of medieval and renaissance periods - human kinetics€¦ · of medieval and renaissance periods...

THE SPORT AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION HERITAGE OF POLAND: A STUDY

OF MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE PERIODS

Teresa Ziolkowska*

Poznan Academy o f Physical Education Posnan Poland

Sport and physical education i n modern Poland i s pronounced and has f a r reaching impl icat ionsin the nation's quest f o r v i t a l i t y . Aside from in ternat iona l sport successes, many o f them wel l known t o the fol lowers o f sport the world over, modern Poland can a t tes t t o a system o f physical education which provides s ign i f i cant services t o the country i n the areas o f health, f i tness, recreation, tourism, teacher t ra in ing, and competitive a th le t i cs a t a l l levels. This modern day status, i n part, evolved from an ancient heritage established i n i t i a l l y during Poland's Medieval and Renaissance Periods. An invest igat ion o f these two areas o f Pol ish h i s to ry proves tha t the nation's ancient Slavic and succeeding Chr ist ian cul tures were act ive i n thought and deed towards sport and physical education i n t h e i r broadest connotations. For t h i s reason, Poland's sport and physical education past i s worthy o f investigation.

THE MIDDLE AGES

As elsewhere i n ancient Europe, the or ig ins and development o f physical a c i t i v i t y and sport i n Poland were conditioned by both nat ive and foreign influences. Simi lar ly , the physical a c t i v i t y and sport heritage o f Poland evolved as a component part d f the general culture. Before the introduct ion o f Chr is t ian i ty i n the second h a l f o f the 10th century, forms o f physical education and sport i n Poland were manifestations o f ancient Slavic forms o f physical exercises. Such forms re f lec ted various mar t i a l exercises, games o f motion, and dance, some patterns o f which survived f o r many centuries a f t e r the acceptance o f ~ h r i s t i a n i t y . 1

I n terns o f dance, Poland's Medieval Period can a t tes t t o the fol lowing assessment. The Polanians' (a pre-Christian Slavic t r i b e occupying the area of modern Poznan) word fo r dance was pla_sy, a term o r i g ina l l y connoting "rhythmic handclapping." Plas was practiced and performed ch ie f l y by young g i r l s a t annual feasts d k i ) , a t family r i t e s , and also fo r personal amusement. I t i s probable that ear ly Pol ish t r i bes were no strangers t o "manly dances," ak in t o the 'Isword dances" o f Slovenia and the "dance o f the robbers1' indigenous t o the Tatra Mountain people. Instead o f u t i l i z i n g a sword, the Tatka people wielded a ciupaqi, a form o f walkingstick w i th a tomahawk-like handle. A t times the "robbers' dancew was ca l led igranie.2 The a r r i v a l o f Chr is t ian i ty i n Poland d i d l i t t l e t o curb already established forms o f dance, i n fact, i t may have stimulated the phenomenon. As i n most

+Professor Ziokowska's a r t i c l e was translated and edited i n t o English from i t s o r i g i n a l Pol ish by Kenneth Papmehl, Professor Emeritus o f Russian Studies, and

Robert Knight Barney, Professor of Physical Education, both of t h e University o f Western Ontario.

Western European cu l tu res , dance was e a s i l y t rans fe r red from pre-Christian t o Chris t ian soc ie t ies .3 Dance i n ea r ly Polish Chris t ian society took place i n royal courts , t r a v e l e r s ' inns, and, t o the dismay of t h e Papal Nuncios, i n churches and cemeteries.4 Much of t h e function of dance i n the Pol ish Medieval Period aimed a t expression of re l ig ious feeling. Dance became an i n t e g r a l par t of re l ig ious r i t u a l and, a s i n ancient China, India, and t h e Islamic world, it was rapidly incorporated i n t o t h e l i tu rgy of t h e Catholic church. Gyrating t o dance rhythms, the f a i t h f u l led re l ig ious processions. The evolution of dance within the rubr ic of Roman Catholicism emanated from pagan custom which d i rec ted t h a t i ts Gods be worshipped through t h e medium of dance. I n i t i a l l y , church councils did not object t o dancing, but a s time went on they were aroused a t times when the a c t i v i t y demonstrated excessive carnal qua l i t i es . The embedded pagan q u a l i t i e s of dance proved t o be enduring, and the church, i n combatting such charac te r i s t i cs , was forced periodical ly, and i n t h e end, t o abandon l i t u r g i c a l dancing altogether.5

Other a c t i v i t i e s of a rec rea t ive and competitive nature appeared among Polish peo l e during the Medieval Period. One such a c i t i v i t y was footracing.g Footraces a r e mentioned by several l i t e r a r y chroniclers of 12th century Polish his tory. Among such chroniclers , the master Wincenty ~adlubek' i s t h e f i r s t t o note footracing. Kadlubekts statement, "Thus, two poor young men of most i n f e r i o r o r i g i n match the swif tness of t h e i r fee t , " i s but one au then t i f i ca t ion of footracing ac t iv i ty .8 Aside from footracing, wrest l ing, too, appeared t o enjoy some success a s a sport a c t i v i t y i n Polish Medieval society. Wrestling was re fe r red t o a s zapasy, the l i t e r a l t r a n s l a t i o n of which means "by t h e waise," re fe r r ing t o t h e chief grappling movement required i n t h e sport.9

However, it was t h e spor t of horseracing which must be accorded recognition a s t h e supreme sport ing i n t e r e s t of t h e period. In ancient Poland t h e importance of horseracing was such t h a t the winner of a race might well be proclaimed King. To t h a t end, the master Kadlubek, comments:

'*So we s h a l l choose a racecourse, mark t h e f in i sh , and he whose piebald horse w i l l f i r s t reach it, s h a l l be recognized king .lv10

