the study of the late 19th century traditional...

県立広島大学人間文化学部紀要　11，149-161（2016）

The Study of the late 19th Century Traditional Japanese Costume from the Western Perspective

EunjiJUNG

AbstractThis study illuminates howWesterners in the late 19th century thought about and

evaluatedtraditionalJapanesecostume,byanalyzingcontemporaryWesternnewspapers,andtherecordsoffirst-handobservationsandexperiencesofWesternerswhostayedinJapan.

IexaminedWesterners’perceptionof thetraditionalcostumeswornbyJapaneseenvoystotheU.S.Americansfocusedonthetraditionalcostume’sform,andevaluateditbycomparingittoWesternclothing.WeknowthattheEnglishwhovaluetraditionpaidspecialattentiontotheritualisticqualitiesoftheJapaneseenvoys’clothingandthattheyfocusedtheirappraisalthroughthislens.Thus,theappraisaloftheJapaneseenvoys’clothingisdifferentbetweentheAmericansandtheEnglish.

IstudiedhowtraditionalJapanesecostumewasrecognizedbyWesternerswhostayed inJapan,andanalyzedthearticlesabouttraditionalJapanesecostumeinWesternnewspapers.WhiletraditionalJapanesecostumeperceptionmovedtopositiveterritory inWesternnewspapers,wealsoconfirmthatthetraditionalJapanesecostumewornbythelower-classJapanesegaveamostlynegativeimpressiontotheWesternerswhostayedinJapan.

Ⅰ. IntroductionInMarch1854, theEmpireofJapanended its215-year-oldpolicyofnationalseclusionby

theTokugawashogunate,andsignedtheConventionofKanagawa (Japanese:NIchibei Washin Joyaku)with theUnitedStatesofAmerica.From1860, theJapaneseenvoys to theU.S.beganacquiringanextraordinarydegreeofinformationregardingitsmaterialresources.Theybroughtbackan immensequantityofAmericandomesticproductsandprototypes,eagerlytransmittingWesterncivilizationtoJapan1.Inparticular,EuropeanclothingculturesquicklygainedgroundinJapan,andtheJapaneseofficialcourtdresseschangedtoEuropeanstylecourtuniformsfrom1872.Furthermore, theJapanese imperial familyadoptedEuropeandressas the formaldress insteadofJapanesetraditionaldress inmostofficialceremoniesstarting1873. Inthistransitionalperiod,someoftheJapaneserecognizedEuropeandressasasymbolofanewcivilization,andconsideredtraditionalJapanesedresstobeaproductoftheoldera.

Thenwemayask:WhatwastheWesternperspectiveduringthisperiodonthetraditionalcostumeof Japan?Whatkindof impressiondid the traditional Japanesedressmakeon theWesterners?ThepurposeofthisstudyistoilluminatehowWesterners(mainlytheBritishandtheAmericans)inthelate19thcenturythoughtaboutandevaluatedtraditionalJapanesecostume.Atthistime,thereisnoprecedentconnectedwiththisresearch.

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Thematerialsandsourcesused in thisresearchareas follows.First, I investigated late19th-centuryWesternnewspapers suchasThe New York Times, The Times, Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper, Harper’s WeeklyandThe Illustrated London News.Secondly,Iusedbooksbyexpatriates inJapan:“The Mikado’s Empire Book Ⅱ ‘Personal Experiences, Observations, and studies in Japan1870-1875’(1876)”byW.E.Griffis,anAmerican;“Unbeaten Tracks in Japan(1885)”byIsabellaL.Bird,anEnglishwoman;and“John L. Stoddard’s Lectures Vol.Ⅲ Japan China(1897)”byJohnL.Stoddard,anotherAmerican.Theserecordthefirst-handobservationsandexperiencesofWesternersstayinginJapaninthelate19thcentury.

Thispaper’sresearchmethodisasfollows.IexaminedtheWesternnewspapers’impressionofthetraditionalcostumewornbytheJapaneseenvoystotheU.S.Next,IstudiedtheprosandconsofthetraditionalJapanesecostumeanditsgenderdistinctionsasdescribedinaforementionedbooksbyGriffis,Bird,andStoddard.Finally, Ianalyzed thearticlesabout traditional JapanesedressesinWesternnewspapers.Theresearchresultsofthesethreestudiesledtomyconclusion.

