anatomi organ indera 2013
DESCRIPTION
modul indraTRANSCRIPT
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ANATOMI ORGAN INDERA
Sasanthy KusumaningtyasDepartemen Anatomi
FKUI
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OBJEKTIF
• PENGHIDU
– Menjelaskan saraf yang menginervasi sistem penghidu
– Menjelaskan jaras penghidu sampai ke tingkat SSP
• PENGECAP
– Menjelaskan saraf-saraf yang menginervasi lidah (motorik dan sensorik)
– Menjelaskan jaras pengecapan sampai ke tingkat SSP
• PENGLIHATAN
– Menjelaskan struktur mata dan organ asesoriusnya (termasuk persarafan dan pendarahannya)
– Menjelaskan kerja otot-otot ekstraokular (ekstrinsik) dan intrinsik bola mata dan persarafannya
– Menjelaskan jaras-jaras yang berhubungan dengan visual
• PENDENGARAN DAN KESEIMBANGAN
– Menjelaskan struktur telinga luar, tengah dan dalam
– Menjelaskan topografi alat-alat yang terdapat pada telinga tengah
– Menjelaskan lintasan n.facialis di telinga tengah
– Menjelaskan jaras pendengaran dan keseimbangan
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PENGHIDU
Source: Richard S Snell. Clinical neuroanatomy. 7th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2010
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Source: Noback & Demarest. The human nervous system. 3rd ed. Mc Graw Hill. 1981.
Amygdala, hipothalamus reaksi emosional & reaksi viseral (muntah, lapar)Cortex sinyal ke sel granul, menghambat sel mitral mengubah kualitas bau (bau
makanan lebih terasa bila lapar, dst)
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Source: Saladin. Anatomy & Physiology. Mc Graw Hill Companies. 2003.
(Emotional responses)
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LIDAH
Source: Dynamic Human Anatomy, 2.0
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Source: Marieb & Mallat. Human Anatomy. 3rd ed. Benjamin Cummings.2001
Taste buds stimulasi N VII,IX, X NS
1)hypothalamus & amygdala (refleks otonom, salivasi, dst. 2) thalamus
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ORBITA
Source: Dynamic Human Anatomy, 2.0
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TULANG-TULANG PEMBENTUK RONGGA ORBITA
• Atap : fossa cranii anterior, pars orbita os frontal
• Medial: lamina papyracea; sinus ethmoidales
• Lateral: proc.frontalis os zygomaticum & ala magna os sphenoid
– tebal berfungsi sebagai pelindung terhadap trauma
• Lantai: terutama maxilla; os zigomaticum & palatinum
• Apex: canalis opticus
• Tulang-tulang orbita dilapisi oleh periorbita. Ke arah canalis opticus berlanjut menjadi duramater lapis periosteal
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TULANG-TULANG PEMBENTUK RONGGA ORBITA
• FISSURA ORBILTALIS SUPERIOR
– Fossa cranii media
• N. lacrimalis
• N. frontalis
• N. III
• N. IV
• N. V 1
• N. VI
• N. nasociliaris
• V. ophthalmica superior
• FISSURA ORBITALIS INFERIOR
– Fossa pterigopalatina• N. maxillaris
• V. ophthalmica inferior
• CANALIS OPTICUS
– Fossa cranii media
• N. II
• A. ophthalmica
• CANALIS NASOLACRIMALIS
– Meatus inferior nasi
• Ductus nasolacrimalis
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Source:. Richard L Drake, Wayne Vogl & Adam W.M. Mitchell. Gray’s Anatomy for students. Elsevier. 2007.
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Source: Dynamic Human Anatomy, 2.0
ORBITA
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Bola mata terbenam dalam jaringan lemak yang mengisi rongga orbita
Source:. Richard L Drake, Wayne Vogl & Adam W.M. Mitchell. Gray’s Anatomy for students. Elsevier. 2007.
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Source: Saladin. Anatomy & Physiology. Mc Graw Hill Companies. 2003.
MATA
• Asesorius mata• Bola mata• Otot-otot okular dan ekstraokular bola mata
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(Chantus)
Source: Moore & Agur. Essential clinical anatomy. 3rd ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2007
ASESORIUS MATA
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OTOT-OTOT ORBITA
Kelenjar tarsal: meningkatkan viskositas air mata & mengurangi evaporasi air mata di bola mata
Source:. Richard L Drake, Wayne Vogl & Adam W.M. Mitchell.Gray’s Anatomy for students. Elsevier. 2007.