A statement i n the Wielkopolska Chronicle (Chronicle of Great Poland) advances a s imilar idea a s t o t h e importance of horseracing:

IqAfter t h e death of Lestek (King Lestek) there were several disturbances among t h e people of Lechite (Lestek's kingdom). Seeing t h i s , t h e notables, a s well a s t h e people, agreed t o meet a t one place t o consider t h e choice of a ruler . After a l l had convened it was decided by those i n attendance ' t h a t he who w i l l f i r s t gal lop t o the post r id ing a iebald horse s h a l l be universal ly recognized a s k i n g . 1 ~ 8 -

And f i n a l l y , t h e spur, a c r i t i c a l technological development i n the h i s to ry of equ i ta t ion , appeared i n ancient Poland during Roman times, and gives f u r t h e r proof of t h e an t igu i ty of t h e equestr ian t r a d i t i o n i n poland.12

Archaeological recovery ind ica tes t h a t i n ancient Poland some forms of winter s p o r t and recreat ion a c t i v i t y was present. Young people gl ided on ska tes constructed of bones. Their e l d e r s used bone and wooden-runnered ska tes t o f a c i l i t a t e movement over frozen lakes and r ivers . Sleighs constructed with bone and wooden runners were a l s o used a s means of conveyance.

Childrensl play is a r i c h a r e a of invest igat ion f o r t h e examiner of Medieval Pol ish sport . Children played with various toys , some of which have been recovered i n archaeological a c t i v i t y a t Poznan, Wolin, Opole, and Gniezno. Animals sculpted from wood (Opole and Wolin), wooden d o l l s (Wolin), miniature copies of various too ls and u t e n s i l s , such a s small boats made of t r e e bark, t i n y axes and s c i s s o r s (Gniezno), and wooden r a t t l e s , marbles, and board pieces (Opole), a l l a t t e s t t o t h e chi ldrens ' games legacy.

Adults and chi ldren a l i k e played a t d i c e games and a t various board games incorporat ing a variety of board pieces. The metatarsal bones of cows, goats , and sheep, a l l with holes bored i n them, were used a s dice. Often, t h e holes were f i l l e d with lead, presumably t o make them a b i t heavier f o r a t r u e r cas t . Specimens of t h i s nature were found a t Gniezno. In the 11th century, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n l a r g e r Polish communities, people played a game s imi la r t o modern-day checkers. This i s authent icated by t h e playing pieces made of horn and decorated with small c i r c l e s found a t Gniezno, Poznan, and Szczecin. The semi-circular heads of hipbones, rounded of f and with holes bored through t h e i r cen te rs , probably served a s marbles, and perhaps a s board-play pieces (Wolin and Gniezno) .13

A concern f o r personal hygience i n the l i v e s of ancient Poles is cause f o r t h e inves t iga t ion i n t o t h e Pol ish custom of bathing during Medieval times. Bathing is important a s being but one canponent i n an assessment of Poland's ancient physical cul ture. Evidence per t inen t t o a bathing phenomena e x i s t i n g i n soc ie ty is found i n both l t e r a r y and archaeological sources. Such evidence supports the f a c t t h a t ancient Poles b u i l t and frequented bathhouses, a s o c i a l phenomenon possibly inher i t ed from ancient Roman influence.

Steambaths encountered i n ancient Poland were described i n t h e 10th centurey by t h e North African merchant Ibrahim-ibn-Yakub. Also, t h e l i t e r a r y observations of A 1 Bekri and mas'udi mention t h e incidence of steambaths among S l a v i c peoples of old Poland. Testimony such a s t h a t of t h e Arab merchants noted above has been confirmed by archaeology through the discovery of various appointments (implements) f o r the maintance of personal hygiene. An extremely important example of t h i s point was a discovery a t Gniezno i n 1938, where remains of a steambath dating t o t h e 10th century were uncovered. Archaeological work carr ied on i n d iverse locat ions i n Poland confirms t h e f a c t t h a t such baths were i n general use i n v i l l ages , a s well a s i n l a r g e r towns and c i t i e s . Originally, holes dug i n the ground and f i l l e d with water, i n t o which people lowered themselves, served a s rudimentary baths. During a l a t e r period, steambaths were accommodated i n wooden s t r u c t u r e s with s tone

f l o o r s . A furnance made of s tone r e s t e d on t h e f l o o r . The fu rnace was f i r e d u n t i l t h e s tone f l o o r s became very ho t . Af t e r ex t ingu i sh ing t h e f i r e the ho t s tone f l o o r was doused with water, c r e a t i n g a s t e a m f i l l e d bathhouse. Bathers flogged themselves with b i r c h and willow switches t o br ing t h e blood t o t h e su r face o f t h e s k i n , o r t o induce sweating. A t t h e conclus ion o f t h e ba th , ba the r s poured c o l d water over t h e i r bodies. Archaeological excavat ion c a r r i e d o u t a t t h e a n c i e n t Slav se t t l emen t s i t e o f Biskupin proved t h a t he rbs were o f t e n used i n t h e bathing process.

In l a t e Medieval t imes t h e cons t ruc t ion and ope ra t ion o f steambaths came t o be c o n t r o l l e d by s p e c i a l c h a r t e r s designed t o ensu re p r o f i t t o t h e d i s t r i c t o r v i l l a g e e l d e r s . This con t r ibu ted t o t h e steambaths becoming a common phenomenon dur ing Po l i sh Medieval times. For example, i n 1308 Poznan had one such steambath by t h e Bogdanka River , a s wel l a s e leven o t h e r qtcommercial" wooden bathhouses i n va r ious d i s t r i c t s o f t h e c i ty .14 Likewise, i n t h e 14 th century , Cracow could boast of e leven pub l i c ba ths i n a d d i t i o n t o a nunber of p r i v a t e baths.15 With t h e passage o f time, showers and bathtubs came t o be i n s t a l l e d i n bathhouses. Cold water was suppl ied through p ipes , while hot water heated i n b o i l e r s was brought i n buckets. Trained masseurs rubbed customer's bodies wi th vodka and scented soap, and engaged i n t h e f l o y g n g process. Steambath f lou r i shed i n Poland u n t i l we l l i n t o t h e 1 8 t h century.