Ⅱ. Westerners’ perception of the traditional costumes worn by Japanese envoys to the U.S.

Japaneseenvoysvisited theUnitedStates in1860, 1867, and1871.At that time,manyAmericanswere fascinatedbytraditionalJapaneseclothingwornbythediplomats,asshown innewspaperarticlesandillustrationsoftheircostumes.

1. The traditional costume of the Japanese envoys to the United States in 1860.First, Iexaminethedescriptionof theofficialdress (Haori Hakama) fromthenewspaper

articles.ThiscostumewaswornbyJapaneseenvoysasanofficialdresswhile theystayed inAmerica(Fig.1).

Fig.1 “Japanese envoys dressed in Haori Hakama,” Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper 9 Jun. 1860

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Thearticle ‘GREATRUSHOFLADIES-THEJAPANESEATHOME-HOWTHEYEMPLOYTHEIRTIME’fromThe New York TimesonMay16,1860,showsthatsomeAmericanscomparedtheJapaneseenvoys’trousers(Hakama)toaTurk’spants,andtheircoat(Haori)toanAmericanbutcher’s shirt.Wecansee that theAmericansnoticed the formof thoseclotheswhen theyevaluatedHaori Hakama.Iquotefromthearticle‘TheJapaneseinNewYork,’onThe New York TimesonJune20,1860.

ItisdefinitelysettledthatthePrinceEmbassywillnotvisittheAcademyofMusicto-day....Itisnotatallunlikelythattheunder-officialsmaybepalmedoffatotherplacesastherealPrinces,andfromtheirdressfewcouldtellthedifference.

Fromthisdescription,wecansee that theAmericanscouldnot identify thedifferences in theJapaneseenvoys’costumesaccordingtorank.

Next,Iexaminethedescriptionoftheformaldress(Kariginu)fromthenewspaperarticles.Thiswas thedresswornby theEnvoyand theViceEnvoyof theJapanesedelegationwhentheyvisitedtheWhiteHouseonMay17,1860(Fig.2).RestoftheenvoysworeSuouandHoiforaformaldress,accordingtotheirranks(Tanaka22)(Fig.3).

Fig 2. “RECEPTION OF THE JAPANESS EMBASSADORS BY THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES, IN THE EAST ROOM OF THE WHITE HOUSE, MAY 17,” Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper 2 Jun. 1860

Fig 3. “THE JAPANESE ENVOY IS FULL COSTUME,” Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper 9 Jun. 1860

The New York Times, Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper and Harper’s Weeklyrecordedindetailthecostumethat theJapanesedelegationworewhenthey interviewedwith theUnitedStatespresident2.ThefascinationovertheJapanesecostumesisevidentinthearticle, ‘TheJapaneseattheWhiteHouse,’onThe New York TimesonMay18,1860.

The chief Princewas arrayed in a rich brocade purple silk sack,with ampleoverhangingsleeves,andflowingtrowsersofthesamecolor.Theothertwodignitaries

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ingreenof similar textureand fashion.Theywerecaps like inverted ladies’ capes,fastenedon thecrownof theheadby stringspassingunder thechin....Gen.Cassprivatelysaid, referring to theirample trowsers, “That theywould lookbetterwithhoops.”

ThisdescribesindetailthematerialandtheformofformaldressthatchiefPrince(TheEnvoy)andtwoseniorofficialswore. ItcomparesJapaneseenvoys’caps to inverted ladies’capes,andpointsout that their trouserswouldbe improvedwithhoopsunderneath.ThisdescriptionofKariginu, Suou,andHoipointsuphowAmericansfocusedontheformwhentheyconsideredtheJapanesedress,and judgedtheclothingbasedonpracticalityespeciallybycomparisonagainstWesternclothing.

Ontheotherhand, thearticle “TheJapaneseEmbassyatWashington” inThe Illustrated London NewsonJune16,1860writesabouttheJapaneseenvoys’visit totheWhiteHousethat“inpointofsizeandextravaganceofembroiderythedressesof theAmbassadorswereworthytheoccasion.”TheEnglish,whovaluetradition,thusfocusedontheritualisticaspectofJapaneseenvoys’clothingintheirappraisal.Fromthesearticles,wecandetectanunderlyingdifferenceinperspectiveevenwithinthegreaterWesternculture,betweenthepragmaticAmericansandthetraditionalistEnglish.