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Kelenjar lakrimal
Source: Van De Graaff. Human Anatomy. 6th ed. McGraw-Hill Company. 2001
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Suplai darah dan inervasi
Source:. Richard L Drake, Wayne Vogl & Adam W.M. Mitchell. Gray’s Anatomy for students. Elsevier. 2007.
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Suplai darah dan inervasi
Source:. Richard L Drake, Wayne Vogl & Adam W.M. Mitchell. Gray’s Anatomy for students. Elsevier. 2007.
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INNERVASI KELENJAR LACRIMAL
/secretomotor(NVII)
(NV2)
(NV1)
Source:. Richard L Drake, Wayne Vogl & Adam W.M. Mitchell. Gray’s Anatomy for students. Elsevier. 2007.
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BOLA MATA
TIGA KOMPONEN UTAMA:
• Tunica membentuk dinding bola mata
• Komponen optik meneruskan dan
mefokuskan cahaya
• Komponen neural: retina & n.opticus
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BOLA MATA
KOMPONEN OPTIK:
• Aqueus humor: disekresiken oleh corpus ciliaris
• Lensa: digantung di belakang pupil oleh lig.suspensorium (melekat pada corpus ciliaris)
• Vitreus humor: jelly transparan; hyaloid canal (sisa a.hyaloid)
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BOLA MATA
Ruangan:
• Camera occuli/bulbi anterior (anterior chamber)
• Camera occuli/bulbi posterior (posterior chamber)
• Aqueus humor nutrisi dan oksigen utk lensa dan kornea
(avaskular)
• Canal of Schlemm
• Posterior (postremal):
– Vitreous humor (jelly like)
• Kontribusi pada tekanan intraokular
• Mempertahankan bentuk bola mata
• Menahan retina ke choroid
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BOLA MATA
Source: Van De Graaf. Human Anatomy. 6th ed. Mc Graw Hill Companies. 2001.
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Bola mata
Lapisan fibrosa:ScleraCornea
a.centralis retinae
Lapisan vaskular:ChoroidCorpus ciliaris
Lapisan dalam, retina-Pigmented layer melekat pada
choroid-Neural layer: fotoresereptor dan neuron
Source:. Richard L Drake, Wayne Vogl & Adam W.M. Mitchell. Gray’s Anatomy for students. Elsevier. 2007.
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Bola mata• Discus opticus blind spot, tempat n.II meninggalkan bola mata tidak
mengandung reseptor yang sensitif terhadap cahaya
• Macula lutea: sangat sensitif cahaya, banyak mengandung cone cells fovea centralis
Source:. Richard L Drake, Wayne Vogl & Adam W.M. Mitchell. Gray’s Anatomy for students. Elsevier. 2007.
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Lig.suspensorium
Otot intrinsik mata: corpus ciliaris
• Kontraksi m.ciliaris lig.suspensorium rileks lensa menebal pengelihatan dekat parasimpatis n III (occulomotor)
Source:. Richard L Drake, Wayne Vogl & Adam W.M. Mitchell. Gray’s Anatomy for students. Elsevier. 2007.
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Otot intrinsik mata: corpus ciliaris
Source: Keith L. Moore, Arthur F. Dalley & Anne M. Agur. 2010. Clinically oriented Anatomy. 6th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
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Van De Graaff. 2001. Human Anatomy. 6th ed. McGraw-Hill Company.
Otot intrinsik mata: IrisDilator, susunan radial melebarkan pupil
simpatis (ganglion cervicalis superior, T1)Sphincter, susunan sirkular mengecilkanpupil parasimpatis n III
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persarafan otot intrinsik mata
Source:. Richard L Drake, Wayne Vogl & Adam W.M. Mitchell. Gray’s Anatomy for students. Elsevier. 2007.
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Aliran humor aqueus
Van De Graaff. 2001. Human Anatomy. 6th ed. McGraw-Hill Company.
