angry aggresion

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ANGRY AGGRESSION

AMONG POLICE OFFICERS

SEAN P.

GRIFFIN

Clemson University

THOMAS J. BERNARD

The Pennsylvania StateUniversity

This article uses angry aggression theory to explain police use of

extralegal force. As applied to police behavior, angry aggression theory

argues that the chronic stress of police wor along with the inability to

respond to the actual sources of that stress increase both the perception of

threats and the aggres! siveness of responses to perceived threats. "n

addition, social isolation of police officers increases their tendency to

displace aggression onto visible and vulnerable targets in the immediate

environment. The theory does not assert that these tendencies are

necessarily actuali#ed. "ndeed, cognitive structuring techni$ues and

stress!reduction policies can prevent such actuali#ation.

Keywords: police% abuse of force% police behavior% excessive

force

The use of excessive force by police is freue!"ly #iscusse# i! "he

volu$i% !ous &ce$ic li"er&"ure o! polici!' (Cr&!)* +,,-./ I!"eres" i!

"he sub0ec" 'oes b&c) "o 1es"ley2s (+,34* +,35. ori'i!&l observ&"io!&l

s"u#y &!# 6&s $os" i!"e!se i! "he +,57s i! respo!se "o police viole!ce i!

sever&l 8/S/ ci"% ies (1&l)er* +,,,./ Expl&!&"io!s of police use of

excessive force usu&lly focus ei"her o! police subcul"ures or o!

perso!&li"y ch&r&c"eris"ics of i!#i% vi#u&l police officers/ 9o6ever* "here

&re 6ell%)!o6! shor"co$i!'s 6i"h e&ch of "hese "ypes of "heore"ic&l

expl&!&"io!/

A! e&rlier versio! of "his &r"icle 6&s prese!"e# &" "he +,,, $ee"i!'s of "he A$eric&! Socie"y of

Cri$i% !olo'y i! Toro!"o/

P&'"C( )UA*T(*'+ :ol/ 5 No/ +* M&rch ;774 4 +7/++??@+7,-5+++7;;37453

;774 S&'e Public&"io!s


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B POLICE 8ARTERLY (:ol/ 5* No/ +* M&rch ;774.

I! "his &r"icle* 6e focus o! o!e specific "ype of excessive force>Ex"r&le% '&l force is "he force use# by police "o &chieve le'&l 'o&ls 6he!

!o!forceful $e&!s "o &chieve "hose 'o&ls &re reily &v&il&ble "o "he

officer/ 1e &r'ue "h&" &!'ry &''ressio! "heoryD&! i!"e'r&"ive "heory

i!corpor&"i!' socio% lo'ic&l* psycholo'ic&l* &!# biolo'ic&l ele$e!"sD

be""er expl&i!s police use of ex"r&le'&l force "h&! #o "heories focusi!'

exclusively o! "he police sub% cul"ures or o! i!#ivi#u&l police officer

perso!&li"y ch&r&c"eris"ics/

A!'ry &''ressio! "heory ori'i!&lly 6&s propose# &s &! expl&!&"io! of

viole!" respo!ses "o "rivi&l co!flic"s &!# i!sul"s by "ruly #isv&!"&'e#

people i! i!!er%ci"y &re&s (er!&r#* +,,7* +,,4. &!# l&"er 6&s &pplie# "o

"he expl&!&"io! of i!"i$&"e fe$&le ho$ici#es (O'le* M&ier%H&")i!*

er!&r#*+,,3./ The "heory ci"es ex"e!sive biolo'ic&l &!# psycholo'ic&l rese&rch

"o &r'ue "h&" people 6ho experie!ce chro!ic physiolo'ic&l &rous&l "e!# "o

see "hre&"s $ore freue!"ly &!# "o respo!# "o "hre&"s $ore &''ressively

"h&! #o o"her people/ The "heory "he! &r'ues "h&" 6he! chro!ic&lly

&rouse# people &re soci&lly isol&"e#* "hese excessive percep"io!s of

"hre&"s &!# &''ressive respo!ses "o "hre&"s "e!# "o beco$e subcul"ur&lD

"h&" is* "hey "e!# "o sep&% r&"e fro$ "he chro!ic &rous&l &!# "o beco$e

e$be##e# i! v&lues &!# !or$s "h&" &re "r&!s$i""e# i! i!"erperso!&l

co$$u!ic&"io! &s p&r" of & l&r'er 6orl#vie6/ Fi!&lly* "he "heory &r'ues

"h&" 6he! chro!ic&lly &rouse# people c&!!o" respo!# "o "he &c"u&l

sources of &rous&l* "hey "e!# "o "r&!sfer &''res% sio! o!"o visible &!#

vul!er&ble "&r'e"s i! "heir i$$e#i&"e e!viro!$e!"s/

There is &! ex"e!sive li"er&"ure o! 0ob%rel&"e# s"resses of police 6or)

"h&" 6oul# i$ply police officers experie!ce chro!ic physiolo'ic&l

&rous&l/ A!'ry &''ressio! "heory* "herefore* su''es"s "h&" police

officers shoul# "e!# "o see "hre&"s $ore freue!"ly &!# "o respo!# "o

"hre&"s $ore &''res% sively "h&! #o o"her people/ This provi#es &

s"ruc"ur&l expl&!&"io! for 6h&" o"her "heories &""ribu"e "o "he perso!&li"y

ch&r&c"eris"ics of i!#ivi#u&l police officers/ There &lso is &! ex"e!sive

li"er&"ure o! "he soci&l isol&"io! of police officers/ A!'ry &''ressio!

"heory* "herefore* su''es"s "h&" "he excessive percep"io!s of "hre&" &!#

"he &''ressive respo!ses "o "hre&"s shoul# "e!# "o beco$e subcul"ur&l/

This provi#es & s"ruc"ur&l expl&!&"io! for 6h&" o"her "heories h&ve

&""ribu"e# "o &! i!#epe!#e!"ly exis"i!' police subcul"ure/ Fi!&lly*

police l&r'ely &re u!&ble "o #ress "he &c"u&l sources of "heir 0ob% rel&"e#

s"ress/ A!'ry &''ressio! "heory* "herefore* su''es"s "h&" police shoul#

"e!# "o "r&!sfer &''ressio! "o visible &!# vul!er&ble "&r'e"s 6i"hi! "heir

i$$e#i&"e e!viro!$e!"s/ 1i"hi! "he co!"ex" of &!'ry &''ressio! "he% ory*

"his "r&!sfer of &''ressio! ul"i$&"ely is "he expl&!&"io! for police use of

ex"r&le'&l force/


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Griffi!* er!&r# @ ANGRY AGGRESSION AMONG OFFICERS 3

POLICE 8SE OF EJTRALEGAL FORCE

Excessive force 'e!er&lly h&s bee! #efi!e# &s "he &$ou!" of force

beyo!# "h&" 6hich is !ecess&ry "o &ffec" & le'i"i$&"e police fu!c"io!/+

So$e h&ve #is"i!'uishe# be"6ee! abuse of force* excessive force* police

brutality* &!# o"her "er$s "h&" #escribe ille'i"i$&"e &!# eve! ille'&l

police &c"s of force l&r'ely b&se# o! #e'ree of severi"y (e/'/* H&!i&

M&c)ey* +,??./ 1e* ho6ever* op" Fyfe2s (+,-,. #is"i!c"io! be"6ee!

ex"r&le'&l force &!# u!!ecess&ry force o! "he p&r" of police/ Ex"r&le'&l

force i!volves "he 6ill% ful &!# 6ro!'ful use of force by officers 6ho

)!o6i!'ly excee# "he bou!#s of "heir office (Fyfe* +,-,* p/ B53./ I!

co!"r&s"* u!!ecess&ry force occurs 6he! 6ell%$e&!i!' officers prove

i!c&p&ble of #e&li!' 6i"h "he si"u&"io!s "hey e!cou!"er 6i"hou" !ee#lessor "oo h&s"y resor" "o force (Fyfe* +,-,* p/ B53./ This #is"i!c"io!