With t h e acceptance o f C h r i s t i a n i t y , Poland en te red t h e sphere of t h e ex tens ion of Mediterranean c i v i l i z a t i o n t o Europe. I t s i n f l u e n c e was dramat ic and manifested i t s e l f i n a number o f ways p e r t i n e n t t o t h e broad a r e a s of s p o r t and phys ica l educat ion, n o t t h e l e a s t important o f which was t h e custom of chival ry .17 A s i n o t h e r European coun t r i e s , t h e p r i n c i p a l t a s k o f kn igh t s was t h e armed defense of t h e realm. The p repa ra t ion f o r t h i s t a s k was achieved through t r a i n i n g i n phys ica l exe rc i se s . Chron ic l e r s of Po l i sh h i s t o r y a f t e r t h e 1 2 t h century mention t h i s f a c t f r equen t ly . Among them, Kadlubek draws a t t e n t i o n t o t h e e a r l y upbringing o f P r ince Lestko.18

"In t h e meantime, P r ince Lestko grew i n y e a r s and wisdom. As a youth he p rac t i ced hunt ing t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t h i s s t r e n g t h permit ted . He soon acquired no mean s k i l l i n t h i s and was eager t o handle weapons. And, a l though he was no t y e t even a s h i e l d b e a r e r , l e t a lone a f u l l y f ledged knight , he d isplayed commendable kn igh t ly q u a l i t i e s a t an e a r l y age.1119

The g ran t ing o f knighthood and t h e admission t o t h e kn igh t ly rank was usua l ly accompanied by much pomp and circumstance. The i n i t i a t i o n o f Pr ince I(onrad i n t o t h e o r d e r o f Knighthood, a s descr ibed i n t h e Wielkopolska Chronicles, s e rves a s an example:

"Anno Domini 1252, on t h e Day o f S t . Stephen, t h e Glor ious F i r s t Martyr. While t h e Bishop o f Poznan, Boguchwal, was c e l e b r a t i n g a solemn mass i n h i s Poznan church, t h e noble P r ince of Wielkopolska, Przemyslaw, honored h i s son-in-law Konrad, t h e P r ince o f Glogow, with a b e l t and a sword o f chivalry."20

I n Poland, j ous t ing tournaments were n o t a s grand and magif icent a s they were i n Western Europe. ,Compet i t ions were held on bo th f o o t and horseback "with s h a r p weapons." As i n Western European coun t r i e s , by t h e 1 6 t h cen tu ry such tournaments assumed a mi lde r form. They included compet i t ions involving suspended r i n g s ( t o be p i e rced wi th a l ance ) , and r a c i n g f o r Turkish heads ( r e f e r r i n g t o a rush with s a b e r s a t dunmy-like resemblances o f t h e hated Turks). Simple compet i t ions such a s throwing s t o n e s , foo t r aces , jumping, e t c . , a l s o took place . Among knights , e q u i t a t i o n and fencing were t h e f a v o r i t e forms o f exerc ise .21

The d i s t i n g u i s h e d 1 6 t h cen tu ry popular P o l i s h writer Stanis law Orzechowski, i n a l e t t e r t o t h e k ing e n t i t l e d . "The F a i t h f u l Sub jec t , " desc r ibed t h e kn igh t ly e s t a t e perhaps more p e c u l i a r t o Poland:

"The Po l i sh kn igh t s a r e heard n o t i n t h e c a s t l e , but i n t h e f i e l d ; n o t a t dances, b u t a t the bat t lements ; t k y wear no t masks, bu t helmets , no t a t banquets, b u t I n b a t t l e s where they spend t h e i r t ime se rv ing t h e king and h i s whole realm; who wake n o t with t h e i r f e e t f o r dancing, but t o t h e trumpet c a l l f o r a ski rmish; who do no t t h i n k of how t o p l e a s e a maiden, bu t how t o f i g h t t h e enemy a t dawn.la22

Compulsory m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e favored t h e constant r a i s i n g o f t h e l e v e l o f phys ica l f i t n e s s , not o f t h e n o b i l i t y a lone , but a l s o of a lower s o c i a l s t r a t a . Peasan t s and townsmen p a r t i c p a t e d i n major m i l i t a r y campaigns, forming detachments of bowmen, cross-bowmen, and slingmen. They performed a u x i l a r y s e r v i c e s and played an important r o l e du r ina s i e a e s and i n t h e storming and defense o f - c i t i e s . 'The Wielkopolska -Chronicle f r equen t ly emphasizes t h e r o l e s played by such a u x i l a r i e s :

"The Pomorzans (Pomeranians r e s i d i n g ad jacen t t o t h e B a l t i c Sea) s topped f e t c h i n g t h e l o g s and, under t h e cover o f t h e i r s h i e l d s , began t h e a s s a u l t u s ing s t a v e s and o t h e r implements, while sl ingmen threw s t o n e s and hur l ed p r o j e c t i l e s from smal l mach ine~ .~*23

