Introduction to

Nutrition

What is a Nutrient?

– Any feed constituent, group of feed constituents or synthetically derived compounds of the same general chemical composition that aids in the support of animal life.

Classes of Nutrients • Water

• Carbohydrates

• Fats

• Protein

• Minerals– Macrominerals– Microminerals

• Vitamins– Fat Soluble (A,D,E,K– Water Soluble (B vitamins)

Classes of Nutrients– Water H2O

– Carbohydrates C H O– Fats C H O– Protein C H O N S

(16% N, <1% S, P if amino acid is phosphorylated)– Minerals

• 7 Macrominerals (measured as % of ration)• Microminerals (trace, measured in ppm)

– Vitamins (minute quantities, measured in I.U)• Fat Soluble (A,D,E,K• Water Soluble (B vitamins)

International unit (IU) is a unit of measurement for the amount of a substance, based on measured biological activity (or effect)

The mass equivalents of 1 IU for selected substances:

1 IU Vitamin A: the biological equivalent of 0.3 μg retinol, or of 0.6 μg beta-carotene

1 IU Vitamin C: 50 μg L-ascorbic acid

µg = microgram (mcg) = 10–6 g

Nutrients are made up of:• C -• O - • Na - • Ca -• K-• S -• Cu -• I -• Mn -• Se -

• H -• N -• Cl -• P-• Mg -• Co - • F- • Fe - • Mo -• Zn -

Carbon

Oxygen

Sodium

Calcium

Potassium

Sulfur

Copper

Iodine

Manganese

Selenium

Hydrogen

Nitrogen

Chlorine

Phosphorus

Magnesium

Cobalt

Fluorine

Iron

Molybdenum

Zinc

Water • Least expensive nutrient – but often times lacking• Most abundant nutrient in the animals body deficiency can cause death faster than other deficiencies. • Function

– Transportation of nutrients and excretions– Chemical reactions– Body temperature regulation– Maintains shape of body cells– Lubricates and cushions joints and organs

Water

• Sources– Drinking (40-76%)– Moisture in feed (4-40%)– Metabolic water derived from oxidation (20%)

• Losses– Urine– Feces– Respiration – O2 in and CO2 and H2O out– Perspiration

http://www.break.com/pictures/roller-bird825480.html

Factors affecting water Consumption

• Age and Size of animal• Performance of animals• Environmental temperature and humidity

Factors affecting water Consumption

• Age and Size of animal• Performance of animals• Environmental temperature and humidity• Water content of feed• Dietary factors - salt in feed• Urinary system - mammals vs. birds - cows vs. camels• Water quality and availability

Water Deficiency Symptoms

• Decrease performance

• Decrease feed intake

• Sunken eyes

• Decrease elasticity of skin

• Animals drinking urine or mud

Approximate water consumption (mature animal)

1. Swine 1.5 to 3 gal/hd/d

2. Sheep 1 to 3 gal/hd/d

3. Cattle 10 to 14 gal/hd/d

4. Horses 10 to 14 gal/hd/d

5. Poultry 2 parts water for each

part of dry feed

II. Energy

A. Carbohydrates– C (40%) H (7%) O (53%)

Includes sugars, starches, cellulose and others

(simple to complex)– C, H, and O make up 75% of the plant dry weight and

represents largest part of animals food supply

– Formed by photosynthesis:

6CO2 + 6H2O + Light (673 calories) = C6H12O6 + 6O2

This sea slug, discovered off the coast of New England in 2009, produces its own chlorophyll so can carry out photosynthesis, turning sunlight into energy.

• Very little carbohydrate present in an animal’s body– Plants use carbohydrates for structure (fiber)

and store energy– Animals have bones for structure and store

energy as fat

Classification of Carbohydrates

• Monosaccharide (1 sugar molecule (simple sugar))• Fructose (corn syrup – sweetest sugar known)• Glucose (blood sugar)• Galactose (fatty substances of the brain)• Mannose (obtained from polysaccharides, in cranberry juice)

Two main sugars in honey are glucose and levulose. Five carbon sugars are part of DNA, RNA and viruses.

