subjective.. report
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Introduction
Different educational management models represent different ways of looking at
educational institutions. Eventhough different models offers valuable insights into the
nature of educational management, none provides a complete picture. Therefore an
educational organization cannot be described by using a single approach. In different
circumstances, different models must be applied.
The search for an all-encompassing model is simplistic, for no one model can
delineate the intricacies of decision process in complex organizations such as
universities and colleges… there is a pleasant parsimony about having a single
model that summarizes a complicated world for us. This is not bad except when
we allow our models to blind us to important features of the organization. (Balrdige
1978: 28, cited in Bush, 2003)
Subjective models became prominent in educational management as a result of the
work by Thomas Greenfield in the 1970s and 1980s. Greenfield was concerned
about several aspects of Systems theory which he regarded as the dominant model
of educational management. He argues that systems theory is “bad theory” and
criticizes its focus on the institution as a concrete reality
This assignment is will give a brief research about subjective and cultural models of
educational management and their effectiveness in modern setting through a
literature review.
1
Research objectives
As the research is based on current literature, the set of research objectives are as
follows:
1. To find out the meaning and their features of subjective and cultural models.
2. To compare the models in terms of goals, structure, environment and leadership.
3. To find out the limitations in subjective and cultural models.
Research questions
Subjective and cultural models are not defined much in literature. Therefore an attempt
will be made to answer the following questions through the literature review.
1. How are subjective and cultural models related to current educational
organizations?
2. Are subjective and cultural models effective in a modern educational
organization?
2
Literature review
Subjective model
Subjective models is explained only by an author called Tony Bush and I have tried to
put forward his views in this assignment.
Subjective models assume that organizations are the creations of the people
within them. Participants are thought to interpret situations in different ways and
these individual perceptions are derived from their background and values.
Organizations have different meanings for each of their members and exist only in
the experience of those members. (Bush, 2003:113)
Subjective model is described as a phenomenological and interactive approach
where perspectives are not identical but sufficiently close to be treated together.
Phenomenological approaches give priority to people and their actions.
Major features of subjective model
They focus on the beliefs and perceptions of individual members of organizations rather
than the institutional level or interest groups while collegial and formal models stress the
total institution and political models emphasize sub groups. “Subjective models focus on
the individual and emphasize individual perspectives” (Bush, 2003).
Subjective models are concerned with the meanings placed on events by people and
focus on the individual interpretation of behavior rather than the situations and actions
themselves. As Bush, 2003 suggests that even same events can have different
meanings for different people because of the differences in the schema that they use to
interpret their experience.
The different meanings placed on situations by the various participants are products of
their values, background and experience. “Subjective models assume that meanings
are highly personal, often subtle and subject to the values and experience of
participants” (Bush, 2003).
3
He also argues that, subjective models treat structure as a product of human interaction
rather than something which is fixed or predetermined. Organizations exist to serve
human needs rather than the reverse. It moves the emphasis away from the structure
towards a consideration of behavior and process.
Subjective approaches emphasize the significance of individual purposes and deny the
existence of organizational goals. It is viewed that organizations are simply the product
of the interaction of their members and leads naturally to the assumption that
individuals, and not organizations, have objectives.
In subjective model, the environment is treated as a prime source of the meanings
placed on events by people within the organization. Individuals are thought to interpret
situations in different ways and these variations in meaning are attributed in part to the
different external influences upon participants.
Subjective models and qualitative research
Subjective models relate to a mode of research that is predominantly interpretive or
qualitative. The main aim is to seek an understanding of the ways in which individuals
create, modify and interpret the social world which they inhabit.
Main features of qualitative, interpretive, research of subjective models.
The focus is on the perceptions of the individual rather than the whole. The subjects’
individual perspective is central to qualitative research.
Interpretive research is concerned with the meanings, or interpretations placed on
events by participants. All human life is experienced and constructed from a subjective
perspective.
Research findings are interpreted using ‘grounded’ theory. Theory is emergent and
must arise from particular situations; it should be ‘grounded’ on the data generated by
the research act.