Besides a rche ry p r a c t i c e , shoo t ing arrows from a cross-bow, foo t r ac ing and jumping, and forms o f o r b i c u l a r dances accompanied by songs (Korowody) were r e l a t i v e l y widespread, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e coun t rys ide o r more r u r a l regions . Occasional ly , evidence i n t h e form of municipal laws pointed a t t h e e x i s t e n c e of games and s p o r t i n Po l i sh s o c i e t y . A Wis l i cz S t a t u t e o f mid-14th century t imes permit ted games which served " to spend time i n r e c r e a t i o n and e x e r c i s e . "24

Po l i sh c i t i e s were o f t e n concerned about defense o f bu i ld ings , people, and property. Following t h e example of t h e i r Western coun te rpa r t s , Po le s formed s p e c i a l a s s o c i a t i o n s c a l l e d ~8Brotherhoods of Marksmen." P o l i s h k ings apprec ia t ed t h e use fu lness o f such a s s o c i a t o n s f o r t h e coun t ry ' s defense , and

w i l l i n g l y confirmed them c h a r t e r s and granted them s p e i c a l p r i v i l e g e s . For in s t ance , t h e S i l e s i a n P r ince Boleslaw I confirmed t h e c h a r t e r o f t h e Brotherhood o f Marksmen o f Swidnica i n S i l e s i a and "himself took p a r t when t h e Swidnicians sho t arrows a t a b i r d a t t ached t o t h e top o f a high p0le.~*25 The o l d e s t brotherhoods were t h o s e i n Cracow, Warsaw, Lwow, Poznan, and ~ a l i s z . ~ ~ Brotherhood a s s o c i a t i o n s organized compet i t ions i n archery and cross-bow shoot ing, and i n l a t e r t imes , i n arquebus and musket marksmanship. Compet i t iors vied f o r p r i z e s provided by town and c i t y admin i s t r a to r s . Such compet i t ions were q u i t e f r equen t , t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t they amounted t o a form o f r e g u l a r t r a i n i n g o r school ing i n marksmanship. The most s i g n i f i c a n t of a l l compet i t ions f o r marksmen was t h a t organized annual ly on Whit Sudnay, which granted t h e winner who knocked down a wooden r o o s t e r t h e t i t l e of "Rooster King." More s i g n i f i c a n t t han t h e acclaim accorded t h e "Rooster King," was t h e f a c t t h a t he was absolved from paying municipal taxes.Z7

Poland, l oca ted on t h e per iphery o f La t in c u l t u r e , developed a l e v e l of indulgence i n phys ica l e x e r c i s e s o f a s p o r t and phys ica l educat ion na tu re s l i g h t l y below t h a t l e v e l experienced i n Western European c o u n t r i e s dur ing t h e Medieval Age. The upper c l a s s e s o f Po l i sh s o c i e t y q u i t e r ap id ly a s s imi l a t ed Western European c u l t u r e , two a s p e c t s o f which were ene rg ie s and a c t i v i t i e s of a s p o r t and phys ica l educat ion cha rac te r . Assimilated Western European c u l t u r a l values and in f luences were p r imar i ly German, o f t e n reaching Poland through t h e in t e rmar r i age o f Po l i sh p r i n c e s and German women o f roya l ty . This was e s p e c i a l l y t r u e o f t h e c o u r t s o f S i l e s i a n p r inces o f t h e P i a s t dynasty.

The jous t ing tournaments of P o l i s h knights d i f f e r e d somewhat from t h e i r Western c o n t e r p a r t s i n t h a t they d i d no t assume o r r e f l e c t a magnificent o r r e f ined form of ch iva l rous e legance and poe t i c - l ike expression. I f j ous t ing i n Poland s tood i n less s o p h i s t i c a t e d s t a n c e than i n Western Europe, t h e a r t of hunting s tood i n much h ighe r regard . I n Poland, a considerably l a r g e r game animal e x i s t e d than those normally seen i n Western Europe, t h u s c a l l i n g f o r a g r e a t e r degree of courage, s k i l l , and s t r e n g t h t o be exer ted dur ing t h e hunt Large animals hunted i n Medieval Poland were t h e auroch, b ison, and bear.

And f i n a l l y , t h e n o b i l i t y o f Poland r e t a ined t h e i r dominant p o s i t i o n i n Po l i sh s o c i e t y longer than i n most o t h e r coun t r i e s . The p o s i t i o n o f n o b i l i t y i n t h e power s t r u c t u r e o f t h e na t ion , i n f a c t , depended on t h e a b i l i t y o f an ind iv idua l t o ru l e . P a r t of t h e developmental process , i n t h a t regard , was a form o f physical educat ion. Thus, t h e process o f phys ica l educat ion f o r ch iva l ry endured longer i n Poland than i n c o u n t r i e s elsewhere i n Europe.

THE RENAISSANCE

By t h e Renaissance Per iod o f European h i s t o r y , Poland had come t o e x h i b i t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a c u l t u r a l l y developed nat ion. Poland maintained l i v e l y con tac t s with Germany, France and I t a l y , t h e c e n t e r s of Southern and Western European Renaissance development. Po le s were o f t e n motivated t o v i s i t such c e n t e r s f o r both commercial and s c h o l a r l y reasons. Among those Poles who s tud ied i n I t a l y , f o r i n s t ance , were t h e s c i e n t i s t , Nicholas Copernicus, t h e poet , Jan Kochanowski, and t h e writer, Lukasz Gornicki. Kochanowski a l s o spent a per iod of time i n France where he maintained c l o s e c o n t a c t with P i e r r e

de Ronsair and h i s l i t e r a r y associates . Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski, the most renowned Polish p o l i t i c a l writer of the times, establ ished a personal scholar ly contact with Martin Luther and P h i l i p Melanchthon. Conversely, many Western European sci i j lars and a r t i s t s o f meri t s e t t l e d o r v i s i t e d i n Poland. For example, t h e I t a l i a n humanist, F i l ippo Buonacorsi Callimachos, a t u t o r t o roya l sons, took up residence i n Cracow. The famous Renaissance pa in te r , W i t S toss , o r i g i n a l l y from Nuremberg, a l s o l ived and worked i n Cracow. The German humanist, Konrad Cel t ius stayed i n Cracow f o r an extended period of time, a s did Christopher Hegendorfer i n t h e c i t y of Poznan. m r i n g t h e Renaissance i n Poland t h e royal c a s t l e a t Wawel, and the City Hall i n Poznan were designed and constructed a s a r e s u l t of t h e combined energies of Pol ish and foreign a r t i s t s . 2 8