2. The traditional costume of the Japanese envoys to the United States in 1867 and in 1871WhentheJapaneseCommissionersarrivedinNewYorkin1867,theyattractednoattention

fromtheAmericansbecause theyworeEuropeanclothing3.Fromthis fact,wemay infer thattheAmericansdidnotrecognizeasJapanesethosewhodidnotweartraditionalclothing.WhenIwakuraenvoysvisitedAmericain1871,theyworeWesterndress,butforthemeetingwiththePresidentof theUnitedStatestheychosetraditionalJapaneseofficialcourtdress (Ikan)andtheformaldress(Hitatare).TheMarch.23,1872issueofFrank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaperfeaturesanarticleon“THENATION’SGUESTS-THENEWWORLDADVISINGTHEOLD.RECEPTIONOFTHEJAPANESEEMBASSY”andwithanillustration(Fig4).

Fig.4 “WASHINGTON-PRESENTATION OF THE JAPANESE EMBASSY TO THE PRESTDENT AND CABINET,” Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper 23 Mar. 1872

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ThisarticledescribesJapaneseenvoys’clothingcolor,formofthedress,clothingmaterials, formofhats,andshoedesignindetail4.Itcomparestheenvoyandviceenvoy’sshoestothe“Americangaiterboots,”andremarks that thesecretaries’hatsare “helmet-shaped.”Similar tohowtheyviewedtheenvoys in1860,Americansagainevaluate theJapaneseenvoy’s formalcostumebycomparingittoWesterncostume.

Ⅲ.The traditional costume as seen by Westerners staying in Japan

1. The traditional Japanese costume’s pros and consFirst, I examine the traditional Japanesecostume’smerits.Kimono is thegarment that

represents the traditional Japaneseclothing, and it showsastraight,vertical silhouettewhenworn.Birddescribesthat traditionalJapaneseclothinghasonestrikingadvantagecomparedtoWesternclothingbecauseitlengthensthetypicallyshortstatureoftheJapaneseandconcealsthedefectsof theirfigure (14),andemphasizes that theJapanese lookbetter in traditionalcostumethaninWesterncostume(31).StoddardalsoindicatesthatJapaneseladiesmakeaseriousmistakewhentheyexchangetheirnationalstyleofdress forEuropeangarments,because theircharmandbeautyarelostwhentheywearEuropeanclothing(158).Thus,WesternersrecognizethatthetraditionalJapanesecostumewithastraightsilhouetteistheidealcostumefortheJapanese.Next,BirdmentionstheadvantagesoftraditionalJapanesecostumesewingasthefollowing.

AllJapanesegirls learntosewandtomaketheirownclothes,buttherearenoneofthemysteriesanddifficultieswhichmakethesewinglessonathingofdreadwithus.Thekimomo, haori,andgirdle,andeventhe longhangingsleeves,haveonlyparallelseams,andtheseareonlytackedorbasted,asthegarments,whenwashed,aretakentopieces,andeachpiece,afterbeingveryslightlystiffened,isstretcheduponaboardtodry.(69)

According toBird, learning to sew is laborious forEnglishwomen,but Japanesewomenareable toseweasilybecause therearenoexcessivechallenges to their technique.Asweknow,Westerncostume iscutbydraping (threedimensionaldesign)and it iscomplicatedtosew,buttraditionalJapanesecostumeissimpletosewsinceitcutsalongstraightlinesbypatternmaking(twodimensionaldesign).Thus,Birdadmitstheeaseofmakingandotherbenefitsof traditionalJapanesedress.Finally,GriffisdescribesthemanyrolesoftraditionalJapanesesleevesasbelow.

