and in particular the studies have been
conducted in the Gaza Strip and similar conflict areas. The study includes seven factors of the
increasing needs for residential housing in the Gaza Strip includes population growth trends,
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economic growth, housing component, household income, housing finance, location of
neighbourhood, conflict and blockade issue, as the followings:
2.6.1 Population Growth Trends
Population growth is a major underlying factor for the demand of housing and without a new
supply of dwellings; it pushes up the prices for both renting and purchasing dwellings.
Furthermore, population growth forecasts (particularly household growth, which takes account of
divorce rates as well as other factors) form the basis of predictions for how many homes need to be
built now and in the future. However, measuring demand for housing is complex as it involves an
assessment of economic, social and demographic factors, which influence what type and tenure of
housing will be attractive and affordable in which areas (Health, 2014). Gaza Strip is not just
limited to the Operation Cast Lead destruction. The total war related caseload includes damages
from pre Cast Lead Israeli-related destruction. It must also not be forgotten the housing units partly
completed, but frozen since June 2007 due to the blockade and the refugees currently living in
camps who need to be re-housed. This is in addition to the tens of thousands of units needed to be
built in Gaza to accommodate natural growth, the population growth rate in Gaza is shown in
Table 1.
Table 1: Population Growth Rates
Period
Growth Rate
Gaza Strip West Bank
2008-2010 3.7 2.8
2010-2015 3.4 2.4
2015-2020 3.0 2.0
(Source: PCBS, 2008)
By all accounts, demographic pressures in the Gaza Strip in terms of population density, age
structure, and growth rate are extraordinarily high compared to neighbouring countries and
regions. This population pressure, combined with limited resources and territorial isolation, places
immense strain on public services, social and political institutions, and the natural environment. At
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the same time, insecurity resulting from a deteriorating political context leads to further poverty
and unemployment (Al-Najar, 2007). Based on current growth, the population (according to
different projections) is expected to increase to 2.13 million by 2020 and 2.76 million by 2028 as
shown in table 2, which would result in a population density of 7,562 people per square kilometer.
The annual population growth rate for Gaza in 2011 stood at a high 3.37%, resulting from a
fertility rate of 4.9 children per woman in 2010, compared to 3.8 in the West Bank. The population
growth rate in Gaza is forecast to decline moderately to 2.99% by 2020 (Cordesman, 2014).
Table 2: Population Projections
Year
Population 1000s
Total Gaza Strip West Bank
Urban Rural Urban Rural
2007 1,346 77 1,260 1,117 3,801
2010 1,530 86 1,483 1.213 4,312
2015 1,856 102 1,860 1.366 5,184
2020 2,152 118 2,054 1.508 5,832
(Source: PCBS, 2008)
2.6.2 Economic Growth
Demand for housing is dependent upon income. With higher economic growth and rising incomes
people will be able to spend more on houses; this will increase demand and push up prices. In their
study of HOPE VI redevelopments, Zielenbach et al. (2010) argue that site location, the density in
the surrounding neighborhoods, tenant incomes, and the strength of the overall real estate market
in which the project is situated are among the factors that can affect how successful these efforts
can be at spurring local economic growth. Moreover, Opoku and Abdul-Muhmin (2010) state that
structural housing components have been mentioned by many sources as among major determinant
factors of household home-buying. A study conducted by Lee (2010) on the influence of leisure
and sporting facilities on house prices using number of dwelling components such as the living
area, number of rooms, building age, number of stories, number of floors as explanatory variables
for structural components and residential neighbourhood variables for sport and leisure facilities,
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revealed that sport and leisure facilities have significant influence on house prices with cross- level
interaction at the same time. Zubair (2001) argues that housing construction is a stimulus for
economic growth, particularly in urban areas. He also claims that the housing sector is one of the
most important sectors of economic growth because it creates new opportunities through internal
and external investment.
2.6.3 Housing Component
Tan (2012) examines the housing needs and preferences of first-time buyers in Kuala Lumpur with
emphasis on certain characteristics of a dwelling such as the number of bathrooms, bedrooms,
living rooms, kitchen, among others. The study revealed that major preference is often given to
number of bedrooms. Similar study carried out by Opoku and Abdul-Muhmin (2010) find out that
in Saudi Arabia the number of bedrooms, bedroom size and the number of bathrooms are major
housing components that influences house prices. The study of Hurtubia et al. (2010) highlighted
that in western countries the numbers of rooms or bathrooms in a house is a very significant
component that is mostly considered by households in making home-ownership decisions. Vahid
(2015) investigates the priority of housing components preferences from user perspective in
Malaysia. The aim of the study was to evaluate how Johor Bahru resident’s conceptions are
affected by various structural characteristics of housing. The main purpose of the study was to
examine the perception on the priority of structural housing components from the point of view of
house consumers. The study adopted the Non-structural fuzzy decision support system (NSFDSS)
model as a tool for determining the perceived relative importance of the set decision criteria.
2.6.4 Household Income
Income is the main factor influencing the ability to buy a house. Income is depended on the types
of employment, period of employment and rank in the employment. Income is very important in
studying the ability to buy a house. It also influenced the types of affordable housing that a
household can buy. Thus, the income received is the determinate on the price and type of houses
that is affordable by a household. (Ismail, 2015). The vast majority of the world countries face the
availability of housing for high-income people and lack of housing units for low and moderate
income people (Kurraz and Ziara, 2007). Income distribution potentially has a significant influence
on housing demand. If the distribution of income becomes more unequal, this would be expected
to exacerbate the problems of housing affordability for some people in the income distribution,
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particularly those not in the higher end but with incomes too high to be eligible for significant state
support in meeting their housing needs
2.6.5 Housing Finance
Housing financing is one of the important mechanisms that should be considered by all groups to
meet housing needs, Financing is defined as a long-term loan with a specified repayment period
for the purchasing of a house, the financing loans are provided by the banks to individuals who
buy a house from a developer who has a commitment with the bank (Ismail, 2015). Housing
financing is an important factor in buying a house. It is a form of financial assistance required by a
buyer to finance the purchasing of a house (Peter, 2009 & Goh, 1985). The housing financing
refers to the assistance of financial institutions such as banks and government agencies in
providing loans to finance a house (Tuccillo et al., 1983). Most of the housing policies around the
world are more concerned with housing needs compared to housing demand. One of the
measurements used by the bank in determining whether a person can repay the loan is the amount
of the monthly payment that should not exceed one-third of the total income (McCord, 2011). If
the amount of the monthly payment is low, then the period of repayment of the entire loan term is
longer and the interest to be paid is also high, and this affects the financing.
2.6.6 Location of Neighbourhood
Immobility causes the location of the house to be an important determinant of its value, since the
purchaser buys both the dwelling and the site where the house is located (Keil and Zabel, 2008).
Wang and Li (2006) again use four attributes to define neighbourhood; namely, accessibility,
living convenience, security and district. Also Opoku and Abdul-Muhmin (2010), in their study
use neighbourhood, local environment, and proximity to relatives, street location and air quality as
important factors for consumer’s access considers the condition of the access road and ease of
access to economic and social services. According to El-Masri and Kellett (2001), people
considered the accessibility to the village or settlement and access to education and social facilities
are more important in village reconstruction. Poudyal et al. (2009) also opined that residential
housing prices determination depends largely first on access to those locations which support
related uses, such as proximity to work place, shopping centers, distance to schools, nearness to
recreational facilities, accessibility to public transport, open space, proximity to place of
entertainment, place of worship, among others.
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2.6.7 Conflict and Blockade Issue
The Israeli military operation that lasted from July 8 to August 26, 2014 in the Gaza Strip has led
to massive displacement and destruction of buildings and urban systems (ex. water, electricity,
sanitation). This has greatly exacerbated an already precarious situation as the long blockade of the
Gaza Strip had resulted in acute vulnerabilities, including a serious housing shortfall. On one hand,
neighborhoods have been partially or completely abandoned and return will depend on restoring of
basic functionalities and emergency housing support. In some cases quick return will not be
possible in view of the scale of destruction. On the other hand, neighborhoods that have received
displaced families are overstretched. Some neighborhoods witnessed both concentrated destruction
and inward migration (UN Habit, 2014).
The conflict in the Gaza Strip in July-August 2014 (‘Operation Protective Edge’) has taken a
devastating toll on civilian lives and resulted in an unprecedented amount of damage and
destruction to housing units, other social and economic infrastructure in the Gaza Strip,
Preliminary assessments of war destruction suggest that some 20,000 housing units were totally
destroyed or severely damaged, and there was an estimated shortfall of 71,000 housing units to
meet the housing needs in Gaza (UN, 2014). The displacement and loss of livelihoods,
employment, homes, household belongings and other assets caused by the conflict have amplified
economic and social vulnerability among the population. It is estimated that 108,000 people will
remain displaced in the long term due to the destruction of or severe damage to their homes
(OCHA, 2014).
According to the United Nations Human Settlements Programme, based on the materials allowed
in by Israel, it would have taken 80 years to rebuild the 6,000 housing units destroyed during the
military operation in December 2008 –January 2009. However, delays in funding, lack of access to
materials due to the ongoing blockade and the scale of destruction have led to delays in the
response to housing needs of those families whose homes were damaged or destroyed by
Operation Protective Edge. These delays and the proximity of winter must overtake the need for
durable solutions. To this effect agencies are mobilising to make emergency shelter materials
available for winterisation and to maintain sufficient collective center capacity for those in need
(OCHA, 2014).
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3. Methodology
The research is basically an archival type where the outline of the study is a review of empirical
literature on the estimating the residential housing needs and exploring the factors of increasing the
residential housing needs in the Gaza Strip. Relevant data for the study were obtained through
secondary sources which include academic journals, conference papers, articles, textbooks and the
World Wide Web (cyber internet). A total of 36 research articles only from several international
journals and reports were reviewed and identified via comprehensive review of relevant literature.
A systematic approach was adopted to review the relevant previous literature. This review study
was conducted to identify the factors influence on the increasing needs for residential housing in
the Gaza Strip. The purpose of this study is also to highlight the most challenges facing the
housing sector in the Gaza Strip especially. This review study reviewed the concepts of the
housing needs and the factors affecting the increase of the housing needs via comprehensive
review of relevant literature. A systematic approach is adopted to review the previous literature.
The purpose of systematic literature review (SLR) is to identify the areas having ambiguity or
remained less focused by researchers and to further suggest the future prospects. The idea behind
using SLR is to select the variables that can increase the needs for residential housing in the Gaza
Strip. Subsequently, a filter is placed to restrict the publications for a specific period of last ten
years, and the selected journals having more articles relevant to the housing needs and demands.
4. Results and Discussion
An almost complete physical and political isolation, combined with successive military operations,
has deeply affected the housing situation in Gaza. Accordingly, Gaza needs more than 150,000
housing units to make up for the shortfall as a result of the destruction of thousands of housing
units Israeli war on Gaza, as well as to meet the needs of the annual population growth in Gaza ,
due to the combined impact of repeated wars and the associated house damage and destruction, the
import ban on dual-use (cement, gravel and metal bars) construction materials, a deteriorating
housing stock, lack of resources due to unemployment and natural population growth. Further
investigation of the total housing supply warrants analysis. Census data (PCBS 2007) suggests a
surplus of 10 percent in the number of housing units over the total number of households (MCRG,
2015). Furthermore, the rapid population growth adds further pressure. Critical priorities to address
the needs of the population in the Gaza Strip include emergency shelter, energy and water, the
absence of which will make progress in all other sectors impossible (UN, 2014). Housing need
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drivers include demographic trends such as migration rates, population age structures and
household headship rates. However, economic factors are also relevant – both directly and
indirectly in terms of their influence over demographic outcomes such as household formation.
Hence, any comprehensive housing needs must include both demographic and economic variables.
Thus, this study from one hand provides an estimation of the accumulated housing needs in the
Gaza strip as a result of the ongoing ten year blockade on Gaza and the concurrent rapid
population growth since 2007.On the other hand, it finds the main factors of the increasing needs
for the residential housing are the accumulative wars on Gaza and the damaged houses by Israel
powers, the trends of population growth, the prospective expectations of housing in the future, the
blockade of Gaza, the Israeli remaining in control of the borders, including the entry and exit of
people and goods, building material, as well as the air space and access to the sea. Moreover, it
was clear through the literature review that Gazian people live in unstable economic conditions
due to the siege, repeated aggression and closures, which negatively affects the development of the
housing sector and inadequate housing units. Thus the economic growth is considered as one
important factor of increasing needs for residential housing in Gaza.
5. Conclusion
The findings of systematic literature review of prior studies have revealed that the continuously
blockade of Gaza imposed by Israel, the repeated aggression on the Gaza Strip and losing much
homes, the ongoing restrictions on the goods import including of basic building materials, the new
housing unites needed to meet the natural population growth, and the non-recovery of productive
capacity of Gaza’s economy are considered as the greatest factors that influence on the increasing
needs for residential housing in the Gaza Strip. Critical concepts embedded within traditional
approaches to the measurement of housing need include the distinction between ‘backlog’ and
‘newly arising’ need. Recognition of this duality has important implications for needs estimation
methodology. It is also important to differentiate between ‘need’ and ‘demand’ and to recognise
that valid policy responses to need include some which do not entail new provision of affordable
housing. However, the Palestinian Governments may require estimates of housing need for a
variety of purposes. These can provide a way of monitoring the state of the housing system, and it
has to take in consideration the factors of increasing the housing needs in future as it is clear in the
findings of this study.
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6. Limitation of the Study
Further researches are needed to get a more comprehensive view of the situation. An additional
area in a big scale for future research is on affordability levels for Palestinian households in the
Gaza Strip, in order to assess the housing demand. An in-depth study of the demographic and
social factors affecting the housing demand is also recommended.
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Research Article
Using Green Roofs to Mitigate the Effect of Urban Heat Island
Jibril Danazimi Jibril1, Musa Ali Jogana2, Halliru Faruk3, Faizah Mohammed Bashir4
1&2Department of Building Technology, Federal College of Education (Technical) Bichi, Kano State, Nigeria.
3Department of Engineering and the Built Environment, Anglia Ruskin University, Chelmsford United Kingdom.
4Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Malaysia.
ARTICLE INFO
Article history
Received: 12/10/2016
Accepted: 02/12/2016
A b s t r a c t
The green roofs are utilized to mitigate the heat island effect in the urban
cities, thus are on the rise as part of the revolution for sustainable construction.
This study examines how heat island are formed in the urban cities, as well as
the mechanism of green roofs that make them a good mitigation strategy, it
also investigates the role of government in ensuring that green roofs are
implemented and other strategies that may be used to reduce the rise of the
urban temperatures. Furthermore, it was found that green roofs are indeed
effective in urban heat island mitigation. That they work better when they are
implemented alongside other mitigating strategies. Governments along with
non-governmental organizations around the globe are pushing for the
implementation of green roofs not only for this reason, but also for their other
environmental, cost and social benefits. Finally, the governments should
slowly incorporate implementation of green roofs in building regulations,
whereas that residents should be enlighten about the multiple benefits of green
roofs in our society and encourage them to integrate the green roofs in their
building.
© Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability. All rights
reserved.
Green Roofs, Urban Heat
Island Effect, Mitigating
Strategies, Sustainable
Construction.
1. Introduction
In the field of real estate and the environment, sustainability became one of the trending topic globally.
Many of our community interactions results to the negative environment impact, this is due to urbanization,
thus trees and open lands are eradicated to make way for roads, buildings and other infrastructure. Heat is
created from activities by cars, buses, trains and the dense population of people in a society. This makes the
temperature in urban areas to be higher than that of the surrounding suburbs, a phenomenon known as the
urban heat island effect. In accordance to the (Earth pledge, 2008.) Heat islands are created when dark-
coloured, impermeable surfaces absorb heat energy and radiate it back into the air. Due to the lack of space
in cities, buildings are constructed close together, this and the high value in insulation of building materials
contribute to the rise of temperature in the areas. Among materials, concrete and asphalt, both used as
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rooftops, have been found to absorb and re-radiate the most heat. According to the US environmental
protection agency, the annual temperature of a city of more than a million people can be 1-3 degrees Celsius
hotter than its surroundings and up to a staggering 12 degrees in a calm night. The variation in temperature
depends on the urban design, climate and topography of a region.
Heat islands have negative impacts on human health and the environment as a whole. The most talked about
maybe the higher energy consumption. During hot summer times, the hot weather brings about high
demand for cooling, thereby requiring more electricity. Akbari (2005) estimated that 5 – 10% of electricity
of peak electricity demand for cooling buildings in cities is a result of the urban heat island effect. This
results to a significant amount of pressure to the electricity grid. During hot summer afternoons, the
overwhelming demand for cooling may need additional systems to prevent power outages or blackouts. In
the other hand, air quality also decreases as temperature rises. Thus the increased energy demand due to the
high temperature, generates more greenhouse gas emissions and pollutants from the power plants that cater
for them. Take the US for instance; whose main source of energy is by burning fossil fuels. The gases
emitted while burning the fuel are a main part of decreasing air quality, they also aid in creating acid rain.
2. Literature
2.1 Urban Heat Island
In recent years, sustainable architecture became the government ecological concern, this is to promote and
motivate people in their building construction. Thus it will mitigate a building’s negative impact on the
urban environment, and to create harmony between human and inhabitants who live in urban areas.
Therefore, making more green roofs in the city could be the best ecological solution, which can improve air
quality, mitigate the heat island effect, beautify the environment, and simultaneously make the city more
sustainable (Sun et al., 2012) although green roofs can cool the ambient air through consuming the solar
heat that is gained from transpiration and photosynthesis (Sun, 2011).
Statistics from The World Bank in 2014 showed that 82% of the British and 81% of the United States’
population are living in urban areas. According to Yves Baudouin, director of graduate studies, Department
of Geography, University of Quebec at Montreal, the percentage of hard surfaces in most U.S. cities is
approximately 60 percent, with roadways making up between 35 percent and 45 percent, and rooftop
surfaces accounting for around 16 percent (Barbara, 2013). These numbers mean density of people and heat
absorbing buildings will increase. Therefore this article tends to portray a solution in the reduction of high
air temperature by reviewing the green roofs in summer times.
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Figure 1: Urban Heat Island Effect (Healthy Urban Habitat, (2015)
It was depicted in Fig. 1 that, when solar shortwave or long wave radiation strikes the roof of a building,
which is the nature of the nature of conventional rooftops, it is either radiated or absorbed by the building
envelope (Peck, 2009). The energy from the sun, combined with the high heat-absorbing nature of rooftops
heats buildings and their surroundings raising the temperature significantly. The two main materials used
for rooftops, asphalt and concrete, and other conventional materials are dark and absorb most of the sunlight
and reflecting very little. This warms up the inside of the building, and the surroundings on the outside as
well. ‘Albedo’ is the term used to measure the fraction of solar energy that is reflected from a surface.
Ranging from 0 to 1, the higher the albedo, the more the energy that is reflected (Healthy Urban Habitat,
2015). Table 1.1 shows the albedo of common materials. A study in showed that increasing the albedo of
1,250 km2 of concrete pavement by 0.25 would save cooling energy worth $15 million per year (Peck,
(2009).