focuses o! "he officer i!"e!"/ Ex"r&le'&l force is 6illful &!# 6ro!'ful

&!# is #o!e )!o6i!'ly/ I! co!"r&s"* u!!ecess&ry force i!volves & 6ell%

$e&!i!' officer 6ho l&c)s "he s)ills &!# &bili"ies "o h&!#le "he si"u&"io!

i! o"her 6&ys/

8!!ecess&ry police force occurs $ore freue!"ly "h&! #oes ex"r&le'&l

police force (Fyfe* +,-,.* bu" ex"r&le'&l force is $ore #ifficul" "o expl&i!/

8!!ecess&ry force h&s & rel&"ively s"r&i'h"for6&r# expl&!&"io!> I" is

i!s"ru% $e!"&l force by & police officer use# "o &cco$plish & le'i"i$&"e

police fu!c% "io! for 6hich* &s & pr&c"ic&l $&""er* "he officer l&c)s "he

s)ills &!# &bili"ies "o &chieve "h&" fu!c"io! "hrou'h !o!forceful $e&!s/

The solu"io! "o "he proble$ of u!!ecess&ry police force is "o euipofficers 6i"h "he s)ills &!# &bili"ies* p&r"icul&rly verb&l s)ills* "o

&chieve "heir le'i"i$&"e fu!c"io!s 6i"hou" resor"i!' "o force/

The focus of "his &r"icle* "herefore* is o! ex"r&le'&l force by police offi%

cers/ This i!volves force use# by police officer "o &chieve &! &ppropri&"e

&!# le'&l police fu!c"io! 6he! !o!forceful $e&!s "o &chieve "h&"

fu!c"io! &lso &re &v&il&ble "o "he officers/ Al"hou'h "hese !o!forceful

$e&!s &re &v&il% &ble* "he officer 6illfully &!# 6ro!'fully chooses "o

use force )!o6i!' "h&" i" excee#s "he le'&l bou!#s of police &u"hori"y/

C8RRENT EJPLANATIONS OF POLICE 8SE

OF EJTRALEGAL FORCE

The !u$erous propose# expl&!&"io!s for police use of ex"r&le'&l force

esse!"i&lly f&ll i!"o "6o c&"e'oriesDsociolo'ic&l "heories "h&" focus o! &

police subcul"ure &!# psycholo'ic&l "heories "h&" focus o! "he perso!&li"y



7/36

5 POLICE 8ARTERLY (:ol/ 5* No/ +* M&rch ;774.

ch&r&c"eris"ics of i!#ivi#u&l police officers (G&i!es* H&ppeler* :&u'h!*

+,,?K H&!i& M&c)ey* +,??K 1&l)er*

+,,,./

POLICE S8C8LT8RES

The $os" co$$o! expl&!&"io! for police use of ex"r&le'&l force is

fou!# i! "heories of police subcul"ure (Sher$&!* +,-7./ The police

subcul"ure is $os" of"e! #epic"e# &s &! occup&"io!&l &!# or'&!i&"io!&l

e!viro!$e!" "h&" fos"ers hi'hly ues"io!&ble &!# si!'ul&r co#es of

#evi&!ce* secrecy* sile!ce* &!# cy!icis$* &s 6ell &s such p&"holo'ic&l2

perso!&li"y #isposi% "io!s &s suspicious!ess* i!sul&ri"y* bru"&li"y*&u"hori"&ri&!is$* ul"r&co!% serv&"is$* bi'o"ry &!# r&cis$ (S&yles

Albri""o!* +,,,* p/ +54./ The li!% e&'e of polici!' subcul"ure rese&rch c&!

be "r&ce# "o 1es"ley2s (+,34* +,35*

+,5,* +,?7. pio!eeri!' s"u#y of police i! G&ry* I!#i&!&/ 1es"ley &r'ue#

"h&" police beh&vior 6&s bes" expl&i!e# &s & fu!c"io! of &""i"u#es hel# by

police &s &! occup&"io!&l 'roup/ 1i"h respec" "o police &buses of force*

1es"ley (+,5,. believe# police or'&!i&"io!s fos"ere# &!# bre# &

subcul"ure of viole!" $e! &!# su''es"e# "h&" & police officer uses

viole!ce ille'&lly bec&use such us&'e is see! &s 0us"* &ccep"&ble* &!#* &"

"i$es* expec"e# by his colle&'ue 'roup (p/ ;+5./ Nie#erhoffer (+,5?.

&r'ue# "h&" "he police sub% cul"ure 6&s ch&r&c"erie# by "r&i"s such &s

cy!icis$* &u"hori"&ri&!is$* &''ressio!* & "e!#e!cy "o s"ereo"ype* &!# &

"e!#e!cy "o #efi!e "he 6orl# i! "er$s of 'oo# versus b people/

Reuss%I&!!i (+,-4. si$il&rly #escribe# & subcul"ure &$o!' police

officers &lo!' 6i"h & sep&r&"e $&!&'e% $e!" cul"ure i! "he #ep&r"$e!"

hier&rchy/ She &r'ue# "h&" "hese cul"ures 6ere i! co!s"&!" co!flic" 6i"h

e&ch o"her* resul"i!' i! &! &!"&'o!is"ic &!# s"ressful e!viro!$e!"/

Al"hou'h "hese &re "he $os" co$$o! expl&!&"io! for police &buse of

force* "he "heory of "he police subcul"ure h&s $&!y cri"ics/ H&!i& &!#

M&c)ey (+,??. fou!# "h&" police subcul"ure #i# !o" &ccou!" for "he

v&ri&!ce &$o!' r&"es of excessive force be"6ee! s"&"es/ A" "he $os"

fu!#&$e!"&l level* S&yles &!# Albri""o! (+,,,. ues"io!e# 6he"her &

police subcul"ure i!#ee# exis"s &!# if so* "he ex"e!" "o 6hich "he

subcul"ure &ffec"s i!#ivi#u&l &c"io!s by police officers/ These cri"ics

&r'ue# "h&" $os" subcul"ur&l "heo% ries &re $o!oli"hic expl&!&"io!s for "he

#y!&$ic* ch&!'i!' phe!o$e!o! of police beh&vior/ As Cr&!) (+,,-. h&s

s"&"e#* Police cul"ure is &" o!ce $ore co$plex &!# ele'&!" "h&!

su''es"e# by & focus o! #&r) ele$e!"s of polici!' such &s corrup"io!*

"es"i$o!i&l #ecep"io!* &!# cy!icis$ (p/ +B./ I!#ee#* M&!!i!' &!# :&!

M&&!e! (+,?-. h&ve re$&r)e# &bou" "he !u$erous &!#


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Griffi!* er!&r# @ ANGRY AGGRESSION AMONG OFFICERS ?

#iverse sub6orl#s "h&" $&)e up "he polici!' e!viro!$e!"/ Rece!"ly*9er% ber" (+,,-. i#e!"ifie# "6o pri!cip&l shor"co$i!'s of $os"

&ccou!"s of police subcul"ure/ Firs"* he &r'ue# "h&" "here is "oo $uch

#is"i!c"io! $e be"6ee! "he for$&l &!# i!for$&l i! polici!' (i/e/* le'&l

&!# bure&ucr&"ic re'ul&"io!s &s oppose# "o "he less for$&l e"hos of "he

subcul"ure* p/ 4BB./ Seco!#* These #iscussio!s co$$o!ly "re&" police

subcul"ure &s if i" 6ere & $ore%or%less cohesive 6hole (9erber"* +,,-*

p/ 4BB./ Fi!&lly* 1&l)er (+,,,. h&s #escribe# "he #o$i!&!" subcul"ur&l

$o#els &s s"ereo"ypic&l* &his"oric&l* &!# i$pressio!is"ic/

PERSONALITY C9ARACTERISTICS OF

IN=I:I=8AL POLICE OFFICERSThe $os" co$$o! &l"er!&"ive "o subcul"ur&l expl&!&"io!s for police

use of ex"r&le'&l force focuses o! "he i!#ivi#u&l psycholo'ic&l

ch&r&c"eris"ics of police officers/ As G&i!es e" &l/ (+,,?. s"&"e#* "hese

expl&!&"io!s &llo6 for "he #evelop$e!" of & pre#isposi"io!&l $o#el of

police beh&vior u!#er 6hich rese&rchers &ssu$e "h&" beh&vior is

pre#e"er$i!e# by & s"&"ic* pre% exis"i!' perso!&li"y "h&" is sh&re# by

people e!"eri!' "he l&6 e!force$e!" professio! (p/ ;;-./ The $os"

freue!"ly !o"e# ele$e!" of "his preexis"i!' perso!&li"y is

&u"hori"&ri&!is$ (Cr&!)* +,,-./ &lch (+,?;. lis"e# sever&l

ch&r&c"eris"ics &ssoci&"e# 6i"h &u"hori"&ri&!is$Dcy!icis$* bi'o"ry* vio%

le!ce* co!ve!"io!&lis$* &!# suspicio!/ Fur"her$ore* people 6i"h &!