Simple sugars are absorbed into the blood stream without further digestion in the digestive tract.

Classification of Carbohydrates

• Disaccharides (2 sugar molecules) – Lactose (milk sugar)

+ lactase = galactose+ glucose

– Sucrose (table sugar) + sucrase = fructose+ glucose

– Maltose (used in malted milk) + maltase = glucose+ glucose

• Polysaccharides (Many sugar molecules)– Glycogen (animal form)– Starch (plant form)– Cellulose – Hemicellulose

• glucose α glucose α glucose α glucose… starch• glucose β glucose β glucose β glucose… cellulose

• Cellulose – structural part of plants

Cellulase (produced by bacteria) in

ruminants• Glucose

Anaerobic fermentation by rumen

bacteria• Volatile fatty acids (VFA’s) – absorbed through

rumen

- propionic acid (30-40%)

- butyric acid (15%)

- acetic acid (50-60%) (precursor for milk fat)

Digestion in the rumen

CH3CH2COOH

Propionic acidCH3COOHAcetic acid

CH3CH2CH2-COOHButyric acid

• Lignin – indigestible structural component of plants

• Crude Fiber (Total fiber)– Cellulose– Hemicellulose – mixture of cellulose, pectins,

starches– Xylans – polysaccharide found in corncobs and

wood– Lignin

• NDF = neutral detergent fiber (contains all 4 CF components)

• ADF = acid detergent fiber (does not contain hemicellulose)

• Sources – Grain (high starch, low fiber – seed coat)– Forages (high fiber, low starch)– Milk (lactose) – cow’s milk is 5% lactose which

is 40% of the solids in milk

• Function– General heat to maintain body temperature– Fuel metabolic reactions – Building blocks for other nutrients– Energy stored in animals in form of fat

Carbohydrates

Although the term lipid is sometimes used as a synonym for fats, fats are a subgroup of lipids called triglycerides.

Lipids also encompass molecules such as fatty acids and their derivatives (including tri-, di-, monoglycerides, and phospholipids), as well as other sterol-containing metabolites such as cholesterol, waxes, and fat-soluble vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E, and K).

B. Fats

– Chemical composition (% molecular weights)

C (77%), H (12%), O(11%)

40 7 53 Carbo’s

– Insoluble in water

– Unit of fat has 2.25 more energy than unit of carbohydrate

Structure: Triglyceride

glycerol

− Fatty acid

 

− Fatty acid

− Fatty acid

Why are fats added to animal feeds?

Why are fats added to animal feeds?

1. Increase energy density

2. Decrease dust in feed

3. As a binder in pellets

4. Taste for non-ruminate diets

5. Needed in cat diets

1. Structure of Fat

=

2. Fatty Acids

 2 Carbons short chain

medium chain

24 Carbons long chain

  

3. Saturated Fats – animal fats

a. Lard (pork)

b. Tallow (beef)

c. Poultry fat

 

Solid at room temperature

Ruminant fat is the

most saturated

4. Unsaturated Fats – plant oils

a. Corn Oil 

b. Soybean Oil

c. Canola Oil

Liquid at room temperature

Polyunsaturated means it has

more than one double bond

saturation solid at room temperature

size (molecular weight) fatty acids solid at room temperature

There are over 100 different fatty acids

Butyric acid

C4H8O2

H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H

H-C-C-C-C-C-C=C-C-C=C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-OH

H H H H H H H H H H H H H

C18H32O2 – Linoleic Acid (C18:2)

H H H H H H H H H H H H H O

H-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-OH

H H H H H H H H H H H H H

C14H28O2 – Myristic Acid

Functions of Fats

• Store energy • Protect organs• Insulate• Energy source in food• Essential fatty acids needed for

prostaglandin production• Fat soluble vitamins found in fat

– Cholesterol, a lipid, is a precursor for vitamin D and sex hormones

Digestion and Metabolism

• Highly digestible

• Short chain > long chain in some cases

• Lipase breaks down triglycerides into glycerol and fatty acids

Location in the Animal Body

• Milk– Horse 1.5%– Cows 3-5%– Sheep 8%

• Eggs – 10%

• Internal Fat – KPH and fat between muscles• Where is external fat deposited?