Table 1 : Solar reflectance (Albedo) of Common Construction materials. (National Snow and Ice Data
Centre, 2015)
MATERIAL ALBEDO
Black Acrylic paint 0.05
New asphalt 0.05
Aged asphalt 0.1
Aged concrete 0.2 – 0.3
New concrete 0.35 – 0.45
White acrylic paint 0.8
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In the other hand solar reflective index is also used to measure the ability of a surface to stay cool, reflecting
and emitting thermal radiation. A standard black surface (initial solar reflectance 0.05, initial thermal
emittance 0.90) has an initial SRI of 0, and a standard white surface (initial solar reflectance 0.80, initial
thermal emittance 0.90) has an initial SRI of 100 (United States Environmental protection agency, 2005).
Green roofs have a higher solar reflective index than conventional rooftops.
3. Result and DISCUSSION
3.1 Effectiveness of Green Roofs in Reducing Urban Temperatures
It is clear that green roofs and other mitigating strategies reduce UHI effect, but it would be difficult to
estimate in numbers the exact impact it has on cities. As PCA (2015) put it whilst talking about estimating
the impacts of cool and green roofs;
‘’ Accurately estimating the city-scale impacts of these mitigation strategies is difficult largely due to the
impracticality of controlled city-scale experiments (the mitigation efforts listed above are largely
uncontrolled and unmonitored at the city-scale) and the lack of appropriate numerical tools to resolve
surface heterogeneities in urban environments’’
So individual buildings which have green roofs can be assessed, from there the potential impact of green
roofs would be predicted if they were to be on a much larger scale. Recently, The National Research
Council Canada carried out a research in order to quantify how using green roofs would reduce
temperatures over large areas. They predicted that adding green roofs to 50 percent of the downtown area in
Toronto would cool the entire city by 0.2 F to 1.4 F; temperatures could be bumped down another 3.5 F,
and extend a 1 F to 2 F reduction over a larger area also just by irrigating the roofs.
Figure 2: Average roof surface temperatures for different roofs
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In 2006, a report by the Columbia Centre for Climate Systems Research showed that vegetation is
crucial in determining the urban heat potential of a place (Barbara, 2013).
Figure 3: Heat transfer on a green roof (U.S Green Building Council, 2015)
In addition the “Latent Heat” refers to the energy released when water transforms into vapor, the process
results in heat release. Green roofs help lower the latent heat by evotranspiration heat.
3.2 Government Policies Promoting Usage of Green Roofs
3.2.1 The Climate Change Act
The Climate Change Act is on the forefront in driving sustainable housing in the UK. Passed in 2008, it
established a framework to develop strategies in the international collective action to tackle climate change
(Committee on Climate Change, N.D). Mitigation of the urban heat island effect is a branch of what the Act
is setup to do. Through this legislation, the government has been able to set targets to combat climate
change, setting up measures to meet these targets while monitoring its progress closely.
3.2.2 German Federal Nature Conservation Act
Germany is a green roof pioneer in the world. In Germany, the country which leads the world in roof
greening, 1 million m2 of green roofs were installed during 1989. They introduced a legislation to encourage
the use of green roofs which, made 43% of German cities to present incentives for green roof installation by
2001. As of 2012, 35% of cities have added green roofs in their regulation, and the whole country is
accountable for 86 million m2 of green roofs that translates to 14% of Germany's total roof area. This Act
was put into force in March 2010. Their drive for green roofs came as a result of the drive for nature
conservation and landscape management. Article 1 starts thus.
‘’By virtue of their intrinsic value and importance as a basic necessity of human life, and also as a
responsibility to future generations, nature and landscape in both settled and non-settled areas are to be
protected.’’ (Federal Ministry of Environment, 2009).
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It proceeds in section (4) to say that.
“The air and the climate are also to be protected via measures of nature conservation and landscape
management; this shall apply especially with regard to areas with favourable air-cleansing or climatic
efforts, such as areas in which fresh or cold air develop, or pathways for air exchange; establishment of
sustainable energy supply systems, especially via increasing use of renewable energies, is to have special
priority’’ The government carried on by introducing direct subsidies to anyone who installed a green roof
on their property that could amount to 10-20 euros per square meter of green roof, which makes them a
‘green’ superpower in the world.
3.2.3 UHI in New York City
New York City is basically said to be a floating oven. On a hot summer day in the city, dry surfaces like
pavements and roofs can be up to 90 degrees hotter than the air temperature. It does not end there, as the
heat stored makes the city still hot at night time. In October 2006, The New York City Regional Heat Island
Initiative accepted a report titled ‘mitigating New York City’s heat island with urban forestry, living roofs
and light surfaces’. The report was funded by the New York State Energy Research and Development
Authority (NYSERDA) and was prepared by Columbia University Centre for Climate Systems Research &
NASA/Goddard Institute for Space Studies.
Case Study Area
Grass-to-Trees
Open-Space
Planting (%)
Street-to-
Trees
Curbside
Planting (%)
Impervious
Roofs to
Living or Light
Roofs (%)
Impervious
Roadways and
Sidewalks to Light
Street-Level
Surfaces (%)
New York City 10.8 6.7 13.6 34.4
Mid-Manhattan West 1.9 8 33.8 37
Lower Manhattan East 5.8 8.8 26.6 36.2
Fordham Bronx 8.7 9.9 16.1 35.3
Maspeth Queens 15.9 6.2 16.5 28.7
Crow Heights Brooklyn 7.8 14.4 21.8 34.2
Ocean Parkway Brooklyn 5.2 13.4 21.7 38.1
Figure 4: Available areas for implementing heat island mitigation strategies in each case study area
Model results indicated that the most effective mitigation strategy per unit area redeveloped is curb side
planting, followed by living roofs, light-coloured surfaces, and open space planting. The analysis assumed
100% implementation of green roofs in the city. The largest difference between impervious surfaces and
trees was 8.7ºF (4.8ºC), across all times of day.
3.2.4 UHI in Baltimore
In 2008. It was investigated the mitigation of the urban heat island effect at the city-scale using the Weather
Research and Forecasting (WRF) model in conjunction with the Princeton Urban Canopy Model (PUCM)
during a heat-wave period (7 June–10 June 2008) (PCA, 2015). The investigation was done through
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computer models to see what it would be like if green roofs were implemented in the city. The weather
research and forecasting (WRF) model used is a ‘’a next-generation mesoscale numerical weather
prediction system designed to serve both atmospheric research and operational forecasting needs’’. The
WRF is used to simulate atmospheric conditions based on real data or idealized conditions.
The PUCM showed that different roof types have widely different surface temperature cycles.
i. The daytime surface temperature of a green roof is substantially lower than that of a conventional
roof due to evapotranspiration
ii. The night time temperature of a green roof is also lower but the margin between the two is reduced.
iii. Asphalt roofs have the highest daytime surface temperature because of its low albedo and low
thermal conductivity (about 15 °C higher than the green roof)
iv. Daytime surface temperature over concrete reaches its maximum slightly later than over asphalt and
green roofs, which results from the larger thermal effectivity of concrete.
Figure 5: Surface temperatures of different sub-facets in the PUCM from a simulation PCA (2015)
The simulation depicted the city-scale impacts of green roof and cool roofs mitigation strategies on the
surface and near-surface urban heat island effects. The effects of green roofs and cool roofs to the near-
surface and surface urban heat islands due to their increasing fractions were noted as well.
4. Other Alternatives of Curbing UHI
4.1 Cool Roofs
These are roofs that are designed to reflect sunlight and keep themselves cool, most important characteristic
of cool roofs is its high solar reflectance, which helps to reflect sunlight away from a building and reduce
the temperature. According to Sun, (2012), cool roofs have an albedo greater than 0.65, which means that
they can reflect more than 65% of solar radiation back to the atmosphere. Cool roofs do not have to be
white in colour, as there are darker colours which still have high solar reflectivity.
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Another good characteristic of cool roofs is their high thermal emittance. It is defined as the ability of a
body, per unit area at a given temperature, to re-radiate heat (infra-red radiation) that is absorbed thereby
cooling itself, cool roof increases the reflection of incoming solar radiation in urban areas by increasing the
albedo of roof surfaces (PCA, 2015) .
Figure 6: Solar reflectance and thermal emittance are the two radiative properties to consider
when selecting a cool roof – (Cool Roof Rating Council, n.d)
The combination of a high solar reflectance and thermal emittance makes cool roofs very effective. In a hot
afternoon, a standard roof might reach up to 150°F, while a cool roof under the same condition could stay
50°F cooler than that. A normal roof surface can be transformed into a cool roof by applying a cool roof
coating, which is a special pigment that reflects sunlight.
Figure 7: Comparison of a black and a white flat roof on a summer afternoon with an air temperature
of 37 degrees Celsius (Cool roof tool kit, n.d)
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Table 2 : Comparing Temperatures of Roof Types in a Hot Summer Afternoon (Sun, 2012)
Roof type
Thermal
emittance Solar reflectance Temperature
Asphalt roof High Low 165°F to 185°
Metallic Roof Low High 150°F to 165°
Cool Roof High High 110°F to 115°
4.2 Cool Pavements
Cool pavements are designed in a way to reduce solar reflectance and improve cooling. This can be
achieved through using more reflective materials like Portland cement concrete, using a lighter coloured
aggregate and changing the surface’s colour. Nonetheless, Conventional impervious pavements have dark
surface and large thermal inertia. During summertime they tend to absorb and store solar radiation but
negate the evaporative cooling, contributing to the development of urban heat island (UHI). The idea of
using cool pavements to mitigate the UHI has gained momentum recently. Permeable pavements and using
permeable wearing courses are considered part of cool pavements as well.
Although, cool pavements have many standard definitions. Interestingly, the United States Environmental
Protection Agency (USEPA) described cooling pavement as “Cool pavements that include a range of
established and emerging technologies that communities are exploring as part of their heat island reduction
efforts. The term certainly refers to paving materials that reflect more solar energy, enhance water
evaporation, or have been otherwise modified to remain cooler than conventional pavements.” If this
“remain cooler” is interpreted as “cool pavements should always maintain a lower surface temperature
compared to conventional pavements”, cool pavements always emit less sensible heat to the surrounding air
than conventional pavements. This mean whether a pavement can be deemed as a cool pavement depends
on if it can suppress its surface temperature. As the maximum temperature usually appears around 15:00
during a summer day when the sensible heat release is critical to the development of the UHI, a cool
pavement must be capable to decrease its daily maximum temperature.
Therefore, cool pavements will help reduce UHIs due to these additional characteristics;
i. Reduced thermal conductivity
ii. Reduced pavement heat capacity
iii. Increased surface convection
iv. Evaporation cooling
Therefore using the cool pavements in our streets and roads and walkways will certainly reduce the
temperature raise in urban cities. In addition, the cool pavements presence will additionally increase
pavement durability as well as reduces the pavement deterioration
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“It’s amazing how hot these pavements get and how we’ve let them cover most of our urban surfaces….
dark pavements absorb almost all of the sun’s energy, the pavement surface heats up, which in turn also
warms the local air and aggravates urban heat islands’’
- Haley Gilbert, a researcher at Berkeley's Heat Island Group in California.
Figure 8; This picture of Phoenix, Arizona, in the summer shows a variety of conventional
pavements that reached temperatures up to 67°C
Pavements constitute 35% to 50% of the surface area of a typical city. The majority of them are made of
asphalt or concrete. They absorb a lot of heat and aid to the urban heat island effect, a conventional
pavement tends to be 20°C to 30°C higher than the surrounding air due to the solar energy absorbed during
the day. Cool pavements are designed to absorb less heat than traditional pavements lowering surface
temperatures and reflect a large amount, just like cool roofs.
5. Results and Discussion
It was crystal clear that green roofs are proven strategy to combat urban heat islands. Adding to their
environmental benefits, their cost and energy saving potentials on the long-term increase to its credibility.
The most important strategy for reducing ambient temperature is increasing green space in cities. The
results show that in every situation, green roofs perform a better function when installed together with other
UHI mitigation strategies, it’s the best strategy to reduce heat islands is setting up green roofs together with
urban forestry. This attests to what was talked about in the literature review; that vegetation is the key
component of green roofs. Another good combination would be implementing green roofs along with or
next to cool roofs. This brings together the high evotranspiration of the vegetation with the high albedo of
the cool roofs, making them to complement each other. Green roofs, as the case study shows, perform better
in dry regions while cool as to the better performance of cool roofs in areas with high sunlight. A mitigation
strategy should be chosen according to the properties of a region as well as shown by Figure 4. If a region
has little available green roof space and it is used, it should be coupled with other strategies, maybe cool
pavements, which have a space to be fitted.
The studies corroborate that heat storage on buildings during the daytime, which does not cool down and
raises the near-surface and surface temperatures during the night time. The difference in the rural and urban
area temperatures is also higher during the night time. Irrigating the green roofs during the night will further
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increase the cooling abilities of the roofs. The literatures prove that, green roofs are at their best during the
daytime, which highlights their greatest feature is cooling system. As depicted in Figure 4, the greatest
difference in temperature between a conventional and green roof comes during the afternoon, recording a
difference of more than 10°C. This supports the literature review. It goes on to show the effect of
evotranspiration. The night-time difference between green roofs and conventional roofs is reduced,
recording a mere 1°C. This is because at night-time evotranspiration is reduced, and the green roof’s
insulation as well as the entire building became a little warmer. Therefore the study highlight the fact that
green roofs in a city-scale reduce the temperatures slightly, from 0.5°C to 4°C. This might be perceived as a
small margin but will be appreciated because heat islands raise the temperature of cities by close to that
margin during the daytime. It actually took a slight increase in temperature for the glaciers in the North
Pole to start melting that is how effective slight increases in temperature are. The green roofs showed lower
temperatures during the daytime and the night time, which means that the temperature inside the buildings
will be lower in those times as well. The green roof temperature becomes a bit warmer in the night, due to
its insulation of buildings. It further reduces the emissions that would have been released into the
environment through the appliances, indirectly reducing the UHI effect.
Fig. 5 shows that near-surface reduction in temperature is little compared to the reduction of ambient air
temperature. With a 100% implementation of green roofs, the near surface city-wide temperature will only
be reduced by a little over 1°C. But city- wide, a reduction of 4°C was predicted of the ambient air. This is
because a much as green roofs try to reduce the near surface temperature, the presence of a dense
population and other impervious surfaces, which are close to the ground affect the near surface air. But the
ambient air is cooler because it has more space to flow at a distance from the surfaces that heat it up.
The Baltimore study show that sporadic implementation does not help mitigate UHI. This is because of the
presence of impervious surfaces next to the green roofs raises the temperature and counters its productivity.
It results to lower evotranspiration as this increases as vegetation increases. It is also by the reduction in
vertical mixing (due to reduced surface heating) and by the increased advection of more moist air at the
lower elevations from the rural areas to the urban areas when the green and cool roof fractions increase.
This doesn’t discourage starting from smaller numbers. Evotranspiration has been confirmed as the main
means that green roofs reduce temperatures; this is as talked about in the literature review. The Baltimore
and Toronto studies clearly state that they have greater temperature reduction when they are irrigated,
recording a 0.27°C at near surface temperature to 2°C city-wide. Soil moisture has a large role to play in the
life of green roofs. When they are left dry and the soil is at its wilting point, the cooling effect of the roofs is
drastically reduced if not eliminated completely. This is owed to the high latent heat flux of the vegetative
cover. This shows that the choice of plants on the green roofs matter if its main aim is UHI mitigation. The
results from the Baltimore case study complements the literature review, showing that asphalt has the
highest daytime temperature among all roofs, having higher than 15°C difference between the temperature
above a green roof and the one above it. This shows that asphalt, being used on top of roofs is a primary
contributor in urban heat islands. Therefore, it needs to be laced with vegetation or converted into a cool
roof.
These studies show that different locations may require different UHI mitigation strategy depending on the
weather conditions of the region. These studies have shown a qualitative result, which is very likely to be in
any condition. But some areas may require further research and study in order to generalize the results.
Although the study is compute based simulation, which were carried out by world-class bodies.
Nevertheless the technology used has been proven to give precise projections based on whatever the input
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is. The performance of the WRF modelling software has been studied to be effective by PCA (2015) and
GIS systems have been used for a long time in studies and are reliable. The other software, MM5 and
UFORE are reliable as well, used by many professionals all over the world to make real life models and test
them. So it would be fair enough to have a pessimistic view about what the results would be if these
strategies are implemented in real life scenarios.
6. Conclusion
The study has confirmed that green roofs are indeed an effective UHI mitigation strategy. Other strategies
are effective as well depending on where they will be situated. The study has confirmed that using more
than one strategy in the same place further reduces the temperature in urban areas. Advantage that green
roofs have over other UHI mitigation strategies are their multiple benefits. Good runoff water management,
improvement in air quality, high insulation, among other things. These are things that cost a lot to deal with
individually, but are all integrated in one green roof package. Green roofs have to be maintained in order for
their performance to be at maximum. We found out that when they are wet with rain water or after being
irrigated, their cooling properties increase. Soil moisture is a key for it to work effectively. That implies to
cool roofs as well, which could be used as another strategy. Their albedo is reduced when dust settles on
them, so they have to be maintained properly in order to work effectively. Other than constructing new
green roofs, people may be encouraged to put retro-fit their existing roofs. This brings down the cost and
makes it easier for installation. There are ‘blanket sedums’ available which are rolled on top of the existing
roof like mats and are extensive. This brings about a solution to those that may face construction problems.
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to acknowledge the Federal College of education (Tech) Bichi, Kano Nigeria
supported by Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETFUND).
References
Akbari H. (2005). Energy saving potentials and air quality benefits of urban heat island mitigation [PDF]
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Available at
<http://www.osti.gov/scitech/servlets/purl/860475>[Accessed 28th March 2015]
Barbara, H-B. (2013). Cooling off: known for mitigating the urban heat island effect, cool roofing and
green, planted roofs can deliver significant energy-saving benefits as well. (Continuing Education Unit).
Earth pledge (2008). Green roofs: Ecological design and construction. Pennsylvania: Schiffer
Environmental Design & Construction [Internet]. [cited 2015 Nov 19];16(10). Available from:
http://trove.nla.gov.au/work/186853173?q&versionId=203402002.
Healthy Urban Habitat (2015). Urban heat island effect.[Image online]Available
at<http://healthyurbanhabitat.com.au/responding-to-the-urban-heat-island-optimising-the-implementation-
of-green-infrastructure/> [Accessed 23rd April 2015].
National Snow and Ice Data Centre (2015). Thermodynamics: Albedo.][Online] Available at
<https://nsidc.org/cryosphere/seaice/processes/albedo.html> [Accessed 10th April, 2015]
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PCA, (2015). America’s cement manufacturers, Heat Island. [Online] Available at <> [Accessed 10th April
2015].
Peck, S. W. (2009). Green Roofs and the Urban Heat Island Effect. Buildings, 103(7), 45–48.
Sun, C.Y., Lin, Y.J., Sung, W.P., Ou, W.S., Lu, K.M. (2012). Green Roof as a Green Material of Building
in Mitigating Heat Island Effect in Taipei City. Applied Mechanics and Materials. Aug; 193-194:368–71.
Sun, C.-Y. (2011). The Thermal Influence of Green Roofs on Air Temperature in Taipei City, Applied
Mechanics and Materials Vol. 44-47, p. 1933-1937.
United States Environmental protection agency (2005). High Albedo and Environment-Friendly Concrete
for Smart Growth and Sustainable Development.