&u"hori"&ri&! perso!&li"y &re s&i# "o h&ve #ifficul"y "oler&"i!' perso!s

6ho #o !o" sub$i" "o "heir &u"hori"y (A#or!o* +,37./ O"her i!#ivi#u&l

per% so!&li"y ch&r&c"eris"ics &lso h&ve bee! li!)e# "o police use of

ex"r&le'&l force/ Rhe* Abr&$s* Tros$&!* &!# M&r'olis (+,?7. &r'ue#

"h&" &$o!' police* "here exis"s & 're&"er #e'ree of p&r&!oi# i#e&"io!* &

're&"er e$ph&% sis upo! virili"y* &!# & 're&"er "e!#e!cy "o &c" ou" "h&! i!

"he !o!%police pop% ul&"io! (p/ 3-./

These "heories &lso h&ve receive# subs"&!"i&l cri"icis$/ Sever&l s"u#ies

h&ve sho6! "h&" police &""i"u#es* i! f&c"* &re !o" #iffere!" "h&! "heir

civili&! cou!"erp&r"s (&lch* +,?;K Tro0&!o6ic* +,?+./ &yley &!#

Me!#elsoh! (+,5,. fou!# "h&" o! &ll perso!&li"y sc&les "he #&"& sho6

"h&" police$e! &re &bsolu"ely &ver&'e people (p/ +3./ McN&$&r& (+,5?.fou!# police recrui"s "o be !o" o!ly less &u"hori"&ri&! "h&! "he 'e!er&l

public bu" &lso less pu!i"ive "h&! co$$u!i"y leers/ Rese&rch h&s &lso

ues"io!e# "he rel&"io!ship of police &""i"u#es &!# ch&r&c"eris"ics "o

o!%"he%0ob perfor$&!ce (e/'/* Sher$&!* +,-7K 1or#e!* +,-,./ Thus*

1&l)er (+,,,. co!clu#e#* There is


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11/36

- POLICE 8ARTERLY (:ol/ 5* No/ +* M&rch ;774.

!o evi#e!ce "h&" & p&r"icul&r "ype of perso! is &""r&c"e# "o l&6e!force$e!"* or "h&" "his expl&i!s police beh&vior (p/ 4B,./

Fur"her$ore* Frie#rich2s (+,-7. s"u#y #i# !o" suppor" "he !o"io! "h&"

police use of force #epe!#s very $uch o! "he i!#ivi#u&l ch&r&c"eris"ics

of "he police (p/ -,./ Fi!&lly* rese&rch su''es"s police &re !o" #r&6!

"o "heir occup&"io! for po6er/ I!s"e* "hey &re i#e&lis"ic (1&l)er*

+,,,. &!# &""r&c"e# by "he possibili"y of helpi!' o"hers &!# co!"ribu"i!'

"o socie"y (Rei!er* +,,;K :&! M&&!e!*

+,?4./

o"h "heories of police subcul"ure &!# "heories of i!#ivi#u&l police

offi% cer ch&r&c"eris"ics h&ve "hus* i!#epe!#e!"ly* f&ile# "o eu&"ely

expl&i! police officer use of ex"r&le'&l force/ 1e #o !o" e!"irely

#iscou!" "hese expl&!&"io!s bu" r&"her propose &! expl&!&"io! b&se# o!&!'ry &''ressio! "heory "h&" i!corpor&"es &!# &u'$e!"s "hese "heories

(i/e/* sociolo'ic&l &!# psycholo'ic&l./

ANGRY AGGRESSION T9EORY

A!'ry &''ressio! "heory (er!&r#* +,,7* +,,4K O'le e" &l/* +,,3. is

b&se# o! & l&r'e &!# 6ell%es"&blishe# bo#y of biolo'ic&l &!#

psycholo'ic&l rese&rch &bou" physiolo'ic&l &rous&l* 6hich is "he bo#y2s

fi'h" or fli'h" respo!se "o bei!' "hre&"e!e#/ This bo#y of rese&rch fi!#s

"h&" people 6ho &re chro!ic&lly &rouse# "e!# "o i!"erpre" & 6i#er v&rie"y

of eve!"s &s "hre&"% e!i!' "h&! #o o"her people/ I! #i"io!* "his rese&rch

fi!#s "h&" chro!ic&lly &rouse# people "e!# "o respo!# "o "hre&"e!i!'

eve!"s $ore &''ressively "h&! #o o"her people/

er!&r# (+,,7. i!i"i&lly use# "his "heory "o expl&i! "he hi'hly viole!"

respo!ses "o "rivi&l co!flic"s &!# i!sul"s by "ruly #isv&!"&'e# people

i! i!!er%ci"y &re&s/ 9e &r'ue# "h&" pover"y* urb&! e!viro!$e!"s* &!#

r&ci&l #is% cri$i!&"io! &re s"ruc"ur&l co!#i"io!s "h&" &ll resul" i! chro!ic

physiolo'ic&l &rous&l/ People 6ho experie!ce "hese co!#i"io!s*

"herefore* 6oul# be expec"e# "o i!"erpre" & 6i#er v&rie"y of eve!"s &s

"hre&"e!i!' &!# "o respo!# "o "hre&"e!i!' eve!"s 6i"h $ore &''ressio!

"h&! 6oul# o"her people/ er% !&r# "he! &r'ue# "h&" u!#er co!#i"io!s of

soci&l isol&"io!* "his i!cre&se# &''ressive!ess "e!#s "o fee# o! i"self i! &

spir&l of i!cre&si!' viole!ce/ Firs"* 6he! chro!ic&lly &rouse# people &re

soci&lly isol&"e# i! & p&r"icul&r e!vi% ro!$e!"* "he e!viro!$e!" i"self

beco$es ui"e #&!'erous bec&use everyo!e sees "hre&"s every6here &!#

respo!#s &''ressively "o "hre&"s/ The #&!'er% ous e!viro!$e!" "he!

fur"her i!cre&ses "he physiolo'ic&l &rous&l of "he peo% ple 6i"hi! "he

e!viro!$e!" &!# "herefore fur"her i!cre&ses "he &''ressive!ess


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13/36

Griffi!* er!&r# @ ANGRY AGGRESSION AMONG OFFICERS ,

of "hose people/ Seco!#* u!#er co!#i"io!s of soci&l isol&"io!* "heexcessive percep"io! of "hre&"s &!# "he &''ressive respo!ses "o "hre&"s

"e!# "o sep&r&"e fro$ "heir ori'i!s i! chro!ic physiolo'ic&l &rous&l

&!# "o beco$e subcul"ur&lD"h&" is* "o beco$e e$be##e# i! v&lues*

!or$s* &!# expec"&% "io!s "h&" &re "r&!s$i""e# i! i!"erperso!&l

co$$u!ic&"io!s &s p&r" of & l&r'er 6orl#vie6/ O!ce "h&" h&ppe!s* "he!

eve! people 6i"hi! "he e!viro!$e!" 6ho &re !o" chro!ic&lly &rouse# 6ill

"e!# "o6&r# excessive percep"io!s of "hre&"s &!# &''ressive respo!ses "o

"hre&"s/ Thir#* people 6i"hi! "hese e!vi% ro!$e!"s l&r'ely c&!!o" respo!#

"o "he &c"u&l sources of "heir chro!ic phys% iolo'ic&l &rous&lDpover"y*

urb&! e!viro!$e!"s* &!# r&ci&l #iscri$i!&"io!/ Therefore* "hese people

"e!# "o #ispl&ce &''ressio! o!"o visible &!# vul!er% &ble "&r'e"s 6i"hi!