III. Protein

1. Chemical Composition (% molecular)– C (53%) H (7%) O (23%) N (16%) S and P

<1%)

2. Protein is the nutrient in highest concentration in muscle tissue of animals.

3. Made of sequences of amino acids

Protein

4. Small to very large molecular weight– Lys – Met – His – Ile – Val – His - …. (muscle sarcomeres may have a total length of almost

27,000 amino acids)

5. Short chains = peptides

6. Contains nitrogen which distinguishes protein and amino acids from other nutrients– % N x 6.25 = % crude protein– % N / 16% = % crude protein

Although some vitamins contain

nitrogen

B. Functions of Protein

1. Basic Structural Unit of Animala. Collagen - mostly found in fibrous tissues such as

tendon, ligament and skin, and is also abundant in cornea, cartilage, bone, blood vessels, the gut, and intervertebral disc.

b. Elastin

c. Blood proteins – hemoglobin is polypeptides (protein) plus heme C18H34O4N4Fe

d. Keratin proteins – skin, hair, feathers

e. Contractile proteins - muscle

B. Functions of Protein

1. Basic Structural Unit of Animala. Collagen

b. Elastin - is a protein in connective tissue that is elastic and allows many tissues in the body to resume their shape after stretching or contracting.

c. Blood proteins – hemoglobin is polypeptides (protein) plus heme C18H34O4N4Fe

d. Keratin proteins – skin, hair, feathers

e. Contractile proteins - muscle

B. Functions of Protein

1. Basic Structural Unit of Animala. Collagen

b. Elastin

c. Blood proteins – hemoglobin is polypeptides (protein) plus heme C18H34O4N4Fe

d. Keratin proteins – skin, hair, feathers

e. Contractile proteins - muscle

2. Body Metabolism

a. Enzymes• Digestion• Synthesis• Degradation

b. Hormones• Oxytocin• Growth hormones• Insulin

Body Metabolism (continued)

c. Immune Antibodies• IgA, IgG, IgM

d. Hereditary transmission• Chromosomes are about 50% DNA and 50%

protein

3. Protein used as energy

• Protein consumed in excess of animal’s daily requirement is broken down by proteases (digestive enzymes) into amino acids

• Amino acids are deaminated (NH3 removed), and the carbon skeletons are used as an energy source.

3. Source of Energy After Deamination

C. Digestion and Metabolism of Protein

1. Dietary proteins broken down into amino acids and peptides.

2. Protein quality more important for non-ruminants than ruminants. Protein quality here refers to balance of essential amino acids.

3. Rumen micro-organisms can make amino acids from nitrogen (urea or ammonia).

C. Digestion and Metabolism of Protein (continued)

4. Fate of amino acids after absorption

a. Tissue protein synthesis – the amino acid sequence in a protein is controlled by genes

b. Synthesis of enzymes, hormones and other metabolites

c. Deamination and use of carbon skeleton for energy

D. Amino Acids

1.Essential amino acids – these amino acids are essential to the animal and must be supplied in the diet because the animal body can’t synthesize them or do so at a fast enough rate to meet its requirement.

2.Non-essential amino acids – those amino acids which are essential to the animal but are normally synthesized or present in sufficient quantities in the diet and need not be supplemented.

D. Amino Acids (continued)

3.Amino acids are linked together by peptide bonds, which couple the α-carboxyl group of one amino residue to the α-amino group of another residue.