[Online] Available at <http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncer_abstracts/index.cfm/fuseaction/display.highlight/abstract/7
791> [Accessed 10th April, 2015]
U.S Green Building Council (2015). Heat Island Effect, Roof. [Online]
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Research Article
An Appraisal of Socio-Cultural Housing Features of Space Utilization
in a Multi-Ethnic Setting in Nigeria
Abubakar Danladi Isah*, Tareef Hayat Khan, Abdullah Sani Ahmad,
Alkali Ibrahim Abubakar
Department of Architecture, Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
*Corresponding Author: arcmuzaifa@futminna.edu.ng
ARTICLE INFO
Article history
Received: 12/10/2016
Accepted: 02/12/2016
A b s t r a c t
Objectives Housing growth beyond been a necessity to stressing culture
content in activity spaces entails culture integration in housing delivery
systems. Emphasis on culture attributes in Nigeria housing sector arouse due to
conflict amid spatial provisions and indigenous social pattern of household
activities. Remarkably, this study strives to unveil core cultural attributes of
dwellings focusing on major ethnic communities and highlighting design
factors and patterns exhibited by typical ethnic dwelling in the study area.
Qualitative content analysis of an ethnographic account of dwellings’ spatial
layout of major ethnic groups in the region was applied for the research. The
attributes identified were compared across ethnic groups, reduced to themes in
developing activity with activity-space relationship and then analysed to
discover common design patterns. Findings obtained revealed distinct
arrangements with similar layout in activity spaces, which indicates a sense of
semblance in core space use. This outcome suggests that sustainable housing
policy and design can emanate from formal indigenously established core
culture space utilization.
© Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability. All rights reserved.
Attributes, Culture, Ethnicity, Housing quality, Pattern.
1. Introduction
Advancement in housing needs has risen beyond its inevitability in developing nations, to searching for
housing quality. Thus require the determination of a sustainable delivery process and pattern of housing
choice by inhabitants. In effect, occupants’ social activities and activity patterns are crucial elements to be
discovered is attaining housing sustainability. Therefore, recognizing the culture of inhabitants becomes
critical as occupants’ assess housing performance based on family and cultural norms (Morris and Winter,
1975). Although, the reflection of traditional patterns of culture in urban housing was refuted by Ikejiofor,
(1998) cultural principles kept on manifesting in self-built and transformed urban public housing in Nigeria,
with compounds occasionally inhabiting residents of diverse ethnic background. Furthermore, in spite of the
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scarcity and non-affordability of housing due to urban population rise, cultural factors tend to influence the
physical features of housing space use (Awotona, 1990). However, the impact of urbanization on housing
scarcity contributed to cultural diffusion and acculturation of urban inhabitants in their quest for shelter and
has critical influence on the nature and quality of housing in the country. For instance, in the past decades
over 75% of Nigeria’s urban houses were rated substandard by Jagun, (1983) with slow sign of
improvement (Olotuah and Bobadoye, 2011). In their studies, (Awotona, 1990; Ibem, et al., 2011; Jiboye,
2009; Ilesanmi, 2010) avidly emphasized housing dissatisfaction due to cultural exclusion particularly
among tenants and public housing owners. The situation has undermined the projection of housing delivery
in urban settings. As a result, this study uncovers the cultural core attributes in dwellings of major ethnic
groups in northern states of Nigeria using qualitative factor analysis to categorize findings from
ethnographic participant observation into latent factors and themes. The result obtained from the study
indicates similarity in core space use across the ethnic groups’ in-spite of the disparity in layout
arrangement. This outcome is a useful guide to developers in the provision and re-positioning of housing in
the study area where cultural factors are significant housing characteristics.
2. Background Studies
Nations have had social histories that have shaped their housing needs before contact with civilization. In
Australia for instance, the Aboriginal housing reform of 2001 witnessed stakeholders confronted with
resisting acculturated civilization and pressure from indigenous Aboriginals demanding the consideration of
socio-cultural spatial practice in housing design (Memmott and Chambers, 2003; Potter, 2012). Social
factors influenced by climate, poverty and congestion were to be harmonized with ventilation standards;
conventional living spaces; and western perception of domestic spaces. Thus, Porter, (2009) adopted the
concept of aligning ‘supply services’ with ‘demand services’ conceptualized as space recognition by
negotiating cultural values and existing standards in housing responsiveness. Also, future uncertainties,
planning for next generations are echoed as the desire for more housing space by inhabitants (Khan, 2014),
but culture actualization is significant in the lifespan of household interaction with their buildings. Against
the backdrop this study builds a theoretical framework based on the concept of emic and etic cross cultural
approach. Then, proceeded to relate housing and culture towards assessing multi-ethnic space use features.
2.1 Emic and Etic Principle in Housing Delivery Mechanism
The Emic and Etic approach has been adapted in harmonizing conflicting universal views and concepts with
cultural peculiarities in cross cultural research (Patton, 2002). It is conceptually adopted in valuing
diverging opinions on indigenous housing perception across cultural boundaries Sofield, (2010) particularly
in culture sensitive communities. In the context of this study, interpreting the meaning of cultural attributes
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of space use by the ethnic communities constitute the emic paradigm, while the conservative etic paradigm
resides in provision of housing based on universal standards and national building regulations. The existing
conflict between these perspectives creates unintended gap in housing delivery systems in culture sensitive
communities. Therefore studies have identified culture responsive space recognition as a way out. However,
articulating the meaning in space use by the core ethnic groups towards identifying core appropriate values
in order to establish thresholds appears uncommon. As it is a necessary foundation for actualizing the
process. Thus, this study attempts to fill this gap in the context under study. Moreover, Ayoola and Amole
(2014) have asserted that history, culture, economics, and social traits of people are constituents for better
housing.
2.2 Housing and Inhabitants’ Cultural Norms
Although, Olotuah (2009) argues that new house forms have evolved with old forms fast disappearing,
these new forms are not devoid of the influence of inhabitants’ cultural values on spatial configurations.
Certainly, Africa’s long history in establishing underlying principles and meaning, coherency and
symbolism in space recognition and interaction (Prussin, (1974), is reflected in cultural attributes of space
use and should not be undermined. Besides, social analysts have focused on discovering recognized patterns
that manifests overtime in different settings (Zerubavel, 2007). In this regard, Ozaki, (2002) opined that the
core determinants of spatial composition of a house are its cultural matrix, then modified by the non-
cultural factors. As in cultural sensible buildings that echoes potentials and value such as in traditional
environments established for sightseeing (Dincyurek and Turker, 2007). Beyond that is the self-esteem
users derive while interacting with the spatial network which remains intangible yet crucial. Arguably,
emotional comfort is therefore linked to housing arrangement with a natural instinct of spatial satisfaction
(Khan, 2014). In addition space use manifests social activities which in turn are develop from culture
inclination of households (Rapoport, 1998).
On the overall, this literature analysis focuses on the significance of inhabitants’ cultural norms in shaping
the configuration of housing designs. Considering the context of urban environment where standards are
highly recommended, housing delivery systems can rely on the recognition space generated from the emic
and etic principles.
2.3 The Multi- Ethnic Settings and Their Bonding Attributes
Six major ethnic groups of Hausa, Fulani, Kanuri, Tiv, Nupe and Gwari are found to be dominant within the
central and northern states of Nigeria (Mustapha, 2006). Typical households in each ethnic group in
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selected states of Niger, Sokoto, Katsina, Benue, Adamawa and Borno were studied. They were examined
in order to establish the major attributes of their housing layout, towards highlighting the similarities in their
spatial arrangement. Although, each of these ethnic communities differ in cultural traits and also ethnic
norms which depicts cultural identity (Igwara, 2001) their intertwine language families (Mustapha, 2006) is
a basis for their commonality and enable their integration. For instance, Temple and Temple (Temple and
Temple, 1967) asserts that only a dialectical difference exists between Nupe and Gwari. Also, Nupe, Fulani
of Adamawa (Yola) and Borno where the Kanuri predominates have had their social and physical layout
influenced by the Fulani emirs in the eighteenth century (Boyowa, 2005). Similarly, the Hausa ethnic group
had the domination of the Fulani kingdom between 1804 and 1810 (Nwanodi, 1989). Moreover, there exist
semblance and uniformity in housing patterns across the major regions in the country (Olotuah and
Bobadoye, 2011). In addition, these groups have lived mutually as communal neighbours adopting each
other’s languages and cultures with socio-economic and socio-political benefits (Otite, 1990). This justifies
the possible existence of commonalities in their space use. In a heterogeneous urban housing Olowoyo and
Khan (2012), suggested the consideration and reflection of core cultural intangibles towards sustainability
rather than kindle user dissatisfaction by ignoring their cultural factors. Thus, necessitates the need to
identify core attributes of culture related to space use that can be adapted in urban housing delivery.
2.4 Spatial Configuration of House Form of Major Ethnic Communities
Although, it is argued that ethnic groups in Nigeria have cultural contrast in their social content, they shares
some similarities in social activities and space use which appears in the configuration of their layouts. Thus,
meaning of spaces is significantly defined by the activity around it in justifying its spatial nature. This can
be critically attributed to their key occupation such as farming and the regional geography.
Scholars in the last two decades have advocated for socio-culture inclusion in Nigerian housing schemes
despite the dynamic process of housing and steadiness in the production process (Daramola, 2006). This is
evident from the morphology of the initial house form transformed by including basic household socio-
cultural activities.
2.4.1 Hausa Compound
The Hausas have had influence on other ethnic neighbours within the region. A typical Hausa compound
comprises of an outside open space, an entrance hall which opens into an outer courtyard where senior
males of the compound are living. The inner section is accessed through a transition which leads to the
central courtyard where the women live and carry out domestic life (Boyowa, 2005; Muhammad-Oumar,
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2008). Home, (sometimes a group of buildings) reflects kingship structure configured to suit social
associations of its inhabitants as an expression of their cultural perception of man’s relationship with fellow
man and the world (Nwanodi, 1989). Even though same concept is repeated in other compounds, they vary
in sizes, patterns and arrangement. Flexibility in function, changes the pattern of space use sometimes
across seasons in most compounds. For instance, rooms are used for sleeping during cold and rainy seasons
while the courtyards accommodate same function during the heat period.
2.4.2 Fulani Compound Layout
Fulani ethnic can be categorized into the nomads who move across state boundaries living in makeshift
shelters and those in settled communities. While the settled Fulani adopted the similitude of Hausa spatial
concepts as a result of interactions and social contacts, the nomads use temporary structures with scattered
huts accessed from various routes in the absence of a defined entrance. The settled Fulani on the other hand
live in compounds with define entrance hut, fore and inner courtyards, with rooms around the courtyards.
2.4.3 Tiv Housing Layout
Typical Tiv compound is curvilinear with sleeping and grain storage huts arranged around a central hut
which functions as living room, similar to the entrance hall of the Hausas (Philips, 2010). The oval
compound concept allows for social equality with equal visual and physical proximity to the courtyard, a
cultural attribute associated with the Tiv culture (Ikejiofor, (1998). Between the central hut (Ate) and the
room lies the courtyard for domestic activities. Although the huts are not attached to one another they form
the boundary of the compounds. In complex compounds with multiple nucleus families, dumb-bell
arrangement is adopted by brethren of same mother; while multiple signifies siblings from a polygamous
family background (Osasona, 2007).
2.4.4 Kanuri Compound Layout
The Kanuri major settlements have mainly round huts in circular layouts fenced with matting and few
rectangular mud structures which are surrounded by mud walls (Temple and Temple, 1967). Each hut is
secluded with a mat fence around the entrance creating a private activity area at the entrance into the huts.
Women carry out private domestic activities in these spaces while major domestic chores are done within
the larger courtyard.
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2.4.5 Nupe Compound Layout
Nupe compounds consist of huts usually surrounded by thick wall fence; series of clusters of round, later
rectangular huts are grouped for a kingship of brothers from the same paternal descendants. Each cluster is
linked with a smaller entrance hall beside the main entrance hall which is usually distinguished by size.
Rooms open to a central courtyard where domestic activities are carried out. Larger families separate
female section by using huts to demarcate additional courtyards leaving an entry path into the women
section.
2.4.6 Gwari Compound
Typical Gwari compound accommodates multi-family units each with a cluster of huts around a courtyard
similar to the Nupe. These huts provide shelter for inhabitants, chickens, stables, guests and corn storage.
Although the compounds usually have a central entrance hall, each cluster has an exit leading outside
(Temple and Temple, 1967).
In summary, these characterize the distinct activity spaces of the ethnic groups. Typical layout
configurations of the various ethnic communities are illustrated in figures 2 and 3 respectively.
3. Methodology
In the first instance, dominant ethnic groups were established for ethnographic study of households’ spatial
configuration. The study operationalized factors based on the theory of Man Environment Relations (MER)
by relating culture components with space configuration (Rapoport, 2000). As a result, factors of social
values, family lifestyle, social activities, family structure and social identity were considered and related
with spatial layout of the ethnic dwellings. Conditional survey method was adopted to purposively study 15
household in each ethnic domain. Focused participant observation was adopted in deriving the emic
perception of ethnics’ socio-cultural activities and space use pattern (Patton, 2002). Hence, the
consideration of salient issues of dissimilar and minority space use which guided the adoption of qualitative
analytic technique. Surely, salient issues are better magnified through qualitative techniques (Creswell,
2015; Brewer, 2000; Blommaert and Jie, 2010). Thus, exploring the data from field observation via
qualitative factor analysis, the study identified 20 item variables through constant comparison analysis
strategy as underlying themes use to assess the spatial configurations of the ethnic groups in order to
determine similarities in their core space use. Although, constant comparison analysis is ideal for
developing codes and going back to field, it has been modified for analysing data collected on one time
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field engagement research study (Leech and Onwuegbuzie, 2007). Next, qualitative comparative analysis
with domain analysis technique was used to develop semantic functional relationship (Spradley, 1979),
between the themes and activity space use, compared between the six ethnic groups via focused inquiry by
participant observation.
Then, semantic relationship ascertain the relationship between the concept of activities with spaces; and
where such activities take place in the dwellings for each ethnic group. The relationship patterns developed
are represented with gamma diagrams and correlated to discover the similarities and common pattern
(Figure 1).
Fulani Tiv Nupe & Gbagi Hausa Kanuri
Legend
Figure 1 Showing the flow similarities in layout pattern arrangement across ethnic communities.
Figure 2. Typical Nupe (A) and Gwari (B) compound layouts respectively.
A B
LEGEND
Entrance (reception) 1
Room 2
Store 3
Kitchen 4
Animals 5
Courtyard 6
Mosque 7
Toilet 8
Master bedroom 9
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Figure 3. Typical Kanuri (C), Tiv (D), Hausa (E) and Fulani (F) compound layouts respectively
4. Outcome and Findings
4.1 Taxonomy of activities and activity spaces
Qualitatively, variables identified were subjected to factor analysis (reducing the chunk of variables by
grouping related tangible elements) through taxonomic representation. This was adopted to determine the
latent variables in the relationship. A taxonomic representation with XY relationship where Y= Activity;
X= Activity spaces, and function as the relationship between X and Y was therefore developed to pictorially
view varying space uses. Table 1 shows the taxonomic presentation of accessibility; guest reception and
overnight accommodation; outdoor relaxation; household distribution; social gathering spaces; cooking
space; and gender restrictions and connections pattern. These formed the core space use attributes across the
diverse ethnic communities.
C D
F
LEGEND
Entrance (reception) 1
Room 2
Store 3
Kitchen 4
Animals 5
Courtyard 6
Mosque 7
Toilet 8
Master bedroom 9
E
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Table 1. Taxonomy of activity and activity space
Activity (X) Gender privacy Activity Space (Y)
Accessibility Entrance hall, Multiple exits
Guest Guest reception Male guest Outdoor, entry hall & house heads’ room
Female guest Courtyard & Front of female rooms
Overnight Guest
accommodation
Male guest Outer courtyard
Female guest Inner female apartment
Outdoor
relaxation
Male folks Outdoor space, Entry hall & Outer yards
Female folks Inner courtyards
Household
organization &
Family
distribution
Social
connections,
Adolescent children
& ethnic identity
Hierarchical &
Gender
separated
Buffer huts and courtyards
Flexible
(Screen barriers)
Clustered & sharing facilities
Social
Gatherings
Male venue Outdoor, Entrance hall & central court.
Female Venue Inner female courtyard
Cooking &
Pantry
Wet kitchen, front of wives’ room &
courtyard.
Multi-functionality associated to some activity spaces revealed the social meaning in space use. Such spaces
are recognised by terms not usually derived from the function(s) it hosts. Also, activity tools are
impermanent due to the multi-functionality of the space. Rather they are arranged as the activities are set to
be performed. Courtyard is identified as the core activity space as it accommodates domestic activities
extending from enclosed spaces. For example, cooking activities combines kitchen and inner courtyard
spaces as activity space. Most compounds visited had more than one courtyard with multiple accesses into
the compounds, habitually gender influenced or public-private defined. Outdoor areas are multi-functional
open spaces functionally linked with the entrance hall. The study identified layout patterns among the
ethnic groups with the discovery of a key pattern that include defined outdoor activity areas intangibly
fused to the building through the entrance hall. Male dominated living areas; fore courtyard; transitional
spaces; and female dominated inner courtyard. Enclosed spaces such as rooms are usually linked to the
courtyards. Space use tends to exhibit sensitivity to gender dominance. Although this arrangement can be in
clusters depending on the household size and the ratio of male to female members, the pattern remains
consistent. The existing complexity that occurs while describing and relating space and function in
traditional house over contemporary design, (Habraken, 1998) calls for consideration of minority space use.
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5. Conclusion
Findings shows significant space use attributes and core spaces that are crucial in housing delivery in the
region. Similarly, it has shown that culture responsive design is crucial because, it thrive the socio-
economic drive of households as the nucleus of socialization and integration in the family unit and the
society at large. It also appeases the need and requirement of inhabitants’ housing satisfaction. Thus, the
findings of this study clearly shows that cultural attributes in activities and space use are crucial to housing
consumption within the region hence should be reflected in design decisions. Consideration of activities is
therefore an essential requirement that defines the configuration of space. Most significantly, the
implication of the research findings focuses on the need for housing developers to consider the space use
attributes discovered by the study in achieving qualitative housing designs and sustain orderliness.
Moreover, developers’ sensitivity to culture attributes in housing provision will enhance the satisfaction of
the occupants and the value for their properties. Thereby, overcoming housing provision challenges, by
successfully and ably incorporating core elements of space use in both policy and execution.
Acknowledgement
The authors sincerely acknowledge Research Management Centre (RMC) of the Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia (UTM), and the Ministry of Education (MoE) of the Government of Malaysia, for the funding of
this research through research grant no. 4S104, and 07H37.
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Research Article
Small-Scale Palm Oil Processing in West and Central Africa:
Development and Challenges
Hassan, M. A.1, Njeshu, G1, Raji, A.1, Zhengwuvi, L1 and Salisu, J.2
1Department of Mechanical Engineering, Modibbo Adama University of Technology, Yola, Nigeria,
2Department of Chemical Engineering, Modibbo Adama University of Technology, Yola, Nigeria
ARTICLE INFO
Article history
Received: 12/10/2016
Accepted: 02/12/2016
A b s t r a c t
The extraction of palm oil from oil palm fruits is practiced in many countries
in Africa. The technologies for these processes are, in most cases, either still
traditional or very modern. Traditional technologies usually have the
advantage of requiring low investments, but are labour-intensive, inefficient
and time-consuming. Sophisticated large scale technologies, on the other hand,
are generally beyond the financial reach of the rural population. The present
review aims at throwing more light on a third option: small scale or
intermediate technologies for palm oil processing in West and Central Africa.