Whatprettychildren!Chubby,rosy,sparkling-eyed.Thecoldonlymadetheirfeetpink,andtheircheeksred.Howcuriouslydressed,withcoatslikelongwrappers,andlong,wide,squaresleeves,whichIknowserveforpockets, forI justsawaboybuysomericecracknels,hotfromthetoastingcoals,andputtheminhissleeves.(354)

Healsowritesthat“TheJapanese,however,makeagreatfussoveralittlecold.Theygoabout

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withtheirhands intheirsleeves” (404).Griffisnotes thataJapaneseboyusesKimono’ssleevesinsteadofpockets.HetakesacloselookathowtheJapaneseinserttheirhandsinsidetheirsleevesincoldweatherasWesternersusepockets.GriffisrecognizesthatwhileJapanesecostumedoesn’thavepockets,theKimono’slargesleeveshavemorefunctionsthanpocketsinEuropeancostume.

Mostof thedrawbacksofJapanesecostumeareaboutthedifficultyofputting itonBirdwrites:

Theboatmen,travelers,andcultivators,werenearlyoraltogetherwithoutclothes,butthericherfarmersworked inthefields incurvedbamboohatsas largeasumbrellas,kimonoswith large sleevesnotgirtup, and large fans attached to theirgirdles....Probablythe inconvenienceof thenationalcostumeforworkingmenpartlyaccountsfor thegeneralpracticeofgettingridof it. It is suchahindrance,even inwalking,thatmostpedestrianshave“theirloinsgirdedup”bytakingthemiddleofthehematbottomofthekimonoandtuckingitunderthegirdle.(43-44)

ShedescribeshowJapanesesailors, travelers,and farmerseitherwore theKimonowithoutabeltorwereevennearlyundressed.Birdguesses that Japanese laborersarenotcomfortablewearingtheKimonowhileworkingorevenwhilewalking.Stoddardwrites,“AmericanladieswhohavetriedtheJapanesedresssaythatthetyingoftheobiisextremelydifficult”(158).Basedonthesestatementswecansee thatWesterners thoughtofJapanesecostumeasburdensomeformovementandconstrictivetothebody.

2. Traditional Japanese men’s and women’s costumesTherecordsof traditionalJapanesemen’scostumeare limitedto thatof the lowerclass,

since the Japaneseemperorandmost of theupperclassmenworeEuropeanclothing.Birddescribes, “TheMikadoandhisministers,navalandmilitaryofficersandmen, thewholeof thecivilofficialsand thepolice,wearEuropeanclothes,aswellasanumberofdissipated-lookingyoungmenwhoaspiretorepresent‘youngJapan’”(30).Griffiswritesthatpeasantswearoldunlinedcottoninwinter,andthattheirclothing“consistsofaragaroundtheirloinsinallaboutthirty-sixinchesofdecency insummer” (361).Hedescribesthe lower-classmen’sclothingas“exceedinglyscanty” (331).Birdmentionsaboutpeasantmen’sclothing that “themenmaybesaid towearnothing”(83).Shealsowritesthatrickshawworkerswore“shortbluecottondrawers”,“shortbluecottonshirtswithwidesleevesshirts”and“displayingchestandbackelaboratelytattooedwithdragonsandfishes”(34).Shealsowritesthatrickshawworkerswore“incomprehensiblebluetightsandshortblueovershirtsdisplayingchest” (17)andbackelaboratelytattooedwithdragonsandfish.AccordingtoBird, “Tattooinghasrecentlybeenprohibited;but itwasnotonlya favoriteadornment,butasubstituteforperishableclothing”(34).WesternerspointoutthatJapaneselower-classmen’sclothinguses lessmaterials, thusexposingtheirbody inabarbarianway.However,theyalsoacknowledge that Japanese lower-classmencompensate for thedrawbacksof theirclothingbytattooing,whichshowstheirattempttounderstandJapanesepeasant’sclothingwithapositiveperspective.

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Incontrasttothemen,allclassesofJapanesewomenmostlyworetraditionalclothing.Oneofthecharacteristicsofwomen’sKimonoistyingalargebelt(Obi)ontheback.StoddardcallstheObian“enormouscushion,”anda“sofa-pillow”(157).Griffisfocusesontheredpetticoat(Juban)thatJapaneseunmarriedgirlswearinsidetheKimono.WritingthattheJuban“peepsoutsoprettilyattimes”(506),GriffishonorsthespecialbeautyofthetraditionalJapanesecostumewhenworn.HealsowritesthatOsakawomen“dressinbettertaste,tietheirgirdlesinastylenearerperfection,andbuildcoiffuresthatareatoncetheenvyanddespairofTokiodamsels” (408).As for lower-classwomen,Birddescribes.