• Example:

D. Amino Acids (continued)4. Monogastrics require essential amino acids in their diet.

Amino Acids

Essential (Indispensible) Non-essential (dispensable)

Tryptophan Alanine

Threonine Asparagines

Histidine Aspartic acid

Arginine Cysteine (sulfur containing)

Lysine (1st limiting in pigs) Cystine (sulfur containing)

Leucine Glutamic acid

Isoleucine Glutamine

Methionine (sulfur containing) Glycine

Valine Hydroxproline

Phenylalanine Trysine

Glycine - Poultry Serine

Proline - Poultry Proline

Glutamic acid - Poultry Taurine (cats-only in animal products)

5. Essential

Amino Acid

Structures

IV. Minerals (inorganic)

A. Macrominerals [3-3.5% in Dairy Ration]

1. Calcium (Ca) [.8%]a. Bone growth

b. Blood - stimulates normal blood clotting

c. Nerve and muscle function

d. High in milk, egg shells

Rickets

Calcium or Vitamin D deficiency

2. Phosphorus (P) [.45%]a. Bone growth

b. Metabolic energy (component of ATP)

c. Component of nucleotides (DNA, RNA)

deficiency – depraved appetitie, weakness, low fertility, rickets, weak bones

3. Sodium (Na) [.18%]

Increased requirement if sweatinga. Regulates pH and osmotic pressure

b. Nerve function

c. Enzyme stabilizer

Slight deficiency causes decreased appetitie

4.Chloride (Cl) [.28%]a. Regulates pH and osmotic pressure

b. Nerve function

c. Enzyme stabilizer

d. Formation of HCl in the stomach

Salt (NaCl) deficiency signs

• Salt craving – (drink urine, lick ground, etc.

• Decrease production, rough hair coat, death if severe.

5. Magnesium (Mg) [.22%]a. Neuromuscular function

b. Enzyme activator

c. Normal bone growth

Deficiency – grass tetany, excitability

6. Potassium (K) [1.0%]

Deficiency - feed intake ,

muscle weaknessa. Nerve function and muscle contraction

b. Enzyme stabilizer

c. Maintain osmotic pressure

Requirements may increase because of losses from sweating or diarrhea.

Inorganic forms of Mg, K, and S supplemented in ruminant diets

only – non-ruminants can

not utilize inorganic forms.

7. Sulfur (S) [.2%]

Deficiency - Slow growth, decrease milk production

a. Components of S-containing amino acids and some hormones

b. Acid – base balance

c. In feathers and gizzard lining

B. Microminerals (Trace Minerals)1. Chromium (Cr) – carbohydrate and lipid

metabolism. Increase rate of lean growth in young pigs.

2. Cobalt (Co)

(Supplement ruminant and horse diets only)a. Component of vitamin B12

b. Enzyme activator

deficiency – decreased appetite, anemia

3. Copper (Cu)(necessary for red blood cell formation, has antibiotic-like growth promoting ability in swine)

a. Hemoglobin synthesis (anemia)

b. Enzymes (diarrhea, poor hair/wool growth)

4. Fluorine (F) - bones and teeth

5. Iron (I)a. Hemoglobin synthesis - anemia

b. Enzymes

6. Iodine (I)a. Thyroid hormone – goiter (enlargement of thyroid

gland). Deficiency: pigs and lambs born hairless or wool-less

7. Manganese (Mn) – lameness, fertility

a. Enzyme activator

8. Molybdenum (Mo) (supplement ruminant diets only)

Most feedstuff contain enough

a. Enzymes

9. Nickel (Ni)Rations have enough - assists in the absorption of

iron and the formation red blood cells

10. Selenium (Se) (Eastern Minnesota soils are deficient)

Works with vitamin E – maintains muscle integrity

Selenium deficient

Selenium Toxicity

January 2010

News Flash: 25 U of MN Hampshire ewes die when student worker mistakenly put selenium mineral instead of “sheep mineral” into the mineral feeder.

11. Silicon (Si) (most feeds have plenty) supports the development and maintenance of the connective tissues and skeletal system.