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BOLA MATA
SUPLAI DARAH
Cabang-cabang a.ophtalmica:
• A.ciliaris brevis posterior lapisan
choroid
• A.ciliaris longus posterior sclera &
lapisan choroid sebelah anterior
• A.ciliaris anterior
• A.centralis retinae
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Suplai darah bola mata
A.Ciliaris dana/v.centralis retinae cabang a.ophtalmica
Source: Keith L. Moore, Arthur F. Dalley & Anne M. Agur. 2010. Clinically oriented Anatomy. 6th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Central retinal artery & vein
Short posterior ciliary vessels
long posterior ciliary artery
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OTOT-OTOT
• ORBITA• M. Orbicularis occuli
• M. levator palpebrae
• M. tarsus superior
• EKSTRAOKULAR• Mm. recti : superior, inferior, medial, lateral
• Mm. obliquus: superior, inferior
• OCULAR– Mengontrol bentuk lensa dan ukuran pupil: M. ciliaris,
m. sphincter pupillae, m. dilator pupillae
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AKSIS BOLA MATA
Medial wall extends farther anteriorly than lateral wall
Keith L. Moore, Arthur F. Dalley & Anne M. Agur. 2010. Clinically oriented Anatomy. 6th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
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OTOT-OTOT EKSTRAOKULAR BOLA MATA
OTOT ORIGO INSERSIO AKSI UTAMA
AKSI SEKUNDER SARAF
Rectus superior Annulus tendineus
Aspekanterosuperior
elevasi Aduksi; intorsi N.III
Obliquusinferior
Os lacrimal Kuadranposterolateralinferior
Elevasi Abduksi; ekstorsi N.III
Rectus inferior Annulus tendineus
Aspekanteroinferior
Depresi Aduksi, ekstorsi N.III
Obliquussuperior
Os sphenoidal Kuadranposterolateralsuperior
Depresi Abduksi, intorsi N.IV
Rectus medialis Annulus tendineus
Aspekanteromedial
aduksi N.III
Rectus lateralis Annulus tendineus
Aspekanterolateral
Abduksi N.VI
Levatorpalpepbrasuperior
Os sphenoidal Lempeng tarsal kelopak mataatas
Mengangkatkelopakmata atas
N.III
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OTOT-OTOT EKSTRAOKULAR BOLA MATA
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OTOT-OTOT EKSTRAOKULAR BOLA MATA
Source: Moore & Agur. Essential clinical anatomy. 3rd ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2007
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GERAK BOLA MATA
• Bola mata berotasi disekeliling sumbunya. Rotasi bola mata menggerakkan pupil.
• Sumbu bola mata tidak sama dengan sumbu orbita.
• Sumbu gerak berdasarkan sumbu bola mata, bukansumbu orbita.
• Gerak bola mata dimulai dariposisi primer atau netral.
Source: Keith L. Moore, Arthur F. Dalley & Anne M. Agur. 2010. Clinically oriented Anatomy. 6th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
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GERAK BOLA MATA
AKSI SEKUNDER OTOT-OTOT BOLA MATA
• Disebabkan oleh perbedaan sumbu orbita dansumbu bola mata
• M.rectus superior dan inferior
– Pada posisi primer, RS dan RI menuju bola matapada sisi medial, arah tarikannya medial terhadapsumbu vertikal gerak sekundernya aduksi
– RS dan RI membentang ke lateral melewati superior dan inferior sumbu AP RS intorsi; RI ekstorsi.
GERAK BOLA MATA
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GERAK BOLA MATA
Bila bola mata di abduksi oleh RL, sumbu bola mata sejajar dengan RS dan RI, elevasi-depresi hanya dapat dilakukan oleh otot-otot tersebutTest klinik aksi RS dan RI dan sarafnyaGERAK BOLA MATA: clinical testing
Source: Keith L. Moore, Arthur F. Dalley & Anne M. Agur. 2010. mm. 6th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
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GERAK BOLA MATA
• M.obliquus superior dan inferior
– Pada posisi primer, SO dan IO melintas ke posterior melewati sumbu transversal SO depresor; IO
elevator GERAK BOLA MATA
• Aksi sekundernya:– Melintas posterior sumbu vertikal abduktor
– Berdasarkan arah lintasan ototnya, mm.obliquusmelintas inferior dan superior terhadap sumbu AP darimedial ke lateral SO intorsi; IO ekstorsi GERAK
BOLA MATA
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GERAK BOLA MATA
Source: Keith L. Moore, Arthur F. Dalley & Anne M. Agur. 2010. Clinically oriented Anatomy. 6th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Bila bola mata di aduksioleh MR, sumbu bola mata sejajar dengan OI dan OS, gerak elevasi-depresi hanya dapatdilakukan oleh otot-otottersebut Test klinik aksi OI dan
OS dan sarafnya
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GERAK BOLA MATA: clinical testing
Source: Keith L. Moore, Arthur F. Dalley & Anne M. Agur. 2010. Clinically oriented Anatomy. 6th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
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GERAK BOLA MATA
Superior rectus
Medial rectus
Lateral rectus
Inferior rectus
Superior oblique
Inferior oblique
Source: Keith L. Moore, Arthur F. Dalley & Anne M. Agur. 2010. Clinically oriented Anatomy. 6th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Vertical axis
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GERAK BOLA MATA
Source: Keith L. Moore, Arthur F. Dalley & Anne M. Agur. 2010. Clinically oriented Anatomy. 6th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
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GERAK BOLA MATA
• Setiap otot bola mata memiliki gerakannyamasing-masing, tetapi gerak bola matamemerlukan koordinasi kedua bola mata(binokular) yang dapat bekerja secara sinergismaupun antagonis. Pasangan otot ini disebutdengan yoke muscle.