Mymago,withhertoil-hardened, thoroughlygood-naturedfacerenderedhideousbyblackteeth,worestrawsandals,bluecottontrouserswithavesttuckedintothem,aspoorandwornastheycouldbe,andbluecottontowelknottedroundherhead(84).

Shealsowrites:

Fewof thewomenwearanythingbutashortpetticoatwound tightlyround them,orblue cotton trousersvery tight in the legs andbaggyat the top,with abluecottongarmentopentothewaisttuckedintotheband,...Theshortpetticoatistrulybarbarous-looking,andwhenawomanhasanudebabyonherbackorinherarms,andstandsstaringvacantlyattheforeigner,Icanhardlybelievemyselfin“civilized”Japan(83).

AsGriffisandBirdrecord,Japanesewomen’sclothingwasveryfashionableandsophisticatedinbigcitieslikeOsaka,butpeasantwomenworebluecottontrousers,vestsorbluecottongarmentsaseverydayclothes,unable toafforda lifestyledrivenby fashion. Inaddition, thesepeasantwomen’sclothingculturewasrecognizedasbarbarousanduncivilizedbyWesterners.

Ⅳ.The traditional Japanese costume in Western newspapersInthischapter, Iexaminethearticlesand illustrationsabouttraditionalJapaneseclothing

innewspapersintheU.S.andtheU.Kfrom1860to1890.Thearticle“womenofJapan”inFrank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper,publishedonMay26,1860,statesthatJapanesewomen’sclothingisveryclosetomen’sclothing.Birdalsohadasimilaropinionthat“fromthedressnonotionofthesexofthewearercouldbegained”(83).Infact,women’sandmen’sKimonosaredesignednearlythesameway.Therefore,WesternerssawnodifferencebetweentheKimonoswornbymenandwomen.Wecan’tfindarticlesonJapanesecostume inAmericannewspapers from1861to1865,sincethiswasthetimeoftheAmericanCivilWar.Ontheotherhand,anEnglishnewspaper,The Illustrated London News,describesJapanesepeasant’scostumeas“strange-lookingdresses”inthearticle“SKETCHESINJAPAN,”onAug.17,1861.Fromlate1860sonwards,JapanpromoteditscultureproactivelytoWesterncountries,sendingperformerssuchasatroupeof jugglers.Thearticle“TheJapanesejugglers”inThe TimesonFeb14,1867,tellsthatJapanesejugglers,“richly

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habitedintheirnativecostume,”wereincrediblypopularatthattimeduetotheamusementsthattheyprovided.ThistroupethenwentontoAmerica;theJune15,1867issueofHarper’s WeeklyintroducestheirperformanceandtheKimono-wearing jugglersona full-page illustration (Fig.5).The illustration “ST.VALENTINESDAY-THEOLDSTORYINALLLANDS,”publishedonFeb.22,1868,also inHarper’s Weekly,showsaJapanesemanandwomanintraditionalJapanesecostumecelebratingtheWesternholiday(Fig.6).TheseillustrationsboostedtheimageofJapanesetraditional clothing in theWest.Harper’s Weekly again features an illustration ofKimono-wearingJapanesewomeninthearticle“JAPANESELADIES”onMar.5,1870(Fig.7).ThispiecedescribesJapanesestreetcostumescondescendingly,thatthese“certainlypresentaveryabsurdappearance.”ItalsowrylywarnsAmericanladiessaying:

Beforewelaughatthecostumesofthesesemi-civilizedpeople,perhapsitwouldbewelltoinquirewhetherourfriendsoftheCelestialEmpirearealtogetherunjustinstylingus“outsidebarbarians”inmattersoftasteandfashion.Ladieswhotakedelightinthehideousnessofthe“Grecianbend”arelittlerighttolaughattheirJapanesesister.

Thisadmonishmentreveals, ifnotanaestheticunderstandingandappreciation fortheJapanesecostume,atleastawelcomejudiciousnessandconscientiousnessagainstculturalimperialism.

