an architectural comparison of contemporary approaches …
TRANSCRIPT
AN ARCHITECTURAL COMPARISON OF CONTEMPORARYAPPROACHES AND PRODUCTS FOR INTEGRATING
HETEROGENEOUS INFORMATION SYSTEMS
Principal Investigator: Dr. Amar GuptaTechnical Advisor: Prof. Stuart E. MadnickResearchers: Teresa Wingfield and
Christopher Poulsen
Working Paper 3084-89November 1989
Comments and suggestions should be directed to:
Dr. Amar GuptaPrincipal Research AssociateSloan School of ManagementMIT Room E40-265Cambridge, MA 02139Telephone: (617) 253-8906
0 Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1989. All rightsreserved. Contents of this working paper cannot bephotocopied or quoted without advance written approval fromPrincipal Investigator.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT
1.01.1.1.2.1.3.1.4.1.5.1.6.1.7.
INTRODUCTIONBackground..............Functional Deficiencies.Levels of Integration...Constraints..............Models and Schemata.....Languages ...............General Directions......
..................... .1-1..................... 1-2..................... 1-4
..................... 1-7. . ................... 1-8.................... 1-12
.................... 1-13
SECTION 2.0 HIGHLIGHTS OF PRINCIPAL PRODUCTS AND APPROACHES2.1. BBN Systems and Technologies: Cronus ........2-22.2. Booz Allen: IDIMS ............ 2-4..........2-42.3. Cambridge Technology Group: SURROUND ........2-62.4. Cincom: SUPRA . .............................. 2-82.5. Cognos Corporation: POWERHOUSE ............. 2-102.6. Control Data Corporation: ASCENT . .......... 2-122.7. Control Data Corporation: CDM*PLUS .........2-152.8. Data Integration, Inc.: Mermaid ............2-172.9. Digital Equipment Corp.: Rdb/VMS, DBMS ..... 2-202.10.Gupta Technologies, Inc.: SQL System ....... 2-222.11.Honeywell Federal Systems,
Database Testbed System....2.12.IBM: DB2, SQL/DS, SAA, and2.13.Information Builders, Inc.:
Inc.:
othersFOCNE
Distribut..····...
Te..e..es
2.14.Interbase Software Corporation: INTERBA2.15.Massachusetts Institute of Technology:
Composite Information Systems..........2.16.Metaphor Computer Systems, Inc.: DIS...2.17.0n-Line Software International, Inc.:
RAMIS Information System .... .........2.18.Oracle Corporation: ORACLE.............2.19.Relational Technology, Inc.: INGRES....2.20.Software AG: ADABAS....................2.21.Sybase, Inc.: SYBASE...................2.22.Tandem Computers Incorporated: NonStop2.23.TRW: TDIE ..............................2.24.Xerox Advanced
Multibase.....Information Technology:
....·.......·. ·..........
SE.
ed.2-24.2-27.2-30.2-32
.... 2-34
.... 2-38
...
. .
·. ·
SQL, . .
.2-40
.2-42
.2-44
.2-46
.2-48
.2-5i
.2-52
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONUnintrusive Integration ..............Intrusive Integration..................Interfacing with Controlled Redundancy.Interfacing with Transaction Transfer..Additional Evaluation Criteria.........Conclusion.............................
...... 3-1
...... 3-3
...... 3-4
...... 3-5
...... 3-6
...... 3-9
REFERENCES .............. R-1, R-2
BIBLIOGRAPHY ..... ..... ....... ............. B-1, B-2
SECTION
SECTION 3.0.3.1.3.2.3.3.3.4.3.5.3.6.
ABSTRACT
Virtually all large organizations are faced with the problem
of intelligently accessing and integrating information maintained
in islands of disparate computer-based systems. Since a number of
vendors claim that their respective products and services can
overcome the problem of integration, a comprehensive study was made
into the technical characteristics of all these products and
services, as well as additional ones identified through other
means. This report documents the results of this study in terms
of a new taxonomy for classifying various approaches for
integrating heterogeneous information systems. In addition, the
principal concepts and issues pertaining to this field are also
presented in this report.
SECTION ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background
Most organizations today depend on a portfolio of information
processing machines, ranging from mainframes to microcomputers and
from general purpose workstations to very specialized systems, to
meet their computational requirements. While the individual
hardware and software components in the growing array of computer
systems may meet the objectives for which each was initially
designed, their heterogeneity presents a major obstacle to ready
access and assimilation of information. It requires tremendous
amounts of time and effort to retrieve information from multiple
systems today, and in many situations, it is simply not feasible
to obtain integrated responses in desired timeframes.
As compared to the intra-organizational situation discussed above,
the issues involved in integrating information on
interorganizational basis are even more complex. First, there is
greater heterogeneity in technical capabilities across
organizations as compared to a single organization. Second, there
is less likelihood of reaching consensus on common goals and
standards. Third, non-technical issues, such as access rights and
sharing of costs, acquire added importance when multiple
organizations are involved. Integration of relevant information
from various computer-based systems is indeed a challenging task.
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1.2. Functional Deficiencies
The problem of inefficient, incomplete, and time-consuming access
to information can be traced, from a technical viewpoint, to
functional deficiencies at several levels as described below:
Structured and Unstructured Applications
Conventional and computer-based information systems have
been designed with specific applications in view. These
systems are efficient for performing the originally
intended application, but they are inefficient in dealing
with ad hoc queries or new unanticipated applications.
Information versus Knowledge
Traditional database systems focus on retrieval of data,
and on performing elementary operations (e.g., sorting
and merging). Such systems cannot use both data and
programs to respond intelligently to queries like "How
many vehicles can be made available to evacuate personnel
from the vicinity of a disaster site within a specified
period of time?" which require analysis of many factors.
Diverse types of Information
Different types of information (numerical, graphic,
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pictorial, speech, and video) are referenced in very
different ways. During the sixties, computers were
designed to manipulate, store, and retrieve numerical
information. During the seventies, the focus was on
textual information. Relatively less effort has so far
been directed towards efficient storage and retrieval of
pictorial information and its combination with numerical
and textual information.
Communications
In spite of continuing effort by a number of national
and international institutions, it is still difficult to
transfer complex information across computers of
dissimilar architectures.
Granularity
It is difficult to judge what volume of information
should be made available, and how it should be arranged
and tailored to meet the needs of the person requesting
the information.
Security
It is necessary to determine who can access the
information, and what each person is permitted to modify.
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This aspect is especially important for applications
involving more than one organization.
Semantics
It is difficult to specify exactly the subset of
information desired without knowing details of the
systems being accessed. Further, a particular piece of
information may possess different connotations on various
systems. Conversely, the same item (such as a particular
spare part) may be specified by different numbers on
various systems. The above list describes a few of the
key technical problems.
In addition, there are major non-technical impediments that
restrict integration. Because of the large number of issues and
variables, a global solution to the problem of integrating
distributed information systems has remained an elusive dream.
Partial solutions are becoming available, however, and these
solutions are identified and analyzed in later sections of this
report.
1.3. Levels of Integration
Integration of information resources can be visualized at different
levels. At the least complex end of the spectrum, information can
be exchanged across a network using basic facilities such as remote
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procedure call [13] and message passing. At the next higher level,
a new layer of software can be created to insulate users from
idiosyncrasies of different host machines. This layer can provide
uniformity at the level of logically centralized file servers as
in the case of Andrew at CMU [2], or at the level of application
programs as in the case of Project Athena at MIT [3].
The approaches described in the preceding paragraph require
significant degree of user involvement. Also, they represent
instances of integration of information. The focus of this report
is, however, on integration of information systems. Further, the
emphasis is on systems "dissimilar" from each other in terms of:
*Hardware, for example, one information system using anIBM mainframe and a second system functioning onUnisys hardware;
*Operating systems, for example, one information systemusing OS/MVS, and other using UNIX;
*Data models, for example, one system using networkdata models, and the other using relational datamodels;
*Database management systems, for example, one usingINGRES, and the other using ORACLE databasemanagement systems, respectively.
Apart from the above differences arising from dissimilarities in
hardware and software, different information systems use different
sets of design decisions and underlying assumptions. For example,
one system may be using annual salary of personnel while another
may be using monthly salary; further, the salary in one case may
be gross salary (typical of budgeting systems), whereas in the
second case, it may be net salary (typical of systems used for
printing checks). Similarly, a particular spare part may be
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specified by one part number in one system and by a different part
number in a second system. All these differences must be
reconciled when attempting to integrate dissimilar information
systems.
There are two facets to integration--physical integration and
logical integration. Physical integration, accomplished through
physical connectivity, refers to the process of establishing actual
communication links among disparate systems. Logical integration
refers to the process of accessing disparate systems in concert
for generating integrated responses. This involves reconciliation
of different assumptions and perspectives embedded in the systems
being integrated. At the logical level, the integration system
must:
*Know where all the information is stored, along withthe data formats and the query languages of thelocal systems;
*Decompose the query into subqueries that can beexecuted by local systems;
*Accumulate the results from all the subqueries;
*Reconcile differences among the results accumulated;and
*Formulate integrated answers.
All the above tasks must ideally be carried out with no
modification to existing systems. However, many products discussed
later in this report require significant changes to existing
information systems.
Based on the level of integration achieved, and some additional
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characteristics, various types of integration approaches can be
distinguished. These approaches, using the terminology of
different researchers who have used dissimilar terms to refer to
same or similar ideas, include the following:
*Cooperation System for Heterogeneous Data BaseManagement System [4].
*Federated Database [5,9].
*Composite Information System [6].
*Knowledge Based Integrated Information System [7,11].
*Multidatabase [8,10].
*Superdatabase [12].
Instead of attempting to cover all the views expressed by the
individuals who coined these terms and phrases, the endeavor in
this report is to encapsulate the main concepts and the emerging
technologies and products that enable integration of dissimilar
information systems.
1.4. Constraints
The design of an integrated information system is constrained by
the following facts:
(a) The new system must integrate existing information
systems, each of which was designed independently with
little premonition, if any, that the system would form
part of a larger system at a future date.
(b) Each existing information system must be fully understood
in order to comprehend all underlying assumptions and
semantics. Rarely are these systems fully and accurately
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documented.
(c) The design must allow flexibility to add or remove
individual systems into the integrated configuration. As
such, it requires detailed knowledge of both immediate
and long-term constituents of the integrated system.
(d) The design must involve the least amount of changes to
existing systems. Transactions, irrespective of whether
they are queries or updates, involve retrieval or
manipulation of information maintained in individual
systems, each of which imposes its own set of
requirements and standards which must be reconciled by
the new system.
The goal is to mitigate all the above-mentioned problems in an
efficient and effective manner.
1.5. Models and Schemata
A Distributed Heterogeneous Database Management System attempts to
meet the above goal by providing the facilities to access, to
aggregate, and to update information maintained in multiple,
distributed, heterogeneous systems. A typical distributed
heterogeneous approach is characterized by the following:
a) The use of a common data model, with appropriate mapping
to data models of participating systems;
(b) The support of a standard user language for retrieving
data on a global basis in all cases, and also for storing
data in some cases;
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(c) The ability to decompose a user request into an
equivalent set of subqueries expressed in the format and
manner required by participating systems;
(d) The capability to resolve incompatibilities in semantics,
data structures, and other parameters;
(e) *The mechanism to take the individual pieces of
information provided by participating systems and to
integrate them in order to provide a cohesive response
to the original user request.
In addition to the above, some approaches facilitate implementation
of sophisticated features such as authorization control and the
ability to draw inferences in situations involving missing or
conflicting data.
When data need to be retrieved from a single file, it is sufficient
to simply know the file design including the keys for accessing
records. One single view or schema of the file design meets the
requirements of the systems analyst and the user. However, when
there are several disparate information systems and there are many
users from different disciplines, each user tends to look at the
information from his or her perspective. By having more than one
schema, it is feasible to handle complex problems, as well as to
achieve data independence.
Most experts recognize the requirement for three types of schema.
This notion of a three-schema architecture originated in 1977, when
the Study Planning and Requirements Committee (SPARC) of the
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American National Standards Institute (ANSI) published a report on
this subject [14]. The three types of schema are as follows:
(a) Global conceptual schema: This schema is intended as a
blueprint that shows the existence of all the information
maintained in all the information systems. To enable
intelligent access and integration, the conceptual schema
must be designed to incorporate the semantics of all
stored data. For this reason, it is sometimes referred
to as logical schema. There is only one global schema
for the entire enterprise.