– Contoh gerakan mata ke kiri:
• Mata kiri: m.rectus lateral (abduksi)
• Mata kanan: m.rectus medial (aduksi)
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Keith L. Moore, Arthur F. Dalley & Anne M. Agur. Essential Clinical Anatomy. 4th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
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JARAS PENGELIHATAN
Source: Richard S Snell. Clinical Anatomy. 7th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2010
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Total blindness of the right eye due to division of the right optic nerve
Right nasal hemianopia due to a partial lesion of the right side of the optic chiasma
Bitemporal hemianopia due to a complete lesion of the optic chaisma
Left temporal hemianopia & right nasal hemianopia due to a lesion of the right potic tract
Left temporal & nasal hemianopia due to a lesion of the right optic radiation
Left temporal & right nasal hemianopia due to alesion of the right visual cortex
Right-sided circumferential blindness due to retrobulbar neuritis
Source: Richard S Snell. Clinical Anatomy. 7th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2010
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LGB
REFLEKS AKOMODASI
Kontraksi m. rectus medialLensa mata menebalKonstriksi pupil
Source: Richard S Snell. Clinical Anatomy. 7th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2010
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REFLEKS PUPIL
• Bila salah satu mata dipaparkan pada cahaya terang, maka terjadi konstriksi kedua pupil (mata kanan dan kiri) REFLEKS CAHAYA LANGSUNG DAN KONSENSUAL
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REFLEKS KORNEA
• Bila salah satu kornea disentuh (kiri), maka kedua kelopak mata akan berkedip (mata kanan dan kiri)
Both sides
Source: Richard S Snell. Clinical Anatomy. 7th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2010
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TELINGA
Round window
Oval window
Source: Richard S Snell, Wayne Vogl, Adam W.M. Mitchell. 2007. Grey’s Anatomy for Students.Elsevier.
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TELINGA LUAR
AURICULA
Source: Dynamic Human Anatomy 2.0Source: Dinamic Human Anatomy, 2.0. Saladin. Anatomy & Physiology. Mc Graw Hill Companies. 2003.
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TELINGA LUAR
• Membentang dari bagian dalam cochlea –membrana tympani (+2,5 cm)
• Dinding:– 1/3 lateral cartilago
– 2/3 medial saluran tulang temporal
– Dinding ditutupi oleh kulit, berambut & memproduksi cerumen
Source: Dynamic Human Anatomy, 2.0.
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Sangat sensitif terhadap nyeri.Inervasi terutama oleh:- n.auriculotemporalis cabang n.trigeminus [V] + n.facial is[VII] dan n.auricularis cabang n.vagus [X] Inervasi sensorik pada membran mukosa bagian dalammembrana timpani: n.glossopharyngeaus [IX].
Keith L. Moore, Arthur F. Dalley & Anne M. Agur. Essential Clinical Anatomy. 4th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
I, long limb of stapes; S, posterior limb of stapes.
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Source: Dymanic Human Anatomy, 2.0
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TELINGA TENGAH
• Terletak di di dalam os temporal.