"h&" e!viro!$e!"/ This fur"her i!cre&ses "he #&!'erous% !ess of "hee!viro!$e!"* "hereby fur"her i!cre&si!' "he physiolo'ic&l &rous&l

"herefore &''ressive!ess of "he people 6i"hi! "he e!viro!$e!"/ I" &lso

rei!forces "he subcul"ur&l v&lues &bou" "he perv&sive!ess of "hre&"s &!#

"he &ppropri&"e!ess of &''ressive respo!ses "o "hre&"s/ er!&r# referre# "o

"his e!"ire #o6!6&r# spir&l &s & subcul"ure of &!'ry &''ressio!/ I" is

i$por"&!" "h&" &!'ry &''ressio! "heory is !o" #e"er$i!is"ic &!# "hus #oes

!o" &sser" "h&" &ll people i! si$il&r si"u&"io!s e!'&'e i! si$il&r beh&viors/

1he"her & p&r"icul&r i!#ivi#u&l e!'&'es i! "hese beh&viors #epe!#s o! &

6i#e v&rie"y of o"her f&c"ors "h&" &lso i!flue!ce "he i!#ivi#u&l2s beh&vior

(cf/ er!&r#* +,,7./

ANGRY AGGRESSION Y POLICE OFFICERS

Three ele$e!"s of &!'ry &''ressio! "heory see$ "o &pply #irec"ly "o

"he expl&!&"io! of police use of ex"r&le'&l force/ Firs"* polici!' is &

hi'hly s"ressful occup&"io! &!# police officers "he$selves &re chro!ic&lly

&rouse# o! "heir 0obs/ Seco!#* police "e!# "o be soci&lly isol&"e# fro$

o"her $e$% bers of socie"y/ Thir#* police l&r'ely c&!!o" #o &!y"hi!'

&bou" "he &c"u&l sources of chro!ic s"ress o! "heir 0obs/ A!'ry &''ressio!

"heory* "herefore* su''es"s "h&" police officers shoul# "e!# "o see $ore

"hre&"s &!# "o respo!# "o "hre&"s $ore &''ressively "h&! #o o"her peopleK

"h&" "hese percep"io!s &!# respo!ses shoul# "e!# "o sep&r&"e fro$ "heir

sources i! chro!ic physiolo'i% c&l &rous&l &!# "o beco$e e$be##e# i!

subcul"ur&l !or$s* v&lues* &!# expec"&"io!sK &!# "h&" police officers

shoul# h&ve & "e!#e!cy "o "r&!sfer &''ressio! "o visible &!# vul!er&ble

"&r'e"s i! "he i$$e#i&"e e!viro!$e!"/ For police* "hese l&r'ely 6oul# be

ci"ie!s 6ho co$e i!"o co!"&c" 6i"h police* especi&lly suspec"s/ These

people "he! 6oul# beco$e "he "&r'e"s for


14/36



15/36

+7 POLICE 8ARTERLY (:ol/ 5* No/ +* M&rch ;774.

police use of ex"r&le'&l force/ Si'!ific&!"ly* !o"hi!' i! "he "heory &sser"s"h&" "hese "e!#e!cies !ecess&rily &re &c"u&lie#/ I!#ee#* &" le&s" so$e

i!#i% vi#u&l officers i!for$&lly* &!# perh&ps u!)!o6i!'ly* use co'!i"ive

s"ruc% "uri!' &!# s"ress%re#uc"io! "ech!iues "o $&i!"&i! & se!se of

perspec"ive &bou" "heir 6or)/ A!'ry &''ressio! "heory 6oul# "hus

expec" i!#ivi#u&l% level #iffere!ces &$o!' police officers/

SO8RCES OF C9RONIC ARO8SAL IN POLICE OFFICERS

I! our &pplic&"io! of &!'ry &''ressio! "heory "o police beh&vior* "he

pri% $&ry source of i!#epe!#e!" v&ri&"io! is chro!ic physiolo'ic&l

&rous&l i! police officers 'e!er&"e# by 0ob%rel&"e# s"ress/ S"ress h&s bee!

#efi!e# &s & respo!se "o & perceive# "hre&"* ch&lle!'e* or ch&!'eK &physic&l &!# psycho% lo'ic&l respo!se "o &!y #e$&!#K &!# & s"&"e of

psycholo'ic&l &!# physic&l &rous&l (&r"oll&s 9&h!* +,,,* p/ +,B./

There is #eb&"e re'&r#i!' i"s c&uses &!# effec"s i! polici!' 6or)

e!viro!$e!"s (G&i!es :&! Tuber'e!*

+,-,K M&lloy M&ys* +,-BK Terry* +,-4.* &!# !u$erous s"u#ies h&ve

i#e!% "ifie# & v&rie"y of police s"ressors (e/'/* see C&r"er* +,,BK S)ol!ic)*

+,55K 1&l)er* +,,,./ Si'!ific&!"ly* "hese s"ressors &re !o" $u"u&lly

exclusive/ I!#ee#* i" is "heir i!"er&c"ive !&"ure 6hich le!#s suppor" "o

"heir cu$ul&"ive effec" o! police beh&vior (C&r"er Rele"* +,,,* p/

;,4./

Rese&rch o! police s"ress h&s ce!"ere# o! "he !&"ure of police 6or)*

"h&" is* "he i!here!"* life%"hre&"e!i!' #&!'er of "he posi"io!/; The i!here!"

#&!'er i! polici!' lies l&r'ely i! co!"&c"s 6i"h o"her people &!#* i$por%

"&!"ly* police &re "he o!ly o!es "o 6ho$ socie"y &ccor#s "he ri'h" "o use*

or "hre&"e! "o use* force (S)ol!ic) Fyfe* +,,4* p/ ,B./ As 1&l)er

(+,,,. h&s s"&"e#* Ci"ie! #isrespec" &!# ch&lle!'es "o &u"hori"y &re &

source of o!% "he%0ob s"ress/ Eve! "hou'h such i!ci#e!"s &re s"&"is"ic&lly

i!freue!"* "hey loo$ l&r'e i! &! officer2s co!scious!ess (p/ 4B5./

S)ol!ic) &!# Fyfe (+,,4. si$il&rly !o"e# "h&" "he po"e!"i&l for use of

force is i! "he $i!#s of police* &!# i"s po"e!"i&l h&&r#s* ho6ever

s"&"is"ic&lly re$o"e* &re !ever f&r &6&y i! "he every#&y life of "he cop (p/

,B./ I" is i$por"&!"* "he!* "h&" police &""i"u#es &re sh&pe# by "he ever%

prese!" "hre&"s i! "heir 6or)i!' e!viro!% $e!"s* re'&r#less of 6he"her

"hey &re &c"u&lie# (S)ol!ic)* +,55./

This exe$plifies &

co'!i"ive rule of "hu$b )!o6! &s "he &v&il&bili"y heuris"ic* 6hich s"ipul&"es "h&"

"here is & co$$o! hu$&! "e!#e!cy "o 0u#'e "he li)elihoo# of occurre!ces i! "er$s

of ho6 reily i!s"&!ces co$e "o $i!#/ :ivi# eve!"s s"ic) i! our $e$ories* &!#

"heir 're&"er


16/36



17/36

Griffi!* er!&r# @ ANGRY AGGRESSION AMONG OFFICERS ++

e&se of rec&ll $isles us "o overr&"e "heir freue!cy rel&"ive "o less #r&$&"ic bu"&c"u% &lly $ore perv&sive eve!"s/ (Rosoff* Po!"ell* Till$&!* +,,-* p/ viii.