(b) Local or internal schema: This schema covers the data
in an individual information system, that may itself be
hosted on one or more computers. Since there is one
internal schema for each information system, a complex
environment necessarily implies a large number of such
local data models. The collection of such local models
is referred to as a local schemata.
(c) External or application schema: This schema describes
the user or the application view of the distributed data.
Since each class of users or applications will view the
data in a different manner, more than one external schema
is required. This collection is referred to as external
schemata.
The strategy used to map information between these three types of
schemata determines the overall capability to mediate across
dissimilar architectures, to maintain integrity of data, and to
meet user expectations. Transformation of information between the
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three schemata is ideally managed via a three-schema data
dictionary. Use of very powerful data definition language is
critical in defining the global schema in terms of objects, events,
and integrity constraints [15].
It is important to emphasize that many commercial products and
approaches do not support the concept of a global schema. Instead,
a relational table or matrix is established between the required
external schemata and the available internal schemata. Such a two-
schema approach, referred to as the interfacing approach, offers
no technological control over data integrity [15]. Data are
exchanged either through transaction passing or by controlled
redundancy. In the former case, all transactions are transmitted
from the source database to the destination database, where they
are transformed to adhere to the requirements of the external
schemata. In controlled redundancy, instantaneous copies of the
source database are stored at multiple nodes of the network, and
these copies are replaced by new versions at periodic intervals.
Both alternatives of the interfacing approach attempt to meet new
user and application needs in an ad hoc manner, without any
consistent set of rules governing the overall computational
environment.
To overcome the above problems, it is necessary to use a three-
schema approach, especially in applications of a critical or a
strategic nature. All the major research programs funded by the
U.S. Government, such as Multibase, Integrated Information Support
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System, and Integrated Manufacturing Distributed Database
Administration System, adopted the three-schema approach.
Comparative evaluation of eight major initiatives in this area
appears in [16,17]. To maintain adequate integrity of shared data
of critical and strategic importance, the need for utilizing a
three-schema approach cannot be overemphasized. This aspect
acquires added importance when an application needs to access data
from various DBMS-based information systems, as well as from
earlier file systems that contain no notion of DBMS.
1.6. Languages
The only database language that has gained endorsement from major
computer manufacturers, and from standards establishing
organizations such as ANSI and ISO, is SQL. SQL statements can be
used to create tabular views that approximate the notion of an
external schema. Further, it can be used to create a conceptual
schema, although a semantically weak one [18]. Intended to be used
for queries, SQL has no internal schema.
There are several flavors of SQL in existence. A number of vendors
claim to offer support for multiple versions of SQL. Further, some
SQL based integration approaches can deal with legacy systems that
offer no support for SQL. In such cases user queries expressed in
SQL are converted into the native languages of the participating
information systems.
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There is a recent trend towards using graphics techniques to select
databases, files, and tables. From a user perspective, these icon-
oriented approaches are far friendlier than traditional language
oriented techniques. However, there is still no common graphics
interface that has been endorsed by a critical mass of vendors.
Even with a proprietary graphics interface, navigation with icons
may be especially relevant for users at the top echelons of the
organization.
1.7. General Direction
The basic concepts outlined above have been used in evaluating the
principal products and approaches that are commercially sold. The
list of vendors contacted is placed at Appendix A, and detailed
specifications are tabulated in Appendix B. For the subset of
products and approaches that hold some degree of relevance, a brief
write-up was generated on each product. These write-ups are
presented in Section 2 of this report. In Section 3, a new
taxonomy is created for classifying different approaches to
integration, and recommendations are made for selecting an
appropriate set of technologies.
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SECTION TWO: HIGHLIGHTS OF PRINCIPAL PRODUCTS AND APPROACHES
In Section 1, the fundamental principles of integrating dissimilar
information systems were presented. In this section, principal
products and approaches are discussed and analyzed using these
fundamental principles.
The products and approaches described in this section were derived
from numerous sources, including articles in computer journals and
magazines, proceedings of relevant conferences, lists of conference
participants, and personal discussions with representatives in
various companies. From the initial list generated, the systems
previously covered in References [1] and [16] were deleted, unless
the complexion of the system had changed significantly during the
intervening period. The material presented in this section is not
an exhaustive survey of all issues, but rather a discussion that
covers the whole field taking all significant design approaches in
view. It should be emphasized that some companies offer customized
services, rather than a product, making it difficult to evaluate
them in detail. In this section, each product is described by an
introduction, its functional architecture, and its salient
features. Additional details are tabulated in Appendix B.
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2.1. BBN Systems and Technologies: Cronus
Cronus is an environment designed to support coherent integration
of heterogeneous computer systems. The objectives of Cronus are:
to provide an effective, general-purpose, distributed computing
environment composed of hosts with differing hardware and operating
systems; to support an integrated computing environment consisting
of both the native operating system environment and the Cronus
environment; and to provide comprehensive support for development
of large-scale distributed applications. Cronus began as a
research project funded by the Rome Air Development Center and the
Naval Ocean Systems Center in 1981. The project was a two-year
joint effort between BBN Systems and Technologies Corporation and
Xerox Advanced Information Technology, both of Cambridge, Mass.
The first prototype from this project became operational in 1984.
Cronus supports both object-oriented and relational local data
models. Global updates may be performed on an object by object
basis. Update operators for insertion, deletion, and modification
are in algebraic form and operate associatively on sets of tuples.
Stored update procedures may include conditional statements and
expressions.
FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
Cronus runs on top of existing operating systems on various
hardware platforms. The Global Schema definition is supported for
object-oriented data storage and retrieval. Every system resource
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is an object and is accessed through operations defined by the type
of the object. Cronus supports heterogeneity by serving as a
bypassable layer of abstraction between applications programs and
native operating systems. Through this approach, both conventional
access to native operating systems resources and services and
access to a coherent, uniform (object-oriented) system interface,
regardless of computer system base, are supported.
Distributed query processing and update capabilities require
translation of high-level requests into sequences of algebraic
operations on data stored at possibly different sites. The
algebraic approach defines a collection of "physical" operators on
tuples and takes into account the sort order, the presence of
indexes, and the physical location. Transformation rules determine
when two algebraic expressions are equivalent, and optimization
rules specify when it is profitable to transform an expression into
another equivalent one.
Salient Features
Cronus incorporates an evolutionary approach in its design. Cronus
claims that its Open Architecture approach makes it possible to
upgrade or replace components or technology with little or no
impact on the rest of the system. There is uniformity across
diverse operating systems, hardware platforms, and applications.
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2.2. Booz Allen: IDIMS
IDIMS is an expert system oriented approach designed by Booz Allen
to provide automated data access. The user obtains access
throughout the distributed data environment with a single global
manipulation language and a user-friendly, intelligent interface.
Upon receipt of a query, IDIMS decomposes the query into a set of
database calls and function applications; determines security
violations on databases; formulates queries in appropriate
languages and queries databases; applies functions to retrieve data
and finally displays the data via a state of the art graphic
interface, in a style appropriate to the type and the number of
data elements to be displayed.
It is important to note that IDIMS is not a commercial "off the
shelf" product, but instead a conceptual framework used by Booz
Allen to achieve automated data access. Although a complete
production system has not yet been implemented, Booz Allen claims
that it has built systems which relate to each functional component
of IDIMS.
FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
The IDIMS system consists of a Query Processor, a Knowledge base
for database models and function models, a Query Language
Generator, and a Natural Language Processor.
The Query Processor translates a global data manipulation language
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query into a series of data and function calls using the database
and function models knowledge bases. In doing so, it plans the
appropriate databases and functions to apply, chooses between plans
using query optimization and time consideration techniques, and
executes plans by calling the Query Language Generator to retrieve
data. In addition, it determines whether there are potential
security violations for the local databases queried.
The Data Base Models Knowledge Base is a structure which maintains
data models for each of the distributed local databases. These
models contain information and rules on security consideration,
representative query language, data, data type, and host computer.
The Function Models Knowledge Base is a structure which maintains
knowledge about the available procedures to alter or determine data
attributes. Each function model provides for a specific logical
data linking procedure such as correlate, sum, and join, and
describes domain, range, and process definition. The Query
Processor uses the Function Models Knowledge Base to determine
which functions satisfy given constraints.
The Query Language Generator translates the global manipulation
language into the appropriate local database query language. It
then makes these queries and retrieves the data. Accordingly, the
Query Language Generator maintains translations for each local
database language and procedures to send queries to each computer
on the network.
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The Natural Language Processor provides an additional interface
through which individuals can use limited natural language
capabilities to query databases. This processor then translates
the natural language into the IDIMS global manipulation language
using conceptual dependency and case grammar.
SALIENT FEATURES
IDIMS is not a product, but an approach that eliminates the need
for the user to know multiple query languages, locations of data,
database paradigms, and manipulation schemata. A high-level,
iconic, global query language is supported; however, updates are
not supported.
2.3. Cambridge Technology Group: SURROUND
The Cambridge Technology Group (CTG) of Cambridge, Mass.,
specializes in providing customized distributed heterogeneous data
integration within short time frames. A small group of users and
managers from the client company interface with SURROUND developers
at CTG to implement software interfaces as well as a rapid
prototype of a functional application within a one week period.
The goal of CTG is to construct a user-friendly system which
focuses on one particular strategic- application.
CTG applications support queries and updates. Local data models
are supported via SURROUND interface and coordination tools.
Complete data transparency is provided for geographically dispersed
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locations via dialup ASCII modems.
FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
The UNIX operating system is used as a major part of the SURROUND
service to resolve incompatibilities of different systems.
Software tools access various distributed environments, extract
information from individual programs, and then transfer data to
the UNIX environment where the information is joined together.
Talk Tools are communication tools which imitate the code that the
host computer understands. The host computer accepts commands from
the Talk Tool and sends results back to the same Talk Tool in the
UNIX environment. There are also a variety of tools for attaining
connectivity, security, network management, and for gauging
performance.
The construction of the global schema is tailored to the needs of
the application. SURROUND does not define a data manipulation
language; it supports the interface currently used by the user.
SQL formatted files are accessed with modified versions of SQL
Data Handler and communication tools on remote system perform
global updates. Commander, a proprietary tool, handles transaction
management functions.
SALIENT FEATURES
Rapid prototype systems have been developed for TRANSCOM, General
Electric, and other organizations within one week spans of time.
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CTG claims that it can provide production software in as little as
three months. Record structures can be changed easily and new
databases can be added quickly, making the SURROUND environment
flexible.
2.4. Cincom: SUPRA
SUPRA, a product of Cincom, provides a commercial implementation
of the ANSI/SPARC Three Schema Architecture. Such an architecture,
described in Section 1.5, insulates applications from changes in
the physical storage and conceptual database, reduces development
and maintenance costs, and increases the useful life of
applications.
FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
The SUPRA system integrates distributed heterogeneous databases
and manages distributed processing by having a SUPRA kernel reside
locally within each host machine or database. This has the effect
of making the hosts aware of the integrated database network and
in essence creates a "standard protocol" through which the
databases can communicate.
The SUPRA kernel consists of two basic engine components, the
Distributed Relational Data Manager (DRDM), and the Heterogeneous
Data Management Processor (HDMP), along with a portion of the
Global Directory. Using the kernel on each local host, the
requesting node coordinates the entire unit of work, including the
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decomposition of the query into separate neutral protocol requests
and the determination of where to send them. The local/receiving
nodes, each with its own kernel, translate the request into the
appropriate local data manipulation language, gather the data,
perform calculations, and return the result to the requesting node.
In this decentralized structure, each node is intelligent and has
the ability to coordinate with each other via knowledge of the
network in the resident Global Directory. This approach to
distributed database and processing management assumes that most
of the data accessed by any given node reside locally and that an
"independent" node, with the ability to process locally, has
significant speed and reliability advantages. In those instances
where the data are not local, the Global Directory contains the
information to tell the DRDM where to get them. As such, the
network is not dependent on the reliability of a central Global
Directory or engine. If any one node goes down, only the data
residing at that node become inaccessible, not the whole system.