• Terdiri dari 2 ruang:– Cavum tympani
– Recessus epitympanicus,
disebelah superior
• Isi: – tulang-tulang pendengaran: os malleus, incus, stapes
– Otot: m. tensor tympani (inn: N.V3), m.stapedius (inn: N.VII)
• Innervasi– Plexus tympanicus, dibentuk oleh: cabang n IX & cabang-cabang plexus
carotis internus (n. caroticotympanicus) membran mukosa dan isi telinga tengah (termasuk tuba pharyngotympanica & daerah mastoid)
– N. VII
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TELINGA TENGAH
DINDING TELINGA TENGAH CAVUM TYMPANI:
• Dinding tegmental (atap): dibentuk oleh tegmen tympani ostemporal
• Dinding membranosa (lateral): dibentuk oleh dinding lateral recessus epitympanicus
• Dinding labirin (medial): memisahkan cavum tympani dengantelinga dalam. Dibentuk oleh bagian awal cochlea, fenestra vestibulidan fenestra cochlea
• Dinding carotid (anterior): memisahkan cavum tympani dengancanalis caroticus yang berisi a.carotis interna. Ke arah superior, dinding ini berhubungan dengan nasopharynx melalui tuba pharyngotympanica.
• Dinding mastoid (posterior); dibentuk oleh celulae mastoideum. Menghubungkan cavum tymapny dengan antrum mastoideum dibagian superiornya.
• Dinding jugular (lantai): dibentuk oleh foramen jugulare yang berisiv.jugularis interna.
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TELINGA TENGAH
2. Lateral (dinding bermembran)
4. Atap (superior)
5. Lantai (inferior/ dinding jugular)
3. Posterior (dinding mastoid) 1. Anterior
(dinding carotis)
(1A)
(1B)
(1C)
(2A)
(2B)
(2C) (3A)
(3B)
(4A)
(5A)
Source: Dynamic Human Anatomy, 2.0
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TELINGA TENGAH
& oval window (fenestra vestibuli)
6.
(6A)
(6B)
(6C)
(6E)(6D)
(6F)
(3C)
Source: Dynamic Human Anatomy, 2.0
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TELINGA TENGAH
Source: Marieb & Mallat. Human Anatomy. 3rd ed. Benjamin Cummings.2001
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TELINGA TENGAH
TUBA PHARYNGOTYMPANICA
• Menghubungkan cavum tympanydengan nasopharynx.
• Terdiri dari:
– 1/3 proksimal tulang
– 2/3 distal tulang rawan
• Fungsi: menyamakan tekanandalam cavum tympany dantekanan atmosfir, oleh m.levator & tensor veli palatini
• Suplai darah; cabang a.carotisexterna & a.maxillaris.
• Persarafan: plexus tympanicus
Source: Richard S Snell, Wayne Vogl, Adam W.M. Mitchell. 2007. Grey’s Anatomy for Students.Elsevier.
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Source: Dynamic Human Anatomy, 2.0
TULANG PENDENGARAN
Kontraksi m.tensor tympani menarik handle maleus ke arah medial sehingga membrana tympani menegang dan mengurangivibrasi respon terhadap suara keras
Kontraksi m.stapedius berespon terhadap suara keras, menarik stapes ke arah posterior dan memiringkan dasar stapes ke arahfenestra vestibuli, mengetatkan lig.annulare mengurangi osilasi berlebih
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TELINGA DALAM
• Terdiri labyrinth osseus dan membranaceus seperti
pipa bermembran di dalam pipa tulang
• Pipa bermembran terbenam dalam perilymph.
• Di dalam pipa bermembran berisi endolymph dan terdapat gelembung-gelembung (sacculus)
• Labyrinth osseus terdiri dari 3 area fungsional: vestibulum, canalis semicircularis dan cochlea.
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TELINGA DALAM
Keith L. Moore, Arthur F. Dalley & Anne M. Agur. Essential Clinical Anatomy. 4th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
endolymph
perilymph
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LABYRINTH OSSEUS
VESTIBULUM
• Terletak di bagain tengah labyrinth osseus.
• Berisi sacculus dan utriculus (bagian labyrinth membraneus)
• Di anterior berhubungan dengan cochlea
• Di posterosuperior berhubungan dengan canalis semicircularis
• Ke arah posterior membuka ke pars petrosa os temporal melalui aquaductus vestibularis. fungsinya
CANALIS SEMICIRCULARIS
• Terdiri dari canalis semicircularis anterior, posterior, lateral yang saling tegak lurus.