4
The limitations of subjective models
The developer of this theory, Greenfield, 1978, has faced a number of criticisms
claiming that much of the model is fueled by emotion rather than reason. People has
viewed subjective model as an ideology.
According to Bush, subjective models are strongly normative in that they reflect the
attitudes and beliefs of their supporters.
Subjective models seem to assume the existence of an organization within which
individual behavior and interpretation occur but there is no clear indication of the nature
of the organization.
Subjective theorists imply that meanings are so individual that there may be as many
interpretations as people leading to unnecessary chaos. And these meanings cluster
and make observers to generalize about the organization.
Subjective models provide few guide lines for managerial action. Leaders are expected
to acknowledge the individuals meanings placed on events by members of organization
5
Cultural models
According to Bush, 2003, cultural models assume that beliefs, values and ideology are
at the heat of organizations. Individuals hold certain ideas and value preferences which
influence how they behave and how they view the behavior of other members. These
norms become shared traditions which are communicated within the group and are
reinforced by symbols and rituals.
Societal culture
Societal culture differs mostly at the level of basic values, while organizational culture
differ mostly at the level of more superficial practices as reflected in the recognition of
particular symbols, heroes and rituals. This allows organizational cultures to be
deliberately managed and changed, whereas societal or national cultures are more
enduring and change only gradually over longer time periods.
Societal culture is one important aspect of the context within which school leaders
must operate. They must also contend with organizational culture, which provides
a more immediate framework for leadership action (Bush, 2003).
Central features of organizational culture
It focuses on the values and beliefs of members of organizations. “Shared values,
shared beliefs, shared meaning shared understanding and shared sense making are all
different ways of describing culture. These patterns of understanding also provide a
basis for making ones own behavior sensible and meaningful” (Bush, 2003).
The cultural model focuses on the single or dominant culture in organizations but this
does not necessarily mean that individual values are always in harmony with one
another. According to Bush, 2003, there may be different and competing value systems
that create a mosaic of organizational realities rather than a uniform corporate culture.
6
Organizational culture emphasizes the development of shared norms and meanings.
The assumption is that interaction between members of the organization, or its sub
groups, eventually leads to behavioral norms that gradually become cultural features of
the school or college.
These group norms sometimes allow the development of a mono culture in a school
with meanings shared throughout the staff called as ’the way we do things around here’.
Culture is typically expressed through rituals and ceremonies which are used to support
and celebrate beliefs and norms. Schools are rich is such symbols as assemblies and
prize giving. Symbols are central to the process of constructing meaning.
Organizational culture assumes the existence of heroes and heroines who embody the
value and beliefs of the organization. These honored members typify the behaviors
associated with the culture of the institution.
7
Findings and discussion
The subjective view of leadership is a product of personal qualities and skills and not
simply an automatic outcome of official authority. There is a good relationship between
post modern leadership and subjective model.
As post modern leadership states that, language does not reflect reality and reality does
not exist because there are multiple realities. Therefore, any situation is open to multiple
interpretations. Situations must be understood at local level with particular attention to
diversity.
Subjective model has brought some important considerations when leadership is
concerned. Recognition of individual perceptions is important if the leader wants to
manage them successfully. The reason is that teachers are not simply some people
who are automated and carry out a certain outlined tasks. Rather, they have certain
skills and talents that can be used to enhance teaching and learning. Leaders need to
listen to multiple voices and develop ways to improve learning. “They have to develop a
‘power to’ not a ‘power over’ model of leadership” (Bush, 2003).
Cultural model is a valuable addition to our understanding of organizations. At this time
of globalization, application of cultural models tries to re-emphasize the significance of
context at a time which can help the organizations to maintain their values.
According to Bush, 2003, externally imposed innovations and cultures often fail because
it is out of tune with teachers who have to implement it. Therefore effective
organizational change comes with the existing culture.
The emphasis on values and symbols helps to balance the focus on structure and they
are crucial for understanding how an organization functions. Leaders tend to focus on
morals and ethics which are good for any organization.