These technologies have been developed by various institutions to varying
degrees of success, and are presented in the hope that it will spur up research
for the development of more appropriate designs, find solutions and generate
additional income for families, entrepreneurs, common initiative groups and
co-operatives, in these regions.
© Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability. All rights reserved.
appropriate solution, extraction efficiency, free fatty acid, fresh fruit bunches, palm oil processing, small scale, traditional technologies.
1. Introduction
The origin of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) is traced to the tropical rain forest region of Africa with the
main belt running through the southern latitudes of Cameroon, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Liberia, Nigeria,
Sierra Leone and Togo into the equatorial region of Angola and the Congo. (Ajani et al, 2012). Originally
growing in grooves in the wild in these localities, the oil palm is today grown in plantations and has become
an important crop for both industrial, retail and consumer markets. Despite its numerous industrial uses,
palm oil is still indispensible in traditional life in Africa. It is extensively used in its cuisine, in local and
industrial soap making, and in the food industry.
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In 2013, West Africa’s palm oil output was 2.2 million metric tons (MT), and this accounted for only 3.5%
of global output. Today, the demand for palm oil in the West African region exceeds its supply, and the
region is a net importer of palm oil, with a deficit of between 850,000 to 900,000 tons, per year that is
provided for by imports from countries such as Malaysia and Indonesia. Cote D’Ivoire is the only net
exporter in West Africa, and exports an estimated 275,000 MT with about 75% of its export going to West
Africa. (SAHEL, 2015).
Before the crude oil boom, Nigeria was the world’s largest producer (Ajani et al, 2012; Greenpeace, 2012)
but today it’s production accounts for less than 2% of global total (Greenpeace, 2012); while up to 90
percent of global production occurs in South-East Asia alone, in Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand.
(Institute for public policy Analysis (IPPA), 2010; Ofosu-Budu and Sarpong, 2013).
Unlike in South-East Asia where the processing of crude palm oil is entirely undertaken by agro-industries
in high-technology well equipped mills, palm oil processing in Africa is undertaken by three distinct groups
of actors in the sector: the traditional producers who use methods which are basically manual with the use
of rudimentary tools, small-scale (or non-industrial) producers that use a variety of low-efficiency
machinery ranging from simple hand presses and other stand-alone machines, to a very varied combination
of machines which cater for the various unit operations in the processing; and lastly the industrial mills with
technologically up-to-date machinery, established by agro-industrial complexes for the production of palm
oil that normally meets international norms to supply downstream industries in the sector.
The quality of palm oil obtained in each case, is a function of the degree of sophistication of the processing
equipment. Perhaps the varied uses for palm oil somewhat justifies its diverse processing methods in Africa
since quality demands of the processed crude palm oil varies according to its use.
Some African governments like Cameroon, Liberia, Nigeria, Gabon, Cote D’Ivoire etc, where oil palm
giants from South-East Asia are grabbing land for the development of oil palm plantations are targeting oil
palm as a key sector for agricultural growth and to address rural poverty (Sayer et al, 2012). However,
despite environmental concerns, the sector’s current expansion is driven largely by large-scale agro-industry
and favours large plantations for economies of scale, which raises the question of whether and to what
extent small-scale farmers and palm oil producers can successfully compete with the giants, capture a share
of the value addition of the growing sector and improve their incomes. According to SAHEL (2015),
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Nigeria’s population is expected to reach 450 million by 2050. Such a population would definitely drive
continued demand for palm oil and its derivatives.
This paper thus attempts an assessment of small-scale palm oil processing in West and Central Africa with
the view of highlighting the socio-economic importance of this activity, both to those involved as
individuals, and to the economy as a whole. Steps to improve on the activity have equally been suggested.
a) The Evolution of Small Scale Palm Oil Processing in West and Central in Africa
Before the colonial masters introduced plantation agriculture to Africa, palm oil production was carried out
by the use of rudimentary tools. This is a very laborous process and in fact the UN Economic Commission
for Africa (1983), after studying traditional palm oil production in three African countries namely
Cameroon, Cote D’Ivoire and Sierra Leone, qualified the activity as ‘long, tedious and laborious’. Various
authors (Ukwuteno, 2011; Olagunju, 2008; Gilbert, 2013; Nchanji et al, 2013; Nkongho et al 2014a, 2014b)
have described the process for different localities in the continent. Generally, the palm bunches are
quartered and left overnight for easy separation of fruits from the spikelets. The fruits are boiled for about 2
hours, pounded in a mortar or macerated with feet in a canoe-like container or hole dug in the ground.
Water is added and well-shoveled up. All nuts are carefully picked out by hand. The fibres are well-shaken
over in the sludge until oily foam floats to the surface of the sludge. The foams continue to collect in a
container until the operation is completed. This is later boiled in pots for about an hour to evaporate the
water from the oil. The clean edible oil then collects on the surface leaving the dirty oil at the bottom of the
pot. The surface oil is then scooped off and preserved in containers for sale or domestic consumption while
the bottom sludge could be used as animal feed or in soap making. This process will normally have slight
variations from one country to another but basically the above is a general procedure.
With the rapid increase in population and a consciousness of industrialization in the continent, came the
introduction of simple machines to reduce labour requirements and increase oil yield from a given quantity
of fruit. Mechanical devices worth mentioning here include the Duchscher press, the perforated cylindrical
metal cage, the Colin expeller, the screw press, the hydraulic press (by Stork of Amsterdam), etc. These
presses gained widespread acceptance in all of west and central Africa and provided a relatively efficient
process (compared to the manual process that existed), for the step of pressing out the oily liquid during oil
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production. The other unit operations in the crude palm oil processing business however, remained labour-
intensive.
From the simple stand-alone press, small scale palm oil processing has evolved and attempts have been
made to mechanize other unit operations like digesting, threshing and clarification. Outstanding examples
of successful local equipment developed in the region, in this domain are the small scale palm oil
processing equipment (NIFOR-Mini and NIFOR Medium), designed by the Nigerian Institute for Oil Palm
Research (NIFOR). Orewa et al (2009) reports an increase in processing efficiency by this equipment, from
45-60% to 80-85%. The major advantage of these equipment is that they enable the processing of fresh fruit
bunches immediately after harvest. This assures a high quality of the palm oil produced.
Ghana has recorded similar advances by small-scale palm oil producers who use the WACAPOL mini mills
which is available in throughputs ranging from 1.0 to 4.0 tonnes FFB per hour. This mill, manufactured in
the United Kingdom, has oil extraction efficiency greater than 90% and produces crude palm oil with Free
Fatty Acid (FFA) content less than 5.0% (www.wacapol.com).
The Common Fund for Commodities (CFC) in association with the United Nations Industrial Development
Organization (UNIDO) is currently financing a project entitled “Improving the Income Generating Potential
of the Oil Palm in West and Central African Region (Cameroon and Nigeria)” with an objective to establish
and equip four medium scale palm oil processing centers in Cameroon and one center in Nigeria. The
project is being implemented under the supervision of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN
(FAO) and aims at introducing new processing technologies. When established, the plant to be located in
Akwa Ibom state in Nigeria and the three which are to be located at Teze/Ngie, Sombo and Mkpot in
Cameroon are expected to have a capacity of 2 tons per hour while the other one to be located at Bakingili
in Cameroon would have a capacity of 5 tons per hour (CFC, 2013).
Since the introduction of these mechanical devices, the structure of the palm oil industry in the continent
has been shaped by the presence of two different markets: home consumption and industrial use in domestic
manufacturing (Asamoah, T. E. O., 1998; Ofosu-Budu and Sarpong, 2013). One of Wacapol’s installations
presently run at Weppa farm in Edo state, Nigeria. Hence palm oil processing in the region operates in two
sub-sectors which are largely separate, with each satisfying its own market. Thus the crude palm oil (CPO)
processed is either deemed to be Technical Palm Oil (TPO) or Special Palm Oil (SPO) based on how it is
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processed and the quantity of free fatty acid. The minimum requirement for SPO is an FFA content of less
than 5%. SPO can be consumed or used in products such as creams or further refined for soaps and
bleaches. Oil, with FFA greater than 5%, which does not meet the quality grades of SPO characteristics is
qualified as TPO, and is mainly used for food consumption (PIND, 2011; SAHEL, 2015; Tiku and Bullem,
2015; Basiron, Y., 2007; Owolarafe O.K, Taiwo E.A and Oke O.O., 2008). Elijah I.O., Sylvester C.I. and
Amanda D.F. (2013) investigated the quality of crude palm oil produced by small scale producers in
Bayelsa state, Nigeria using standard analytical processes. They reported an average impurity level of
19.87%, an average FFA content of 8.43%, moisture content of 0.17%.
According to recent estimates, Ghana alone counts about 400 small-scale processing units and process
about 68% of palm fruits, with a share of 55% on the total palm oil production. (Poku, 2002), though they
are characterized by a weak milling capacity as well as the low quality of the oil produced (Kajisa, K.,
Mardia M. and Boughton D., 1997). The World Rainforest Movement (2010) records the percentage of
African domestic palm oil markets supplied by small scale processors as 50% for Liberia, 58% for Cote
D’Ivoire, 80% for Cameroon, Nigeria and Ghana, and up to 83% for Benin Republic; this is enormous.
Despite the disadvantages of small scale palm oil processing, the following factors still favour its promotion
in West and Central Africa:
(i) Smallholders are geographically dispersed and oil palm is intercropped with other crops, there are
high transaction and transportation costs involved in assembling and conveying harvested fruits in
accordance with the mill processing capacity. These factors make modern, high-scale processing
mills uneconomical.
(ii) Domestic consumers prefer palm oil produced using traditional processing methods, which yield oil
with higher levels of fatty acids than in modern mill-processed palm oil. In other words,
environmental factors and the lack of coordination mechanisms would have made it difficult for the
voluntary emergence of large scale, modern processing mills. (Kajisa et al, 1997).
(iii)The rapid increase in FFB production as a result of an increase in the surface area planted.
(iv) The irregular payment of smallholder dues by agro-industries in some countries.
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(v) The very poor state of roads in rural areas of the continent makes crop transportation very difficult
and expensive. This leads to delays in the transportation of smallholder crop by agro-industries,
leading to payment of penalties at the weighbridge by smallholders
(vi) Low FFB prices offered by the agro-industries, despite the fact that they will equally use by-
products like kernel, fiber and kernel shells.
(vii) The complete absence of an industrial plant in some localities to process the FFB from
small scale farmers.
Considering the diverse agro-systems and supply models that exist in the region, it becomes evident that the
continued existence of small-scale palm oil processing either as family businesses, community investments
or Entrepreneurial ventures in the Sub-Region is largely inevitable. This continued existence is, however,
not without problems which in some cases are peculiar.
b) Problems of Small Scale CPO Producers in the Sub-Region
Orewa et al (2009) and Adjei-Nsiah, S., Zu, A. K. S., & Nimo, F. (2012). identified low oil extraction rate
and high FFA content as the major problems of palm oil from small scale producers. The same author puts
the national annual estimate of palm oil losses in Nigeria as result of inefficient processing
methods/techniques at about 42% of total possible production in the country. This fact is directly reflected
by what obtains in other countries of the sub region.
Two separate studies by Orewa et al (2009) and Adeniyi et al (2014) show that semi-mechanized palm oil
processing is characterized by over-utilization of resources such as cost of labour and farm size. In their
own study, Akangbe, J. A. et al (2011) identified the training needs of palm oil processors to include the
need for expertise in sterilization, stripping, mixing, skimming and clarification activities of palm oil
extraction. They also singled out poor transportation network and water scarcity as the major constraints
faced by extractors. Still on the problems of small scale palm oil producers, Daniel S.U(2009) and Soyebo
K.O., Farinde A.J. and Dionco-Adetayo E.D. (2005) identified the use of low yielding varieties, limited
land for cocoa and oil palm cultivation, high cost of establishing nurseries and plantations, high cost of
labour and unavailability of skilled and unskilled labour as the major problems encountered by small scale
palm oil production. The same author further posited that other constraints of this class of producers include
fluctuations in market prices, lack of market information as well as spoilage and low quality products.
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Okolo et al (2015) analyzed the level of participation of Women in oil palm processing. They observed that
80% of the women studied were involved in palm oil processing mainly at the small scale level. They also
identified Lack of capital, inadequate land and lack of information on modern oil palm processing
equipment as the major constraints confronting the women. Ohimain E.I. and Izah S.C. (2014). Found out
in their study that, using the prevalent technology of palm oil production in small scale oil processing
concerns in Nigeria, an estimated 1.2709 MJ of manual energy is required for the processing of one tonne
of fresh fruit bunch. Of the total manual energy expended, women accounted for 32% and was restricted to
two operations (sieving and nut and fiber separation) and the remaining 68% was input by men and
involved five operations (bunch reception, bunch slicing, threshing, pressing and fiber repressing). The
study of Adoption of improved oil palm production Technologies by Onoh P.A and Peter-Onaoh C.A
(2012) revealed that Gender , Educational level , Total farm size as variables have positive effect on the
adoption of improved technology ,while age and house-hold size had negative effects. Major constraints
identified by the research included small farm size, lack of fund and poor extension contacts.
SAHEL (2015) and Ofosu-Budu and Sarpong (2013) have also identified that some technical constraints
encountered by small-scale Palm oil producers in Ghana include scarcity or total absence of demand-driven
research, limited access to finance, high production costs, inefficient milling methods which, in most cases,
are associated with low levels of mechanization, low levels of technology and poor quality CPO, and
inadequacy of government support.
In his analysis of palm oil production and consumption in Ghana between the year 2005 and 2010,
Angelucci F. (2013) reported that the country imported a total 134,600 tonnes of palm oil in 2010, produced
a total of 120,000 tonnes in the same year out of which 80% was produced by smallholders. To encourage
local production, the country levied 20% and 10% import duties on all imported palm oil respectively for
human consumption and industrial use. The nominal rate of protection (NRP) of the country during the
study period indicated that local producers, despite the import levies, still suffer disincentives traceable to
high access costs, illicit taxation and costly, inefficient processing techniques. The report however noted
that notwithstanding the disincentives, local processing is gaining grounds. The Authors suggest that the
disincentives could be eliminated if processing techniques could be modernized and (or) upscaled. In a
similar work on Nigeria for the same study period, Gourichon H. (2013) reported that the country imported
up to 23% of its total palm oil need for the period despite being the world’s third largest producer of the
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commodity. For the period examined, the country charged 35% import levy to dissuade import. NRP
indicated that the local producers received minor incentives within 2007 and 2008 due, largely, to high food
price crisis while they suffered disincentives for the remaining three years of the study period. The study
identified low productivity at production and process level, lack of storage and transport facilities,
numerous intermediaries in the value chain an lack of or inadequately developed information channel as the
major factors that must be addressed to eliminate the disincentives militating against development of local
palm oil production in Nigeria.
These challenges, together with those faced at the oil palm cultivation and production level (plantation
level) contribute immensely in reducing the competitiveness of locally produced CPO in the sub-Region
and thus have a high influence on the resulting high prices of locally produced CPO. Notwithstanding the
import tariff duty on imported CPO in most of these countries, prices of locally produced CPO in the sub-
Region, as compared to imported CPO, are usually higher.. For Nigeria, locally produced CPO prices could
be as high 35% above their imported counterpart (Nwauwa, L.O.E., 2012).
Poku (2002) estimates that in Ghana processors, especially small-scale processors, experience a loss of 38%
for every cedi of palm oil sold during the peak period of fruit production. Generally, the processing and sale
of palm oil becomes a profitable business for small-scale producers only during the peak oil palm yield
period (the period between September and December) (Adjei-Nsiah S., Sakyi-Dawson O. and Kuyper T.
W., 2012).
For all the countries in the sub-Region, there exist a substantial gap between the present obtainable situation
and the desirable conditions for sustained self sufficiency in oil palm production, SAHEL (2015), quoting a
newspaper article, states that a recent study indicated that an investment of about 2 trillion Naira is needed
over the next 20 years for Nigeria to fill the existing gap so as achieve self sufficiency in oil palm
production.
c) Suggestions and Conclusion.
The Western and Central African sub-Region needs to move away from palm oil production by purely
artisanal traditional methods. The ideal in productivity is to move over on to the agro-industrial scale but
there exist lots of technical, geo-political and socio-economic factors that limit this choice. The
development of appropriate small-scale oil production technology thus becomes imperative. To develop
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suitable appropriate systems, a multidisciplinary approach is required. This should entail in the study of not
only activities in the technical field aimed at improving processes, equipment, realization of local
manufacturing of the required equipment as well as establishment of maintenance policies, but also
compulsorily include activities in the socio-economic arena during which the actual socio-economic
performance of proposed technologies would be monitored and evaluated in real-life social settings of the
proposed locality where the oil palm production venture is envisaged.
At present, most R&D activities in agricultural machinery for rural farmers focuses mostly on farm
implements, animal traction, simple irrigation systems, and other mechanized solutions most appropriate in
rural areas and the different topographical contexts with little or no attention being paid to post-harvest and
processing technologies. The governments of West and Central African countries could think of a research
institute in the like of WAIFOR of the early 60s, with particular attention to technological development of
post-harvest and processing equipment and technologies. A possible easy way of doing this in the palm oil
sector could be for the governments to enter into public-private partnerships (PPP) for the development of
improved local facilities for the processing of FFBs at the small-scale level. This will demand that adequate
research be carried out in the various countries of the sub-region in order to determine the appropriate
technology and equipment design best suited for the locality. The governments could as well enter into
some sub-Regional agreements that could facilitate collaborative researches as well as easy exchange of
resources and knowledge.
Most non-industrial processors of oil palm cook, rather than sterilize, palm fruits before processing.
Unfortunately, when palm oil fruit is cooked in water, the intercellular cement dissolves, giving a
suspension of still-intact cells, from which it is difficult to obtain the oil. This is a major contributor to the
low extraction efficiencies recorded by the small-scale producers of palm oil. These problems can be
resolved by the design of veritable steam generators and corresponding sterilization vessels. Such an
approach will enable the sterilization (not fruit cooking) of FFB, thereby drastically reducing the FFA
values of the final product thus improving the quality of crude palm oil produced. The provision of steam
will equally increase productivity since FFB will be processed as soon as it arrives the mill.
Another major issue is the clarification and drying of the oil. To prevent enzymatic reactions, oxidation
and/or mould growth, vegetable oils and fats should be stored in relatively low temperature, airtight, dry,
clean and dark conditions. An adequately robust design of clarification sections of small-scale palm oil
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production systems will enable the achievement of a long shelf-life of the palm oil produced thus adding
value to the product and improving their competitiveness.
A government policy to financially support or facilitate the establishment of small-scale palm oil production
systems, especially in areas where relevant agro-industrial setups do not exist will go a long way to cater for
the farmers in these areas and help alleviate poverty.