Renaissance cu l tu re i n Poland re f lec ted both though and prac t ice i n t h e area of physical education. Philosophical views on t h e place of t h e body i n education, a s espoused by I t a l i a n humanists, penetrated Pol ish thinking a s ea r ly a s t h e 16th century. In 1564 Marcin Kwiatkowski t rans la ted i n t o Pol ish t h e noted book by P ie t ro Paulo Vergerio: De In enuis Moribus e t Liberalibus 5 tud i i s29 (On inborn q u a l i t i e s and l i b e r a l s t u i i e s ) . Lukasz Gornicki ably t r a n s l a t e d i n t o Polish the famous work of Baltazar Castiglione 11, Corteqiano, i n which t h e author described and made recommendations f o r the i d e a l education, including physical education, of a young cour t ie r . Gornicki 's book appeared i n 1566 under t h e t i t l e , The Polish Courtier. A t t h e a r i s t o c r a t i c and Episcopal cour t s the works of o ther humanists were read, including those with important overtones f o r t h e ul t imate development of physical education. Of those, the wri t ings of Maffeo Vergio and S i l v i o Piccolomini were the most important.

P a r a l l e l t o viewpoints on t h e r o l e of physical education i n the general education of a youth a s expressed i n I t a l i a n humanist l i t e r a t u r e , the re grew a l s o uniquely Pol i sh thought on t h e subject . Such thought came from t h e voices and pens o f Polish poets, thinkers , physicians, t eachers and mi l i t a ry of f ice rs . Each, from h i s own viewpoint, contributed new ideas and c r e a t i v e enrichments of Pol ish physical education during t h e Renaissance Period.

A s f a r a s wr i te r s and poets were concerned, the foremost place of d i s t i n c t i o n belongs t o Mikolaj Rej (1505-15691, considered t o be "the f a t h e r of Polish l i t e r a t u r e . " Rej was t h e f i r s t nat ive wr i te r t o pen h i s messages i n Polish, r a t h e r than i n the customary Latin. He enjoyed considerable popularity s i n c e he personif ied t h e character of the Pol ish "middle nobility." Rej wrote simply and d i r e c t l y , without t h e schola r ly bombast of t h e more learned humanists.

15th Century Polish Renaissam Knight, Miniature from a Si lesian Municipal Statute a t Slubczyc, 1421 A.D. Drawing by Jan Zylawa.

He expounded h i s views i n h i s noted work Zywot Czlowiera Poczciweqo (The Li fe o f a Decent Man). Written i n 1567, t h e book's message made strong recommendations f o r the precise education of a young Polish nobleman. Observing t h e various s tages of a noble youth's development, from b i r t h t o manhood, Rej advocated a s t r i c t moral upbringing combined with t h e acquis i t ion of physical a t t r i b u t e s such a s a g i l i t y and s trength. Rej praised the knightly q u a l i t i e s which he saw a s being c r i t i c a l i n t h e making of a nobleman and worthy so ld ie r . Rej was perhaps most eloquent i n h i s pronounced thoughts on the importance of equ i ta t ion , t h e p rac t ice of marksmanship, hunting, and t h e fu l f i l lment of those demands t h a t endowed a nobleman with a s o l i d mi l i t i a ry e d ~ c a t i o n - ~ o

In expressing h i s views, Rej stood close t o t h e contemporary c i r c l e of mi l i t a ry wr i te r s who, i n t h e i r own l i t e r a r y e f f o r t s on t h e subject of mi l i t a ry theory, demanded t h a t a s o l d i e r be well versed i n a l l of t h e so-called mart ia l a r t s . Chief among t h e mart ia l w r i t e r s was t h e noted mi l i t a ry leader Stanislaw Zolkiewski (1547-16201, whose e p i c work Poczatek i Program Wojnymoskiewskie' (The Beginning and Progress of t h e Muscovite War) wr i t t en i n 1612, l e f t littl: doubt about the importance of physical education i n the preparation of s o l d i e r s t o serve t h e nat ionS3l