Additionally, by distributing the necessary processing information,
every transaction need not access a central directory, thus
eliminating a potential bottleneck. However, with more than one
copy of the Global Directory, the SUPRA approach implies more
maintenance and overhead compared to a single copy approach. Every
time the Global Directory is updated at one node, the update must
be reflected across the entire network creating a "cascade" of
transactions throughout the network.
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SALIENT FEATURES
SUPRA currently provides for the use of synonyms and the resolution
of scale conflicts. The decentralized approach allows a synonym
table oriented to each user's particular application and working
language. The Global Directory contains the ability to retain
rules for performing scale translation and calculation before data
integration. A unique feature called "triggers", alerts the user
to the possibility of a data conflict. For example, a trigger
could be established to ensure that two numbers, before they are
combined together, be within a certain percentage of each other.
At execution time, when a user wishes to combine the two numbers,
a violation of this requirement would lead to an interrupt, and the
user to be prompted about the problem.
SUPRA utilizes a two phase commit procedure which provides good
concurrency control. While assuring secure updates for SUPRA or
other database management systems which support two phase commits,
the product currently only allows updates from join views to
distributed databases which use SQL.
2.5. Cognos Corporation: POWERHOUSE
PowerHouse consists of four components: PowerHouse 4GL, PowerHouse
StarBase, StarNet and StarGate. PowerHouse 4GL is a fourth-
generation language; PowerHouse StarBase is a relational
database management system; StarNet is network routing software;
and StarGate is a gateway provider to other supported local
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database management systems. The PowerHouse 4GL was developed by
Cognos Corporation, Ottowa, Ontario while the remaining components
were developed by InterBase Software Corporation, Bedford, MA.
Cognos began to market the Relational DBMS of InterBase and its
distributed technology in conjunction with the PowerHouse
application development language in 1988.
FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
In this approach, there is no concept of a single global schema.
Instead, multiple relational schemata may be referenced, even from
within the same program. Relational operators are utilized to
selectively access and merge pieces of data. Research on a
distributed query engine is currently in progress.
A discussion of the capabilities of InterBase components is
provided later under its own prototype overview. The main
difference between PowerHouse and InterBase is global data
manipulation language supported. Both products support SQL and
Groton Data Manipulation Language, but the stand-alone PowerHouse
4GL is unique to PowerHouse.
One of the benefits of the PowerHouse 4GL is that it provides
access to relative Record Management Service files and network
databases in addition to sequential and indexed Record Management
Service files and relational databases supported by InterBase.
The Open Systems Relational Interface (OSRI) is a relational
database protocol. PowerHouse 4GL elements for transaction
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processing, report generation and batch updating use a relational
access approach which makes it possible to embed OSRI calls into
the elements. This means that as more local data models are added
to the configuration, it is possible to develop applications which
access them using PowerHouse.
The PowerHouse 4GL product set includes PhD master data dictionary.
Using PhD, it is possible to treat all meta-data as if they were
resident in a single logical dictionary. Thus, one need not
redefine meta-data in the PhD dictionary.
SALIENT FEATURES
The salient features listed in the description of the InterBase
prototype also apply here. Cognos is attempting to incorporate
expert systems and object-oriented techniques in the PowerHouse
product.
2.6. Control Data Corporation: ASCENT
ASCENT is derived from the Technology Information System (TIS)
developed by Lawrence Livermore National Labs (LLNL). Work on this
system originally commenced in the early seventies. CDC has a
technology transfer license with LLNL (actually with the University
of California) to support this technology, and to take it into
production.
ASCENT is a suite of software products that provides
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communications, networking, office automation, and database
services within an interactive environment that is common to all
users. The *gateway portion of ASCENT supports a powerful
interpretive scripting language that can simulate an interactive
user when connected to a heterogeneous remote computer. This
gateway serves as a tool that can be programmed with the scripting
language to log into databases and to extract data from a broad
range of remote systems.
FUNCTIONAL ARCHI TECTURE
A collection of software modules, known as the Intelligent Gateway
Processor (IGP), use a UNIX system as the link between menu type
front-end systems and geographically and technically disparate
mainframes. The IGP front-end program, Integrated Information
System (IIS), offers menus composed of descriptor files which might
consist of classes of information resources, specific connections
to remote hosts, local database options, or available system
utilities. In addition to menus, IIS understands a command set
that overlaps with the UNIX Shell command set. As IIS is
implemented in a script-driven interpreter, UNIX commands can be
recognized even without arguments, and prompts can be enabled for
arguments or options.
The Network Access Machine (NAM), an extended implementation of
the specifications published by the National Institute of Standards
and Technology, utilizes a variety of communication methods to
provide access to other computer systems. Currently NAM can
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interface with direct asynchronous connections between two hosts,
most autodial modems, TCP/IP networks and X.24 networks. NAM uses
an interpreted communication language to specify the logic
necessary to establish connections and conduct dialogues with
remote systems. This language includes structured constructs,
extensive pattern matching capabilities and capabilities to insert
"filters" in an existing connection. These filters are specialized
programs written to modify the appearance of the data.
In a heterogeneous environment, ASCENT*gateway must be driven by
the "host UNIX system" database management system to extract
specific data elements from their remote computers under script
language control. The DHDBMS places these data elements into the
proper place in the "logical record" requested by the user. This
approach requires no software to be added to any of the remote
systems since each system feels that the scripting language
interactions with other remote systems are identical in appearance
to interactions with its own users.
SALIENT FEATURES
ASCENT*gateway allows automated access and connectivity to local
or remote computing resources. ASCENT*mail provides complete
electronic mail and message services within a computer network
including addressing, forwarding, and mail file management
functions. A menu-driven user interface is available to access
integrated software applications, utilities, and system
administration tools.
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2.7. Control Data Corporation: CDM*PLUS
The concept of CDM*plus was developed and prototyped with direction
and funding from the Integrated Information Support System (IISS,
pronounced I2S 2) initiative of the U.S. Air Force. CDM*plus defines
and categorizes data using the ANSI/SPARC Three Schema Architecture
discussed in Section 1.5.
FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
The CDM*plus dictionary/directory is loaded and maintained via the
Neutral Data Definition Language (NDDL) which describes all meta-
data to the ANSI/SPARC based three schema structure. NDDL is SQL
based and describes objects with verbs such as create, define,
alter, and drop. Each schema has unique commands. For example,
in the internal schema, the NDDL can describe the three basic types
of database models. NDDL provides inter-schema mappings using the
conceptual schema or the data model as the base. NDDL is a human
and machine readable language that can be used in either in
interactive mode or in batch mode, as well as on forms.
The mapping strategy between the schema allows data to be accessed
without regard to the location or the storage mechanism. For
example, an application can join two relational user views from the
external schema that each map to two entities. These entities in
turn can be mapped to multiple databases and database types on
multiple computers without burdening the user or developer with all
of the details of the actual conversions, translations or mappings.
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This independence is critical to provide a buffer for life cycle
maintenance as applications and storage structures change, and to
provide the capability for full relational operation (including
outer joins and referential integrity) between heterogeneous
databases.
Queries can be embedded into current applications written in Cobol,
C, or Fortran. These queries are precompiled by CDM*plus using the
external schema view and transformed into actual database queries.
All code necessary to access the databases is generated including
DBMS precompilations. Since the base schema is the conceptual
schema or data model, domain constraint checking and referential
integrity checking can be automatically enforced based on the
conceptual schema. After the code is generated, it is transferred
by the Code Manager to the appropriate computers where local
compiles, DBMS precompiles, and links are accomplished.
All query processing is controlled by two CDM*plus components:
the Network Transaction Manager (NTM), which controls unique
process to process communication capabilities that are necessary
in the distributed environment, and the CDM*plus Distributed
Request Supervisor (DRS), which controls the actual queries on each
host and formulates the messages sent to the NTM. This approach
allows serial or parallel processing of queries. In the serial
process, one query produces input for other queries.
Each local node contains an NTM and multiple CDM*plus runtime
(CDMR) modules to facilitate distributed processing. The CDMR
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incorporates DRS, Aggregators, File Utilities and Code Manager.
Query modules in applications that attempt to integrate information
from multiple heterogeneous databases can be replaced by NDML
statements. This allows for easier maintenance of legacy
applications because changes to the systems only require re-
precompilation to generate all the necessary code.
SALIENT FEATURES
CDM*plus requires the user to model his or her enterprise and to
load that model into the CDM. The three schema architecture
provides one global conceptual view of the complete data. In
addition, it provides independence between the actual physical
storage of the data, the users' view of the data, and the
conceptual view of the data. Modeling and integration of
applications and databases with CDM*plus is done in an evolutionary
manner, allowing for the implementation of one application at a
time rather than a full rewrite of the entire system.
2.8. Data Integration, Inc.: Mermaid
Mermaid, a trademark of Unisys, is an integrated data access
product marketed by Data. Integration, Inc. It allows users of
multiple relational or network database management systems, running
on different machines, to access and manipulate data using standard
SQL, even when the participating systems don not support SQL.
Integration may require translation of the data into a standard
data type, translation of the units, combination or division of
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fields, and encoding values. Only updates to a single database are
presently supported. Updates to replicated and fragmented
relations may cross databases, but the updates to all databases are
not made concurrently.
The Mermaid system is designed for an environment in which there
are many databases that are independently administered and where
it is not feasible to standardize on one DBMS. With Mermaid, new
applications may be developed either at the global level when
distributed access is required, or above an existing old database.
Local administrators grant access permissions to users of Mermaid
and then Mermaid adds an additional level of access control.
FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
The major processes are: User Interface Process, Distributor
Process, DBMS Driver Process, and Data Dictionary/Directory (DD/D).
The User Interface Process contains the SQL parser, the query
validator, the query library, and the report generator. The
Distributor Process contains the optimizer and the controller. The
optimizer plans query execution and the controller starts processes
and coordinates execution. There is one DBMS Driver Process for
each database to be accessed. It contains the schema translation,
the language translation, and the DBMS interface. The Data
Dictionary/Directory (DD/D) is a database that contains information
about the schemata, users, host computers, and network. It
supports three layers of schema definition.
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A user input is either a command to execute within the user
interface or an SQL query. The SQL query is parsed, validated,
translated into Distributed Intermediate Language (DIL), and sent
to the distributor process which performs the Distributed Execution
Monitor function. The optimizer plans the execution by consulting
the DD/D for the location of the relations. It sends commands and
subqueries to the controller for transmission to the DBMS drivers.
The driver reads a message which may be a command to initialize,
terminate, execute schema and data of the query from the global
form into the local form and then translates it from DIL into the
local DBMS language. The first time that a relation is retrieved,
the data are translated into the global form.
SALIENT FEATURES
Mermaid treats files as large objects. Qualification is done on
structured data. The user selects qualified objects to view. The
system then starts a retrieval process and a display process that
are customized for the file type.
Communication between processes is done using standard protocols.
The main processes use TCP/IP on an Ethernet. If TCP/IP is not
available on the computer with the DBMS, another protocol may be
used to communicate between the controller and the driver or
between the driver and the DBMS.
Mermaid is written as a set of processes with well defined
interfaces so that it can be customized for different environments.
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It can also be embedded in or called by other products and it can
use other products to process the output.
2.9. Digital Equipment Corp.: Rdb/VMS,DBMS
Digital Equipment Corp. (DEC) offers two alternative methods for
distributed data management in the VAX/VMS environment. One method
is geared towards a decentralized environment with users having
their own processing resources and connected through a Local Area
Network. The other method is directed towards centralized
distributed processing with a VAX cluster comprising two or more
VAX processors, and the database located on a common disk. Each
of these methods can be used with either of the two DEC data
management systems: Rdb/VMS is a relational DBMS while Digital's
Database Management System (DBMS) uses a hierarchical/network
model. Further, VAXlink Client is a layered VMS software product
that provides unidirectional IBM mainframe database access and
extract capabilities; it works in conjunction with VAXlink
Answer/DB Extractor to access IMS and VSAM data structures and to
transfer extracted data to Rdb/VMS databases.
FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
VAX SQL is Digital's version of ANSI SQL and is used as an
interactive and software development interface for relational
databases that conform to Digital Standard Relational Interface
(DSRI). Used to define, access, and update relational databases,
it is characterized by an interactive data manipulation language,
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a data definition language utility, preprocessors and dynamic SQL
for COBOL, FORTRAN, C, and PL/I. DEC's Database Management System
uses the Network Manipulation Language (NML), a standard for
network models.
A Database Control System (DBCS) provides the connections between
the application program and the database locations for the Data
Base Management System. Application programs transmit information
to the DBCS. The DBCS transfers all information requested by a
call for data to the User Work Area (UWA). Information in the UWA
is then used to update the database.
The VAX Distributor distributes data from any Rdb/VMS, VIDA (an
access tool for IBM databases), or any other database conforming
to DSRI. The commands of the VAX Data Distributor allow the user
to specify the data to be distributed, the type of copy to be made,
the target node, and the transfer and update schedules. Three
kinds of copies are permitted by this tool: extractions,
extraction rollups, and replications. These copies effect only
the target database.
Digital's distributed, active, open-architecture dictionary is the
VAX Common Data Dictionary/Plus (CDD/Plus). VAX CDD/Plus provides
one logical dictionary system that is physically dispersed, thus
eliminating the need to develop separate dictionaries to support
proprietary tools or applications.
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'I1
SALIENT FEATURES
Digital claims to provide one of the best relational database
management systems for the VAX/VMS environment. VMS is a widely
used operating system for development and execution of a wide range
of applications. Apart from the above products marketed directly
by DEC, a number of other vendors have opted to select VAX hardware
as the host system for reconciling the idiosyncracies of individual
components in a distributed, heterogeneous environment.
2.10. Gupta Technologies, Inc.: SOL SYSTEM
Gupta Technologies, Inc. of Menlo Park, Calif., supports relational
database networking. The SQL SYSTEM allows applications running
on a PC to use data residing on minis, micros, and mainframes. The
primary elements of the SQL SYSTEM are: SQLBase, SQLWindows,
SQLTalk and SQLNetwork.
SQLBase is a distributed relational DBMS for PC networks. It can
be used as a standalone DBMS, as a database server for personal
computer based workstations on a network, and as a gateway to
mainframe database management systems. The SQL language syntax of
SQLBase is fully compatible with those of IBM's DB2 and SQL/DS.
Gupta Technologies claims to be the first company to offer advanced
concurrency, automatic consistency, and dynamic recovery for a
distributed relational DBMS on a personal computer.
SQLWindows and SQLTalk allow the programmer or user to utilize SQL
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without having to develop and compile programs. SQLWindows is an
advanced applications generator which supports graphics, menus,
dialogue and help boxes and mouse pointing devices. It contains
a complete procedural language and provides exits to other
programs. SQLTalk is an interactive data management program for
accessing SQLBase via the SQL language.
FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
The SQLNetwork components enable mini, micro and mainframe SQL
database management systems to appear like distributed database
servers on the same network. The three components comprising the
SQLNetwork are: the SQLRouter, the SQLGateway, and the SQLHost.
Requests for data are handled differently based on the location of
the databases. The SQLRouter is the software that directs SQL
requests to databases within the PC network. SQLRouter must reside
on each PC and requires NetBIOS on each workstation. The
SQLGateway routes SQL requests to databases outside of a single PC
network. It runs as a memory resident program on the PC/AT and
accesses a file containing the databases to which it can establish
a connection at load time. This file also contains the physical
node location of these databases.
SQLHost software resides on the host computer and transforms the
host DBMS into a database server that accepts SQL requests routed
to it by SQLGateway. It translates SQL commands into a format
acceptable to the host DBMS and forwards the information for
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processing. The results are then sent back to the network. A
different version of SQLHost is necessary for each different SQL
DBMS because of variations in SQL and application program
interfaces.
SALIENT FEATURES
SQLNetwork was designed to allow applications to take advantage of
the capabilities of a personal computer, to transparently access
databases that reside on diverse servers, and to serve many users
with a large amount of data. The user is provided with full
cooperative processing capabilities in DOS, OS/2 and UNIX
environments. SQLNetwork provides access to DB2 and development
is underway for SQLHost Software to support SQL/DS, Oracle,
Ingress, and Sybase.
2.11. Honeywell Federal Systems, Inc.: Distributed DatabaseTestbed System
DDTS is a testbed emphasizing modularity and flexibility for
distributed heterogeneous database management. The project began
at Computer Sciences Center (CSC) of Honeywell with the aim of
designing and building a system that could be utilized for
evaluating alternate approaches and algorithms for managing data
stored in several databases on different platforms. Although DDTS
is not a product, Honeywell utilizes this technology in specific
contracts.
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FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
DDTS supports a five-schema architecture. The internal schema is
divided into the global representation schema, the local
representation schema and the local internal schema. In addition,
there is an external schema and a conceptual schema which follow
the terminology of Section 1.5. A bottom-up approach is used to
design a global schema for multiple databases. First, a local
representational schema is built from the description of the local
database. Next, all local representational schemata are integrated
to form the global representation schema. Finally, the conceptual
schema describing semantic integrity constraints to be enforced by
DDTS is constructed.
The DDTS system architecture is based on a model of distributed
computing in which a set of abstract processors execute sets of
concurrent processes. Local and remote processes communicate via
message exchange. DDTS consists of a set of Application Processors
(APs) which control user interfaces and manage transactions, and
Data Processors (DPs) which manage data.
The GORDAS Command Interface (GCI) enables multiple retrieval and
update requests expressed in GORDAS, a high-level query language.
Before a GORDAS transaction is executed, the GORDAS requests are
translated to an internal representation for processing by the
Translation and Integrity Control (TIC) module. The internal
representation possesses features of relational algebra and
relational calculus, and is similar to an internal representation
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of SQL.
Materialization and access planning (MAP) result in a strategy for
processing distributed queries, updates and transactions. The
response time (the time elapsed between the start of the first
transmission and the time at which the result arrives at the
required computer) and the total time (the sum of the time of all
transmissions) are minimized with MAP.
The Distributed Execution Monitor (DEM) performs distributed
execution of a transaction as directed by MAP. Based on status
information returned by the Local Execution Monitors (LEMs) during
execution, the DEM decides to commit or abort a transaction. DDTS
uses a two-phase commit protocol during transaction execution. To
resolve concurrency control conflicts, the transaction is rolled
back and then restarted.
The Local Operations Module (LOM) of each DP acts as an interface
between the LEM and the local DBMS. LOM provides local translation
and optimization of subtransactions that have been assigned to the
DP by MAP. The LOM translates subtransaction requests in the
internal representation to data manipulation requests in the
language of the local DBMS.
SALIENT FEATURES
DDTS is a useful tool for evaluating approaches to the various
problems associated with distributed, heterogeneous database
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management.
2.12. IBM: DB2. SOL/DS. SAA. and others
IBM faces a challenge in developing its integrating approach. It
commands a major presence in the mainframe computer market and in
the personal computer market. It can either come up with design
approaches that enable integration of information hosted on its
own systems, or it can develop approaches that encompass non-IBM
architectures as well. So far, the emphasis has been on the former
alternative.
The IBM System Application Architecture (SAA) serves as a framework
for developing consistent applications across three IBM computing
environments: System/370, AS/400 and PS/2. SAA is a collection
of software interfaces, conventions, and protocols, and includes
support for distributed files and distributed databases that are
resident within one of these environments, and conform to certain
design guidelines.
IBM is developing a new relational Unix oriented approach that
would integrate their AIX line (System/370, RT, and PS/2) as well
as communicate with their SAA database line (System/370, AS/400,
and PS/2)). Details of this approach have not yet been released
by IBM.
At a lower level, IBM provides support for linking information from
distributed relational (SQL/DS) and hierarchical (IMS) local
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database management systems. In addition, its Data Extract product
(DXT) can extract data from DB2 tables, SQL/DS tables, DL/I data
sets, VSAM data sets, and physical sequential data sets, and
convert them for loading into other DB2 tables, physical sequential
data sets, and CMS files. DXT users can also write generic data
interfaces for accessing non-IBM (OEM) databases on MVS.
In October 1988, IBM upgraded DB2 and SQL for distributed
environments. The new DB2 and SQL (called SQL/DS) use relational
concepts to integrate information. In either case, because a
central DBMS is not assumed, each location has all the capabilities
offered by a local relational DBMS and may participate in an
overall distributed network as well. Local functions are not
affected by the role of the system in distributed processing.
Flexibility is provided for deciding how data will be distributed
and processed. The SQL data manipulation language can access
remote tables or a user may work with a local copy. Also, data may
be stored in one large table or split into several parts to
accommodate data which may be accessed and updated only at certain
local locations. Extracts, snapshots, and data replication are
various types of copies which enhance retrievals and updates.
A user may extract a copy of one database table and load it into
another database. Extracts are useful for migrating data from one
data format to another and for maintaining read-only copies of a
subset of data that rarely changes. Snapshots are read-only copies
of tables that are automatically made by the system on a periodic
basis specified by the user. These are useful for locations that
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need an automated process for receiving updated information on an
occasional basis. With the data replication support, any location
may update any copy of a table, and these updates are sent to other
locations automatically. This is effective for situations that
require high reliability and quick data retrieval with few updates.
FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
Distributed relational data are accessed either on a remote unit
of work or on a distributed unit of work. Remote unit of work
permits access to a single, remote relational DBMS within a unit
of work. A unit of work is a set of one or more related requests
which must all complete successfully or not at all. An application
program can query and update data from any number of tables
residing in a single DBMS within a unit of work. In addition,
application programs can access data in multiple database
management systems one at a time, in separate units of work.
SQL/DS and DB2 have remote unit-of-work capability as well as
support for single SQL requests.
Distributed unit of work provides access to multiple relational
database management systems within a single unit of work. An
application program can read and update data from any number of
database management systems within a single unit of work. However,
a single SQL statement must refer to data from a single DBMS. Key
features of distributed unit of work are: complete location
transparency, coordinated system security mechanisms to determine
whether the application is authorized to access the remote systems
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and data, and the two-phase commit protocol to ensure termination
consistency. DB2 supports distributed unit-of-work.
SALIENT FEATURES
IBM states that its leadership in stand-alone database management
products resulted from its advanced data security, data integrity,
and data recovery capabilities. Its objective is to apply this
expertise to the implementation of its distributed relational
products. DB2 and SQL/DS have referential integrity which ensures
the consistency of data values between related columns of two
different tables.
2.13. Information Builders, Inc.: FOCNET
FOCNET, derived from FOCUS Network Products, is marketed by
Information Builders, Inc., headquartered in New York City. Its
nonprocedural language and DBMS is called FOCUS. Various FOCUS
interfaces provide logical access to data in hierarchical,
relational, and network models on remote machines.
FOCNET permits multiple individuals to update a database
simultaneously. A change/verify protocol confirms that the record
has not been updated by another user before it modifies the record.
In cases where the record has been changed, the update is reapplied
against the updated version. Also, this approach allows a user to
define commit and rollback specifications for transactions.
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FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
A client/server model layer is inserted on top of the operating
system and the access-method architecture of each participating
node. Its three components are client software, interfaces to
network transport software and server software. This approach
reduces network traffic and takes full advantage of available CPU
resources.
Most local databases must have a Master File Description (MFD).
All files must be described in the FOCUS Master Dictionary before
FOCUS can access their data. The master dictionary provides much
more than conventional file and data information. FOCUS file
descriptions can also contain security restrictions, field aliases,
data validation criteria, predefined relational join operations,
and multiline column titles for use in reports.
FOCUS supports 4GL FOCUS, third generation languages, and ANSI SQL
global data manipulation languages. Read/write interfaces generate
the appropriate dialect of SQL for many well-known relational
database engines which use variations from this standard data
manipulation language.
Dynamic relational join operations permit linkage to up to 16
different tables and databases at one time. Processing is
optimized by including record-by-record operations and set
processing based on the functionality of the database. In
addition, balance tree indexing accelerates the speed of data
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retrieval and online updates of large databases. Users can
logically invert FOCUS databases to further optimize retrievals.
SALIENT FEATURES
FOCNET runs on many platforms under a variety of operating systems.
The list of local database management systems supported is
impressive as is the list of supported network services. FOCUS is
the most widely used 4GL in the world. It is suited for developing
software and provides for automated application development and
maintenance.