There is a wide range of affordable technologies that could be harnessed to improve on the current small
scale processing methods. However, a number of points must be examined prior to selecting the most
appropriate technology to satisfy particular needs in a given environment. These include social, economic
and technological factors, as well as knowledge of the technologies currently in use and an assessment of
the competitiveness of small-scale processing methods in the given conditions. A careful study of these
factors could determine which of the various stages in small scale palm-oil processing still require
technological innovations so that improvements may offer maximum benefits (labor savings, increased
income and/or higher productivity) to intended beneficiaries. UN (1983) notes that for any suggestions
towards the improvement of artisanal palm oil production to be worthwhile, two factors must be held in
perspective. First, the proposal must give consideration to the pattern and present stage of development of
the palm-oil industry in country or region of interest; secondly, it must take into account the time element -
short term, medium term as well as the long term. Studies carried out in Nigeria showed that 75% of the
mechanized processors are below 46 years of age at the same time when only 47% of the manual palm oil
production ventures are in the same age bracket. (Adeniyi et al; 2014). Thus majority of the mechanized
palm oil processors are still young, active and agile and could be more enthusiastic to accept and implement
new technologies on palm oil processing.
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Research Article
Proposed Market Survey Framework for Build Green in Malaysia
Rozana Zakaria1*, Yakubu Aminu Dodo2, Rosli Ahmad1, Nur IzieAdiana binti Abidin1
1Construction Technology and Management Centre (CTMC), Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti of Teknologi
Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Malaysia 2Centre for the Study of Built Environment in the Malay World (KALAM), Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor Malaysia
*Corresponding Authors: rozana@utm.my,
ARTICLE INFO
Article history
Received: 12/10/2016
Accepted: 02/12/2016
A b s t r a c t
The approach developed in this research builds on earlier work which argues
that CO2 reduction in the built environment demands more informed early
design planning to support improvements in the selection of the materials used
in the construction of buildings in terms of their impact on energy performance
and embodied energy which is lacking in some green rating system green
building index (GBI) Malaysia inclusive. BUiLDGREEN is a software design
by construction technology and management center (CTMC), universiti of
teknologi Malaysia (UTM) to include life cycle assessment in the current GBI
ratings. This paper proposes a frame work that would enhance the
marketability of BUiLDGREEN as new software product. Through review of
literatures as well as analyzing consumer culture theory (CCT) the study
propose a frame work that suit market feasibility for the BUiLDGREEN
penetration in Malaysia.
© Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability. All rights reserved.
BUiLDGREEN conceptual,
framework Malaysia, market
survey
1. Introduction
The so-called ‘sustainable or green building’ is the practice of designing, constructing, operating,
maintaining and removing buildings in ways that conserve natural resources and reduce their impact on
climate change. By implementing sustainable practices in the facilities it owns, government, organizations
and other building owners reduce energy consumption, conserve financial and environmental resources and
also reduce greenhouse gas emissions. A green building focuses on increasing the efficiency of resource use
of energy, water, and materials while reducing building impact on human health and the environment
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during the building’s life cycle, through better sitting, design, construction, operation, maintenance, and
removal. Green Buildings should be designed and operated to reduce the overall impact of the built
environment on its surroundings. In recent years, building owners and designers, researchers, and others
have begun performing studies related to the costs and benefits of sustainable design. Among the studies
available, this research will choose, focus and elaborate more on the so-called life cycle costing (LCC)
analysis in measuring the performance of green buildings. The approach developed in this research also
builds on earlier work which argues that CO2 reduction in the built environment demands more informed
early design planning to support improvements in the selection of the materials used in the construction of
buildings in terms of their impact on energy performance and embodied energy (Crosbie et al., 2010; Terry,
2008; Roberts 2008 and Halliday 2007).
Figure 1: Frame work for choice of criteria to optimize point
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Is a web based application tools for building stakeholders to make a decision for design optimization as to
achieve the green building certification. This innovative tool will apply Life Cycle Costing Analysis in
software computations that integrate Green Building Index criteria in a multiple code programming to
enhance reward for an effective Return on Investment.
Table 1: Proposed Green Building Index Assessment Score of measurable items in the
Energy Efficiency Criteria
PART
CRITERIA
ITEM
GB
I P
OIN
T
TO
TA
L
Init
ial
Ex
pen
ses
Fu
ture
Ex
pen
ses
Mea
sura
ble
LC
C P
oin
t
EE Energy Efficiency
Design
EE1 Minimum EE Performance 1 1
EE2 Lighting Zoning 3 3
EE3 Electrical Sub-metering 1 1
EE4 Renewable Energy 5 5
1 EE5 Advanced EE Performance - BEI 15 15
Commissioning
EE6 Enhanced Commissioning 3
EE7 Post Occupancy Commissioning 2
Verification & Maintenance
EE8 EE Verification 2
EE9 Sustainable Maintenance 3
35 25
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1.1 Life-Cycle Costing (LCC)
Life-cycle costing (LCC) assessment is a method for assessing the total cost of facility ownership. It takes
into account all costs of acquiring, owning, and disposing of a building or building system. LCC analysis is
especially useful when project alternatives that fulfill the same performance requirements, but differ with
respect to initial costs and operating costs, have to be compared in order to select the one that maximizes
net savings (Sieglinde, 2010). Life cycle costing (LCC) analysis is a method of determining the entire cost
of a structure, product, or component over its expected useful life (Kathleen, 2008).
The importance of life cycle costing (LCC) in building construction stems from the actual distribution of
costs incurred over the life span of a construction project. Buildings are typically long term investments of
significant magnitude, and valuation models must account for all costs and benefits throughout the length
of ownership.
2. Methodology
The study presented in this article draws on data gathered over a period of stages during the conceptual
stages of establishing the software BUiLDGREEN. Through review of literatures as well as analyzing
consumer culture theory (CCT) the study propose a frame work that suit market feasibility for the
BUiLDGREEN penetration in Malaysia The aim initially was to examine individual perceptions on
emphasis on local interpretations of marketing which was prevalent in the technical vocabulary of
marketing but from the literature review it is glaring that Gabriel sales (2011)Top 10 sales strategies for
new product is adopted for the conceptual framework for marketing BUiLDGREEN
3. Results and Discussion
3.1 Marketing Strategies
Responding to the necessity need for marketing our product BUiLDGREEN the research proposed a
conceptual framework with consumer culture theory as underpinning, the results shows how marketing
strategies can be of great influence (Wagne 2015) in here research shows that: Audience Analysis Deciding
which marketing strategies to use, the end user’s demographics, including their interests, the reasons why
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they would buy the product. Resellers and Distributors Finding an independent representative require Web
Content Buyers of manufactured goods often start their search online, so you need to create content on your
website that grabs their attention and makes them want to get in touch with you. Promotions Buy
advertising space in industry-specific magazines related to your products. Get word out about your products
by renting a booth at industry tradeshows
3.2 Marketing Concept
Guerilla marketing exploring low budget advertising, give away T-shirts or market your business at
promotional events through low-cost trades. Positioning; through creating a brand, image or position in the
marketplace. This might be as simple as pricing a product on the high end to create an air of quality, or
pricing it on the low end to make it seem a good value. Cause marketing through proposed sponsor charity
Sponsor a tennis tournament or marathon that raises money for a charity. This is an effective way to
introduce new products or services into the market place. Sports Marketing People who are loyal to a sports
team may appreciate your supporting their team as well, helping you create an affinity between those fans
and your product or service. Sponsoring a sporting event offers many opportunities.
3. 3 Sales Strategies for New Products
Gabriel Sales (2011) have establish 10 strategies for sales of new products Rapid Communication – It’s
critical that direct feedback loops are created from the sales team directly back to product development, the
marketing team. The right internal feedback loops will improve the product and align sales and marketing
for shared success. Commit to Digital Content…especially Blogging (video, landing page, short demo).
Prepared to Educate the Market – Most new products are offering a new solution that is disruptive to the
market. Educating customer how to calculate return on investment (ROI). Sell from Scripts –It gives us
something to measure and a way to anchor the success of the sale in the message and the story as opposed
to the personality. Commit Focused Energy to your Initial Ideal Customer Profile –Measure the Right
Success Metrics – You need to measure the success of your early pipe efforts from day one Know Why
You Win and Why You Lose – If you are measuring the right data you will already be well on the way to
knowing why your new product launch is successful. Commit to Marketing Automation and Nurturing
Prospects “Not Yet Ready to Buy” –Lead with Value Proposition but Sell with Differentiators – Selling Be
starts when a customer says “
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Figure 3: The Proposed Conceptual Framework
The latest World Green Building Trends report, released by McGraw-Hill Construction in
conjunction with the World Green Building Council (World GBC), surveyed professional services
firms in more than 60 countries, revealing that green building is accelerating around the world as it
is recognized as a long-term business opportunity. 46% of South East Asian architects already
pursue formal certification for their projects and 79% declare their intention to do so in the future.
(Green Building Market Report South East Asia http://www.bciasia.com) Figure 2 shows the
Positioning
Promotions
Educate the
Market
Web
Content
Audience
Analysis
Marketing
Concept Commit to Digital
Content
Guerilla
Marketin
g
Cause
Marketi
ng Sports
Marketi
ng
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statistic of practicing architects and engineers in Malaysia the statistic is astonishing for the
professionals and the registered contractors as well.
Figure 2a Architect Malaysia
Figure 2b Engineers Malaysia
The first stage would be targeting the population of total registered contractors registered in Johor
6,383 only as well as professionals Architect 2,045 and Engineer10, 366 and other professional
will follow suit
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Figure 3: Contractors in Malaysia Registered With CIDB
4. Conclusion
Marketing, often confused with advertising, promotions and public relations, is the function that
guides the development and sales of products and services. Depending on your product or service,
competition, budget and customer type, your small business can use one or more marketing
strategy to grow your company. Finally, there are other sales channels besides the traditional
brick-and-mortar retail store. Catalogs, TV shopping networks and online stores can also be
excellent methods to enable you to learn how to market a product online. Therefore this research
have adopt a conceptual frame work from analysis of consumer culture theory and Gabriel Sales
(2011) top 10 sales strategies for new product launches sales outsourcing best practices.
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Acknowledgement
The authors would like to acknowledge Construction Technology and Management Centre
(CTMC), Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti of Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Malaysia
for supporting this research.
References Ardley, B. C. (2014) Practitioner accounts and knowledge production: An analysis of three marketing discourses Marketing Theory 2014, Vol. 14(1) 97–118 Crosbie T., Nashwan D and Dean J. (2010). Energy profiling in the life-cycle assessment of buildings, Management of environmental quality, Vol. 21, No. 1, 20-31.
Earley, A. (2014) Connecting contexts: A Badiouian epistemology for consumer culture
theory Marketing Theory 2014, 14(1) 73–96 Edmunds, S-E (2008) Examples of Marketing Strategies Used to Sell a Product file:///C:/Users/samsung/Desktop/Market/Examples of Marketing Strategies Used to Sell a Product _ Chron.com.html Gabriel Sales (2011) Top 10 Sales Strategies for New Product Launches Sales Outsourcing Best Practices retrieved on 15 July 2015 from file:///C:/Users/samsung/Desktop/Market/Sales%20Strategies%20for%20New%20Products%20-%20Selling%20New%20Products.html Green Building Market Report (2015) South East Asia Retrieved on 12 January 2015 from
http://www.bciasia.com
Halliday, S. (2007). Green Guide to the Architect’s Job Book: second edition, RIBA publishing, London.
Kathleen, S. (August 2008). Life Cycle Cost Analysis Tools for Buildings. USDA Technology and
Development Center. Missoula, MT, U.S.
Monosoff, T. (2007) How To Market A New Product Start small and create a timeline for taking your
product to national distribution retrieved on 16th July 2015 from
file:///F:/Market/How%20To%20Market%20A%20New%20Product.html
Roberts, S. (2008). Altering existing buildings in the UK, Energy policy, Vol. 36, 4482–4486.
Sieglinde, F. (2010, June 28). Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA). American National Institute of Standards
and Technology, 2010. Retrieved on October 11, 2010 from http://www.wbdg.org/resources/lcca.php
©Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability 2 (5) 115 - 125, 2016 e-ISSN 2360-8013
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Wagner N. (2015). Manufacturing Marketing Strategies retrieved on 15th July 2015 from
file:///C:/Users/samsung/Desktop/Market/Manufacturing Marketing Strategies _ Chron.com.html
©Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability 2 (5) 126 - 137, 2016 e-ISSN 2360-8013
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Research Article
An Appraisal of the Benefits of Building Information Modelling (BIM)
in Architecture
Anumah John James1, Anumah Lesado2, Gofwen, Chalya1, Melchizedek Malson1
1Department of Architecture, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, University of Jos-Nigeria
2Archshel Development Ltd, Jos-Nigeria
Corresponding Author: anumahjohn@gmail.com
ARTICLE INFO
Article history
Received: 12/10/2016
Accepted: 02/12/2016
A b s t r a c t
Building Information Modelling (BIM) represents the development and use of
computer-generated n-dimensional (n-D) models to simulate the planning,
design, construction and operation of a facility. Architectural designs were
communicated through the medium of 2-dimensional hand drawings and
written specifications produced by applying ink or pencil to a medium of
paper. With the help of BIM, projects can be completed faster and within
budgeted limits. Proposals are understood through accurate visualization.
Reworks can also be minimized due to better understanding of project. The
purpose of this research is to develop a clear understanding about BIM and
identify the benefits of BIM leading to it being considered in projects by
architects in Nigeria. Relevant literatures were reviewed and practising
architects in architectural firms were interviewed to analyse their knowledge
and/or usage of BIM. The findings reveal that while the awareness of BIM
amongst architects is high, the usage is relatively low.
© Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability. All rights
reserved.
Building Information Modelling (BIM), Architecture, n-dimension modelling
1. Introduction
Housing Construction projects have always been complex and continue to be more complex with increase
in sophistication in the world. As the desires of man continue to expand, so do the interests of the stake
holders in the architectural, engineering and construction (AEC) industry. The vast advances in Information
and Communication Technology (ICT) have brought about research on approaches and applications to
reduce the burdens of the AEC. One of these new advances is BIM.
During much of modern history, architectural designs were communicated through the medium of 2
dimensional hand drawings and written specifications. These technical drawings were produced by applying
ink or pencil to a medium of paper. The 1990’s brought the advent of computer-aided design (CAD) as the
popular medium to draw a building. At the dawn of the 21st century, BIM was introduced to the architecture
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and engineering professions as the latest medium for designing and drawing a building (Fox 2016). In spite
of the evolution of technology over the years, construction disputes continue to occur.
In the earliest stages of a project, particularly during the schematic and preliminary stages, critical design
decisions are made that largely dictate the economics of the project. BIM provides both the owner and the
management organization with detailed specific information about the building (Kreider and Messner
2013). BIM supports collaboration; operation of a facility; and management of a virtual building model
within a building life cycle (Smith, 2010; Ahmad et al., 2012).
The principal difference between BIM and 2D Computer Aided Design (CAD) is that the latter describes a
building by independent 2D views such as plans, sections and elevations. Editing one of these views
requires that all other views must be checked and updated, a process prone to mistakes, which is one of the
major causes of poor documentation. In addition, data in these 2D drawings are graphical entities only, such
as lines, arcs and circles, in contrast to the intelligent contextual semantic of BIM models, where objects are
defined in terms of building elements and systems such as spaces, walls, beams and columns (CRC
Construction Innovation, 2007).
In addition to the parametric properties of 3D BIM, the technology also has 4D and 5D capabilities (cost
and scheduling) to models to facilitate value engineering studies;
Wang (2011) explained BIM types as the following:
3D: three-dimensional means the height, length, and width.
4D: 3D plus time for construction planning and project scheduling.
5D: 4D plus cost estimation.
6D: BIM for life-cycle facility management
Figure 1: 3-D architectural model; showing the relationship between the building and the site.
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At its most basic level, BIM provides three-dimensional visualization to owners. It is also used as a
marketing tool for potential clients and designers and can be employed to demonstrate design ideas (Azhar
et al., 2008, Weygant 2011) viewed BIM as a tool that is used for model analysis, clash detection, product
selection, and whole project conceptualization. The different uses of BIM in construction as the followings:
3D model
Clash detection; Architects and contractors can go through the model and make adequate and agreeable
corrections before proceeding to the construction site. BIM enables potential problems to be identified early
in the design phase and resolved before construction begins.
Project visualization provides a very useful and successful marketing tool which can show the owner what
the building will look like when completed.
4D time
BIM tools can be used to enhance planning and monitoring. Schedule visualization; by watching the
schedule visualization, project members will be able to make decisions based upon multiple sources of
accurate real-time information.
5D cost
BIM model includes information that allows a contractor to accurately and rapidly generate an array of
essential estimating information, such as materials; quantities and costs; size and area estimates. As changes
are made, estimating information automatically adjusts, allowing greater contractor productivity. Cost data
can be added to each object enabling the model to automatically calculate a rough estimate of material
costs.
6D facilities management (FM)
Data Capture; sensors can provide feedback and record data relevant to the operation phase of a building,
enabling BIM to be used to model and evaluate energy efficiency, monitor a building's life cycle costs and
optimize its cost efficiency.
2. Why BIM
(Hardin 2009) agreed with (Smith and Tardiff 2009) and said that BIM is a revolutionary CAD technology,
and building process that has transformed the way buildings are designed, analysed, constructed, and
managed. BIM model ties all the components of a building together as objects embedded with information
that tracks its manufacture, cost, delivery, installation methods, labour costs, and maintenance (Smith and
Tardiff, 2009). Therefore, BIM can be said to have emerged to improve the process of design and enhance
the design and construction output, thereby, increasing efficiency.
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In a survey conducted in Egypt, 19% firms require the knowledge of BIM basics in newly recruited staff
even though BIM have only been in use there for five (5) years. (Khodeir and Nessim 2017)
2.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of BIM to Architects
Mineer (2015) stated the advantages of BIM as follows:
2.1.1 Advantages
Better planning and design: completed buildings with all its components are visualized
before mobilizing to site.
Fewer reworks: potential problems are seen and fixed before errors are committed.
Thereby, reducing the need for costly reworks and renovations.
Savings on materials: helps to estimate exactly what one needs, thereby, eliminating
wastages
Support for prefabrication: prefabrication of components offsite saves time and money
2.1.2 Disadvantages
(Kuehmeier 2008) stated the following as disadvantages of BIM:
Garbage in garbage out: will suppliers be held accountable for incorrect data from the
data base or will the architect be blamed for not cross checking
No standard BIM contract documents: if standards are not developed, reciprocal
interaction with others will not be efficient
Electronic data transfer: architects are always reluctant to provide digital data to
contractors for fear of modification.
Interoperability: when a BIM is opened by a different program, who checks to ensure that
the data is still correct from the one transferred as BIM cannot interface with other
programs yet.
2.2 BIM Acceptability
(Arayici et al. 2009); (Khosrowshahi and Arayici 2012); (Elmualim and Gilder 2013); and Aibinu and
Venkatesh (2014), concluded that there is poor knowledge of BIM and its advantages in the construction
industry. They found that there is a lack of expertise that professionals need to have for using the BIM
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software as well as ignorance of how to implement the BIM software to be helpful in construction
processes.
According to (Gu et al. 2008), BIM is quite ill-understood across the board. Only 54% of the architectural
practices are currently aware of BIM (NBS, 2013).
(Newton and Chileshe 2012), (Mitchell and Lambert 2013), (Löf and Kojadinovic 2012), on their part
found out that there is little understanding of the concept of BIM, and the usage was found to be very low in
South Australia, Australia and Sweden respectively. (Kassem et al. 2012) found that in the UK there is an
overall lack of knowledge and comprehension of BIM.