It is c e r t a i n t h a t Rej, whose works were popular among t h e landowning c i r c l e of soc ie ty , became i n time a s i g n i f i c a n t inf luence i n bringing humanist l i t e r a t u r e and its regard f o r physical education t o t h e a t t e n t i o n of the cour t s of t h e a r t i s tocracy , indeed, even t h e Royal Court i t s e l f . Thus, a favorable enviromnent exis ted among t h e most i n f l u e n t i a l c l a s s of Pol ish society f o r considerat ion of physical education i n t h e education of young nobi l i ty . King Sigismundus Augustus (1548-1572) displayed spec ia l i n t e r e s t i n physical education. Owing t o h i s patronage and support, t h e previously mentioned Lukasz Gornicki (1527-1625) was appointed t o t h e post of Royal Secretary and Librarian. Immersed i n such a schola r ly and contemplative milieu, Gornicki produced h i s s i g n i f i c a n t work, The Polish Courtier. Gornicki was the f i r s t among Poles t o absorb and fur ther advance the I t a l i a n humanist idea of homo universale ( a Renaissance Man). And, although Gornicki's work l imited i t s e l f t o a representat ion of a man a t cour t , nevertheless, h i s views on education i n genernal became well known i n educated society. Iden t ica l t o t h e homo universale , Gornickils c o u r t i e r , an individual c a s t i n t h e broad connotation of t h e statment: " in h i s face, i n bearing and h i s words," and thus must have **a good shape and bearing of body and well formed p a r t s therof so t h a t s t reng th , leanness, and speed be apparent from h i s s t r ~ c t u r e , ~ * 3 3 leaves l i t t l e doubt a s t o t h e impact o f t h e meaning of Renaissance Man on Polish education. Furthermore, Gornicki pointed out t h a t t h e cour t ie r must excel i n physical a g i l i t y , i n t h e use of weapons, be a b l e t o r i d e with ease and s k i l l , be a good archer, and know t h e a r t of fencing. And f i n a l l y , Gornicki recommended t h a t a t t e n t i o n be paid towards t h e development of s k i l l s i n hunting, hurl ing of s tones, wrestling, jumping, swimming, ballgames, and racing f o r t h e quintain and r ing (galloping on horseback with lance t o t h r u s t a t a t a r g e t i n the form of e i t h e r a suspended r ing o r a mannequin shaped l i k e a human f igure) .33

The most prominent poet of t h e Pol ish Renaissance, Jan Kochamwski

(1530-15841, expressed h i s view on the education o f a young nobleman i n a s im i l a r ve in t o t ha t voiced by Gornicki. Kochanowski emphasized the point tha t "the body and the mind have an understanding between them." Although Kochanowski mentioned the equal i ty between these two s ingular dimensions of consideration i n education, he was apparently concerned wi th the development o f the body over t ha t o f the mind, especia l ly when applied t o the case o f young people. Kochanowskils p r i o r i t y i n t h i s regard i s underscored i n h i s Satires, which were based on h i s ins t ruc t ions t o young nobles:

"Already now get accustomed t o labors and lack of le isure so tha t you may be prepared f o r hard times. Know how t o p u l l the bow and handle weapons well , t o reach the enemy and t o save yourself. Be able t o swim a r i ve r , t o jump a d i t c h smartly, quickly mount a horse and cont ro l him well. Get used t o enduring heat and cold. Be sa t i s f i ed w i th bread and water (meager rat ionsl.34

Kochanowski paid special at tent ion t o exercises he referred t o as "toughening-upn1 ac t i v i t i es , i .e. , equitat ion, wrestling, fencing, archery and hunting. It i s apparent tha t such exercises formed the core f o r the physical education o f young nob i l i t y .

A w r i t e r o f extraordinary note i n Poland's 16th century h is tory was Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski (1503-1572). Thouqh p o l i t i c s were h i s special l i t e r a r y thkme, he d id not ignore the of 'education when he wrote h i s noteworthy t rea t i se De Republica Emendanda (On the Improvement o f the Republic) i n 1551. A chapter en t i t led , "On Schooling," proclaimed the view tha t ~ h v s i c a l exercise was an i n tea ra l oar t o f education. The author recanmknhed several exercises as being the' most important f o r the general development o f the body. They were: horseback r id ing, running, jumping, hur l ing stones and the discus, and b a l l games. Modrzewski believed tha t such exercises increased health and strength, whi le doing no harm t o the bodies o f young children.35

Members o f the medical profession during the Renaissance made signficant contributions t o l i t e r a t u r e concerning strength and v i t a l i t y o f the body. Poland's 16th century physicians were not absent from t h i s group. The most serious contr ibut ion t o the development o f physical education i n Poland by members o f the medical profession was tha t made by the widely educated physician Sebastian Petrycy, an expert i n Ar is to te l ian philosophy, and a t rans la ter o f the venerable sophist's works. Petrycy (1554-1626) advocated simultaneous development o f a ch i ld 's mind and body. he wrote:

lnExercise can be o f two kinds, o f the mind when we t r a i n young people i n learning and philosophy, and o f the body when we t r a i n i t f o r work and e f f o r t w i th the help o f exercises such as wrestling, fencing, discuss-throwing ballgames, hunting, and such.**36

Petrycy favored e x e r c i s e i n t h e open a i r . Fu r the r , h e voiced op in ions on n u t r i t i o n and s l e e p , and warned a g a i n s t excess ive e x e r t i o n , advocating ( a s d i d h i s a n c i e n t Greek models) moderation i n a l l t h ings .

A c o n t r i b u t i o n similar t o t h a t made by Petrycy dur ing t h e Renaissance was t h a t rendered by t h e Po l i sh physic ian/hunanis t Wojciech Oczko (1537-1599). Oczko se rved a s t h e pe r sona l phys ic i an t o two k ings - Ste fan Batory (1576-1586) and Sigismundud I11 (1587-1632). Oczko was a p r o l i f i c writer, and t h e au thor o f numerous medical works. H i s t rea tment of t h e r o l e t h a t phys ica l e x e r c i s e o l a v s i n t h e DroDer maintenance o f ~ e r s o n a l h e a l t h is expressed i n h i s c h i e f work e n t i t l e d , ' De V a r i i s ~ f f e c t i b u s Corpor is Humani (on Various A f f l i c t i o n s o f t h e Human Bodv). w r i t t e n i n 1581. Oczko's ~ r i m a r v cons ide ra t ion l a y i n he t h e r a p e u t i c ' v a l u e o f s p e c i f i c forms o f exe rc i se s . 1; t h a t regard , and drawing l a r g e l y from t h e a u t h o r i t y o f Galen, Oczko considered wres t l i ng , f enc ing , e q u i t a t i o n , w e i g h t l i f t i n g , dancing, and ballgames t o be t h e b e s t and most comprehensive forms o f exercise.37