12. Tin (Sn) – deficiency: decreased growth in rats

13. Vanadium (V) - proper growth and bone development and also for normal reproduction.

14. Zinc (Zn) – immune system and healthy skin, feathers and hooves

a. Enzyme activator

b. Protein synthesis

All microminerals can be toxic in

surplus amounts!

C. Mineral – Vitamin Interrelationships, e.g.

 

1. Ca, P, Vitamin D2. Co, Vitamin B12

3. Vitamin E, Selenium

V. Vitamins

A. Fat Soluble

1. Vitamin Aa. Vision – especially night vision – fetal eye developement

b. Bone formation

c. Immune function - Antioxidant and anti-carcinogenic properties

d. Membranes – skin, lungs, reproductive and digestive tracts

Cheap to supplement, Beta-carotene is the precursor found in plants

 

2. Vitamin D - cheap to supplement

a. Bone formation

– works with Ca and P

3. Vitamin E 

a. Antioxidant

b. Immune system

  supplementation extends shelf life of meat and milk

4. Vitamin K

 a. Blood clotting

 

B. Water Soluble –cofactors or activators of enzymes

1. Thiamine (B1) – harvesting energy via the Kreb’s cycle,

deficiency causes Beriberi in humans.

2. Riboflavin (B2) – involved with Kreb’s cycle

3.Niacin (B3, nicotinic acid)– helps convert fat to glucose in the liver – prevents and treats ketosis – involved with Kreb’s cycle

4. Pyridoxine (B6) - protein metabolism and red blood cell formation

5.Pantothenic Acid (B5)

deficiency: dermatitis and loss of

hair

B1

B2B3

B6

B5

Most B vitamins made up of C,H,O, and N.

6. Folic Acid (B9) – helps make proteins from amino acids.

7. Biotin (B7) deficiency: dermatitis and loss of hair (same as pantothenic acid)8. Vitamin B12 (cyanacobalamin is most common

synthetic form) Found in animal products and manufactured by bacteria. Associated with appetite, anemia, and hatching problems in

birds

9. Choline – “smart bill”, associated with brain activity. Also, helps the liver convert fat into glucose (like niacin) to prevent ketosis.

10. Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C) – only required for humans, guinea pigs and fish. May

help prevent scours and enhance immune system in young calves?

B7

B12

C63H88CoN14O14P

B9choline

Vitamin C

A. Classification of Feedstuffs1. Dry roughages and forages

alfalfa hay, grass hay2. Range, pasture, green forages

(green chop)3. Silages

corn silage, haylage4. Energy Feedstuffs

corn grain5. Protein supplements

SBM, distillers grains6. Mineral supplements

salt, ground limestone, dical7. Vitamin supplements

8. Non-nutritional additives

antibiotics, hormones, preservatives

A. Classification of Feedstuffs1. Dry roughages and forages2. Range, pasture, green forages3. Silages

Feeds with >18% crude fiber are considered roughages.4. Energy Feedstuffs contain less than 18% crude

fiber and < 20% crude protein. 5. Protein supplements contain <18% crude fiber and

> 20% crude protein.6. Mineral supplements7. Vitamin supplements

8. Non-nutritional additives

B. Evaluation of Feedstuffs for Energy Content

1. TDN system

a. TDN: Total Digestible Nutrients

b. TDN = digestible crude protein

+ digestible crude fiber

+ digestible nitrogen – free extract

+ 2.25 x digestible fat

c. Example 100 gm feed (Swine or Poultry diet)

Amount % Digestible TDN

Protein 20 gm 75 = 15 gm

NFE 60 gm 85 = 51 gm

Fiber 10 gm 20 = 2 gm

Fat 5 gm 85 x 2.25 = 9.56 gm

c. Example 100 gm feed (Swine or Poultry diet)