This $&y &ccou!" for "he rese&rch o! police officer &""i"u#es "h&" h&s

co!sis% "e!"ly sho6! "h&" officers perceive "heir occup&"io! "o be s"ressful

&!# #&!% 'erous (e/'/* Culle!* Li!)* Tr&vis* Le$$i!'* +,-4.*

re'&r#less of "he "rue co!#i"io!s ci"e# i! o"her s"u#ies (e/'/* P&""erso!*

+,,;K Pe!#le"o!* S"o"l&!#* Spiers* Hirsh* +,-,K Si'ler 1ilso!*

+,--K S"orch P&!&rell&* +,,5./

Al"hou'h s"u#ies h&ve sho6! "h&" "he police fu!c"io! h&s f&r $ore "o

#o 6i"h or#er $&i!"e!&!ce &!# service fu!c"io!s "h&! l&6

e!force$e!" (1&l)er* +,,,K 1ilso!* +,?4. &!# s"ill o"her rese&rch

i!#ic&"es "h&" "he use of force is & r&re (McE6e!* +,,5K 1or#e!* +,,3.&!# s"&"is"ic&lly i!fre% ue!" (1&l)er* +,,,* p/;;3. eve!"* "hese f&c"s

belie "he for$&l &!# i!for% $&l "r&i!i!' experie!ces of police/

They &re "r&i!e# i! self%#efe!se/ They &re "r&i!e# "o h&!#le & v&rie"y of offe!sive

6e&po!s* i!clu#i!' #ely o!es/ They &re "&u'h" ho6 "o #is&ble &!# )ill people

6i"h "heir b&re h&!#s/ No $&""er ho6 $&!y 6&r!i!'s $&y be issue# by superiors

&bou" li$% i"&"io!s o! "he use of force* !o $&""er ho6 $uch "&l) &bou" polici!' &s &

professio!* police "r&i!i!' co!"i!u&lly re$i!#s recrui"s "h&" coercive po6er is &

ce!"r&l fe&"ure of police life/ (S)ol!ic) Fyfe* +,,4* p/ ,3.

Rese&rch h&s fou!# "h&" police respo!# "o re&l* po"e!"i&l* or perceive#

"hre&"s "o &! officer2s s&fe"y or &u"hori"y 6i"h viole!ce/ S)ol!ic) (+,55.

!o"e# sy$bolic &ss&il&!"* & perso! 6hose &ppe&r&!ce &!# $&!!eris$ssu''es" "he perso! 6ill c&use "rouble* is perh&ps "he bes" ex&$ple of "his

&p% pro&ch/ As Cr&!) (+,,-. !o"e#*

Tr&i!i!' officers "e&ch recrui"s 6h&" "o loo) for i! "er$s of po"e!"i&l #&!'er* &!#

offi% cers "ell e&ch o"her s"ories &bou" "hi!'s "hey h&ve see! "h&" $&r) i!#ivi#u&ls

&s #&!% 'erousD& "ype of "&""oo* piece of clo"hi!' $&r)i!' & '&!' $e$ber* or "he

li)e/ (p/ +,.

This poi!" is e$ph&sie# lo!' &f"er "he &ce$y experie!ce "hrou'h

for$&l $e&!s such &s v&!ce# "r&i!i!' pro'r&$s for officer s&fe"y*

$&!#&"ory &!% !u&l "r&i!i!' up#&"es* &!# freue!"ly pos"e# officer

s&fe"y bulle"i!s #e% si'!e# "o )eep officers up "o #&"e o! "he l&"es"$e!&ci!' 6e&po!ry &!# so for"h o! "he s"ree" &" & 'ive! "i$e/ As

H&ppeler* Slu#er* &!# Alper" (+,,B. poi!"e# ou"* Police vic&riously

experie!ce* le&r!* &!# re%le&r! "he po"e!"i&l for #&!'er "hrou'h 6&r

s"ories2 &!# fiel# "r&i!i!' &f"er 'ru&"io! fro$ "he


18/36



19/36

+; POLICE 8ARTERLY (:ol/ 5* No/ +* M&rch ;774.

police &ce$y (p/ +77./ This is i! #i"io!* of course* "o "he i!for$&lles% so!s bei!' "&u'h" "hrou'h "he i!"erperso!&l co$$u!ic&"io! of

peers &!# colle&'ues/ Thus* "ypific&"io!s i!#ic&"i!' "he po"e!"i&l for

"rouble &!# #&!% 'er &rise fro$ "he co!cre"e #oi!' of police 6or)* &re

sh&re# by cops &!# be% co$e & p&r" of "he lore of & loc&l police cul"ure

(Cr&!)* +,,-* p/ +,./ Cr&!) (+,,-. &lso poi!"e# ou" "h&" i$&'es of #&!'er

i! polici!' &re &lso prese!" i! o"her i!flue!"i&l &re&s such &s "he $&ss

$e#i&/ As he su''es"e#* A recrui" 6oul# h&ve "o be r&ise# i! &!

isol&"io! ch&$ber "o i$&'i!e "h&" police 6or) 6&s !o" fr&u'h" 6i"h

subs"&!"i&l* recurri!' #&!'er (p/ +;-./

I" is cle&r "h&" police e!cou!"er &! &$&l'&$&"io! of 0ob%rel&"e# f&c"ors

"h&" #irec"ly &!# i!#irec"ly 6oul# "e!# "o resul" i! physiolo'ic&l &rous&l/

Culle! e" &l/ (+,-4. co$$e!"e# "h&" "his fe&r of #&!'er is bo"hfu!c"io!&l &!# #ysfu!c"io!&l bec&use police $us" be &6&re of "he

po"e!"i&l ris)s &rou!# "he$ 6hile* &" "he s&$e "i$e* such co!cer!s le "o

i!cre&se# s"ress/

&r"oll&s &!# 9&h! (+,,,. poi!"e# ou" "h&" "he e$o"io!&l re&c"io! "o

"he s"ressors "he! cre&"es & physiolo'ic&l respo!se* &!# "he shor" &!#

lo!'%"er$ effec"s #epe!# o! "he copi!' $ech&!is$ of "he i!#ivi#u&l

(p/ +,3./ 9e&l"hy copi!' $ech&!is$s esse!"i&lly co!sis" of "he use of

psycholo'ic&l "ech!iues "o re#uce physiolo'ic&l &rous&l/ 8se of such

"ech!iues &llo6s police officers "o $&i!"&i! e$o"io!&l s"&bili"y &!# &

se!se of perspec"ive o! "heir 0obs/ For officers 6ho l&c) such he&l"hy

copi!' $ech&!is$s* &!'ry &''ressio! "heory &r'ues "h&" "he chro!ic

physiolo'ic&l &rous&l 6ill resul" i! i!cre&se# percep"io! of "hre&"s*

i!cre&se# &''ressio! i! respo!se "o "hre&"s* &!# i!cre&se# "e!#e!cy "o

"r&!sfer &''ressio! o!"o visible &!# vul% !er&ble "&r'e"sDfor ex&$ple*

suspec"s/

INAILITY TO RESPON= TO T9E ACT8AL

SO8RCES OF C9RONIC ARO8SAL

A )ey f&c"or i! &!'ry &''ressio! "heory is "he i!#ivi#u&l2s i!&bili"y "o

re#uce physiolo'ic&l &rous&l by respo!#i!' "o i"s &c"u&l sources/ er!&r#

(+,,7. posi"e# "h&" i!!er%ci"y resi#e!"s l&r'ely c&!!o" #o &!y"hi!' &bou"

"he &c"u&l sources of "heir chro!ic &rous&l ("he s"resses &ssoci&"e# 6i"hpover"y* urb&! #e!si"y* &!# r&ci&l #iscri$i!&"io!./ Si$il&rly* police

officers &re 'e!% er&lly u!&ble "o #ress s"ruc"ur&l sources of 0ob%rel&"e#

s"ress (e/'/* #&!'er* ci"ie! hos"ili"y* i!"er!&l &!# ex"er!&l poli"ic&l

pressures* $e#i& rel&"io!s./ I! #i"io!* effor"s by police or'&!i&"io!s "o

#evelop e$ploy$e!" &ssis% "&!ce pro'r&$s "o &llevi&"e s"ress for "heir

e$ployees h&ve e!cou!"ere# #ifficul"ies/ M&!y police fe&r "he le&)i!'