2.14. Interbase Software Corporation: INTERBASE
Interbase is a product of Interbase Software Corporation, Bedford,
Mass. Although Interbase operates in a variety of software and
hardware environments, its Digital Standard Relational Interface
(DSRI) compatibility makes it most suited for use with other DEC
DSRI-compatible tools. Relational local data models, indexed and
sequential Record Management Service files, and UNIX stream files
are supported by Interbase.
Global updates to databases can be performed in the same
interactive session, as Interbase allows multiple simultaneous
transactions per process and provides for two-phase commits. These
two features can be used to ensure that a transaction which updates
more than one database will complete correctly or not at all.
Partial commits and partial rollbacks are possible as well.
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Interbase uses multigenerational data structures for data storage.
Records are never updated, but only added. Old versions of the
record are deleted by the next transaction which accesses the
record. This means that update access to data being processed by
another user is allowed. On actual update, Interbase will impose
the record it originally retrieved with the record it is trying to
update. If they are different, the transaction is rolled back and
the user is informed of this fact.
Changes required to local databases are minimal. The Rdb database
of DEC permits access to Interbase files through VMS. The ORACLE
gateway requires an additional table to be defined on the database,
access to tables in the data dictionary, and two servers to be
started on the target node.
FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
Interbase supports two global data manipulation languages: SQL and
the Groton Data Manipulation Language. These two languages may be
used in precompiled third-generation language source programs or
in the Query Language Interpreter (QLI). The QLI translates either
language into BLR, a lower level language based on the DSRI, which
may be generated and read by programs.
Although InterBase has no global conceptual schema, it provides a
navigation path to distributed local database management systems
through a database handler which defines node names for multiple
databases. A program called Y-valve determines if requested data
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are on a local node or a remote node. In the case of remote data,
the request is routed through the network and the remote data
dictionary is accessed.
Interbase or RDB data requests are left in the BLR lower level
language. With ORACLE, BLR is restricted to SQL through the
gateway and passed to the ORACLE access method. Data format
incompatibility between heterogeneous systems is transparently
handled by a XDR layer.
SALIENT FEATURES
Interbase is designed to handle on-line complex applications
(OLCP). It supports: multi-user, concurrent update; automatic
transactions; serializable and high concurrency levels; two-phase
commit; multiple database transactions; and multiple parallel
transactions per process. These features provide excellent
concurrency control capability.
2,15, Massachusetts Institute of Technology: CompositeInformation Systems
The concept of Composite Information Systems (CIS) has evolved at
the Sloan School of Management of Massachusetts Institute of
Technology. The first paper on this technique was published in
1978, and significant enhancements to the original concept have
been made during the intervening years. While all other approaches
discussed in this report tend to focus exclusively on technical
issues, the CIS approach emphasizes that it is necessary to address
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a number of inter-related strategic, organizational and technical
issues, in order to implement systems that can effectively span
applications, functional areas, organizational boundaries, and
geographic separations.
Strategic issues include motivating cooperation between multiple
organizations, each with its own goals, priorities, and security
needs. One critical factor for such cooperation is participant
consensus on the issue of access to each others' technical and non-
technical information. Issues such as domains of shared
information, benefits to each participating group, and the role
and the responsibility of each constituent must be resolved in
advance, for the final system to succeed in a real world
environment.
Organizational issues include the process of making controlled
changes in complex organizational environments. The latest results
from the realm of inter-organizational networks have been utilized
to explain the multiple forces that modulate behavior of
individuals, groups, and organizations. Also, the notion of
focused standards has been conceived to serve as the foundation
for neutral representation as well as for the delineation of more
elaborated standards.
Technical issues relate to connectivity at both physical and
logical levels. Physical connectivity refers to the process of
actual communication among disparate systems, and covers aspects
as bandwidths, security, availability, reliability, and inter-
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network protocol conversions. Logical connectivity refers to the
process of accessing disparate systems in concert for composite
answers. One of the major challenges in logical connectivity is
to reconcile the different assumptions and perspectives in the
systems being integrated.
FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
The operational prototype of CIS is called CIS/TK, which is
abbreviated from CIS Tool Kit. This prototype is based on the
three-schema approach, with one integrated global schema, multiple
local schemata, and multiple application schemata. The CIS/TK
architecture includes multiple Application Query Processors (AQPs),
one Global Query Processor (GQP), and multiple Local Query
Processors (LQPs). There is one AQP for each application, and this
AQP converts an application model query, defined by an application
developer, into a sequence of global schema queries, passes them
to the GQP, and receives the results. Similarly, a Local Query
Processor (LQP) interfaces between the global data processor and
an individual query command processor (e.g., a DBMS).
The primary query processor is the GQP. It converts a global
schema query into abstract local queries, transmits them to the
appropriate LQPs, and joins the results before passing them back
to the AQP. The GQP must know how to get the data, how to map
global schema attribute names to the column names, and how to join
results from different tables. This is done with the aid of
concept agents. Conceptually, each concept agent is composed of
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three functional components, as follows:
(a) A concept definition which defines the rules and data,
given the global schema and an application model;
(b) A concept processor which pursues the goal of the concept
agent, given its rules and data; and
(c) A message handler which sends and receives messages on
behalf of the concept agent.
The notion of concept agents is used to perform concept
inferencing, in situations involving missing and conflicting
information.
CIS/TK utilizes an object-oriented approach. Physical
communication details and database idiosyncracies are encapsulated
within the object. The object-oriented language utilized by CIS/TK
is based on an enhanced version of Knowledge-Object Representation
Language. CIS/TK is currently providing integrated access to
several databases at MIT, and others outside MIT. External
databases include Reuter's Textline and Dataline and I.P. Sharp's
Disclosure.
SALIENT FEATURES
CIS is an integrated methodology that attempts to systematically
deal with strategic problems, organizational problems, and
technical problems that are inherent in any endeavor aimed at
integrating islands of disparate information systems. CIS/TK is
an operational prototype that utilizes innovative concepts to
perform logical connectivity in an effective manner.
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2.16. Metaphor Computer Systems, Inc.: DIS
DIS is a product of Metaphor Computer Systems, Inc. of Mountain
View, California. Through the combination of a graphical interface
and relational database technology, DIS lets users access data
from multiple databases, perform analysis, and construct their own
applications without programming. Designed for business
professionals, DIS provides tools for strategic use of data from
multiple sources; database query tools and report writers for
direct and easy access to data; spreadsheets to analyze data; plot
tools to view data graphically; and text processing tools to add
commentary to the analysis.
Currently, DIS only provides for data access to SQL relational
databases and to some flat files after they are converted to
relational format used by DIS. There is no plan to provide direct
access to non-SQL environments. However, to the extent local SQL
database management systems can translate other databases into
their own relational data model (e.g., Ingres), DIS can access
them.
There is no logical schema which encompasses all database
management systems in the network. However, a local schema of one
or several databases is graphically depicted for the user. This
provides the ability to "click" on each database and instantly see
a list of its tables. DIS can be used to query multiple physical
database management systems concurrently through multiple windows,
and to combine and manipulate such data using the spreadsheet tool.
2-3'8
FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
DIS is a network of workstations (soon to include PS/2's and PC's)
and servers that interact with relational databases. Databases can
reside on Metaphor database servers as well as on non-Metaphor host
machines. Metaphor files and communication servers can provide
electronic mail and print services, plus access to a wide range of
multi-vendor environments.
The main data access tool is the Query tool. When it is selected,
the appropriate database is connected and each of its tables and
its columns are displayed in a window. As the user chooses columns
with the mouse, the Query tool draws a picture showing how the
database tables will be joined to retrieve the data. Then it
translates the graphic query into SQL and sends it to the database.
If data are not directly accessible to DIS via a gateway, they can
be downloaded to a Metaphor database server. Host resident
"formatters" are available for converting flat data files into the
relational format used by DIS.
SALIENT FEATURES
This product claims to provide a true user friendly data access.
Querying can be done without ever touching the keyboard. All
tables and columns within a physical database are graphically
provided to the user. The spreadsheet, the plotting facility, and
the word processing tools are very practical features. The list of
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government and commercial customers attests to the ability of this
product to provide management with easy access to information. IBM
has invested in Metaphor Computer Systems, Inc. and is currently
working with it to provide a similar interface for IBM mainframes.
2.17. On-Line Software International, Inc.: RAMIS InformationSystem
RAMIS Information System from On-Line Software International, Inc.,
headquartered in Fort Lee, New Jersey, is used primarily for
developing and running end-user applications. The system consists
of many diverse components such as: a centralized database, a data
dictionary, reporting and graphics facilities, links to external
database management systems, data manipulation tools, a procedural
language for application development, menu architecture development
facilities, micro-to-mainframe communications, and data transfer
facilities.
The RAMIS database may be comprised of both RAMIS and non-RAMIS
files or databases. Most non-RAMIS files and databases may be
accessed in a read-only mode. However, DB2 and SQL/DS relational
databases may be queried and updated from within the RAMIS
environment.
FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
RELATE is a facility to combine data from multiple files by
operating on them as if they were flat relational tables. RELATE
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provides relational capabilities regardless of the organization of
the source of the data. The user must specify the database or the
file, the data to be retrieved, the record selection criteria and
how the data are to be associated.
The RAMIS Database Manager reads and updates RAMIS, DB2, and SQL/DS
files. It allows multiple physical files to be logically
interconnected to from a single data view. A user is presented
with one relational view of the data. In the same way, multiple
physical databases may be treated as one logical database.
Specialized interfaces are required for accessing other non-RAMIS
files and databases.
RAMIS has a totally integrated, menu-based architecture front end
to all components of the system. Application developers can
utilize the menu interface, use a command language, and construct
their own customized menu interfaces.
SALIENT FEATURES
The RAMIS Information System operates on various IBM platforms
under diverse operating systems. It provides a flexible
environment for managing, retrieving, manipulating and reporting
data stored both in RAMIS format and in external databases and
files. Direct interfaces within RAMIS allow users to read non-
RAMIS files and databases using RAMIS language facilities. It is
not necessary to convert external files into a RAMIS file to access
the data.
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2.18. Oracle Corporation: ORACLE
ORACLE was developed by Oracle Corporation, Belmont, California,
to serve as a general purpose tool for providing a uniform,
integrated interface for retrieving data from several existing
database management systems. ORACLE connects with SQL/DS, DB2 and
DBase III relational databases. There is also an ORACLE utility
for 123.
ORACLE is constantly evolving to meet System R* specifications
which IBM determined in the 1970s to define the "ideal" database
management system. The influence of IBM is further seen in the
global data manipulation language which is a superset of SQL, the
IBM developed Standard Query Language. ORACLE is a widely-
installed DBMS in the VMS environment.
Both distributed query and single-node transactions are supported
by ORACLE. For updates at multiple nodes, there is no assurance
that transactions will either be committed or rolled back together.
Data loss can only be prevented by application programming
techniques. Global updates and the two-phase commit procedure will
be supported in the next product release.
FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
The Open Systems Architecture of ORACLE for distributed processing
and distributed database management is SQL*Star. It is comprised
of three ORACLE products: SQL*Net, Distributed ORACLE relational
2-42
DBMS, and SQL*Connect.
SqL*Net provides distributed processing capability, and the
application software can run on a different machine from the ORACLE
kernel. Users can interface SQL*Net to arbitrary network
environments. SQL*Net is communications protocol independent. It
consists of a generic layer which is common to all protocols and
environments, and a custom layer which is specific to each protocol
and operating system.
The Distributed ORACLE relational DBMS supports location
transparency, single site transactions, multi-site updates in
multiple transactions and site autonomy. To meet System R*
specifications, ORACLE is planning multi-site updates in a single
transaction, replication and table partitioning for future
releases. Distributed data dictionaries contain information about
local data and how to get access to global data.
SQL*Connect allows ORACLE to communicate with non-ORACLE database
management systems. Plans for broadening access to other database
management systems, as well as to non-database file systems (VSAM,
Record Management Service) are continuing. Query optimization is
achieved by using an array interface to transfer data in batches.
This insures that the network is used efficiently.