Amount % Digestible TDN

Protein 20 gm 75 = 15 gm

NFE 60 gm 85 = 51 gm

Fiber 10 gm 20 = 2 gm

Fat 5 gm 85 x 2.25 = 9.56 gm

77.56%

2. Metabolizable Energy and Net Energy System

a. Definition: A calorie is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water 1 degree C from 15.5 degrees C to 16.5 degrees C

1 kcal = 1000 calories : (kcal used for poultry & swine diets)

1 kcal = 1 Calorie with a capital C for human nutrition

1 Mcal = 1000 kcal : (Mcal used for dairy & beef diets)

Calories are measured by a laboratory method called

bomb calorimetry

• Example

CHO produces 4000 calories/g

Fat produces 9450 calories/g

Protein produces 4100 calories/g

4 grams CHO x 4000 = 16,000 calories

20 grams protein x 4100 = 82,000 calories

2 grams fat x 9450 = 18,900 calories

Total 116,900 calories = 116.9 kcal

b. Typical dairy ration

30% 70%

5% 60%

20% 40%

Gaseous 5%

c. Proximate Analysis of Feeds

Feed: Example of a typical finishing pig diet

Moisture 12%

Dry matter 88%

Ash 5%

Organic Matter 83%

Protein 13%

Non-nitrogenous 70%

Fats 4%

Carbohydrates 66%

Crude Fiber 10%

Nitrogen-free extract 56%

Simple Sugars 5%

Starches 50%

Water Soluble Vitamins <1%

VII. Digestion & Absorption of Feed

Digestion is the physical, chemical, and enzymatic means the body uses to render a feedstuff ready

for absorption.

A. Pig (monogastric)

Source Enzyme Substrate Results

Saliva Amylase (small amount) Starch Disaccharides

Stomach Pepsin Protein Peptides

Hydrochloric acid Activates pepsin

Pancreas Amylase Starch Disaccharides

Lipase Fats Fatty acids & Glycerol

Trypsin Protein Peptides

Chymotrysin Peptides Amino acids

Duodenum

Peptidase Peptides Amino acids

Sucrase Sucrose Glucose + Fructose

Maltase Maltose 2 Glucose

Lactase Lactose Glucose & Galactose

Bile from liver:– Emulsify fats– Neutralizes acids in stomach– Contains minerals that help with digestion

B. Ruminants (polygastric)1. Anatomy

Advantages of ruminants:

• Advantages– Digest cellulose– Utilize NPN– Synthesize B vitamins

• Disadvantages– Less efficient for low fiber feeds– Digestive upsets– Large fermentation vat to carry around

2. Energy Digestion

GlucoseBody stores

Production

VFA’s

Some by-pass

CO 2 +

Met

hane

Feeds

VFA’sin blood stream

Glucose

VFA’s

Milk fat

Acetic acid

3. Protein Digestion

Urea

energyHigh

quality

By-pass protein

a.a

S.I.

60% of protein broken down in rumen

+ NPNNH 3

(CO(NH2)2)

C. Avian – Poultry Holds feed – some breakdown

Little digestion – Vitamin K synthesized

Uric acid from kidneys added

Contains grit

HCL + pepsin

No teeth – breaks feed with beak and scratching

D. Equine – nonruminant herbivore1. Anatomy

2. Digestive Disturbances in Horsesa. Colic (abdominal pain)

Signs Look at flank, kick belly, restless, violent rolling,

perspiration

Causes Over consumption of high fiber feed, not enough water,

gas produced from rapid fermentation of too much grain

Solutions Balance amount of fiber and grain, feed small amounts,

use laxative such as wheat bran

b. Founder • Over consumption of fermentable feeds such as

grains or early spring grass – lactic acid in blood causes inflammation in feet – causes extreme pain in feet and abnormal hoof growth. Laminitis is a less severe form of founder

Heaves – obstructive airway disease similar to human asthma.