Inthelate19thcentury,JapansentstudentstoAmericaandEuropeseveraltimesinordertoacceptWesternculturewitheagernessandambition. In1871,JapansentmorethanadozenstudentstoAmerica, includinggirlsasyoungasseven,nine,andelevenyearsold.Theystudiedfor10yearsinAmerica,thenreturnedtoJapan,tocontributeprofoundlytothemodernizationofJapaneseeducation.DuringtheirtimeintheU.S.,theseyoungJapanesegirlsdrewtheattentionoftheAmericanpublic.Thearticle“TheJapaneseLadies”inThe New York TimesonMay20,1872,describesindetailJapaneseclothing’smaterials,design,Obi’slengthandhowtotieit,inordertoknowthetraditionalclothesof thesewomenstudentsstudying inAmerica. ItcanbeestimatedthatthepopularityandprestigeofJapanesetraditionalclothingwereincreasedbythesechangesinnewspaperarticles.

Fig.5 “The Japanese Jugglers.” Harper’s Weekly 15 Jun. 1867:376

Fig.6 “ST. VALENTINE’S DAY-THE OLD STORY IN ALL LANDS.” Harper’s Weekly 22 Feb.1868:124

Fig.7 “JAPANESE LADIES.” Harper’s Weekly 5 Mar. 1870:157

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Inparticular,wecansee thesekindsof changes inEnglishnewspapersbetween1870and1880. The TimeslavishesitshighestcomplimentonJapan,callingit“EasternGreatBritain”onAug.20,1872;and inthearticle “ChinaandJapan”onAug.21,1873, itpraisesthat “foreignvisitorssawmuchtoadmireand like inoldJapan,andregret thatsomanyfeaturesof interestarebeingneedlesslyeffaced inadesire forreform,whichseemstodegenerate intriflesalmostintoacravingforchange.”ThosenewspaperarticlesconfirmthattheBritishwereinterestedinJapanesetraditionalculture.Forexample,The Illustrated London NewsonApr.11,1874featuresan illustratedarticleonJapanesedancinggirlswearingtheKimono (fig.8). Intheyear1885, thecomicoperacalledThe Micadocreatedasensation inEngland.The Illustrated London NewsonApril4,1885includesthesketchesfromThe MicadoattheSavoyTheatreandanintroductiontotheopera,anditdescribesstagecostumesas“thehandsomeJapanesecostumes”(Fig9).ThisoperaplayedacrucialroleinshowingthebeautyofJapanesetraditionalcostumes.

Fig.8 “Japanese Dancing girl.” The Illustrated London News 11 Apr. 1874

Fig.9 “The Mikado at the Savoy Theatre.” The Illustrated London News 4 Apr. 1885

InthesamenewspaperonJanuary22,1887, there isanarticlethatpeopleworeKimonos foranewChristmasentertainmentatachildren’sChristmasparty.ThereweretwoJapaneseboothsorkioskserected insteadofaChristmas tree,andthereare “childrenofrather largergrowth,dressedasJapanese”dancingaJapaneseQuadrille,inspiredby“thespecialbeauty”ofThe Mikado production (Fig.10).Also,The Illustrated London NewsonDecember29,1888,hasan illustration“TruthDoll-Show”whichincludes,alongsideWesterndolls,fourJapanesedollswearingtraditionalJapaneseclothing(Fig.11).

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Fig.11 “Truth Doll-Show” The Illustrated London News 29 Dec.1888

Fig.10 “Children’s Japanese Quadrille.” The Illustrated London News 22 Jan. 1887

Fromthesearticlesandillustrations,weconfirmthatinBritain,traditionalJapanesecostumewasincorporated intothemostprofoundlyWesternculturalsymbolssuchasChristmas,becomingapopulartrend.

Thearticle“TheJapaneseHeaddressandPillow”inThe Illustrated London NewsonMay31,1890,alsopointoutthat theKimono iscommontobothsexesbutthatmen’sKimonohasanarrowbelt (Obi)withnoembroideryorbrightcolors tomake itconspicuous,whichmakes itpossibletodistinguishmen’sandwomen’sKimono.This isdifferent fromthearticle “womenofJapan”inFrank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper,publishedonMay26,1860,andalsoBird’searlieraccount.Asthepopularityof traditionalJapanesecostume increases, theKimonochanges fromaunisexcostume (“NodifferencebetweentheKimonoswornbymenandwomen”) toonethatrespectsgenderdistinction(“differencebetweentheKimonoswornbymenandwomen”).Italsoadds, “Thenationalcostume iscertainlypleasing in its simplicity,butnowEuropeandress israpidlybeingadopted.Whichisapity,asittendsagreatdealtodestroythecharacteristiclookof thepeople.”This idea isverysimilar toStoddard’saswediscussed inⅢ-1.WecanobservethatWesternersfeltregretaboutthediminishingofthetraditionalJapanesecostumeduetotheacceptanceofWesternclothingculture.