SALIENT FEATURES
ORACLE products run on an impressive range of mainframes, minis,
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workstations and personal computers (over 90 hardware platforms),
and support a large number of operating systems and a wide variety
of network services. The designers intend to encrypt usernames,
passwords, and SQL data. Approaches for meeting B1 and C2 National
Computer Security Center (NCSC) security requirements are under
development.
2.19. Relational Technology. Inc.: INGRES
INGRES is marketed by Relational Technology, Inc. of Alameda,
California. Products of this company are used extensively around
the world. Approaches originally designed for homogeneous
environments have been extended to cater to heterogeneous
situations.
FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
The INGRES approach consists of: INGRES/NET Network Protocol
Support, INGRES/STAR Distributed Data Manager, and INGRES Database
Gateways. INGRES/NET is a transparent software layer that provides
INGRES protocol support for DECnet, TCP/IP, SNA and ASYNC
communications. This software allows access to databases across
a network and performs automatic data conversion. With the
INGRES/STAR Distributed Data Manager, simultaneous access to
distributed databases across a network is possible. INGRES/STAR
provides complete location transparency and local autonomy. INGRES
Database Gateways enable other types of databases and file systems
to be included in a distributed database. The appropriate gateway
2-44
module must reside on the local host. Relational, hierarchical,
and network local data models are supported.
A two-phase commit protocol is used for distributed transaction
processing. If a site involved in a transaction is inaccessible,
other sites are automatically rolled back. When a system crashes,
INGRES backs out all pending transactions and returns the database
to a consistent state without operator intervention.
The global data manipulation language of INGRES is ANSI SQL. After
receiving a SQL query from an application, INGRES/STAR breaks it
into subqueries and directs them to the appropriate local data
managers and gateways. Next, each local data manager executes its
respective subquery and the data are transferred to INGRES. Data
can be transparently joined and combined with INGRES SQL end-user
interfaces or application development tools.
The INGRES/STAR Distributed Data Manager combines distributed query
optimization with parallel processing. The distributed optimizer
selects the best route for satisfying a multicomputer request.
This approach reduces network traffic and improves performance.
With this open, multi-server architecture, system administrators
can customize their environment by assigning various servers with
dissimilar priorities for different tasks, and by connecting
transaction applications to a high priority server and batch
report-oriented applications to a lower-priority server.
INGRES allows dynamic control of parameters to adjust the
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concurrency of the system to the needs of the application set.
Transaction and decision support applications may be executed at
the same time. Also, the multi-server architecture allows system-
wide monitoring and control of database sessions for real-time
system management. A virtually infinite number of simultaneous
users is possible.
The INGRES data dictionary stores all performance related
information-table structures and sizes, available indexes, and data
distribution statistics. The more information is provided in the
dictionary, the more intelligent is the Query Optimizer. The Query
Optimizer produces query execution plans which can be examined to
determine the effects of adding indexes, selecting different
storage structures, and adding data distribution statistics.
SALIENT FEATURES
INGRES incorporates many of the features required for distributed
transaction applications including two-phase commit, automatic
recovery, and table fragmentation. Distributed query optimization
strategies and full parallel query execution capabilities enhance
its distributed on-line transaction processing capability.
2.20. Software AG: ADABAS
The ADABAS DBMS, developed by Software AG of West Germany, is a
part of an open Integrated Software Architecture (ISA). Used in
conjunction with NET-WORK (for distributed processing) and ADA-
2-46
NET (for distributed databases), ADABAS can support heterogeneous
networks involving IBM, SIEMENS, DEC-VAX and WANG computers. The
ADABAS DBMS supports relational, hierarchical, and network local
data models.
ADABAS is designed for production, development, and information
center environments. It claims to handle both high transaction
volumes and complex ad hoc queries operating against large volumes
of data. Distributed transactions can be in the form of a series
of updates to different databases which might involve more than one
network node.
FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
ADABAS uses either SQL embedded in COBOL, FORTRAN or PLI or NATURAL
as its global data manipulation language. NATURAL is a fourth
generation language based on a Communication Interface and standard
protocols. NATURAL applications may be ported without modification
across a wide range of system environments and hardware
architectures.
The ADANET product of Software AG allows a user level logical
ADABAS call to be translated into one or more physical calls in a
transparent manner. A dynamically maintained ADANET translation
table defines logical databases and their corresponding physical
database representations. Three logical file structures are
supported by ADANET: replicated, distributed and isolated files.
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PREDICT is the centralized integrated active data dictionary. The
structure of the metadata in PREDICT describes the logical and
physical interconnections of all data and programs to be managed.
PREDICT offers a user-friendly, menu-driven user interface for the
management of data and application information.
SALIENT FEATURES
The Open Integrated Software Architecture (ISA) provides a high
level of functionality in areas such as end user access,
application solutions, application development and database
management. It also provides software independence across multiple
hardware and operating platforms without requiring any change in
local databases. Global update processing is supported for
relational, network and hierarchical local data models. The global
data manipulation language of ADABAS reduces dependencies on third
generation languages and is highly portable.
2.21. Sybase. _Inc.: SYBASE
SYBASE is marketed by Sybase, Inc. of Emeryville, California. It
can handle data in either hierarchical form or relational form.
Data in a network DBMS are accessed via a relational interface.
FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
The Sybase Distributed System is comprised of three major
components: the Sybase Data Server, the Sybase OpenServer, and
2-48
the Sybase StarServer. The Sybase DataServer allows remote queries
and distributed transactions across multiple DataServers while the
Sybase OpenServer extends this capability to other applications or
DBMS Servers, including non-SQL systems. The Star Server adds the
functionality of site transparency, including cross-site joins and
views, and the Distributed Data Dictionary. The SYBASE OpenServer
is in the final stage of beta testing; the DataServer and the
StarServer are commercially available.
The SYBASE DataServer allows multi-site update transactions, while
ensuring the logical consistency of the data via a two-phase commit
protocol. A 'commit service' running at a designated site logs the
progress of a transaction. The commit service logs notes about
when all sites will be prepared. If the transaction fails before
that point, it will be backed out; if it fails after that point,
it will be rolled forward.
With its multithreaded client/server architecture, SYBASE assumes
many of the functions of an operating system. SYBASE avoids the
overhead of process swapping by scheduling and activating users.
Multiple users share a single copy of the SYBASE image, data and
procedure cache, and transaction log. Because each additional user
requires only 30 KBytes of memory, hundreds of users can
simultaneously access and update data on any node in a distributed
network, according to Sybase.
A Virtual Server Architecture (VSA) for Symmetric Multiprocessor
Systems is scheduled for beta testing. The VSA treats processors
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as resources to be allocated on an as-needed basis. An application
or a user is not restricted to a specific processor; instead
applications may run on various processors at different points in
time depending on the number of blocks for I/O requests or other
reasons. Four key features of VSA are: synchronization control,
automatic load balancing, optimal resource utilization, and dynamic
configuration.
SYBASE uses a Distributed Data Dictionary, consisting of synonyms
which are used to locate objects, and Remote Object Catalogs which
contain information about the characteristics of those objects.
With this approach, users and applications need not be concerned
with changes in the physical location of an object.
SALIENT FEATURES
Sybase is a leader in secure database management systems. The
SYBASE Secure SQL Server meets Division B security requirements
defined by the National Computer Security Center. In compliance
with Division B specifications, SYBASE offers the ability to store
data of multiple security classifications in a single database.
Because networking was built as a key part of SYBASE, rather than
as an add-on, network usage is optimized. The network is used more
efficiently by sending a single 'execute procedure' command,
instead of an individual SQL statement.
SYBASE allows server-to-server communications. Multiple users may
2-50
share the communication link between servers, thus eliminating the
overhead of opening and closing a linkage for each user.
2.22. Tandem Computers Incorporated: NonStop SOL
Tandem Computers Incorporated, headquartered in Cupertino,
California, offers software and network compatible systems ranging
from mainframes to low-cost network nodes. Because all Tandem
processors use the same operating system and distributed database,
as many as 255 systems with a maximum of 4,080 processors can be
linked to form a geographically dispersed network. An individual
system can support hundreds of terminals and a database with
billions of bytes of data.
FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
GUARDIAN 90, a message based operating system, supports the
parallel architecture of Tandem NonStop systems. Key features of
GUARDIAN 90 are: fault tolerance, distributed data processing
capabilities, high transaction throughput, linear expandability,
security, data integrity, and the ability to link systems,
resources, and devices.
GUARDIAN 90 supports fault tolerant process pairs. In the case
where a system software error causes a process to fail, its backup
process takes over in another processor. In addition, GUARDIAN 90
manages communication between processors. Database availability
is always ensured. Mirrored volumes of data are stored on a pair
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of physically independent disk drives. When a failed drive is
operational again, the system automatically brings it up to date.
The systems resume normal mirrored operation after the restored
disk is fully updated. Via its message system, GUARDIAN 90
coordinates all distributed activity in a fashion that makes all
data accesses transparent to the user. An application can read,
write, and update data regardless of the physical location of the
data. A built-in password security system is used to control file,
device and process availability. Tandem offers integrated security
and encryption products to protect information from unauthorized
access.
SALIENT FEATURES
The multiple parallel processing capability, the fault tolerance
capability, and the expandability feature make NonStop SQL a good
product for on-line transaction processing (OLTP).
Tandem Corp. has signed integration agreements with Oracle Corp,
Sybase, Inc., Relational Technology, Inc. (Ingres), and Information
Builders, Inc. (FOCUS) to port their front-end tools to Tandem
Systems. Details of the approaches used by these companies are
presented in their respective subsections.
2.23. TRW: TDIE
TDIE is a data integration engine developed by TRW, Redondo Beach,
California. Unlike conventional efforts which use a gateway with
2-52
query language mapping, TDIE has no global data manipulation
language. A local DBMS is used and a connection to a remote DBMS
is triggered when a user issues a demand requiring data
integration.
TDIE is not oriented towards any particular environment. No change
is required in existing applications. Additional local database
management systems may be added to the system configuration and
more than one global schema is permitted.
An integrated scheme performs uniform query and updates for
hierarchical, relational and network data models. Automatic
updating is performed by polling the potential source files at a
rate suitable for a given data category. Types of data that are
frequently accessed and must be current are polled at short
intervals. This approach eliminates unnecessary activity and
avoids unnecessary copying of bulk data by transferring only the
changes in data.
FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
The TDIE is comprised of the Data Transform Manager and the Host
Interface Manager. These may reside on one processor or they may
be partitioned across multiple processors.
The Data Transform Manager contains the centralized dictionary
which defines the global conceptual schema. This knowledge-based
dictionary supplies scripts, translation software, and data
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locations for full data integration. Scripts are instructions for
data transfer, which are sent to the Host Interface Manager, while
the translation software contains the translation of one query
language to another.
To add another local DBMS, translators and scripts must be added
to the dictionary. TRW provides a front end tool called the
Integration Advisor for interactive construction of a global
integrating schema.
The Host Interface Manager is the bridge to the host applications.
It provides for automatic updating and data retrieval. Time-
critical applications in transaction processing or real-time
control are not supported. Also, because TDIE is not a distributed
heterogeneous DBMS, concurrency control is an important issue.
SALIENT FEATURES
TDIE supports global updates and enables the integration of
hierarchical, relational, and network data models. It is layered
on top of the existing systems and does not require any change to
them. New systems can be added as requirements change. Also, the
TDIE can be implemented in increments as desired.
2,24. Xerox Advanced Information Technology: Multibase
Multibase was developed by Research and Systems Division of
Computer Corporation of America. This division was acquired by
2-54
Xerox and is now called Xerox Advanced Information Technology
(Xerox AIT). Although Multibase is a prototype and not a product,
Xerox AIT utilizes this technology for providing customized
distributed heterogeneous database management systems for its
clients.
Multibase provides a uniform, integrated interface for retrieving
data from several existing database management systems. It allows
a user to reference data in heterogeneous databases, through a
common query language, using a single conceptual schema. Multibase
is designed to serve as a general tool, without specific
orientation towards any particular application area. It allows
existing applications to operate without change and also permits
new local systems to be included in an existing multibase system
configuration.
The integrated access available through Multibase does not provide
either the capability to update data in local databases or the
ability to synchronize read operations across several sites. In
order to process user queries, the system must request and control
specific services offered by the local systems (e.g., locking local
items).
FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE
Multibase uses the language DAPLEX as its global data manipulation
language. DAPLEX provides constructs that allow users to model
real world situations in an efficient manner. A three level schema
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of definitions is employed as discussed in Section 1.5. The
process of global information retrieval involves two main
components. These are: Global Data Manager (GDM), and Local
Database Interface (LDI). The GDM performs tasks of Command
Processor, Decomposer, Merger and Distributed Execution Monitor.
The LDI design of Multibase is based on the needs of a local DBMS,
for example, a more sophisticated LDI is designed to support a file
system as compared to the one that supports a DBMS.
SALIENT FEATURES
Multibase provides an integrated scheme for uniform query access
to dissimilar systems including hierarchical, relational, and
network local data models, and File Systems. Global query
optimization is performed in Multibase.
2-56
SECTION THREE: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
The first section of this report explained the basic principles of
integrating disparate information systems. In the next section,
a broad spectrum of commercially-marketed products and approaches
were discussed. Based on the material covered so far, this section
develops a set of recommendations for selecting the optimal product
or products. In particular, the information presented in Section
2 and Appendix B is utilized to develop a taxonomy for classifying
all the alternative approaches.
In Section 1.4, it was emphasized that changes to existing
information systems should be as little as possible; in the ideal
case, no change should be required. Subsequently, in Section 1.5,
the importance of a single global conceptual schema was emphasized.
Many products and approaches tabulated in Appendix B indicate that
multiple global schemata can be created to suit the needs of
various users. From a technical viewpoint, these are external
schemata, not global schemata. These are some of the
considerations that were examined while developing the broad
categories described in the succeeding subsections.
3.1. Unintrusive Integration
This is the most elegant form of integrating information systems.
The word "unintrusive" connotes that the integration methodology
does not demand that specific modules be resident in each
3-1
III
participating information system (see Figure 1). There is a
definite assumption in products belonging to this category that
existing information systems cannot, and should not, be tampered
with. On top of these systems, a single global conceptual schema
is introduced.
Use of this approach in a multiorganization or a multidivision
environment implies that the existing information systems of
various divisions and organizations will not require any
modification. These systems will be accessed by a central system
that holds a global schema with names and locations of all data
items in participating systems. A user will access the central
system, which will retrieve information from appropriate sources.
The use of a central system and a single global schema offers
appropriate controls on data integrity, access rights, and the
feasibility of developing a new information system over time.
The main disadvantage of this approach is that is difficult to make
global updates to multiple systems as there is no control over the
capabilities of individual information systems. The application
program must, therefore, be designed to safeguard the integrity of
the updates.
Notable products in this category are: Multibase (developed by
Computer Corporation of America and now marketed by Xerox);
Mermaid (developed by Unisys and now marketed by Data Integration,
Inc.); and CDM*Plus (developed under the IISS initiative of U.S.
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development of all these three products involved huge sums of
money, and the acceptance of these products is still not
commensurate with the investment. Defense organizations have been
in the forefront in evaluating and field-testing these products.
3.2. Intrusive Integration
Approaches in this category require some modification of existing
information systems or the location of specific modules within
these systems. These modules are typically utilized to perform
network services, to store information on location of specific
files, or to initiate secondary processes in case some information
resources are not operational or unusually slow in responding to
requests (see Figure 2). If these modules are designed and
implemented properly, and if the existing information systems offer
the flexibility to accept these modules from technical and
organizational considerations, then this approach can offer
significant performance improvements over the approach outlined in
Section 3.1. The main drawback, however, lies in the fact that
existing information systems frequently use older technologies,
employ outdated programming practices, offer little good
documentation, and can only be modified after prolonged effort.
Notable products in this category include SUPRA (original
technology developed in West Germany and now marketed by CINCOM),
INGRES (from Relational Technology Inc.), and Sybase (from Sybase).
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In the case of Sybase, it appears that the present family of
products support SQL databases only, and support for non-SQL based
databases and file systems is still being tested. There are some
restrictions on the types of data models and data formats supported
by these three products. For example, Supra requires data to be
in first normalized form and keys to be in ascending or descending
order. CINCOM is interested in developing a common protocol for
integrating heterogeneous databases, that could be utilized by
multiple companies. Because of these reasons, it is important to
analyze potential applications carefully to determine which of
these products, if any, is appropriate in the short-term and in the
long-term.
3.3. Interfacing with Controlled Redundancy
In this approach, no effort is made to create a global conceptual
schema. Instead, based on the perceived needs of the user,
strategies are designed to get the necessary pieces of information
on a "just-in-time" basis (see Figure 3). As an example, consider
a hypothetical application which requires that information on
100,000 items (which could be key customers, spare parts, or
inventory levels) be available every morning. Assume that the
existing information systems that are used to track the position
of these items are updated with different periodicity: very few
on a yearly basis, some on a monthly basis, a large percentage on
a weekly basis, another large percentage on a daily basis, and the
rest on a six-hourly basis. In such a situation, information can
3-4
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be obtained in advance; further, to fulfil anticipated requests
one can get information only for the items that have changed since
the previous status report.
One product that exemplifies this approach is Data Integration
Engine from TRW. In this patented approach, when a change in the
status of a source information system occurs, this change is
transmitted to the destination application with a priority that
would allow it to reach the destination before the next scheduled
time of retrieval. The software to accomplish this task and other
related tasks is comprised of two types of material: a basic data
engine, which is site independent, and additional material which
must be customized to each site. The basic data engine is written
in C and can operate in a UNIX or a VAX environment. The
additional material can be generated with an expert system called
Integration Advisor, which was originally written in LISP and has
recently been converted to C. According to a technical
representative of TRW, the ratio of the size of the basic data
engine to the size of the additional material is 5:1.
Incidentally, TRW has recently been awarded a multiyear contract
by the U.S. Department of Defense.
3.4. Interfacing with Transaction Transfer
This is the simplest technique for managing transactions in a
heterogeneous information system environment. Instead of creating
a global schema or prestaging data to meet expected needs, this
3-5
approach implies that action begins after a user enters a command.
Unless the user is willing to tolerate long delays, this approach
is good only in situations where only a small number of information
systems need to be accessed in response to the user query (see
Figure 4).
Among the notable products in this category, the one that deserves
mention here is DIS from Metaphor Computer Systems, Inc. DIS
possesses two unique characteristics. First, it is completely
icon-driven and as such it is very easy to learn and use. Second,
IBM has invested in Metaphor Computer Systems Inc. and they are
working together to provide a similar interface for IBM mainframes.
As such, the DIS interface has the potential of becoming a commonly
used standard for dealing with multiple information systems.
3.5. Additional Evaluation Criteria
In addition to determining which of the four distinct approaches
described in Sections 3.1-3.4 above may be most appropriate for a
particular application, it is necessary to examine a number of
other technical and non-technical issues before embarking on a
specific implementation strategy. These issues are delineated in
the following paragraphs.
3.5.1. Composition of Transactions
Transactions are of two types: queries and updates. In our
3-6
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context, a query involves reading of data in multiple computer-
based systems, manipulating the data retrieved to make them
consistent, and then presenting the result to the user. The
original data in source computer-based systems remain unaltered by
a query. An update, however, results in modification of data in
various information systems. It is much more difficult to deal
with updates than with queries. If an application involves
updates, then a significant number of the alternative approaches
discussed in Section 2 should be deleted from consideration. The
ones to be deleted can be readily identified from Appendix B, which
contains a specific question on how update transactions are
managed.
3.5.2. Security Considerations
When one makes it easier to automatically access relevant pieces
of information in disparate systems, the same capabilities become
available to any unauthorized user of the system. Any integrated
set of systems is more vulnerable to security violations than a
single information system.
None of the vendors was specifically asked to comment on this
issue, although a few of them have provided information on their
compliance level with security requirements defined by the National
Computer Security Center. This issue may hold significant
weightage in the case of large defense, banking, and insurance
applications.
3-7
III
3.5.3. Corporate Expertise
Most large computer corporations have tended to concentrate on
integrating systems of their respective makes only. For example,
in Section 2, there was a discussion of IBM and DEC suggesting
solutions pertaining to their respective families of products.
Frequently, smaller companies come up with non-traditional
concepts, and larger companies tend to endorse them after these
concepts have attained some degree of maturity and acceptance by
the market.
The fact that the companies who developed good prototypes such as
Multibase and Mermaid later spun off their development groups must
be viewed with caution. This is an evolving field, and user
organizations must be careful about selecting only the set of
products and services that are likely to be supported by more than
one company.
3.5.4. Applications and Development Strategy
In the current business environment of increasing globalization
and corporate reorganizations, applications and functions are apt
to change in relatively short periods of time. The present
technical report has been written without any specific application
in view. As an organization determines which applications are
important in the short-term and the long-term, it would become
feasible to make more specific comments about the relevance of
3-8
different products and approaches.
It is important to note that any endeavor towards integration has
ramifications for future integration initiatives. The selected
approach must offer the flexibility to be enhanced in a modular
fashion. Further, public-domain approaches should be preferred
over proprietary ones. Based on these considerations, a
development strategy can be delineated.
3.6. Conclusion
The integration of existing information systems involves a careful
analysis of many technical, organizational, and strategic issues,
and the surmounting of many technical and nontechnical barriers.
This technical report has focused on products and their
capabilities related to logical access to relevant pieces of
information. For discussion of other approaches and issues, the
reader may wish to refer to Ref. [2] and the set of eight books on
Knowledge Based Integrated Information Systems Engineering
published by M.I.T.
The problem of heterogeneity can be overcome either by integration
or by interfacing. To decide which option to select, it is
worthwhile to look back to the stage when the concept of database
management system originated. If one wanted to deal with a single
clearly-defined application, it was better to write a customized
program to do so; however, if there were many users with diverse
3-9
III
needs, it became increasingly attractive to use the concept of a
database management system, even though it involved a larger
investment at the initial stage. The same considerations apply at
the metalevel today. If access to multiple information systems is
needed exclusively for a small set of clearly-defined applications,
the interfacing alternative should suffice. However, if there is
likely to be an array of broad applications, it appears preferable
to take the integration alternative. Remember that "just as the
evolution of integrated database management technology displaced
conventional piecemeal programming approaches in the 1960s,
similarly the new information integration approaches will lead to
a significantly different computational environment by the year
2000 A.D.!" [1].
3-10
REFERENCES
[1] Gupta, Amar, Integration of Information Systems: BridgingHeterogeneous Databases, IEEE Press, New York, 1989.
[2] Morris, J.H., Satyanarayanan, M., Conner, M.H., Howard,J.H., Rosental, D.S.H., and Smith, F.D., "Andrew: ADistributed Personal Computer Environment," Commun. ACM,Vol. 29, 3, March 1986, pp. 184-201.
[3] Balkovich, E., Lerman, S., and Parmelo, R.P., "Computingin Higher Education: The Athena Experience," Commun.ACM, Vol. 28, 11, Nov. 1985, pp. 209-215.
[4] Adiba, Michel, and Portal, Dominique, "A CooperationSystem for Heterogeneous Data Base Management Systems,"Inform. Systems, Vol. 3, 1978, pp. 209-215.
[5] McLeod, Dennis, and Heimbinger, Dennis, "A FederatedArchitecture for Database Systems, " in AFIPS Conf. Proc.,Vol. 49 (National Computer Conf., 1980), pp. 283-289.
(6] Lam, Chat Y. and Madnick, Stuart E., CompositeInformation Systems - A New Concept in Information System,Working Paper #35, Center for Information Systems Research,Sloan School of Management, Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology, May 1978.
[7] Gupta, Amar, and Madnick, Stuart, Knowledge-Based IntegratedInformation Systems Engineering: Highlights andBibliography, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1987.(NTIS/DTIC Accession # A 195850).
[8] Litwin, Witold et al, "SIRIUS Systems for Distributed DataManagement," in Distributed Databases, edited by: H.Schneider, North-Holland Publishing Co., 1982, pp. 311-366.
[9] Heimbinger, Dennis, and McLeod, Dennis, "A FederatedArchitecture for Information Management," ACM Transactionson Office Information Systems, Vol.3, No. 3, July 1985, pp.253-278.
[10] Thompson, Glenn Ray, Multi-database Concurrency Control,Doctoral Dissertation, Oklahoma State University,Stillwater, Oklahoma, 1987.