Phys ica l educat ion i n Renaissance Poland displayed a s i m i l a r development t o t h a t i n Western Europe. P o l i s h t h e o r e t i c a l thought on t h e s u b j e c t of phys ica l educat ion developed i n tune with t h a t o f g r e a t e r Europe. Cer t a in ly P o l i s h humanists weighed t h e s u b j e c t c a r e f u l l y . In only r a r e i n s t a n c e s , however, d id P o l i s h Renaissance t h i n k e r s c o n t r i b u t e new and innova t ive approaches t o - t h e gene ra l t heo ry o f phys ica l educat ion. I n gene ra l , philosophy was l o f t y . P r a c t i c e was considerably less. Trans fe r r ing ph i losph ica l messages on e x e r c i s e and phys ica l educat ion t o p r a c t i c e o f t h e same, f e l l f a r s h o r t o f t h e most conse rva t ive expec ta t ion . For in s t ance , no compulsory programs o f phys ica l educa t ion were in t roduced i n t o t h e g*school c u r r i c u l a , " wherever they e x i s t e d i n P o l i s h educat ion o f t h e times. I s o l a t e d except ions were i n t h e J e s u i t Col leges founded i n Poland a f t e r 1564. In t h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s a form o f phys ica l educat ion was compulsory.

Modern Poland can r e f l e c t w i th some p r i d e on h e r a n c e s t r a l medieval and Renaissance h e r i t a g e i n s p o r t and phys ica l education. Spor t and phys ica l educat ion c e r t a i n l y d id n o t e x i s t i n a vacum. People, nob les and commoner a l i k e , played games f o r pastime amusement and enjoyment, competed i n c o n t e s t s i nvo lv ing q u a l i t i e s o f s k i l l and f i t n e s s development, and pursued e x e r c i s e and h e a l t h p r a c t i c e s which had some r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e i r d a i l y l i v e s . Of t h e l a t t e r , young n o b i l i t y were most a c t i v e . But t h e most c r i t i c a l c o n t r i b u t i o n t o enduring h i s t o r y came from t h e n a t i o n ' s humanist t h inke r s . Even though t h e i r demands went l a r g e l y unheeded i n t h e i r t ime, neve r the le s s , t h e i r messages were o f i n s p i r a t i o n t o a Po l i sh popula t ion of a l a t e r t ime i n h i s to ry .

Notes

der KGr~erkul tur i n Polen vom M i t t e l a l t e r b i s zum Zaeiten Weltkriese." - . Stadion, 1975, p, 284.

2~osrzewski , Josef , Kultura prapolska (Ancient Pol ish Culture), PoZnan, 1947, p. 454.

3 ~ u b y , Georges, and Mandrou, Robert, Histor ia kultury francuskiej , wiek X - XX (History of French Culture), Warszawa, 1965, p. 319.

4 ~ r o c z y n s k i , Ryszard, Powszechne d z i e j e wychowania fizyczneqo i sportu, (Universal History of Physical Education and Sport) , Wroclaw, 1979, p. 68.

5~assowski , Jerzy, Narodziny sredniowieczneqo swiata (The Bi r th of the Medieval World), Wroclaw , 1970, pp. 277-279.

6 ~ o s t r z e w s k i , Josef , op. c i t . , p. 455.

7 ~ i n c e n t y Kadlubek (ca. 1150-1223) was the f i r s t na t ive Pole t o tu rn t o chronicle-writing. The f i r s t Pol ish chronicle had been wr i t t en by a foreign v i s i t o r known a s Gallus Anonymus. W . Kadlubek s tudied i n France and I t a l y . After h i s re tu rn home he became Court Chaplain and chancel lor t o Prince Casimir t h e Just and, from 1207 t o 1218, Bishop of Cracow. He spent t h e l a s t years of h i s l i f e i n a Cistercian monastery. Kadlubek is t h e author of t h e Second Polish Chronicle, wr i t t en i n Lat in, comprising t h e h i s to ry of Poland up t o 1202 which is t h e bas ic source f o r the p o l i t i c a l and c u l t u r a l his tory of 12th century Poland. See Kurbis, Brygida, The Introduction and Commentary t o t h e Pol ish Chronicle by Master Wincenty Kadlubek, Warszawa, 1794, pp. 5-74.

The o r i g i n a l Po l i sh t r a n s l a t i o n of t h i s footnote is a s follows:

Wincenty Kadlubekha. 1150-1223/ by1 perwszym Polakiem, ktory zapoczatkowal rodzima tworczosc kronikarska. Pierwsza bowiem kronike polska napisal obcy przybysz, swany Gallem Anonimen. Wincenty Kalubek studiowal we Francj i lub Wloszech. Po powrocie do kraju by1 kapelanem nadwornym i kancel is ta ks iec ia Kazimierza Sprawiedliwego, a w l a tach 1207-1218 biskupem krakowskim. Ostatnie l a t a swego zycia spedz i l w zakonie cystersow. Kadlubek j e s t autorem drugie j Polski do roku 1202 i stanowi podstawowe zrodlo do j e j h i s t o r i i ool i tvcznei i kulturalnei w X I 1 wieku.

w; Ikirbii, ~ G ~ i d a , Wstep "i Komentarze do Mistrza Wincenteqo Kroniki Polskiei . Warszawa, 1974, ss. 5-74.

% i s t r z a , Wincentego, Kronika Polska (Pol ish Chronicle), Warszawa, 1974, p. 87.