8
Conclusion
There are certain similarities between cultural and subjective models. Subjective model
relies on meaning and values of individuals while culture is an outcome of meanings
and values of people who inhibit educational institutions.
The main difference of cultural and subjective models as indicated in Bush, 2003 is that
subjective models focus on individual meanings while culture assumes that these
coalesce to produce a distinctive whole-school or sub-unit culture.
As subjective model focuses on behavior and process and culture is the values within
an organization, they are equally important to bring about change. An effective leader
can apply the models by having good control over the participants. The most effective
leaders are those who have positional power and the personal qualities to command the
respect of colleagues (Bush, 2003).
Subjective model
Subjective models is explained only by an author called Tony Bush and I have tried to
put forward his views in this assignment.
Subjective models assume that organizations are the creations of the people
within them. Participants are thought to interpret situations in different ways and
these individual perceptions are derived from their background and values.
Organizations have different meanings for each of their members and exist only in
the experience of those members. (Bush, 2003:113)
9
Subjective model is described as a phenomenological and interactive approach
where perspectives are not identical but sufficiently close to be treated together.
Phenomenological approaches give priority to people and their actions.
Major features of subjective model
They focus on the beliefs and perceptions of individual members of organizations rather
than the institutional level or interest groups while collegial and formal models stress the
total institution and political models emphasize sub groups. “Subjective models focus on
the individual and emphasize individual perspectives” (Bush, 2003).
Subjective models are concerned with the meanings placed on events by people and
focus on the individual interpretation of behavior rather than the situations and actions
themselves. As Bush, 2003 suggests that even same events can have different
meanings for different people because of the differences in the schema that they use to
interpret their experience.
The different meanings placed on situations by the various participants are products of
their values, background and experience. “Subjective models assume that meanings
are highly personal, often subtle and subject to the values and experience of
participants” (Bush, 2003).
He also argues that, subjective models treat structure as a product of human interaction
rather than something which is fixed or predetermined. Organizations exist to serve
human needs rather than the reverse. It moves the emphasis away from the structure
towards a consideration of behavior and process.
Subjective approaches emphasize the significance of individual purposes and deny the
existence of organizational goals. It is viewed that organizations are simply the product
of the interaction of their members and leads naturally to the assumption that
individuals, and not organizations, have objectives.
In subjective model, the environment is treated as a prime source of the meanings
placed on events by people within the organization. Individuals are thought to interpret
10
situations in different ways and these variations in meaning are attributed in part to the
different external influences upon participants.
Subjective models and qualitative research
Subjective models relate to a mode of research that is predominantly interpretive or
qualitative. The main aim is to seek an understanding of the ways in which individuals
create, modify and interpret the social world which they inhabit.
Main features of qualitative, interpretive, research of subjective models.
The focus is on the perceptions of the individual rather than the whole. The subjects’
individual perspective is central to qualitative research.
Interpretive research is concerned with the meanings, or interpretations placed on
events by participants. All human life is experienced and constructed from a subjective
perspective.
Research findings are interpreted using ‘grounded’ theory. Theory is emergent and
must arise from particular situations; it should be ‘grounded’ on the data generated by
the research act.
The limitations of subjective models
The developer of this theory, Greenfield, 1978, has faced a number of criticisms
claiming that much of the model is fueled by emotion rather than reason. People has
viewed subjective model as an ideology.
According to Bush, subjective models are strongly normative in that they reflect the
attitudes and beliefs of their supporters.
Subjective models seem to assume the existence of an organization within which
individual behavior and interpretation occur but there is no clear indication of the nature
of the organization.
11
Subjective theorists imply that meanings are so individual that there may be as many
interpretations as people leading to unnecessary chaos. And these meanings cluster
and make observers to generalize about the organization.
Subjective models provide few guide lines for managerial action. Leaders are expected
to acknowledge the individuals meanings placed on events by members of organization
Cultural models
According to Bush, 2003, cultural models assume that beliefs, values and ideology are
at the heat of organizations. Individuals hold certain ideas and value preferences which
influence how they behave and how they view the behavior of other members. These
norms become shared traditions which are communicated within the group and are
reinforced by symbols and rituals.