[11] Madnick, Stuart E., and Wang, Y. Richard, "IntegratingDisparate Databases for Composite Answers," in Proc. ofthe Twenty-first Annual Hawaii International Conferenceon System Sciences, Vol.II, January 1988, pp. 583-592.
[12] Pu, Carlton, Superdatabases for Composition of HeterogeneousDatabases, Technical Paper No. CUCS-243-86, Columbia
1'
University, New York, 1986.
[13] Gibbons, Phillip B., "A Stub Generator Multilanguage RPC inHeterogeneous Environments, IEEE Transactions on SoftwareEngineering, Vol. SE-13, No. 1, January 1987, pp. 77-87.
[14] The ANSI/XI SPARC DBMS Framework Report of the Study onDatabase Management Systems, AFIPS. 1977.
[15] Appleton, Daniel S., "The Technology of Data Integration,"Datamation, November 1, 1985, pp. 106-116.
[16] Bhalla, S., Prasad, B.E., Gupta, A., and Madnick, S.E., "ATechnical Comparison of Distributed Heterogeneous DatabaseManagement systems," in Integrating Distributed Homogeneousand Heterogeneous Databases: Prototypes, edited by AmarGupta and Stuart Madnick, M.I.T., Cambidge, MA, 1987, pp.161-218.
[17] Reddy, M.P., Prasad, B.E., and Reddy, P.G., "QueryProcessing In Heterogeneous Distributed Database ManagementSystems" in Reference [1] above, pp. 264-277.
[18] Thompson, Paul, "Reference Models for InformationEngineering," in Reference [1] above, pp. 291-291.
R-2
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] Gupta, Amar, and Madnick, Stuart, eds., KBIISE--Vol. 2:Knowledge-Based Integrated Information SystemsDevelopment Methodologies Plan, M.I.T., Cambridge, MA,1987 (NTIS/DTIC Accession # A 195851).
[2] Gupta, Amar, and Madnick, Stuart, eds., KBIISE--Vol. 3:Integrating Distributed Homogeneous and HeterogeneousDatabases: Prototypes, M.I.T., Cambridge, MA, 1987(NTIS/DTIC Accession # A 195853).
[3] Gupta, Amar, and Madnick, Stuart, eds., KBIISE--Vol. 4:Object-Oriented Approach to Integrating Database Semantics,M.I.T., Cambridge, MA, 1987 (NTIS/DTIC Accession # A195854).
[4] Gupta, Amar, and Madnick, Stuart, eds., KBIISE--Vol. 5:Integrating Images, Applications and CommunicationsNetworks, M.I.T., Cambridge, MA, 1987 (NTIS/DTIC Accession #A 195854).
[5] Gupta, Amar, and Madnick, Stuart, eds., KBIISE--Vol. 6:Strategic, Organizational, and Standardization Aspects ofIntegrated Informations Systems, M.I.T., Cambridge, MA, 1987(NTIS/DTIC Accession # A 195855).
(6] Gupta, Amar, and Madnick, Stuart, eds., KBIISE Vol. 7:Integrating Information Stystems in a Major DecentralizedInternational Organization, M.I.T., Cambridge, MA, 1987(NTIS/DTIC Accession # A 195856).
[7] Gupta, Amar, and Madnick, Stuart, eds., KBIISE--Vol. 8:Technical Opinions Regarding Knowledge-Based IntegratedInformation Systems Engineering, M.I.T., Cambridge, MA,1987 (NTIS/DTIC Accession # A 195857).
[8] Wang, Richard, and Madnick, Stuart, eds., ConnectivityAmong Information Systems, CIS Project, M.I.T., 1988.
[9] Special Issue on Distributed Heterogeneous Systems,Proceedings of the IEEE, Volume 75, No. 5, May, 1987.
[10] Bachman, Charles W., and Ross, Ronald G., "Toward a MoreComplete Reference Model of Computer-Based InformationSystems," Computers and Standards, Vol. 1, North-HollandPublishing Company, 1982, pp. 35-48.
[11] Cole, Robert, "A Method for Interconnecting HeterogeneousComputer Networks," Software-Practice and Experience, Vol.17, No. 6, June 1987, pp. 387-397.
[12] Gavish, Bezalel, and Pirkul, Hason, "Computer and Database
B-1
'II
Location in Distributed Computer Systems," IEEE Transactionson Computers, Vol. C-35, No. 7, July 1986, pp. 583-590.
B-2
Appendix A
COMPANIES CONTACTED AND APPLICABILITY
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1989. All rightsreserved. Reproduction of tables or quotation form themprohibited. All requests for grant of permission should bedirected to the principal investigator, Dr. Amar Gupta.Telephone (617) 253-8906.
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Appendix B
DETAILED CHARACTERISTICS OF
PRODUCTS AND APPROACHES
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1989. All rightsreserved. Reproduction of tables or quotation form themprohibited. All requests for grant of permission should bedirected to the principal investigator, Dr. Amar Gupta.Telephone (617) 253-8906.
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M.I.T. Sloan School of ManagementWorking Paper Series
Papers by Stuart Madnick
Paper # Date Title/Author(s)
1839 11/86 "A Microcomputer-Based Image Database Management System,"Prasad, B., Gupta, A., Toong, H., and Madnick, S.,
1776 4/86 "INFOPLEX: Research in a High-Performance Database Computer,"Madnick, S., and Hsu, M.
1685 6/85 "Impact of Schedule Estimation on Software Project Behavior," Abdel-Hamid, T., and Madnick, S.
1366 10/82 "An Integrative Approach to Modeling the Software ManagementProcess: A Basis for Identifying Problems and Evaluating Tools andTechniques," Adbel-Hamid, T.K., and Madnick, S.
1334 5/82 "The Dynamics of Software Project Scheduling: A System SynamicsPerspective," Adbel-Hamid, T.K., and Madnick, S.
1333 5/82 "A Model of Software Project Management Dynamics," Adbel-Hamid,T.K., and Madnick, S.
1047 4/79 "Properties or Storage Hierarchy Systems with Multiple Page Sizesand Redundant Data," Lan, C.Y., and Madnick, S.
1046 8/78 "Inforlex Data Base Computer Architecture - Concept and Directions,"Lam, C.Y., and Madnick, S.
V 993 5/78 "Compostie Information Systems - A New Concept in InformationSystems," Lam, C.Y., and Madnick, S.
920 3/77 "A Systematic Approach to the Design of Complex Systems:Application to DBMS Design and Evaluation," Andreu, R.C., andMadnick, S.
910 3/77 "Trends in Computers amd Computing: The Information Utility,"Madnick, S.
883 1/77 "Institutional and AD-HOC Decision Support Systems and TheirEffective Use," Donovan, J.J., and Madnick, S.
846 4/76 "Virtual Machines A Concept That has Comparative Advantages inSecurity, Integrity, and in Decision Support Systems," Donovan, J.J., andMadnick, S.D.
Please Use Attached Form When Ordering Papers
M.LT. Sloan School of ManagementWorking Paper Series
Papers by Stuart Madnick
Title/Author(s)
"An Application of a Generalized Management Information System toEnergy Policy and Decision Making: The User's View," Donovan, J.J.,Gutentag, L.M., Madnick, S., and Smith, G. N.
771 3/75
770 3/75
769 3/75
723 7/74
722
648
645
5/74
3/73
2/73
"Data Security and Data Processing," Madnick, S.
"Infoplex - Hierarchical Decomposition of a Large InformationManagement System Using a Microprocessor Complex," Madnick, S.
"Design of a General Hierarchical Storage System," Madnick, S.
"Virtual Information in Data-Base Systems," Folinus, J.J., Madnick, S.,and Schutzman, H.B.
"Application and Analysis of the Virtual Machine Approch toInformation System Security and Reliability," Madnick, S., andDonovan, J.J.
"An Approach to Information System Isolation and Security in aShared Facility," Madnick, S., and Donovan, J.
"Recent Technical Advances in the Computer Industry and Their FutureImpact," Madnick, S.
Please Use Attached Form When Ordering Papers
Paver # Date
776 3/75
-- ---- -
M.LT. Sloan School of ManagementWorking Paper Series
Papers by Stuart MadnickJohn Norris McGuire Professor of Information Technology
Paper # Date Title/Author(s)
3157 6/90 "The Composite Information Systems Laboratory (CSL) Project at MIT,"Madnick, S., Siegel, M., and Wang, R.
3180 5/90 "The Elusive Silver Lining: How We Fail to Learn from Failure inSoftware Development," Adbel-Hamid, T.K., and Madnick, S.
3119 2/90 "A Polygen Model for Heterogeneous Database Systems: The SourceTagging Perspective," Wang, Y.R., and Madnick, S.
3120 12/89 "Motivating Strategic Alliance for Composite Information Systems:The Case of a Major Regional Hospital," Osborn, C.S., Madnick, S., andWang, Y.R.
3100 12/89 "A Polygem Data Model for Data Source Tagging in CompositeInformation Systems," Wang, R., and Madnick, S.
3084 11/89 "An Architectural Comparison of Contemporary Approaches andProducts for Integrating Heterogeneous Information Systems," Gupta,A., and Madnick, S.
3092 10/89 "Schema Integration Using Metadata," Siegel, M., and Madnick, S.
3091 10/89 "CISL: Composing Answers from Disparate Information Systems,"Madnick, S., Wang, Y. et al.
3061 8/89 "Information Technology Platform for the 1990's," Madnick, S.
3015 5/89 "A Global Query Processing in Composite Information Systems," Wang,Y.R., and Madnick, S.
2075 9/88 "Software Productivity: Potential, Actual, and Perceived," Abdel-Hamid, T., and Madnick, S.
2061 8/88 "Logical Connectivity: Applications, Requirments, and anArchitecture," Madnick, S., and Wang, Y.R.
2031 6/88 "Motivating Strategic Alliances for Composite Information Systems:The Case of a Major Regional Hospital," Osborn, C., Madnick, S., andWang, Y.R.
2029 6/88 "Inter-Database Instance Identification in Composite InformationSystems," Wang, Y.R., Madnick, S., and Horton, D.
2025 6/88 "Connectivity Among Information Systems," Wang, Y.R., and Madnick,S.
M.I.T. Sloan School of ManagementWorking Paper Series
Papers by Stuart Madnick
Paper # Date Title/Author(s)
2022 5/88 "Implementing Message Oriented Transaction Processing for DistributedDatabase Management Systems," Bhalla, S., and Madnick, S.
1862 5/88 "Evolution Towards Strategic Applications of Databases ThroughComposite Information Systems," Madnick, S., and Wang, Y.R.
1981 2/88 "A Framework and Comparative Study of Distributed HeterogeneousDatabase Management Systems," Bhalla, S., Prasad, B., Gupta, A., andMadnick, S.
1980 2/88 "Modeling the Dynamics of Software Project Management," Abdel-Hamid, T., and Madnick, S.
1977 1/88 "On the Portability of Quantitative Software Estimation Models,"Abdel-Hamid, T., and Madnick, S.
1975 1/88 "Facilitating Connectivity in Composite Information Systems," Wang,Y.R., and Madnick, S.
1866 12/87 "A Conceptual Model for Integrated Autonomous Processing: AnInternational Bank's Experience with Large Datebases," Frank, W.,Madnick, S., and Wang, Y.R.
1876 4/87 "Hierarchical Timestamping Algorithm," Hsu, M., and Madnick, S.
1875 4/87 "Time Slice Manipulation in Information Heirarchy," Hsu, M., andMadnick, S.
1871 3/87 "An Integrative System Dynamics Perspective of Software ProjectManagement: Arguments for an Alternative Research Pardigm,"Abdel-Hamid, T., and Madnick, S.
1868 3/87 "Perspectives on the Effective Use, Planning, and Impact of InformationTechnology," Madnick, T.
1867 2/87 "The Economics of Software Quality Assurance: A System DynamicsBased Simulation Approach," Abdel-Hamid, T., and Madnick, S.
1864 2/87 "A Temporal and Spatial Locality Theory for Characterizing VeryLarge Data Bases," Madnick, S., and Moulton, A.
1861 2/87 "Key Concerns of Executives Making I/S Decisions," Madnick, S., andWang, Y.R.
Please Use Attached Form When Ordering Papers
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