Jung and Lee (2015) investigated the use of BIM on the six (6) continents and summarized their findings as
shown in figure 2 below:
Fig. 2 Use frequencies of BIM services used in each continent (Jung and Lee 2015)
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2.3 BIM Software
Table 1; showing some BIM soft wares, Manufacturers and their uses
Architects can gain from going beyond the traditional 2D CAD approach throughout the different stages of
pre-design, design and post-design. BIM is an innovative way to preconstruction, design, construction, and
post construction of a building project in comparison to the traditional way of drawing (Eastman et al.,
2011). A dearth of knowledge regarding BIM has led to a slow uptake of this technology and ineffective
management of adoption (Mitchell and Lambert, 2013).
Table 2: shows the application of BIM in the design phase.
Source: Azhar, S et al. (2012)
Product Name Manufacturer Primary Function
Revit Architecture Autodesk 3D Architectural Modelling and Parametric
Design
Revit Structure Autodesk 3D Architectural Modelling and Parametric
Design
DProfiler
Beck Technology 3D Conceptual Modelling with real time cost
estimating
Bentley BIM Suite
(Micro Station, Bentley
Architecture, Structural,
Mechanical , Electrical
Generative Design)
Bentley Systems 3D Architectural, Structural, Mechanical,
Electrical and Generative Components
Modelling
Graphisoft 3D Architectural Modelling
Vectorworks
Designer
3D Architectural
Modelling
Nemetschek 3D Architectural Modelling
Schematic Design Detailed Design Construction Detailing
Options Analysis (to compare
multiple design options)
Photo Montage (to integrate
photo realistic images of project
with its existing conditions)
3D exterior and interior
models
Walk-through and fly-through
animations
Building performance
analyses (e.g. energy
modelling)
Structural analysis and design
4D phasing and scheduling
Building systems analysis (e.g.
clash detections)
Shop or fabrication drawings
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Figure 3 Figure 4
Figures 3 and 4: 3D architectural models.
Figures 3 and 4 above is showing 3D architectural models. Proposals are understood through accurate
visualization, better production quality – documentation output is flexible and exploits automation.
Figures 2 and 3 are 3-D architectural models of the same building. Options for the colour of the paint,
building element or even the shrubs for landscaping can be proposed and agreed on from the model. Where
a proposal is made and there is the need for adjustments, documentation output is flexible and exploits
automation. This saves the client, contractor and the architect the stress of having to redo an aspect of the
building after it has been constructed, thereby, saving cost and time. Proposals are better understood
through accurate visualization. Cost estimates are easily extracted and updated with changes made.
The basic difference in the building element between figure 3 and 4 is the use of hardwood as fascia board
in the former and concrete fascia in the latter. The 5D aspect of BIM i.e. costing automatically realises this
and changes the specification and cost of fascia board in the former to that of concrete fascia in the latter.
By so doing, chances for mistakes and/or omissions in specifications and detailing are eliminated. On the
4D aspect, the time allotted for construction of fascia board is also automatically changes to the time for
concrete fascia. If it will take longer to construct concrete fascia, it will increase the total time of
construction by the time difference. Figure 4 shows and example of the 5D aspect of BIM.
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Figure 4: showing the final material take off with cost and total cost of walls in Autodesk Revit
Architecture 2014
3. Methodology
Interviews were carried out amongst architectural firms in Nigeria. The sample population constitutes forty
(40) registered architectural firms. Since the usage of BIM is being considered, firms that have been
involved in design and construction were sampled.
4. Results and Findings
The following data were obtained from the respondents:
0
10
20
30-35 36-40 41-45 46 and
above
AGE DISTRIBUTION
AGEDISTRIBUTION
Figure 5: Computer literacy Figure 6: age distribution of personnel using
CAD
100
0
COMPUTER LITERACY STATUS
COMPUTERLITERATE
COMPUTERILLITERATE
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Figure 7: Practice experience of architectural firms
Figure 8: Level of CAD usage of personnel
Table 3: Level of BIM awareness and usage
Bim Usage Response In Frequency Response In Percentage
Aware and currently using it 1 02.5%
Aware and actively using it 0 00.0%
Aware and considering it 26 65.0%
Aware but not considering it 10 25.0%
unaware 3 07.5%
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Figure 5 shows that 100% of the respondents are computer literate. This shows that computer literacy is
appreciated in architecture as a profession. Figure 6 shows that twenty four (24) of the personnel using
CAD in the architectural firms are between the ages of thirty six (36) and forty five (45). This shows the age
bracket actively practising architecture in Nigeria. Figure 7 shows that the architectural firms have been
practising for at least 5 years. 2D architectural software is mostly used by architectural firms as shown in
figure 8 with forty five percent of the respondents using both 2D and 3D architectural software.
Table 3 shows that the awareness of BIM was high amongst respondents with only 7.5% of the respondents
unaware about it. It also reveals that the usage of BIM was very low as only one architectural firm used it.
While probing further to know why the usage is low despite awareness being high, some respondents say
the unavailability of the software was a factor. It was learnt that the cost of the software is high and there
was an unavailability of pirated copies which is what is mostly used because of its affordability. Where
pirated copies were available, they were incompatible with other BIM software
5. Conclusion
Cost of BIM software should be subsidised such that is becomes affordable to enable more architects use it
as it is clear from the results presented that the willingness to use BIM high. As the usage of BIM increases,
architects will naturally become more interested in it. Just as Computer Aided Design (CAD) started as 2D
then evolved to 3D, it will develop and continue to evolve to BIM 6D and continue to n-D.
From the results obtained in this research, sixty five percent (65%) of the personnel using CAD are between
the ages of thirty five (35) and forty five (45) years. This shows that the youth should be targeted in BIM
education. Hence, BIM should be thought in higher institutions of learning to enhance its usage at ages
earlier than thirty five years. Just as 19% of firms in Egypt require the knowledge of BIM in newly
recruited staff it will gradually become a requirement in most firms as time evolves.
References
Ahmad, A. M, Demian, P., & Price, A. D. (2012). BIM implementation plans: a comparative
analysis. Smith, S: Proceedings of 28th Annual ARCOM. Edinburgh, UK: Association of
Researchers in Construction, pp. 33-42.
Ajibade Aibinu and sudha venkatesh (2014) Status of BIM adoption and the BIM experience of
cost consultants in Australia: Journal of professional issues in engineering education and practice.
Volume 140 issue 3
Arayici, Y., Khosrowshahi, F., Ponting, A. M., & Mihindu, S. (2009): Towards implementation of
building information modelling in the construction industry- Proceedings of the Fifth International
Conference on Construction in the 21st Century “collaboration and integration in Engineering,
Management and Technology.” Istanbul, Turkey: Middle East Technical University and Florida
International University, pp. 1342-1351.
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Azhar, S, Nadeem, A, Mok, J. Y, & Leung, B. H.(2008). Building Information Modelling (BIM): a
new paradigm for visual interactive modelling and simulation for construction projects: First
International Conference on Construction in Developing Countries (ICCIDC–I). Karachi, Pakistan:
Advancing and Integrating Construction Education, Research & Practice, pp. 435-446.
CRC construction innovation (2007) adopting BIM for facilities management: solutions for
managing the Sydney opera house, cooperative research center for construction innovation,
Brisbane, Australia
Donald Fox (2016) building information modelling (BIM) – expert article on construction disputes
Eastman, C, Teicholz, P, Sacks, R, and Liston, K (2011) BIM handbook: a guide to building
information modelling for owners, managers, designers, engineers and contractors, 2nd ed., NY:
John Wiley and Sons
Elmmualim, A. A. and Gilder, J. (2013) BIM: innovation, design, management, influence and
challenges of implementation. Architectural engineering and design management, 10(3-4). Pp.
183-199. ISSN 1752-7589
Gu, N, Singh, V, Taylor, C, London, K, and Brankovic, L. (2008) adopting building information
modelling BIM as collaborative platform in the design industry. Proceedings of CAADRIA
conference, Australia
Hardin (2009) BIM and construction management, Indianapolis: wiley publishing, IN
Kassem, M, Brogden, T, and Dawood, n. (2012) BIM and 4D planning: a holistic study of the
barriers and drivers to widespread adoption. KICEM journal of construction engineering and
project management, 2(4), 1-10
Khosrowshahi and Arayici (2012) roadmap for implementation of BIM in UK construction
industry, Engineering: construction and architectural management, 19(6) 2012, pp610-635
Joseph Carl Kuehmeier (2008) building information modelling and its impact on design and
construction firms
Laila Mohamed Khodeir and Ashrat Ali Nessim (2017) BIM to BEM INTEGRATED
APPROACH: examining status of the application of BIM and building energy models in Egyptian
architectural firms
Leonard Kym newton and Nicholas Chileshe (2012) (awareness, usage and benefits of building
information modelling) adoption- the south Australian construction organizations, ARCOM
conference, Scotland
Marcus Bjork Lof and Ivica Kojadionovic (2012) possible utilization of BIM in the production
phase of construction projects, KTH architecture and the built environment, thesis no. 154
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Miner (2015) pros and cons of using a BIM Model for your next project- construction monitor
Mitchell, D. and Lambert, S. (2013) rules of engagement, CIB world building congress (cibbc 13)
Brisbane Australia: cibwbc, pp 1-5
NBS. (2013). NBS International BIM report. The UK: The national BIM library.
Ralph G. Kreider and John I. Messner (2013) the uses of BIM; classifying and selecting BIM uses
Robert S. Weygant (2011) BIM content development: standards, strategies, and Best practices
Salman Azhar, Malik Khalfan and Tayyab Maqsood (2012) building information modelling (BIM)
now and beyond
Smith, D. K, & Tardif, M. (2009): Building Information modelling: a strategic implementation
guide for Architects, Engineers, constructors, and real estate asset managers. Hoboken, New
Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Wang, M. (2011): Building Information modelling (BIM): site-building interoperability methods.
MSc Thesis, Interdisciplinary Construction Project Management, Faculty of the Worcester
Polytechnic Institute, U.S.A.
Wooyoung Jung, Ghang Lee (2015) the status of BIM adoption on six continents-World Academy
of Science, Engineering and Technology International Journal of Civil, Environmental, Structural,
Construction and Architectural Engineering Vol:9, No:5, 2015.
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Research Article
Proposed Market Survey Framework for Build Green in Malaysia
Rozana Zakaria1*, Yakubu Aminu Dodo2, Rosli Ahmad1, Nur IzieAdiana binti Abidin1
1Construction Technology and Management Centre (CTMC), Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti of Teknologi
Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Malaysia 2Centre for the Study of Built Environment in the Malay World (KALAM), Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor Malaysia
*Corresponding Authors: rozana@utm.my,
ARTICLE INFO
Article history
Received: 12/10/2016
Accepted: 02/12/2016
A b s t r a c t
The approach developed in this research builds on earlier work which argues
that CO2 reduction in the built environment demands more informed early
design planning to support improvements in the selection of the materials used
in the construction of buildings in terms of their impact on energy performance
and embodied energy which is lacking in some green rating system green
building index (GBI) Malaysia inclusive. BUiLDGREEN is a software design
by construction technology and management center (CTMC), universiti of
teknologi Malaysia (UTM) to include life cycle assessment in the current GBI
ratings. This paper proposes a frame work that would enhance the
marketability of BUiLDGREEN as new software product. Through review of
literatures as well as analyzing consumer culture theory (CCT) the study
propose a frame work that suit market feasibility for the BUiLDGREEN
penetration in Malaysia.
© Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability. All rights reserved.
BUiLDGREEN conceptual,
framework Malaysia, market
survey
1. Introduction
The so-called ‘sustainable or green building’ is the practice of designing, constructing, operating,
maintaining and removing buildings in ways that conserve natural resources and reduce their impact on
climate change. By implementing sustainable practices in the facilities it owns, government, organizations
and other building owners reduce energy consumption, conserve financial and environmental resources and
also reduce greenhouse gas emissions. A green building focuses on increasing the efficiency of resource use
of energy, water, and materials while reducing building impact on human health and the environment
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during the building’s life cycle, through better sitting, design, construction, operation, maintenance, and
removal. Green Buildings should be designed and operated to reduce the overall impact of the built
environment on its surroundings. In recent years, building owners and designers, researchers, and others
have begun performing studies related to the costs and benefits of sustainable design. Among the studies
available, this research will choose, focus and elaborate more on the so-called life cycle costing (LCC)
analysis in measuring the performance of green buildings. The approach developed in this research also
builds on earlier work which argues that CO2 reduction in the built environment demands more informed
early design planning to support improvements in the selection of the materials used in the construction of
buildings in terms of their impact on energy performance and embodied energy (Crosbie et al., 2010; Terry,
2008; Roberts 2008 and Halliday 2007).
Figure 1: Frame work for choice of criteria to optimize point
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Is a web based application tools for building stakeholders to make a decision for design optimization as to
achieve the green building certification. This innovative tool will apply Life Cycle Costing Analysis in
software computations that integrate Green Building Index criteria in a multiple code programming to
enhance reward for an effective Return on Investment.
Table 1: Proposed Green Building Index Assessment Score of measurable items in the
Energy Efficiency Criteria
PART
CRITERIA
ITEM
GB
I P
OIN
T
TO
TA
L
Init
ial
Ex
pen
ses
Fu
ture
Ex
pen
ses
Mea
sura
ble
LC
C P
oin
t
EE Energy Efficiency
Design
EE1 Minimum EE Performance 1 1
EE2 Lighting Zoning 3 3
EE3 Electrical Sub-metering 1 1
EE4 Renewable Energy 5 5
1 EE5 Advanced EE Performance - BEI 15 15
Commissioning
EE6 Enhanced Commissioning 3
EE7 Post Occupancy Commissioning 2
Verification & Maintenance
EE8 EE Verification 2
EE9 Sustainable Maintenance 3
35 25
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1.1 Life-Cycle Costing (LCC)
Life-cycle costing (LCC) assessment is a method for assessing the total cost of facility ownership. It takes
into account all costs of acquiring, owning, and disposing of a building or building system. LCC analysis is
especially useful when project alternatives that fulfill the same performance requirements, but differ with
respect to initial costs and operating costs, have to be compared in order to select the one that maximizes
net savings (Sieglinde, 2010). Life cycle costing (LCC) analysis is a method of determining the entire cost
of a structure, product, or component over its expected useful life (Kathleen, 2008).
The importance of life cycle costing (LCC) in building construction stems from the actual distribution of
costs incurred over the life span of a construction project. Buildings are typically long term investments of
significant magnitude, and valuation models must account for all costs and benefits throughout the length
of ownership.
2. Methodology
The study presented in this article draws on data gathered over a period of stages during the conceptual
stages of establishing the software BUiLDGREEN. Through review of literatures as well as analyzing
consumer culture theory (CCT) the study propose a frame work that suit market feasibility for the
BUiLDGREEN penetration in Malaysia The aim initially was to examine individual perceptions on
emphasis on local interpretations of marketing which was prevalent in the technical vocabulary of
marketing but from the literature review it is glaring that Gabriel sales (2011)Top 10 sales strategies for
new product is adopted for the conceptual framework for marketing BUiLDGREEN
3. Results and Discussion
3.1 Marketing Strategies
Responding to the necessity need for marketing our product BUiLDGREEN the research proposed a
conceptual framework with consumer culture theory as underpinning, the results shows how marketing
strategies can be of great influence (Wagne 2015) in here research shows that: Audience Analysis Deciding
which marketing strategies to use, the end user’s demographics, including their interests, the reasons why
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they would buy the product. Resellers and Distributors Finding an independent representative require Web
Content Buyers of manufactured goods often start their search online, so you need to create content on your
website that grabs their attention and makes them want to get in touch with you. Promotions Buy
advertising space in industry-specific magazines related to your products. Get word out about your products
by renting a booth at industry tradeshows
3.2 Marketing Concept
Guerilla marketing exploring low budget advertising, give away T-shirts or market your business at
promotional events through low-cost trades. Positioning; through creating a brand, image or position in the
marketplace. This might be as simple as pricing a product on the high end to create an air of quality, or
pricing it on the low end to make it seem a good value. Cause marketing through proposed sponsor charity
Sponsor a tennis tournament or marathon that raises money for a charity. This is an effective way to
introduce new products or services into the market place. Sports Marketing People who are loyal to a sports
team may appreciate your supporting their team as well, helping you create an affinity between those fans
and your product or service. Sponsoring a sporting event offers many opportunities.
3. 3 Sales Strategies for New Products
Gabriel Sales (2011) have establish 10 strategies for sales of new products Rapid Communication – It’s
critical that direct feedback loops are created from the sales team directly back to product development, the
marketing team. The right internal feedback loops will improve the product and align sales and marketing
for shared success. Commit to Digital Content…especially Blogging (video, landing page, short demo).
Prepared to Educate the Market – Most new products are offering a new solution that is disruptive to the
market. Educating customer how to calculate return on investment (ROI). Sell from Scripts –It gives us
something to measure and a way to anchor the success of the sale in the message and the story as opposed
to the personality. Commit Focused Energy to your Initial Ideal Customer Profile –Measure the Right
Success Metrics – You need to measure the success of your early pipe efforts from day one Know Why
You Win and Why You Lose – If you are measuring the right data you will already be well on the way to
knowing why your new product launch is successful. Commit to Marketing Automation and Nurturing
Prospects “Not Yet Ready to Buy” –Lead with Value Proposition but Sell with Differentiators – Selling Be
starts when a customer says “
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Figure 3: The Proposed Conceptual Framework
The latest World Green Building Trends report, released by McGraw-Hill Construction in
conjunction with the World Green Building Council (World GBC), surveyed professional services
firms in more than 60 countries, revealing that green building is accelerating around the world as it
is recognized as a long-term business opportunity. 46% of South East Asian architects already
pursue formal certification for their projects and 79% declare their intention to do so in the future.
(Green Building Market Report South East Asia http://www.bciasia.com) Figure 2 shows the
Positioning
Promotions
Educate the
Market
Web
Content
Audience
Analysis
Marketing
Concept Commit to Digital
Content
Guerilla
Marketin
g
Cause
Marketi
ng Sports
Marketi
ng
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statistic of practicing architects and engineers in Malaysia the statistic is astonishing for the
professionals and the registered contractors as well.
Figure 2a Architect Malaysia
Figure 2b Engineers Malaysia
The first stage would be targeting the population of total registered contractors registered in Johor
6,383 only as well as professionals Architect 2,045 and Engineer10, 366 and other professional
will follow suit
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Figure 3: Contractors in Malaysia Registered With CIDB
4. Conclusion
Marketing, often confused with advertising, promotions and public relations, is the function that
guides the development and sales of products and services. Depending on your product or service,
competition, budget and customer type, your small business can use one or more marketing
strategy to grow your company. Finally, there are other sales channels besides the traditional
brick-and-mortar retail store. Catalogs, TV shopping networks and online stores can also be
excellent methods to enable you to learn how to market a product online. Therefore this research
have adopt a conceptual frame work from analysis of consumer culture theory and Gabriel Sales
(2011) top 10 sales strategies for new product launches sales outsourcing best practices.
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Acknowledgement
The authors would like to acknowledge Construction Technology and Management Centre
(CTMC), Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti of Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Malaysia
for supporting this research.
References Ardley, B. C. (2014) Practitioner accounts and knowledge production: An analysis of three marketing discourses Marketing Theory 2014, Vol. 14(1) 97–118 Crosbie T., Nashwan D and Dean J. (2010). Energy profiling in the life-cycle assessment of buildings, Management of environmental quality, Vol. 21, No. 1, 20-31.