Societal culture
Societal culture differs mostly at the level of basic values, while organizational culture
differ mostly at the level of more superficial practices as reflected in the recognition of
12
particular symbols, heroes and rituals. This allows organizational cultures to be
deliberately managed and changed, whereas societal or national cultures are more
enduring and change only gradually over longer time periods.
Societal culture is one important aspect of the context within which school leaders
must operate. They must also contend with organizational culture, which provides
a more immediate framework for leadership action (Bush, 2003).
Central features of organizational culture
It focuses on the values and beliefs of members of organizations. “Shared values,
shared beliefs, shared meaning shared understanding and shared sense making are all
different ways of describing culture. These patterns of understanding also provide a
basis for making ones own behavior sensible and meaningful” (Bush, 2003).
The cultural model focuses on the single or dominant culture in organizations but this
does not necessarily mean that individual values are always in harmony with one
another. According to Bush, 2003, there may be different and competing value systems
that create a mosaic of organizational realities rather than a uniform corporate culture.
Organizational culture emphasizes the development of shared norms and meanings.
The assumption is that interaction between members of the organization, or its sub
groups, eventually leads to behavioral norms that gradually become cultural features of
the school or college.
These group norms sometimes allow the development of a mono culture in a school
with meanings shared throughout the staff called as ’the way we do things around here’.
Culture is typically expressed through rituals and ceremonies which are used to support
and celebrate beliefs and norms. Schools are rich is such symbols as assemblies and
prize giving. Symbols are central to the process of constructing meaning.
13
Organizational culture assumes the existence of heroes and heroines who embody the
value and beliefs of the organization. These honored members typify the behaviors
associated with the culture of the institution.
Findings and discussion
The subjective view of leadership is a product of personal qualities and skills and not
simply an automatic outcome of official authority. There is a good relationship between
post modern leadership and subjective model.
As post modern leadership states that, language does not reflect reality and reality does
not exist because there are multiple realities. Therefore, any situation is open to multiple
interpretations. Situations must be understood at local level with particular attention to
diversity.
14
Subjective model has brought some important considerations when leadership is
concerned. Recognition of individual perceptions is important if the leader wants to
manage them successfully. The reason is that teachers are not simply some people
who are automated and carry out a certain outlined tasks. Rather, they have certain
skills and talents that can be used to enhance teaching and learning. Leaders need to
listen to multiple voices and develop ways to improve learning. “They have to develop a
‘power to’ not a ‘power over’ model of leadership” (Bush, 2003).
Cultural model is a valuable addition to our understanding of organizations. At this time
of globalization, application of cultural models tries to re-emphasize the significance of
context at a time which can help the organizations to maintain their values.
According to Bush, 2003, externally imposed innovations and cultures often fail because
it is out of tune with teachers who have to implement it. Therefore effective
organizational change comes with the existing culture.
The emphasis on values and symbols helps to balance the focus on structure and they
are crucial for understanding how an organization functions. Leaders tend to focus on
morals and ethics which are good for any organization.
Conclusion
There are certain similarities between cultural and subjective models. Subjective model
relies on meaning and values of individuals while culture is an outcome of meanings
and values of people who inhibit educational institutions.
The main difference of cultural and subjective models as indicated in Bush, 2003 is that
subjective models focus on individual meanings while culture assumes that these
coalesce to produce a distinctive whole-school or sub-unit culture.
15
As subjective model focuses on behavior and process and culture is the values within
an organization, they are equally important to bring about change. An effective leader
can apply the models by having good control over the participants. The most effective
leaders are those who have positional power and the personal qualities to command the
respect of colleagues (Bush, 2003).
References
Bush, T. (2003) Theories of Educational Leadership and Management, Third Edition,
Paul Chapman Publishing Ltd, London.
Coulson, A.(1985)The managerial behaviour of Primary School Heads, Collected
Original Resources in Education, Abingdon: Carfax.
16
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