Ⅴ. ConclusionThis study illuminates howWesterners in the late 19th century thought about and

evaluatedtraditionalJapanesecostumes,byanalyzingcontemporaryWesternnewspapersandtherecordsoffirst-handobservationsandexperiencesofWesternerswhostayedinJapan.Theresultsmaybesummarizedasfollows.

First, IexaminedWesterners’perceptionof the traditional costumeswornbyJapanese

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envoystotheU.S.AmericanswerefascinatedbytheJapaneseenvoys’costumesin1860becausetheywore traditional Japanese clothing. Inparticular,Americans focused on the traditionalcostume’s form,andevaluated itbycomparing it toWesternclothing. Incontrast, theEnglishwhovaluetraditionnotedtheritualisticqualitiesofJapaneseenvoys’clothing.ThishighlightsthedifferenceinperspectivesoftheAmericansandtheEnglish.

Secondly, IstudiedhowtraditionalJapanesecostumewasrecognizedbyWesternerswhostayed in Japan.TheWesternersopined that the traditional Japanesecostumehasmeritsofconcealingthedefectsoftheirfigure,simplicityofsewing,andhavinglargesleeveswiththeaddedroleofpocketsinEuropeancostume.TheyrecognizedthatthisisthebestfittingcostumefortheJapanese.TheyalsonotedthattheJapanesecostumeisdifficulttoputon,andthatonceworn,ithindersmovementandconstricts thebody.TherecordsbytheWesterners inJapanregardingtraditionalJapanesemen’scostumeare limitedto thatof the lower-class.The lower-classmen’sclothingisexceedinglyscanty,usingminimalmaterialsandexposingthebody.Ontheotherhand,theyalsoacknowledge that Japanese lower-classmencompensate for thedrawbacksof theirclothingbytattooing,whichshowstheirattempttounderstandJapanesepeasant’sclothingwithapositiveperspective.Incontrasttothemen,nearlyallJapanesewomenmostlyworetraditionalclothing,making itpossible forus tostudy theWesternperspectiveover theclassspectrum.Japanesewomen’sclothingwasvery fashionableandsophisticated inbigcities likeOsaka,butpeasantwomenwereunabletoaffordablea lifestyledrivenbyfashion. Inadditiontothis, thesepeasantwomen’sclothingculturewasrecognizedasbarbarousanduncivilizedbyWesterners.

Third, IanalyzedthearticlesabouttraditionalJapanesecostume inWesternnewspapers.Westernerssawnodifferencebetween theKimonoswornbymenandwomen in1860s.Also,WesternnewspapersdescribeJapanesepeasant’scostumeas“strange-lookingdresses,”betrayinganegativeundertone.Fromlate1860sonwards,weseeapositiveremakingofJapaneseculturalimage,duetoJapan’sproactivepromotionof itsculturetoWesterncountries.Forexample, theillustrationpublishedinHarper’s WeeklyonFeb.22,1868,showsamanandawomanintraditionalJapanesecostumecelebratingValentine’sday. Inparticular,wecanseethesekindsofchangesinEnglishnewspapersbetween1870sand1880s.The Times(August.20,1872)goessofarastopayJapan itshighestcompliment,calling it“EasternGreatBritain”; it isclear that theBritishwerevery interested inJapanese traditional culture. In theyear1885, thecomicoperacalledTheMicadocreateda sensation inEngland.Weconfirm that inBritain, traditional JapanesecostumewasincorporatedintothemostprofoundlyWesternculturalsymbolssuchasChristmas,becomingapopulartrendasshownbyThe Illustrated London NewsonJanuary22,1887.SincetheawarenessofthetraditionalJapanesecostumewasraisedin1890s,WesternersbegantoseeadifferencebetweentheKimonoswornbymenandwomen.WealsoknowthatWesternersfeltregretaboutthediminishingofthetraditionalJapanesecostumeduetotheacceptanceofWesternclothingculture,asStoddardwrites.WhileperceptionofthetraditionalJapanesecostumemovedinapositivedirection inWesternnewspapers,wealsoconfirm that the traditional Japanesecostumewornbylower-classJapanesegaveamostlynegativeimpressiontotheWesternerswhostayedinJapan.