9~os t rzewski , Jozef, 9. cit., p. 455.

h i s t r z a , Wincentego, Kronika Polska (Pol ish Chronicle), op. c i t . , p. 89.

l l ~ r o n i k a Wielkopolska (Great Pol ish Chroncile), Warszawa, 1965, p. 58.

12~ygulsk i , Zdzislaw, Bron w dawnej Polsce na t l e uzbrojenia Europy i Bliskieqo Wschodu (Weapons i n Ancient Poland Against t h e Background of Armaments i n Europe and The Near Eas t ) , Warszawa, 1982, p. 86.

13Kostrzewski, Jozef, op. c i t . , pp. 455-456.

1 4 ~ z i e r z y nski , Mieczyslaw , Przyrodolecznictwo w Wielkopolsce (Natural Medicine i n Great Poland), Warszawa-Posnan, 1972, pp. 7-13.

15ptsnik, Jan, Miasta i mieszczanstwo w dawnej Polsce (Towns and Townsmen i n Ancient Poland), Warszawa, 1949, p. 390.

161-oc. c i t . , pp. 393-394.

17~ymieniecki, Kazimierz, Polska w sredniowieczu (Poland i n The Middle Ages), Warszawa, 1961, -pp . 219-221. See a l s o Piasecki , Eugeniusz , Dzie,je wychowania f i z y c z n e ~ o (Hlstory of Physical Eduction), Lwow, 1929, p. 85.

1 8 ~ h i s r e f e r s t o t h e upbringing (education) of Leszek the White, Pr ince of Sandmierz and Cracow.

The o r i g i n a l Pol ish t r a n s l a t i o n of t h i s footnote is a s follows:

Mowa t u a wychowaniu Leszka Bialego/ca. 1187-1227/ksiecia sandomierskiego i krakowskiego.

1 9 ~ i s t r z a , Wincentego, Kronika Polska (Pol ish Chronicle), op. tit., PP. 222-223.

20Kronika Wielkopolska (Great Pol ish Chronicle), op. tit., p. 238.

2 l ~ i a s e c k i , Eugeniusz, Wychowanie fizyczne w Polsce presedrozbiorowe' (Physical Education i n Pre-Partitioned Poland), Wychowanie Fizyczne, 1/19251 pp. 3-4.

22~uoted from Kedzierskim, Srebrna Ksiega Sokola Poznanskieqo (The S i lver Book of Poznan Sokol), Poznan, 1911, p. 158.

2 3 ~ ~ ~ n i k ~ Wielkopolska (Great Pol ish chron ic le ) , op. cit., P. 249.

2 4 ~ i a s e c k i , Eugeniusz, Wychowanie f izyczne w Polsce (Physical Education i n Poland), op. c i t . , p. 5 .

25wroczynski, Ryszard, Powszechne dz ie je . . ., op. c i t . , p. 69.

2 6 ~ o c . c i t . , p. 69.

2 7 ~ i a s e c k i , Eugeniusz, Wychowanie fizyczne w Polsce. . . , op. c i t . , 4.

2 8 ~ r o t , Zdzislaw, Versuch e i n e s Abrisses der Geschichte I

Sports. . ., op. c i t . p. 286. See a l s o , Tymieniecki, Kazimierz, Polska. . op. c i t . , p. 223-224.

29~s iazeczk i rozkosme o wlasciwym wychowaniu d z i e c i (Delightf Booklets on t h e Proper Upbringing of Children), Konigsberg, 564. Kwiatkows studied( achieved fa through h i s work, Dialogus de Gymnasiis.

See a l s o Grot, Zdzislaw, Versuch e ines Abrisses der Geschichte dc Sports. . ., p. 286.

3 0 ~ i d z i n s k i , Fe l iks , Rej o wychowaniu fizycmym w Polesce X V I wieb (Rej on Physical Education i n 16th Century Poland), Wychowanie Fizyczne 4/1929, pp. 121-129.

3 1 ~ r ~ t , Zdzislaw, Versuch e ines Abrisses der Geschichte des Sports. . p. 287.

3 2 ~ r o n i c k i , Lukasz, Dworzanin Polski (The Pol ish Court ier) , quoted i r Suchodolski, B., Rozwoj sli o wychowaniu fizyczynm w dobie Odrodzenk (Development of Thoughtw Concerning Physical Education i n The Age of Renaissance), Wroclaw, 1959, p. 134.

3%iszinski, Fe l iks , Gornicki o wychowaniu fizycmym w Polsce XVI wieku (Gornicki on Physical Education i n 16th Century Poland), Wychowanie Fizycme, 9-10/1928, p. 250-264. See a l s o Grot, Z., Versuch e ines Abrisses dee Geschichte des Sports. . ., op c i t . , pp. 287-288.

3%idzinski, Fe l iks , Jan Kochanowski o wychowaniu fizycmym w Polsce X V I wieku (Jan Kochanowski on Physical Education i n 16th Century Poland), Wychowanie Fizyczne, 7-8/1929, pp. 230-236.

3&~t , Zdzislaw, Versuch e i n e s Abrisses der Geschichte des Sports. . ., op. c i t . , p. 288.

3bPetrycy, Sebastian, Roli tyki Arystote1esowe.j t o j e s t rzadu Rzeczypospolitej z dokladem ksiaq osmioro (Ar i s to t les ' P o l i t i c s - Government of t h e Republic i n Eight Books with a Supplement). Quoted i n Suchodolski, B., Rozwo.7 mysli. . ., op. c i t . p. 213.

37~ro t , Zdzislaw, Versuch e i n e s Abrisses d e r Geschichte des S o r t s . . . , p. 289. See a l s o Wroczynski, Ryszard, Powszechne d?ie.le. . . , H:: pp. 79-80.