• Ke arah vestibulum melebar membentuk ampulla
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LABYRINTH OSSEUSCOCHLEA
• Seperti rumah siput yang salurannya membentuk 2.5 putaran mengelilingi modiolus (tiang tulang), akhir putaran disebut apex
• Lateral dari modiolus terdapat lamina spiralis, tempat melekatnya ductus semicircularis (bagian bermembran) yang berakhir pada apeks.
• Di sebelah atas dan bawahnya terdapat scala vestibuli dan tympani (berisi perilymph) yang berhubungan pada saluran sempit, helicotrema di bagian apex.
• Scala vestibuli fenestra vestibuli
• Scala tympany fenestra cochlea
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LABYRINTH MEMBRANOSA
• Terdiri dari ductus dan sacculus berisi endolymph.
• Dipisahkan oleh labyrinth osseus oleh periosteum.
• Organisasi labyrinth membranosa:
– Ductus cochlearis pendengaran
– Ductus semicircularis keseimbangan
– Utriculus dan sacculus keseimbangan
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Source: Saladin. Anatomy & Physiology. Mc Graw Hill Companies. 2003.
LABYRINTH MEMBRANOSA
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LABYRINTH MEMBRANOSASACCULUS dan UTRICULUS
• Sacculus, utriculus dan ductus endolymphaticus berupa kantong.
• Bagian depan bawah sacculus berubungan dengan ductus cochlearis; bagian posteriornya dengan sacculus dan utriculus endolymphaticus melalui ductus utriculosaccularis dan ductus endolymphaticus.
• Ductus endolymphaticus berakhir pada saccus endolyphaticus di bawah duramater.
• Dinding anterior sacculus menebal macula sacculi, berisi saraf sensorik (N.vestibulocochlearis) untuk keseimbangan
• Dinding lateral utriculus menebal maculla utriculi, isi n.vestibulocochlearis
• Lubang ductus semicircularis (5) bermuara ke utriculus.
• Sacculus berespon terhadap akselerasi linier.
• Utriculus berespon terhadap akselerasi sentrifugal dan vertikal.
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Source: Van De Graaff. Human Anatomy. 6th ed. McGraw-Hill Company. 2001
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LABYRINTH MEMBRANOSADUCTUS SEMICIRCULARIS
• Membuka ke utriculus
• Dasar ductus semicircularis melebar membentuk ampulla yang terdiri area sensorik (crista ampullaris) dan saraf
• Organ sensoriknya berespon terhadap gerakan dari segala arah
Source: Van De Graaff. Human Anatomy. 6th ed. McGraw-Hill Company. 2001
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Keith L. Moore, Arthur F. Dalley & Anne M. Agur. Essential Clinical Anatomy. 4th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
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N.VIII
Source: Richard S Snell. Clinical Anatomy. 7th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2010
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JARAS PENDENGARAN
Source: Richard S Snell. Clinical Anatomy. 7th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2010
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Source: Keith L. Moore, Arthur F. Dalley & Anne M. Agur. 2010. Clinically oriented Anatomy. 6th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
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JARAS KESEIMBANGANSource: Clinical Neuroanatomy. Richard S Snell
Source: Richard S Snell. Clinical Anatomy. 7th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2010
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Source: Van De Graaf. Human Anatomy. 6th ed. Mc Graw Hill Companies. 2001.
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REFERENSI
• Charles R Noback & Robert J Demarest. 1981. The human Nervous System. 3rd ed. Mc Graw Hill.
• Dynamic Human Anatomy 2.0
• Elaine n Marieb & Jon Mallat. 2001. Human Anatomy. 3rd ed. Benjamin Cummings
• Keith L. Moore, Arthur F. Dalley & Anne M. Agur. 2007. Essential Clinical Anatomy. 3rd
ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
• Keith L. Moore, Arthur F. Dalley & Anne M. Agur. Essential Clinical Anatomy. 4th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
• Keith L. Moore, Arthur F. Dalley & Anne M. Agur. 2010. Clinically oriented Anatomy. 6th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
• Richard S Snell. 2010. Clinical neuroanatomy for Medical Students. 7th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
• Richard S Snell, Wayne Vogl, Adam W.M. Mitchell. 2007. Grey’s Anatomy for Students.Elsevier.
• Saladin. 2003. Anatomy and Physiology:The unity of form and function. 3rd ed. The Mc Graw Hill Companies.
• Van De Graaff. 2001. Human Anatomy. 6th ed. McGraw-Hill Company.