of co!fi#e!"i&l i!for$&"io! "o


20/36



21/36

Griffi!* er!&r# @ ANGRY AGGRESSION AMONG OFFICERS +4

superiors &!# colle&'ues* 6here&s o"hers #o !o" see) help for fe&r ofbre&)% i!' "he $ol# of "he "ri"io!&l* "ou'h cop (Fi!! To$*

+,,?./ Thus* &"%ris) officers freue!"ly re$&i! i! s"ressful si"u&"io!s/

Such si"u&"io!s $&y be ex&cerb&"e# by &!o"her co$po!e!" of &!'ry

&''ressio! "heory* soci&l isol&"io!/

SOCIAL ISOLATION OF POLICE OFFICERS

Soci&l isol&"io! &$o!' police c&! "&)e pl&ce i! bo"h "heir 6or) &!#

per% so!&l e!viro!$e!"s/ As S)ol!ic) (+,55. !o"e#* The ele$e!" of

#&!'er iso% l&"es police$e! soci&lly fro$ "he se'$e!" of "he ci"ie!ry

6hich he re'&r#s &s sy$bolic&lly #&!'erous &!# &lso fro$ "he

co!ve!"io!&l ci"ie!ry 6i"h 6ho$ he i#e!"ifies (p/ BB./ S)ol!ic) &!#Fyfe (+,,4. s"&"e# "h&" bec&use police "e!# "o perceive sy$bolic

&ss&il&!"s &s po"e!"i&lly "hre&"e!i!' &!# #&!'erous* police beco$e

&pprehe!sive/ This &pprehe!sio! "he! se"s police &p&r" &!# "e!#s "o

isol&"e "he$ fro$ "hose 6ho$ "hey &re polici!' (S)ol!ic) Fyfe*

+,,4* p/ ,?./ &r"oll&s &!# 9&h! (+,,,. re$&r)e# "h&" $os" rese&rchers

&'ree "h&" "he isol&"io! is self%i$pose#* bu" i" c&! &lso be &r'ue# "h&" "he

very !&"ure of "he 0ob forces soci&l isol&"io! o! "he officer (p/?B./ Cr&!)

(+,,-. re$&r)e# "h&" suspicio!* i"self pre#ic&"e# pri$&rily o! #&!'er* of

course* is vi"&l &s & soci&l s)ill for police/ So i$por"&!"* i! f&c"* "h&" i" is

!o" surprisi!' "h&" "he $ore s)ille# officers beco$e i! "heir cr&f"* "he

$ore "hey "e!# "o re"re&" "o "heir o6! )i!# for soci&l &!# e$o"io!&l sup%

por" (p/ +74./ =&!'er is !o" "he o!ly or !ecess&rily "he pree$i!e!"

re&so! for "he isol&"io! of police/

Rese&rch h&s sho6! "h&" police &re #is"rus"ful of o"her $e$bers of

"heir or'&!i&"io!s* superiors &!# co$$&!# s"&ff i! p&r"icul&r* i!

#i"io! "o bei!' suspicious or #is"rus"ful of o"her &c"ors i! "he cri$i!&l

0us"ice sys"e$ &!# of civili&!s (Sel"er* Ao!e* 9o6&r#* +,,5K 1es"ley*

+,?7./ 1ilso! (+,?4. su''es"e# "h&" police li)ely overs"&"e "he prese!ce

of ci"ie! hos"il% i"y* $uch li)e "hey #o "he prese!ce of #&!'er

previously s"&"e#/ 1&l)er (+,,,. believes "his $&y be &""ribu"&ble "o "he

selec"ive co!"&c" police h&ve 6i"h "he public (i/e/* police #o !o" h&ve

re'ul&r co!"&c" 6i"h & cross sec"io! of "he co$$u!i"y* p/ ;;7./ I" $&y

&lso be p&r"i&lly expl&i!e# "hrou'h "he selec"ive percep"io! by police

of "he public/ As $e!"io!e# previously* police* li)e o"her people* &re

$ore li)ely "o re$e$ber u!ple&s% &!" or "r&u$&"ic eve!"s $ore "h&!

or#i!&ry o!es (see Groe'er* +,,?./ These f&c"ors c&use police "o vie6

"he$selves &s & #is"i!c" 'roup &p&r" fro$ soci% e"y (:&! M&&!e!* +,?B./

Sher$&! (+,-;. &r'ue# "h&" "his us versus "he$


22/36



23/36

+B POLICE 8ARTERLY (:ol/ 5* No/ +* M&rch ;774.

&""i"u#e c&uses "he police "o shif" "he focus o! "he cri$i!&l ele$e!" &s &!vers&ry "o "he public &s & 6hole/ Cl&r) (+,53. co!clu#e# "h&" i! or#er

"o &voi# "he #isco$for" i!volve# i! $&!y police%ci"ie! i!"er&c"io!s*

police "e!#e# "o soci&lie $os" 6i"h fello6 officers* "hus fur"her isol&"i!'

"he$% selves fro$ "he public/ This c&! be s&i# of bo"h "he officers2 6or)

e!viro!% $e!"s &!# "heir soci&l or perso!&l e!viro!$e!"s/

Li)e fe6 o"her professio!s* police &re freue!"ly i!"ro#uce# soci&lly &s

police officers/ Curre!" &!# for$er officers &li)e c&! e&sily i#e!"ify 6i"h

fello6 "&les of bei!' i!"ro#uce# &s $y frie!# oh!* "he cop/ Fur"her

#% i!' "o "he soci&l isol&"io!* !ei'hbors &re uic) "o poi!" ou" 6here

&! officer lives* &!# "hey feel free "o )!oc) o! his or her #oor i!s"e of

c&lli!' ,++* &l$os" &s "hou'h he or she 6&s & priv&"e securi"y 'u&r# for

"he !ei'hbor% hoo# (&r"oll&s 9&h! +,,,* p/ ?B./ S)ol!ic) &!# Fyfe(+,,4. &r'ue# "h&" "his "6e!"y%four%hour%&%#&y i#e!"i"y / / / 'e!er&"es

po6erfully #is"i!c"ive 6&ys of loo)i!' &" "he 6orl# &!# co'!i"ive &!#

beh&vior&l respo!ses (p/ ,;./

Accor#i!' "o &!'ry &''ressio! "heory* soci&l isol&"io! 6oul# $&)e

police "e!# "o see "hre&"s fro$ &!# respo!# &''ressively "o o"her people

i! "he i$$e#i&"e e!viro!$e!"* eve! if "hose o"her people h&ve #o!e

!o"hi!' "hre&"e!i!'/ This 6oul# cre&"e & hi'hly #&!'erous

e!viro!$e!"* 6hich 6oul# fur"her i!cre&se everyo!e2s &rous&l &!# "hus

fur"her i!cre&se every% o!e2s "e!#e!cy "o see $ore "hre&"s &!# "o

respo!# "o "hre&"s 6i"h $ore &''ressio!/ Fur"her$ore* soci&l isol&"io!