Earley, A. (2014) Connecting contexts: A Badiouian epistemology for consumer culture
theory Marketing Theory 2014, 14(1) 73–96 Edmunds, S-E (2008) Examples of Marketing Strategies Used to Sell a Product file:///C:/Users/samsung/Desktop/Market/Examples of Marketing Strategies Used to Sell a Product _ Chron.com.html Gabriel Sales (2011) Top 10 Sales Strategies for New Product Launches Sales Outsourcing Best Practices retrieved on 15 July 2015 from file:///C:/Users/samsung/Desktop/Market/Sales%20Strategies%20for%20New%20Products%20-%20Selling%20New%20Products.html Green Building Market Report (2015) South East Asia Retrieved on 12 January 2015 from
http://www.bciasia.com
Halliday, S. (2007). Green Guide to the Architect’s Job Book: second edition, RIBA publishing, London.
Kathleen, S. (August 2008). Life Cycle Cost Analysis Tools for Buildings. USDA Technology and
Development Center. Missoula, MT, U.S.
Monosoff, T. (2007) How To Market A New Product Start small and create a timeline for taking your
product to national distribution retrieved on 16th July 2015 from
file:///F:/Market/How%20To%20Market%20A%20New%20Product.html
Roberts, S. (2008). Altering existing buildings in the UK, Energy policy, Vol. 36, 4482–4486.
Sieglinde, F. (2010, June 28). Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA). American National Institute of Standards
and Technology, 2010. Retrieved on October 11, 2010 from http://www.wbdg.org/resources/lcca.php
©Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability 2 (5) 115 - 125, 2016 e-ISSN 2360-8013
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Wagner N. (2015). Manufacturing Marketing Strategies retrieved on 15th July 2015 from
file:///C:/Users/samsung/Desktop/Market/Manufacturing Marketing Strategies _ Chron.com.html
©Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability 2 (5) 138 - 147, 2016 e-ISSN 2360-8013
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Research Article
The Factors Influencing Thermal Performance of Coatings on
Roofing Materials
Anumah John James1, Anumah Lesado2, Benjamin, Gideon Koyan1, Odoala, Michael1
1Department of Architecture, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, University of Jos-Nigeria
2Archshel Development Ltd, Jos-Nigeria
Corresponding Author: anumahjohn@gmail.com
ARTICLE INFO
Article history
Received: 12/10/2016
Accepted: 02/12/2016
A b s t r a c t
Urban areas around the world are experiencing significantly higher
temperatures as a result of the replacement of land cover with urban
infrastructure which were before now vegetative giving rise to a phenomenon
known as Urban Heat Island. In the tropics, there is the challenge of longer
hours of incident solar radiation on building envelope which impacts the
micro- climate around it by elevating temperatures. Generally, the most
important benefits of applying roof coatings on steep slope roofs are their
ability to protect the roof membrane from ultraviolet degradation and high
reflectance values especially in tropical climates with high humidity and
sunshine. This paper reviews determinants of coatings’ influence on thermal
performance of the roofing membrane. Evaluation of the spectral performances
of the coated materials determines best choices of the materials to be used. The
thermal performance of roofing materials is influenced by the material
properties and the coatings which together, influence its performance to
varying extents. Results show how coating pigment, durability, texture of the
coatings’ surface and thickness influence the thermal performance of coating
of a roofing material.
© Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability. All rights
reserved.
Albedo, Coatings, Emissivity, Roofing materials, Thermal performance, Urban Heat Island.
1. Introduction
Increase in population has brought with it an increased demand for infrastructure, goods and services whose
production and maintenance require the use of energy. Urban Heat Island is a phenomenon whereby, urban
areas attain mean air temperatures higher than their surrounding rural areas. In most urban cities, roofs and
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pavements constitute about 60% of the total land cover (Akbari et al, 2008) and are major contributors to
elevated temperatures. In providing shelter from extreme outdoor weather conditions, roofs in hot, humid
regions receive energy loads that if not properly suited for adversely affect thermal balance of the
environment. Incident solar radiation on these surfaces, influence their immediate environment by elevating
temperatures and increasing cooling energy loads. Depending on the properties of the materials used in the
envelope of buildings and the urban infrastructure, they absorb and reflect solar energy to their environment
at different rates through convection and radiation (Hitchcock, 2009).
Roofing materials are also exposed to other conditions varying in intensity depending on their location such
as wind, sunlight, rain, atmospheric pollution, temperature variations and hail. The U. S Environmental
protection agency (U. S. E. P. A) and the Department Of Energy (U. S D. O. E) introduced the energy star
roof products program in 1999 which outlined minimum reflectivity levels that reflective roofing material
should meet according to their applications for high or low slopes Akbari et. al (2005). In tropical climates,
the use of cement based materials in roof and walls is quite popular owing to high resistance to weather
though they could manifest some undesirable thermal properties after some time of use if unprotected.
Hence, it is for protection from degradation and increased reflectance that the use of coatings over these
roofing materials became popular. Studies have shown that concrete tile painted with reflective coatings
present thermal performances superior to some cool materials such as white marble and mosaic tiles
Uemoto et. al (2010). The thermal performance of roofing materials is influenced by the material properties
and the coatings which together, influence its performance to varying extents. Measurement of albedo and
surface temperature were carried out by Taha et al (1997) on urban structures. They discovered that black
coatings with albedo of 0. 08 were 45ºC hotter than surfaces of white elastomeric coatings having albedo
values of 0.72. They also reported a difference of 5 ºC and 30 ºC warmer than ambient air for white surface
(albedo 0.61) and conventional gravel (albedo 0.09) respectively. Doulos et al (2004) concluded that both
construction materials’ property and color (coating) of materials influence the attainment of lower surface
temperatures of the materials. For the purpose of this paper, only the coating properties will be considered.
This paper reviews various studies on roofing material coatings into the factors influencing their
performance on the roofing membranes.
2. Assessment of Coatings on Roofs
The two most important functions of roof coatings include increasing the solar reflectance of the roofing
materials surface and protecting the materials from degradation. Increasing the solar reflectance lowers
surface temperatures since solar radiation is reflected rather than absorbed. In dealing with coatings, we
shall be discussing reflectance which is a surface property. High reflectance values decrease the heat
penetrating into the building which results in lower cooling loads in an air-conditioned building, or in more
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comfortable thermal conditions in buildings which are not air-conditioned Synnefa et al (2007). The
quantity per unit area of heat energy captured by exterior surfaces of buildings exposed to solar radiation at
a given time t, can be given as;
1
2
3
Where;
hw is the heat convection coefficient of the exterior surfaces of buildings (W/m2°C);
Ta and Tw denote the exterior air temperature and the temperature of the exterior surfaces of buildings
respectively (°C);
α is the albedo of the exterior surfaces of buildings;
I represents the solar radiation intensity (W/m2);
Tz is average integrated temperature of exterior air (°C);
ε stands for the long-wave radiation factor of the exterior surfaces of buildings; and
∆R is the difference of the long-wave radiation between the exterior surfaces of buildings and the sky and
also the exterior surfaces of surrounding objects (W/m2). 1989[7]
From the above equation, it can be seen that the quantity of heat energy absorbed by a building’s exterior
surface depends also on the albedo of the material used.
Heat exchanges can be reduced by an adequate selection of roofing materials and components. To
maximize cooling energy savings, high-albedo roof coatings should:-
(i) Have high solar reflectance (both in the visible and near-infrared bands),
(ii) have high infrared emissivity, and
(iii) maintain these properties for the service life of the coating Uemoto et. al (2010).
Solar absorptance, thermal emittance, convection coefficient, and heat conduction through a roofing
membrane determine the rate of absorption and dissipation (exchange) of this energy with their
environment and is a major influence on the roof surface temperature, energy consumption and comfort
conditions of individual buildings as well as their environment by either reducing or increasing ambient
temperatures Pomerantz et. al (2000).
Paints have four main constituents: binder, solvents, additives, and pigment, which are the major
component Uemoto et. al (2010). Their ability to limit the flow of heat into a building and increase its
service life depends on the following factors;
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2.1 Coating Pigment
Pigments are finely divided solids used to provide color and enhance film durability and hardness. They can
be classified as inorganic or organic Ramachandran et. al. (2002) Bingfeng and Pingjun (2007) calculated
albedos for colors of coatings and materials. They reported values of various coating shades as seen in the
table below;
Table 1 : Calculated Mean Value of Albedo of Coatings and the Corresponding Empirical Value
Material Albedo Empirical value Material Albedo Empirical value
Cement 0.21
0.10- 0.35
Yellow coating 0.54
0.50- 0.60 Grey coating 0.22 Pink coating 0.56
Blue coating 0.25 White napped
tile
0.71
0.70- 0.90 Reddish- brown
coating
0.36
0.20- 0.45
White smooth
tile
0.78
Deep red tile 0.43 White coating 0.86
Source; Bingfeng and Pingjun (2007)
It can be observed from the table that the lighter the pigment colour, the higher the albedo. However, it
should be noted that albedo is not restricted only to a good reflectance in the visible region because albedo
values are also directly related to the combination of reflectance of the materials in the Infrared range and
the visible which represents about 89% of the solar radiation that reaches the earth’s surface Prado and
Ferreira (2005).
In their work, Prado and Ferreira(2005) also studied how the surface temperatures of materials are
influenced by the materials’ albedo. They found that surfaces with raised albedos attained lower surface
temperatures and remained cooler under solar radiation than surfaces with lower albedos. They also found
these high albedo materials transfer less heat to their surroundings. White roof coatings have the added
benefit of reducing cooling load because of their reflectivity. Byerley and Christian (1994) monitored
surface temperature, heat flux, and solar reflectance of a white roof coating and a black EPDM in Tennessee
over a 3.5-year period. The observations were that NIR-reflective roof tile coatings reduced peak roof
surface temperature by 5–14K and peak ceiling heat flux by 13–21%. Light colours generally present
greater reflectance in the region of the visible. They also tend to have greater reflectance in the near
Infrared.
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Figure 1: Representative 24hr distrbution of surface temperatures of selected samples (S1, S12; Aluminium
coatings. S7; Black Coating. S15, uncoated tile) and ambient temperature (T amb)
Source; Synnefa et. al(2006)
The emission qualities of the external painted surface helps to cool the roof by irradiating absorbed energy
therefore, it is necessary to consider absorbance of light across the entire solar spectrum by the pigments
used for coating. Pigments with high absorbance include; carbon black, lamp black, iron oxide black or
copper chromite black. The inclusion of these NIR absorbing pigments in the top coat or base coat will tend
to make the coated surface hotter Levinson et. al (2007). Reflective paints can further aid in maintaining
lower surface temperatures of highly emissive non-metals such as fiber cement tiles and restrict the flow of
heat into the interior environment. From the experiments, it can be observed that albedo has an obvious
influence on the building heat environment. Coating materials with different pigments have different
wavelengths which determine their solar radiation absorption intensity.
2.2 Durability under Weathering Conditions
The major cause of aging and material degradation in roofs is the absorption of Ultraviolet light by coating
pigments Bretz and Akbari(1997). The rate of change in albedo varies in consistency between roofs
depending on the climate, the slope of the roof, the roughness and condition of the substrate, atmospheric
pollution, nearby sources of dirt and debris, and the dirt resistance of the roof coating Bretz and Akbari
(1994).The degradation process is increased under higher temperatures Akbari et. al (2005) and humidity
constitute a favourable environment for degradation to take place faster.
Roofing materials are exposed to the elements of weather; wind, sunlight, rain, hail, snow, atmospheric
pollution, and temperature variations which impose undue stresses and consequently degradation on the
materials. Using the thermo gravimetric analysis method to predict service- life of coatings, Neag and co-
workers aged coatings with different additives at 140°C, 160°C, 180°C, and 200°C in a forced- air oven.
Ramachandran et. al (2002) reported blackening of film; a common phenomenon in hot humid regions.
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Modification of roofing materials occurs even in the most durable of them. High temperatures and humidity
create a favourable environment for chemical reactions to take place such as; growth of cyanobacteria,
fungi and algae formation by deposition of ambient dust and debris Berdahl et. al (2008). As recommended
by Akbari et. al (2006), in order to achieve a reduced impact of sunlight, moisture and other elements of
weather on roofing materials, their contents should include robust inorganic materials such as metal oxide
pigments, minerals (such as the crushed stone for roofing granules), concrete, and clay should be employed.
Changes in albedo depend more on the formulation of the paint itself which could be either conventional or
non-conventional pigments. The conventional could be organic, with a rather limited service life (lightfast)
and opacity. It could also be inorganic, which are generally more durable and less susceptible to the
photochemical degradation caused by the ultraviolet light present in solar radiation. Conventional Inorganic
pigments also have more stability under higher temperatures and are chemically inert to acids, alkali, etc.
A new technology of inorganic paints simply known as “cool paints” exists with its notable technology of
formulation with complex inorganic coloured pigments (CICPs) or mixed metal oxide (MMO) pigments.
This special group of nonconventional pigments presents spinel structure and is known for its highly visible
opacity and high reflectance in NIR radiation. These pigments also present a long service life in normal
environments. They are heat stable and chemically inert. The rates of change may vary due to local
differences such as climate, microclimate, materials, costs, characteristics of the constructive systems, the
slope of the roof and the environment Uemoto et. al (2010).
2.3 Thickness
Roofs’ albedos are distinguished one from another by the roughness and condition of the substrate and the
thickness of the coating Bretz and Akbari (1994). This occurs because; Thickness of coating is one of the
factors that affect wavelength specific spectral reflectance. The other factors include spectral reflectance of
the substrate, absorbance and backscattering of light at specific wavelengths by pigment particles.
Yarbrough and Anderson (1993) provide overall solar reflectance values for some high-albedo roof
coatings. Their measurements indicate that coatings must be applied at a minimum critical thickness to
obtain optimum solar reflectance. Baneshi et. al (2009) applied the radiation element method by ray
emission mode to calculate the reflectivity of a pigmented coating. They calculated optimum coating
thickness to be first determining the volume fraction fv thus;
Thickness, 4
5
Where
fv is volume fraction
NT is the number density of the particles and
dp is the particle diameter.
For example, in the case where fv = 1% and number density is 0.04×1012, the optimum thickness is
calculated to be 27 mm which is an acceptable value for a paint coating. At the optimum state, ρNIR and
ρVIS are about 24% and 5.7%, respectively.
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Libbra et. al (2011) compared various materials and white coating types alongside closely related colors
and found that thick organic pigments provide highest reflectance values of 0.80/ 0.90 though they tended
to fall sharply above 1600nm. The ceramic tile, white glazed and unglazed mass colored tiles presented a
high and relatively flat spectral reflectivity value of 0.70/ 0.80 across the whole spectra. The lab- produced
glazed tiles presented the highest values of 0. 94 reflectivity.
Figure 2: Reflectivity spectra and solar reflectance of a multi-layer white paint. Source; Libbra et. al
(2011)
They found that, a cool roof surface can be achieved by increasing the coating thickness over a non-
reflective substrate and the effect of a substrate on the overall reflectance can be minimal as the coating
thickness increases. In their work, Levinson et. al[14] having tested various coating thicknesses on asphalt
shingles found that 5-mm thick coating of refractive index 1.5 that is pigmented with titanium dioxide rutile
white can increase the NIR reflectance of a smooth, flat, dark-gray surface (N = 0:10) to 0.35. A 10-mm
thick coating will increase NIR reflectance to 0.50; a 25-mm thick coating, to 0.65 concluded that a cool
visibly hiding top coat colors and back scatters in magnitudes dependent on its thickness.
Table 2: NIR Reflectances (rounded to nearest 0.05) of white and aluminum-flake coatings on a smooth,
flat, dark-gray substrate (N = 0.10)
Coating NIR reflectance of coated
substrate
None 0.10
White, 5 µm 0.35
White, 10 µm 0.50
White, 25 µm 0.65
White, 50 µm 0.75
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Aluminum flake, 25 µm 0.80
White, 100 µm 0.80
White, 200 µm 0.85
Source; Levinson et. al (2007)
The above table shows increase in reflectance value for various thickness increments.
2.4 Texture
Texture could be a material or a coating property influence as some degree of coating thickness can render
the surface texture of the substrate material irrelevant to the finished surface texture. Doulos et. al(2004)
carried out a study in which they used surface temperature values to determine the thermal performance of
93 different materials. In it, they found out that the texture of a material surface does not significantly affect
the thermal performance of the material during the daytime (between 09:00 and 15:00).
Table 3: Various material pairs comparison to examine the surface texture impact in the measured
nocturnal surface temperatures
Source; Doulos et. al (2004)
However, during the night-time, the texture of the material surface affected the thermal performance of
concrete and marble materials giving smooth surface concrete and marble lower surface temperatures.
Sulaiman et. al (2009) reported that glazing tiles that enhances the smoothness of tile surfaces can provide
increased protection of roof materials from entrapments of pollutants which quicken the rate of surface
degradation. In some cases, eventually lead to poor thermal performance as a result of darkening of the
surface as reported by Ramachandran et. al (2002). This darkening could drop the albedo of the material
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and cause elevated surface temperatures. Smooth surface texture helps to achieve higher reflectance values
at all wavelengths Levinson et. al (2007).
3. Conclusion
To reduce heat gain, roof coatings must have high albedo values comprising both their reflectance and
emissivity. In the day, highly reflective coating pigments (mostly light colors) help in maintaining lower
surface temperatures by absorbing less heat energy. This factor also aids in improving night time
performance of non-metals which are mostly highly emissive by enabling faster cooling rate as a result of
lower daytime heat absorbance. Although all materials are subject to degradation, durability of coatings on
roofs affects their performance by determining how long they can perform the function of cooling and
preserving the roof substrate from degradation. Chemically inert coatings are preferable because they can
resist the growth of cyannobacteria and other microbial growths in humid regions that cause surface
blackening. Smoother Surface texture will increase the probability of light photons to be reflected off a
surface therefore, rougher surfaces will reduce albedo although not significantly. The factors influencing the
thermal performance of coatings on roofing materials are not limited to these factors alone. Other factors
could in more detail include; constituent elements of the coatings themselves, the particle size of the
pigments to mention but a few. Further studies could include testing suitable thicknesses, texture for other
materials and their impact on thermal performance.
References
Akbari, H., Asmeret, A. B., Ronnen, M. L., Stanley, G., Kevin, F., Delgado, A. H., Ralph, M. P. (2005)
Aging and Weathering of Cool Roofing Membranes in Cool Roofing Symposium. Atlanta.
Akbari, H., S. Menon, and A. Rosenfeld, (2008) Global Cooling: Increasing World-wide Urban Albedos to
Offset CO2 Climatic Change. 94(3): p. 275-286.
Akbari, H., Levinson, R., Miller, W., Berdahl, P., (2006) Cool Colored Roofs to Save Energy and Improve
Air Quality, California Energy Commission PIER Program Hitchcock, D.,(2009) Dallas Sustainable
Skylines Initiative, in Dallas Urban Heat Island, U.S.E.P. Agency, Editor., Houston Advanced Research
Center.
Baneshi, M., Gonome, H., Komiya, A., Maruyama, S., (2012) A New Approach to Optimizing Pigmented
Coatings Considering both Thermal and Aesthetic Effects Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy &
Radiative Transfer. 110: p. 192–204.
Berdahl, P.,Akbari, H., Levinson, R., Miller, W. A., (2008). Weathering of roofing materials – An overview
Construction and Building Materials. 22: p. 423–433.