This studycouldnot reviewAmericannewspapers from1874 to 1890 indetail. Iwill

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continuethisstudyusingnewspapersfortheseyearstofurtherthisresearch.

NotesThispaperissupportedinpartbyGrants-in-AidforScientificResearchofJapaneseSociety

forthepromotionofscience.(2014-16)(ScientificResearch(C)No.26350077“Thecomparativestudyofthelate19thcenturytraditionalcostumeinJapanandinKoreafromthewesternperspective”).Inaddition, itwassupportedbytheGrant for theFacultyOverseasResearch fromPrefecturalUniversityofHiroshima.

1See“TheUnitedStates,”The Times17Jul.18602“TheAmbassadorswerearrayed instatedressesofverywith flowingsleevesandtrousers,

whilehis twocolleagueshad similarly fashionedgarments ofgreen.Theywore caps likeinverted ladies’capes, fastenedonthecrownof theheadbystrangepassingunderthechin.Theycarriedpikes,halberdsandemblemsoftheirrank.Theinferiorofficersworesmallhats,consistingofaroundband,withtriangularcrowns,alsotiedtotheheadbystringsunderthechin.”“TheirInterviewwiththePresident.”Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper2Jun.1860

“ThechiefPrincewasarrayed inarichbrocadepurplesilksack,withampleoverhangingsleeves,andflowingtrowsersofthesamecolor.Theothertwodignitariesingreenofsimilartextureandfashion.Theywerecapslikeladies,invertedcapes,fastenedonthecrownoftheheadbystringspassingunderthechin.Theycarriedpikes,halberdsandemblemsof theirrank.Theinferiorofficersworesmallhats,consistingofaroundband,withtriangularcrowns,alsotiedtotheheadbystringsunderthechin.”“Thecostumeoftheembassador.”Harper’s Weekly26May1860

3“TheJapaneseCommissioners,whoarrived in thisCityonMonday,spentmostofyesterdayintheprivacyoftheirownapartmentsattheMetropolitanHotel....Afewofthemtookastrollabout theCityduring theday,butbeingdressed inEuropeancostume theyattractednoattention.”“TheJapaneseCommissioners,”The New York Times24Apr.1867

4“TheAmbassadorsand secretarieswere in Japanesecourt costume,butMr.Moriwas inAmericanpartydress.TheunderdressofIwakuraandassociateswasinsomecasesofpurpleand inothersofdarkbluesilk,withskull-caps, surmountedbyhighcombs, towhichwereattachedpiecesofsteel-coloredwiregauze,overtwo feet in length,projectingseveral inchesabovethehead,andthendownward.Theyalsowore jeweledswords,carried, itwasnoticed,ontheleftsideinsteadofinfront,andnomorethanoneswordapiece.BothAmbassadorsandsecretariesworeplainblacksilkoverdresses,girdledwithpurple silkandwhite turndowncollars.TheprincipalsworeAmericangaiterbootsandthesecretariesJapanesesilkshoes.Thehead-dressesofthelatterwereofsilkglazedblacksilk,helmet-shaped,”Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper23Mar.1872

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県立広島大学人間文化学部紀要　11，149-161（2016）

Works CitedIsabellaL.Bird.Unbeaten Tracks in Japan.3thed.London:JohnMurray,3thed.1888.Print.JohnL.Stoddard.John L. Stoddard’s Lectures Vol.Ⅲ Japan China.Boston:BalchBrothersCo,1897.

Print.TanakaKazusada.Man’en Gan’nen Kenbei Shisetsu Zuroku.Tokyo:1920.Print.William.E.Griffis,The Mikado’s Empire BookⅡ‘Personal Experiences, Observations, and studies in

Japan 1870-1875.NewYork:Harper&BrothersPublishers,1876.Print.

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