6oul# $e&! "h&" "hese chro!i% c&lly &rouse# &!# hi'hly &''ressive

people (i/e/* police. i!"er&c" $&i!ly 6i"h e&ch o"her/ I! such & si"u&"io!*

"hese p&""er!s of "hi!)i!' (seei!' $ore "hre&"s* respo!#i!' "o "hre&"s 6i"h

$ore &''ressio!. 6oul# "e!# "o beco$e subcul"ur&l i! "he se!se "h&" "hey

6oul# sep&r&"e fro$ "he s"ruc"ur&l co!#i% "io!s "h&" ori'i!&lly '&ve rise "o

"he$ &!# 6oul# be p&sse# fro$ perso! "o perso! i! i!"erperso!&l

co$$u!ic&"io!/ 1he! "hese f&c"ors &re co$bi!e# 6i"h "he i!&bili"y of

perso!s "o #efuse "he &rous&l* people h&ve & "e!#e!cy "o "r&!sfer

&''ressio! "o visible &!# vul!er&ble "&r'e"s/ For civili&!s* "his $&y

su''es" cer"&i! s"ereo"ypic&l ou"co$es (i/e/* )ic) "he c&"* yell &" "he )i#s*

be&" up "he 6ife./ For police* "his $&y $&!ifes" i! "he be&"i!' of suspec"s

&!# o"hers 6ho feel "hey c&!!o" pro"ec" "he$selves/ 8!#er co!#i"io!s of

soci&l isol&"io!* "his "r&!sferre# &''ressio! fur"her i!cre&ses "he

#&!'erous% !ess of "he i$$e#i&"e e!viro!$e!" &!# "e!#s "o fur"her

i!cre&se everyo!e2s chro!ic &rous&l/ The resul" of &ll "hese i!"er&c"ive

i!flue!ces 6oul# be 6h&" er!&r# (+,,7. c&lle# & subcul"ure of &!'ry

&''ressio!/


24/36



25/36

Griffi!* er!&r# @ ANGRY AGGRESSION AMONG OFFICERS +3

S"ruc"ur&l Sources I!&bili"y "o re#uce s"ressby

of Police S"ress #ressi!' i"s s"ruc"ur&l sources

Chro!ic Physiolo'ic&l Arous&l Psycholo'ic&l

I! Police Officers $e"ho#s "o re#uce

physiolo'ic&l &rous&l>

Copi!'

More Te!#e!cy "o see $ore "hre&"s &!#

Thre&"e!i!' "o respo!# "o "hre&"s 6i"h $ore

E!viro!$e!" &''ressio!> &u"hori"&ri&!perso!&li"y

Te!#e!cy "o #ispl&ce

&''ressio! o!"o visible Soci&l Isol&"io! of Police Officers

&!# vul!er&ble "&r'e"s>

Suspec"s* e"c/

I!"erperso!&l co$$u!ic&"io! &bou"

"he prev&le!ce of "hre&"s &!# "he

&ppropri&"e!ess of &''ressive

respo!ses "o "he$> "he police subcul"ure

Police Use of Extra-e!al Force

FIGURE "# Police Extrale!al Force as A$!r% A!!ressio$

POLICE EJTRALEGAL FORCE AS ANGRY AGGRESSION

8si!' "he ele$e!"s previously #escribe#* 6e prese!" "he follo6i!'

expl&!&"io! of police use of ex"r&le'&l force/

Fi'ure + illus"r&"es ho6 &!'ry &''ressio! "heory &pplies "o ex"r&le'&l

force by police/ The ch&i! of c&us&"io!s s"&r"s 6i"h "he s"ruc"ur&l sourcesof 0ob%rel&"e# s"ress for police officers (i/e/* #&!'er* ci"ie! hos"ili"y*

i!"er!&l &!# ex"er!&l poli"ic&l pressures* $e#i& rel&"io!s* &!# so

for"h./ Police


26/36



27/36

+5 POLICE 8ARTERLY (:ol/ 5* No/ +* M&rch ;774.

officers l&r'ely #o !o" h&ve "he &bili"y "o #ress "he &c"u&l c&uses of "hiss"ress/ This co!flue!ce of s"ress &!# "he i!&bili"y "o re#uce s"ress

$&!ifes"s i"self i! "he chro!ic physiolo'ic&l &rous&l of police officers/ A"

"his poi!"* officers esse!"i&lly h&ve "6o possible respo!ses/ So$e

i!#ivi#u&ls $&y use psycholo'ic&l (copi!'. $e"ho#s for$&lly or* $ore

li)ely* i!for$&lly &!# u!)!o6i!'ly "o re#uce &rous&l/ Thus* "he

biolo'ic&l &!# psycholo'ic&l co$po!e!"s of &!'ry &''ressio! "heory

6oul# help "o expl&i! i!#ivi#u&l% level #iffere!ces &$o!' police

officers i! si$il&r occup&"io!&l circu$% s"&!ces/ I" is i$por"&!"*

ho6ever* "h&" chro!ic physiolo'ic&l &rous&l re#uces "he &bili"y "o cope

6i"h &rous&l/ This 'e!er&"es eve! $ore &rous&l* 6hich "he! les "o "he

seco!# possibili"yD"he "e!#e!cy "o perceive & 6i#er v&ri% e"y of eve!"s

&s "hre&"e!i!' eve! i! si"u&"io!s i! 6hich people h&ve #o!e !o"hi!'"hre&"e!i!' &!# "he "e!#e!cy "o respo!# "o "hre&"s 6i"h i!cre&se#

&''ressio!/ This "he! resul"s i! o!e or $ore ou"co$es/ I!#ivi#u&l officers

$&y #evelop & "e!#e!cy "o #ispl&ce "he &''ressio! o!"o visible &!#

vul!er&% ble "&r'e"s (&s oppose# "o "he l&r'ely i!visible &!# i!vul!er&ble

s"ruc"ur&l sources of 0ob%rel&"e# s"ress "h&" &c"u&lly 'e!er&"e "he

officer2s chro!ic physiolo'ic&l &rous&l./ This "he! co!s"i"u"es "he

officer2s use of ex"r&le'&l force/

As i! er!&r#2s (+,,7. ori'i!&l "heory* $ul"iple fee#b&c) loops "e!# "o

resul" i! & spir&l i!"o i!cre&se# viole!ce* #escribe# &s & subcul"ure of

&!'ry &''ressio! (p/ -?./ The "e!#e!cy "o see i!cre&se# "hre&"s $&y

resul" i! i!cre&se# soci&l isol&"io! of police officers* &!# i" rei!forces "he

subcul"ur&l v&lues &!# !or$s expresse# i! perso!&l co$$u!ic&"io!s

&$o!' police offi% cers &bou" "he prev&le!ce of "hre&"s &!# "he

&ppropri&"e!ess of &''ressive respo!ses "o "he$/ E&ch of "hese ou"co$es

"he! i!cre&ses "he "e!#e!cy "o see $ore "hre&"s &!# "o respo!# "o "hre&"s

6i"h $ore &''ressio!/ This fee#% b&c) loop &lso c&uses &! i!cre&se i! "he

over&ll &''ressive!ess of "he e!vi% ro!$e!"* fur"her hei'h"e!i!' &rous&l

&!# "herefore i!cre&si!' &''ressio!/ I! #i"io!* "he use of ex"r&le'&l

force i"self fur"hers soci&l isol&"io!* serves "o i!cre&se "he "e!#e!cy "o see

$ore "hre&"s* &!# is i!"erperso!&lly co$$u% !ic&"e# be"6ee! policeD

for$&lly "hrou'h "r&i!i!' &!# i!for$&lly "hrou'h perso!&l #iscussio!s/

CONCL8SION

I! 'e!er&l* "he police cul"ure h&s bee! "he $ore pro$i!e!" expl&!&"io!

for police beh&vior* i!clu#i!' "he police use of ex"r&le'&l force/ Our !e6

propose# "heory shoul# !o" be i!"erpre"e# &s #iscou!"i!' "h&" expl&!&"io!/



28/36

Griffi!* er!&r# @ ANGRY AGGRESSION AMONG OFFICERS +?

R&"her* our "heory expl&i!s "he police cul"ure i"self/ I! "his* i" is si$il&r "o"heories i! cri$i!olo'y i! 6hich "here !o6 is & f&irly bro &'ree$e!"