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Bingfeng, C.Z.Y. and S. Pingjun, (2007) A Calculating Method of Albedo and Experimental Study of its
Influence on Building Heat Environment in summer. Journal of Solar Energy Engineering. 129: p. 243-
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Bretz, S.E. and H. Akbari, Durability of High-Albedo Roof Coatings and Implications for Cooling Energy
Savings, (1994) Energy & Environment Division Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory University of California:
Berkeley, CA 94720.
Bretz, S.E. and H. Akbari, (1997) Long-term performance of high-albedo roof coatings
Energy and Buildings. 25: p. 159-167.
Byerley, A.R. and J.E. Christian (1994). The Long Term Thermal Performance of Radiation Control
Coatings in ACEEE's 1994 Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings. Vienna.
Doulos, L., M. Santamouris, and I. Livada, (2004) Passive cooling of outdoor urban spaces. The role of
materials Solar Energy. 77: p. 231–249.
Levinson, R., Berdahl, P., Akbari, H., Miller, W., Joedicke, I., Reilly, J., Suzuki, Y., Vondran, M., (2007)
Methods of creating solar-reflective nonwhite surfaces and their application to residential roofing materials
Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells.
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performance of antisolar surfaces and coatings Progress in Organic Coatings.
Pomerantz, M., et al., Pon, B., Akbari, H., and Chang, S. C. ( 2000) Reflective surfaces for cooler buildings
and cities, in Philosophical Magazine B.. p. 1457–1476.
Prado, R.T.A. and F.L. Ferreira, (2005). Measurement of albedo and analysis of its influence the surface
temperature of building roof materials Energy and Buildings. 37: p. 295–300.
Ramachandran, V.S., et al., Handbook of Thermal Analysis of Construction Materials, V.S. Ramachandran,
Editor. (2002), Noyes Publications / William Andrew Publishing Norwich.
Sulaiman, F.R., P. Brimblecombe, and C.M. Grossi, (2009) Mobilization and loss of elements from roofing
tiles. Environ Geol, 58: p. 795–801.
Synnefa, A., M. Santamouris, and I. Livada (2006) A study of the thermal performance of reflective
coatings for the urban environment Solar Energy. 80: p. 968–981.
Taha, H., D. Sailor, and H. Akbari, (1992) High-Albedo Materials for Reducing Building Cooling Energy
Use. Lawrence Berkeley Lab: Berkeley, CA.
Uemoto, K.L., N.M.N. Sato, and V.M. John, (2010) Estimating thermal performance of cool colored
paintsEnergy and Buildings 42: p. 17–22.
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Conditioning Loads. Energy Sources. 15: p. 59- 66.
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Research Article
Thermal Insulation Boards from Camel’s Foot (Piliostigma Thonningii L.)
Leave Fibres for Lagging Application A. Musa1, A. Raji2 and M.A. Hassan*2
National Space Research and Development Agency, Abuja1, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Modibbo Adama University of Technology, Yola2
ARTICLE INFO
Article history
Received: 12/10/2016
Accepted: 02/12/2016
A b s t r a c t
There has been a growing enthusiasm for renewable and biodegradable
thermal insulation materials motivated by the need for energy conservation,
global warming and environmental impact of the waste product after their
useful life. The synthetic thermal insulation materials currently in use have
some negative effects on human health and environment; which necessitated a
search for alternative materials from plants and agro-fibres. The potentials of
Camel’s foot (Piliostigma thonningii L.), a leguminous plant growing
abundantly as a wild uncultivated plant resource in many parts of Nigeria was
investigated. The leave fibres of the plant were prepared in form of insulation
boards of thickness of 10, 20, 30 40 and 50mm using natural rubber latex as a
binder. The ratio of the fibres to the binder in the composition was 1:1, 1:2,
1:3 and 1:4. To determine the suitability of the boards, density, water
absorption, thermal conductivity, specific heat and thermal diffusivity were
studied. The results of analysis of variance (ANOVA) show that both the
composition and thickness level have significant effect on the density which
was found to increases as the binder part in the composition increases and it
ranges between 388.5kg/m3 and 608.7kg/m3 over thickness level of 10-
50mm. The percentage water absorption of the boards differs significantly as
binder is increased in the composition with the values ranging between 42.04
and 6.02%. The thermal conductivity values are between 0.020091W/mK
while the specific heat capacity values are between 2044.46J/kg.K and
3656.48J/kg.K. The ANOVA of the thermal conductivity suggest that there is
insignificant difference between the boards as binder is increased in the
composition while the thickness affected the thermal conductivity
significantly. It was concluded that the Piliostigma thonningii fibre boards
offer a great potential for use as thermal insulation products having recorded
thermal conductivity that is comparable to that of the commercially available
products and published research data on biodegradable thermal insulation
from plants and Agricultural by-products.
© Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability. All rights reserved.
Camel’s foot, insulation boards, lagging applications, leave fibres, specific heat, thermal conductivity.
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1. Introduction
In recent time, there has been high increase in the locally fabricated refrigerators, ice-making machines,
cold storage rooms and ice coolers as a means of getting cold drinks and beverages and for the storage of
perishable food items such as fish, meat, fruits and vegetables for commercial purposes. In the fabrication
of these refrigerators and cold storage rooms, large quantities of thermal insulation materials are required.
The use of the thermal insulation materials is regarded as one of the effective means of energy conservation.
Thus, thermal insulation materials play an important role in achieving energy efficiency resulting in
decrease in the cost of cooling/heating as well as decrease in the environmental pollution (Bhatia, 2011;
Tangjuank, 2011).
In Nigeria, the electricity sector is currently experiencing a serious crisis. With a population of over 140
million, the country generates only about 5000MW which is grossly inadequate to keep up with the demand
(United Nations Development Program {UNDP}, 2010). The epileptic supply of electricity has forced
Nigerians to locally fabricate refrigerators and cold storage rooms for commercial use. But the operators of
these systems rely on diesel and petrol generators as the primary or back-up source of electricity to power
them which is not only expensive but a source of environmental pollution. Moreover, substantial amount of
the energy generated is wasted in these systems because they are either un-insulated or under-insulated.
Manohar (2013) highlighted that in the low temperature insulation technology, low cost foam and
polystyrene are the most extensively used. He noted that continuous research has perfected the manufacture
and utilization of these materials for specialized applications which covers clothing, industrial and
residential buildings, refrigerators and ice-coolers. Hence, Ugwu and Ogbonnaya (2012) also proposed to
use the same materials in the design and adaptation of cold storage room for Umudike community and
environs. But the use of these conventional insulation materials have some disadvantages due to the fact
that they are expensive and may have a negative effect on human health and causes environmental pollution
due to non-decomposition abilities after their useful life cycles (Tangjuank and Kumfu, 2011). According to
Berge and Johansson (2012), thermal insulation materials such as polyurethane (PUR) foam are filled with
ozone depleting chlorofluorocarbon (CFC-11) which demanded research on how to replace them in thermal
insulation.
For these reasons, there is need to develop alternative insulation materials for these refrigerators and cold
rooms that will require less energy to produce, inexpensive and environmentally friendly.The application of
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natural fibres has drawn much attention in different engineering fields due to environmental concerns and
the need to conserve energy. The use of natural fibres as insulation materials provides optimistic
environmental profits with regard to ultimate disposability and better use of raw materials (Raju et al,
2012).Thus, a renewable thermal insulation materials from the locally available natural resources (plants)
will significantly reduce the cost of construction of our locally fabricated refrigerators and cold rooms, as
well as enhancing their energy efficiency thereby minimizing the environmental pollution resulting from the
use of diesel and petrol generators. Panyakaew and Fotios (2008) opined that in addition to the health and
environmental benefit, the renewable fibrous thermal insulation materials from plants and agricultural by-
products will generate economic development for farming and rural areas.
However, there have been very few studies on the use of uncultivated plants as insulating materials.
Therefore, this study investigates the potentials of Camel’s foot (Piliostigma thonningii L.), commonly
called “Kargo” in Hausa, which is one of the lignocellulose fibrous plants growing abundantly as a wild
uncultivated tree in many parts of Nigeria such as Zaria, Bauchi, Ilorin, Plateau, Lagos and Abeokuta
(Madara et al, 2010). The investigation of the thermal insulation properties of this plant is aimed at
developing an insulation boards for lagging of cold storage rooms and locally fabricated refrigerators.
Manohar (2013) investigated the thermal insulating ability of natural unprocessed coconut fiber by
comparative method using three (3) laboratory built ice coolers with coconut fiber insulation and compared
with two (2) commercially available coolers; Rubbermaid with foam insulation and polystyrene ice cooler.
The results indicated that the coconut fiber ice coolers performed consistently better than the Rubbermaid
cooler with foam insulation and the performance is comparable to that of the polystyrene ice cooler. The
thermal insulation properties of pineapple leaves were investigated by Tangjuank (2011) in boards form.
The thermal conductivity was found to be between 0.043 and 0.039 W/mK. He concluded that the thermal
insulation boards produced from the pineapple leaves fiber exhibited a considerably good thermal
insulation. Tangjuank and Kumfu (2011) also investigated thermal and physical properties of particle board
from Papyrus leaves fibres (Typha angustifoliaL.) as thermal insulation. The boards thermal conductivities
obtained are between 0.0296 and 0.0304W/mK which is lower than that of the commercial insulation
materials except polyurethane. Panyakaew and Fotios (2008) investigated the potentials of using
agricultural waste materials as thermal insulation focusing on six (6) agricultural wastes; rice hulls, coconut
husk, bagasse, corn cob, durian peel and oil palm leaves. They concluded that rice hulls, bagasse and
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coconut husk offer greatest potentials for manufacturing into thermal insulation products as their properties
can be compared with that of the conventional insulation materials. The thermal conductivity of the oil palm
fibre as investigated by Manohar (2012) ranged between 0.05550W/mK to 0.05784W/mK which is a good
thermal insulator. Marian (2010) investigated the thermal conductivity of straw, the result was found to be
between 0.053 and 0.061W/mK. Paiva et al. (2012) carried out a parametric thermal insulation study of the
corn cob particles board in which the impact of its thickness on its thermal insulation performance was
investigated and the thermal conductivity value of 0.101W/moC was recorded.
Kozlowski et al. (2008) developed flexible, nonwoven environmental friendly thermal insulation composite
as filling material and as a facing for housing and transport using hemp fibre, flax fibre and wool. The
developed nonwoven composite has excellent insulation performance due to the optimal thermal
conductivity value of 0.043W/mK.Luamkanchanaphan, Chotikaprakhan and Jarusombati (2012) studied the
physical, mechanical and thermal properties of insulation boards from Narrow-leaved Cattail fibres. The
results show that the boards have good physical and mechanical properties with thermal conductivity values
ranging between 0.0438 and 0.0606W/mK which indicate excellent insulating ability for energy savings and
are environmentally friendly.
2. Methodology
2.1 Materials
The major raw material for this work is the leaves of Camel’s foot (Piliostigma thonningii L.) which were
collected from Girei Local Government Area of Adamawa State, Nigeria. Other materials include sodium
hydroxide (NaOH), distilled Water and Pre-treated natural rubber latex all of analytical grade obtained
from Northern Scientific chemicals shop in Yola, Nigeria.
2.2 Materials Preparation and Moulding
The major raw material, that is the leaves of Camel’s foot (Piliostigma thonningii L.) were mercerized
using 5%w/v Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) solution at room temperature for 24 hours to soften the fibres.
The fibres were thoroughly rinsed in a fresh tap water and air dried. The dried samples were ground into
small particle sizes using a commercial grinder. Five (5) rectangular wooden moulds or forming boxes of
sizes 200mm by 200mm were constructed with different thicknesses of 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50mm. A
required quantity of the fibreand the binder was charged into a rotating mixer and continuously mixed until
the particles were thoroughly impregnated with the resin and the mixture was then poured into the mould.
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A force of 0.25kN was applied to ensure even settling of the product and was allowed to cure under the
sun. Four (4) types of boards were produced from each mould with particles to binder ratios of 1:1, 1:2,
1:3 and 1:4. After forming, the board were then cut into various test samples.
2.3 Test
To determine the suitability of the particleboards for insulation, the thermal properties are of prime
importance. But other physicaland thermo physical properties are also significant. Hence, the following
tests were conducted on the particle boards.
2.3.1 Density
The densities of the boards were determined in accordance with the American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM) C303-02 (Standard test method for dimensions and density of preformed block and
board type thermal insulation) (ASTM, 2004). From each of the boards prepared, four (4) specimens of
60mm x 60mm were cut. The thickness, length and the width were measured in three (3) different
locations, generally near the four corners of each specimen and the average of each was determined and
recorded.
The volume of each specimen was calculated using equation 1.
Volume (m3) = length (mm) x width (mm) x thickness (mm) x 10-9 (1)
Each specimen was weighed using a digital weighing balance and the mass recorded. The density of each
specimen was then calculated using equation 2
(2)
2.3.2 Water Absorption
The water absorption test was conducted according to ASTM D1037 (water absorption test method A)
(ASTM, 2004). The specimens used in the determination of the density were used since their masses and
volumes were recorded.The water absorption was expressed as the percentage increase in volume based on
the volume before submersion. The specific gravity of the water was assumed to be 1.0 for this purpose.
2.3.3 Thermal Conductivity
The thermal conductivity of the boards was determined in accordance with ASTM C518-02 (Standard Test
Method for Steady –State Thermal Transmission Properties by Means of the Heat Flow Meter Apparatus)
(ASTM, 2004).The equipment used for the test was Armfield HT10XC Heat Transfer Service Unit and
HT11C Computer Compatible Linear Heat Conduction Accessory. From each of the boards, four (4)
specimens were cut in form of a disc of diameter (d) 25±1mm and the thickness (Δx) was measured and
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recorded. A specimen was clamped tightly in between two faces of heated and cooled brass sections, the
heater voltage (V) was set to 10 volts and the heater current (I) was read from the console and recorded.
After HT11C was stabilised, the temperatures T1, T2, T3, T6, T7 and T8 were also read and recorded from
the console display. Where T1, T2 and T3 are the thermocouples connected to the heating section of the
instrument and T6, T7 andT8 are those connected to the cold section of the instrument.
For each set of readings, the derived results were tabulated under the following headings; heat flow Q = IV,
cross sectional area /4, temperature of hot face (Thot)and cold face (Tcold).
Where
(3)
(4)
The temperature difference across the specimen was determined as
(5)
The thermal conductivity (k) of the specimen was calculated using Fourier rate equation as
(6)
3.3.4 Specific Heat
The specific heat test was conducted according to ASTM C351-92b (Standard test method for mean
specific heat of thermal insulation) (ASTM, 2004).
3.3.5 Thermal Diffusivity
The thermal diffusivity of the material was calculated using equation 7 (Cengel, 2008) as shown
(7)
Where; are the thermal conductivity, density and the specific heat of the material respectively as
obtained from the experiments on thermal conductivity, density and specific heat.
3.0 Results and Discussions
3.1 Density
Figure 1 present the average densities of the boards. It reveals that the densities at fibre to binder ratio of
1:1 is between 388.5kg/m3 and 528.6 kg/m3 over thickness range of 10-50mm, for 1:2, the density is
between 528.1kg/m3 and 572.9kg/m3 and for 1:3, it is from 534.4kg/m3 to 591.8kg/m3 while for 1:4, the
density is between 538.4kg/m3 and 608.7kg/m3 over the thickness range of 10-50mm. It is observed that the
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board’s densities increase as the part of the binder in the ratio of the binder to the fibre increases in the
composition. This may be as result of increase in fluidity of the binder which flows to close the air pores
between the fibres on the surfaces of the board, in addition to the fact that lignocellulose fibres have lower
densities compared to polymeric materials; therefore, increasing the binder in the composition will reflect
increase in density which is in agreement with the studies of Tangjuank and Kumfu (2011).The results of
the analysis of variance for leaves fibre boards at 95% confidence level show that the composition (fibre to
binder ratio) as well as the thickness has significant effect on the boards’ densities.
Figure 1: Relationship of density and Composition at different thickness levels
3.2 Percentage Water Absorption
The results of average water absorption of the boards at fibre to binder ratio of 1:1, 1:2, 1:3 and 1:4 are
presented in figure 2. The results indicate that at fibre to binder ratio of 1:1, the water absorption is between
43.28 and 15.25% over the thickness range of 10-50mm. At 1:2, it is between 27.25 and 11.63%, and at 1:3,
it is between 27.21 and 9.26% while for 1:4 average water absorption of 21.12 to 6.02% was obtained over
the same thickness range of 10-50mm.The results of analysis of variance for percentage water absorption
show that there is significant difference in percentage water absorption of the boards as binder ratio in the
composition increases. But on the other hand, the result shows that the thickness has no significant effects
on the percentage water absorption.
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Figure 2: Percentage water absorption at different compositions
From the figure, it can be seen that the percentage water absorption decreases as the binder to fibre ratio
increases. Thus, it can be deduced from the figures 1 and 2 that the percentage water absorption is inversely
proportional to the density. This is because the lower density boards have higher voids and pores as a result
absorbed more moisture. In addition, natural fibres derived from lignocellulose are hydrophilic in nature
which contain strongly polarized group, thus, increasing the quantity of the fibre in a composition increases
the percentage of water absorption (Rakeshet al, 2011).
3.3 Thermal Conductivity
Figures 3 present the results of thermal conductivity of the boards at various compositions. The thermal
conductivity values at 1:1 vary between 0.022928W/mK and 0.082551W/mK over a thickness range of 10-
50mm. At 1:2, the values are between 0.02009 and 0.088313W/mK, and for 1:3 it is between 0.023931 and
0.082451W/mK while at 1:4 the values ranges from 0.017961 to 0.080971W/mK. Hence, the lowest
thermal conductivity value occurs at 1:4; 10mm while the highest thermal conductivity occurs at 1:2;
50mm.
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Figure 3: Comparison of thermal conductivity at different composition
The results of the analysis of variance for thermal conductivity show that there is no significant relationship
between the composition and thermal conductivity of the boards. While on the other hand, the change in
thickness has a significant effect on the thermal conductivity
3.4 Specific heat
Figure 4 presents the results of specific heat of the boards at different fibre to binder ratios. The results
show that the boards have specific heat values of 2901.88J/kg.K to 3656.48J/kg.K as the composition of
fibre to binder ratio increases from 1:1 to 1:4. The results of analysis of variance for the leaves fibre boards
show that the binder ratio in the composition has a significant effect on the specific heat values of the
boards.
Figure 4:Specific heat versus Composition
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3.5 Thermal Diffusivity
Figure 5 shows the thermal diffusivity values at fibre to binder ratio of 1:1, 1:2, 1:3 and 1:4. The thermal
diffusivity values are between 2.03E-8m2/s and 8.07E-8m2/s. From the Figure, it can be observed that the
thermal diffusivity decreases as portion of binder in the fibre to binder ratio increases. This signifies that
the thermal diffusivity is inversely proportional to the density.The results of analysis of variance for
thermal diffusivity show that there is significant difference in thermal diffusivity of the boards as the binder
ratio in the composition increases.
Figure 5:Comparison of Thermal diffusivity at different composition
4.0 Conclusion
From the results obtained, it can be concluded that the Piliostigma thonningii fibre boards offer a great
potential for use as thermal insulation products having recorded thermal conductivity values that are
comparable to that of the commercially available products and published research data on biodegradable
thermal insulation from plants and Agricultural by-products.
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