"h&" sh&re# subcul"ur&l beliefs h&ve "heir ori'i!s i! "he sh&re#

experie!ces &ssoci&"e# 6i"h p&r"icul&r loc&"io!s i! "he soci&l s"ruc"ure

(e/'/* :ol#* er% !&r#* S!ipes* ;77+./ Esse!"i&lly* "he &r'u$e!" is "h&"

si$il&r "hi!)i!' p&"% "er!s &rise fro$ si$il&r experie!ces &!# "he! &re

"r&!s$i""e# i! i!"erper% so!&l co$$u!ic&"io!s "o beco$e subcul"ur&l/ 1e

$&)e & si$il&r &r'u$e!" here 6i"h respec" "o "he sh&re# experie!ces

&ssoci&"e# 6i"h polici!' &!# "he co!seue!" e$er'e!ce of sh&re# beliefs

i! & police cul"ure/

y 'rou!#i!' "he police cul"ure i! "he sh&re# experie!ces of polici!'*

6e $ove &6&y fro$ "he vie6 "h&" "here is so$e "ype of $o!oli"hic police

sub% cul"ure i!"o 6hich &ll police officers &re soci&lie#/ Such & vie6#oes !o" e!"irely reflec" "he sophis"ic&"io! of curre!" "heories of "he

police subcul% "ure* bu" i" s"ill represe!"s & )i!# of "r&p "h&" is #ifficul" for

"hese "heories "o &voi#/ Our "heory* 6e believe* provi#es & $ore re&lis"ic

vie6 of "he police subcul"ure bec&use i" is #escribe# i! "he co!"ex" of "he

l&r'er s"ruc"ur&l co!% #i"io!s of police 6or)/

I!#ivi#u&l #iffere!ce "heories h&ve bee! less pro$i!e!" i! "he expl&!&%

"io!s of police beh&vior* i!clu#i!' police use of ex"r&le'&l force/ As 6i"h

"he police cul"ure* ho6ever* our propose# "heory shoul# !o" be

i!"erpre"e# &s #iscou!"i!' "hese expl&!&"io!s/ I!s"e* 6e expl&i! such

psycholo'ic&l #if% fere!ces &s $i'h" be fou!# &$o!' police officers/ I!

p&r"icul&r* our "heory &sser"s "h&" psycholo'ic&l #iffere!ces* such &s "he

"e!#e!cy "o see $ore "hre&"s &!# "o respo!# "o "hre&"s 6i"h i!cre&se#

&''ressio!* &re co!se% ue!ces of "he chro!ic physiolo'ic&l s"ress police

officers experie!ce o! "heir 0obs/ Our "heory #iffers fro$ "hese e&rlier

"heories i! "h&" 6e &ssu$e "h&" o! "he 6hole* police officers h&ve !or$&l

psycholo'ic&l ch&r&c"eris"ics fro$ "he s"&r"/

Fu"ure rese&rch "o "es" "his "heory coul# i!clu#e $e&sure$e!"s of

physio% lo'ic&l&rous&l of police officers 6hile o! "heir 0obs/ I" coul# &lso

#evelop sce!&rios "h&" &s) police officers* co$p&re# 6i"h !o!police

co!"rol 'roups* "o &ssess "he "hre&"s i!volve# i! p&r"icul&r si"u&"io!s &!#

"he &ppropri&"e!ess of &''ressive respo!ses "o "hose si"u&"io!s/ If "he

"heory is suppor"e# by "his rese&rch* "he! policy i$plic&"io!s coul#

i!clu#e #isse$i!&"io! "o police officers of psycholo'ic&l $e"ho#s "o

re#uce physiolo'ic&l s"ress/ I" coul# &lso i!clu#e #iscussio!s of "he

biolo'ic&l &!# psycholo'ic&l rese&rch "h&" les "o "he #is"or"io!s of

percep"io!s &bou" "hre&"s &!# "he &ppropri&"e respo!ses "o "hre&"s/ If

officers beco$e &6&re of "hese co'!i"ive "e!#e!cies* "he! "hey $&y be

$ore ope! "o $&i!"&i!i!' & b&l&!ce# perspec"ive o!


29/36



30/36

+- POLICE 8ARTERLY (:ol/ 5* No/ +* M&rch ;774.

&ppropri&"e respo!ses i! "he co!"ex" of "heir 0obs/ A" le&s" so$ei!#ivi#u&l officers i!for$&lly* &!# perh&ps u!)!o6i!'ly* use such

co'!i"ive s"ruc"ur% i!' "ech!iues/ Th&" is* "hey &voi# "he police

subcul"ure i!"erpre"&"io! &!# u!#ers"&!# "heir si"u&"io! $ore broly/

The issue 6oul# be "o for$&l% ie "hese i!for$&l "ech!iues i! so$e

6&y/ The &""e$p"e# 'o&l 6oul# be "h&" r&"her "h&! "he i!for$&l police

cul"ure &c"i!' &s "he sh&re# $e#iu$ for i!"erpre"i!' eve!"s (e/'/* i! "he

loc)er roo$.* "here be so$e process for #evelopi!' &! ul"i$&"ely $ore

re&lis"ic i!"erpre"&"io!/4

NOTES

+/ This #escrip"io! of excessive force exclu#es fro$ co!si#er&"io! "he ille'&l force

use# by police officers "o &chieve cle&rly ille'&l 'o&lsDfor ex&$ple* 6he! officers

sh&)e #o6! people for bribes &!# p&y%offs* 6he! officers ex&c" reve!'e "o s&ve f&ce*

&!# so for"h/ Thus* rece!" hi'h%profile c&ses of police &c"ivi"ies !o" u!#er co!si#er&"io!

i!clu#e "he R&$p&r" sc&!#&l i! Los A!'eles &!# "he Loui$& i!ci#e!" i! Ne6 Yor) Ci"y/

The expl&!&"io! of "hese eve!"s prob&bly i!volves &ll of "he s&$e ele$e!"s &s "he

expl&!&"io! of si$il&r eve!"s by cri$i!&ls 6ho &re !o" police (e/'/* :ol#* er!&r#*

S!ipes* ;77+./

;/ Accor#i!' "o "he N&"io!&l Cri$e :ic"i$i&"io! Survey (ure&u of us"ice S"&"is"ics*

;77+.* o! &ver&'e* ;5+ ou" of every +*777 police officers 6ere "he vic"i$s of viole!"

cri$es i! "heir 0obs e&ch ye&r be"6ee! +,,4 &!# +,,,/ The seco!# &!# "hir# $os"

#&!'erous occup&% "io!s* respec"ively* 6ere correc"io!s officer (+35 viole!" vic"i$i&"io!s

per +*777 e&ch ye&r. &!# "&xi #river (+;- viole!" vic"i$i&"io!s per +*777 e&ch ye&r./

4/ 9&!s Toch (+,?B.* i! his boo) o! viole!ce &$o!' police i! O&)l&!#* $ore or less

#i# "his by e!'&'i!' "he $os" viole!" officers i! "he #ep&r"$e!" i! & pro0ec" i! 6hich "hey

pro% cesse# viole!" eve!"s/

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31/36



32/36

Griffi!* er!&r# @ ANGRY AGGRESSION AMONG OFFICERS +,

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33/36



34/36

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"io!&l &!# perso!&l s"ressors/ournal of Criminal ustice* 0?* ,,%+7?/

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co!cep% "u&l &!# "heore"ic&l #ifficul"ies/ournal of Police Science and Administration*

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everly 9ills* CA> S&'e/

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35/36



36/36

Griffi!* er!&r# @ ANGRY AGGRESSION AMONG OFFICERS ;+

1or#e!* R/ (+,,3./ The c&uses of police bru"&li"y> Theory &!# evi#e!ce o! police useof force/ I! 1/ Geller 9/ Toch (E#s/.* And @ustice for all (pp/ 4+%57./ 1&shi!'"o!*

=C> Police Execu"ive Rese&rch Foru$/

Sean P. Briffin is an assistant professor of sociology at Clemson

University. 2e received his Ph.9. from Penn State University in 0. 2is

research inter! ests include organi#ed crime, white!collar crime,

comparative criminology, and various law enforcementDrelated issues.

Thomas . ;ernard is a professor of criminal @ustice and sociology at The

Pennsylvania State University. 2is wor has focused on criminology and

criminal @ustice theory as well as on @uvenile @ustice.

angry aggresion

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