• Allergic reaction to dust

in feed: develops as horses age and becomes chronic.

avoid feeding moldy

or dusty feeds and bedding

May have to feed pelleted ration and bed with paper

E. Cats have a few nutrition characteristics that make them different from other monogastrics:

1. Protein: Cats have the highest requirement for protein of all domesticated species. When cats were evolving, a high protein and fat diet was always available so cats never found it necessary to conserve proteins. Cats always "waste" some of the dietary protein by breaking it down for energy.

2. Taurine: (tor Rine) Cats require taurine because they cannot convert other amino acids into taurine. Taurine is important to prevent visual, cardiac and reproductive problems and is found naturally only in meat and fish, but now routinely made artificially.

3. Fats: Cats also require both linoleic and arachidonic acids to prevent skin and coat problems and poor reproduction. Arachidonic acid is found only in animal sources of fat.

4. Vitamins: Pre-formed vitamin A must also be present in the cat's diet. Dogs can break β-carotene into two molecules of vitamin A; cats cannot. Pre-formed vitamin A is also found only in animal tissues.

• Cats are also somewhat peculiar in their eating behavior. Cats will tend to eat and drink limited quantities on numerous occasions, consuming up to 16 small meals during a 24-hour period when fed on an ad lib basis. (source: http://www.aspca.org/site/PageServer?pagename=careforcats)

F. Foods to Avoid Feeding to Your Dog

• Alcoholic beverages • Avocado • Chocolate (all forms

of chocolate) • Coffee (all forms of

coffee) • Fatty foods • Macadamia nuts

• Moldy or spoiled foods

• Onions, onion powder• Raisins and grapes • Salt • Yeast dough • Garlic • Products sweetened

with xylitol

(source: http://www.aspca.org/site/PageServer?pagename=apcc_poisonsafe

Summary of Digestive Types Relative fiber digestionHerbivores Cattle 10 Sheep 10 Goats 9 Horses 9 Rabbits 4Omnivores Pigs 5 Poultry Geese 2 Ducks 2 Chickens 1 Humans 0 Dogs 0Carnivores Cats 0

Puggy, a Pekingese in Texas with a 4.5-inch tongue, has been named in the Guinness Book of World Records as the dog with the longest tongue.

VIII. CONVERSIONS, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES

English Metric

oz = ounce (16 oz/lb) g = grams (454 g/lb)

lb = pound (2.2 lbs/kg) kg = kilogram = 1000 g

ton = 2000 lbs mg = milligram = .001 g

bu = bushel; volumetric measure for grain

µg = microgram = .001 mg

oats = 32 lbs/bu ppm = .0001%

corn = 56 lbs/bu % = 10,000 ppm

wheat = 60 lbs/bu 1 mg = 1000 micrograms (µg)

barley = 48 lbs/bu

soybeans = 60 lbs/bu

1. Example Ration for Early Lactation/High Production Group

Alfalfa hay 14.0 lbs

Corn silage 14.0 lbs 50-60% roughage

Corn 13.0 lbs energy

Soybean meal, 44% 8.0 lbs protein

Fat 1.0 lb energy

Dicalcium phosphate 0.5 lb

Ground limestone 0.25 lb

Trace mineralized salt 0.25 lb

Mineral-vitamin mix 0.10 lb51.1 lb DM

Lbs. DM

Balanced for fiber, energy, protein, salt, calcium, phosphorus, vitamins ADE

2. Example Ration for young Calves – Pre-rumination Liquid milk replacer – primary source of nutrition for the first

4 to 6 weeks Grain starter diet:

Corn 50.0%

Oats 22.0%

Soybean meal 20.0%

Molasses 5.0%

Dicalcium phosphate 0.5%

Ground limestone 1.5%

Vitamin – TM premix 1.0%

Roughage is not need in a calves diet for rumen development.

B. Hog Diets

Corn 65-75%

SBM 20-30%

Salt

Ground Limestone

Dicalcium phosphate

Vitamin premix

TM premix

Baby pigs – lysine, methionine, dried skim milk, dried whey, fish meal,

spray dried porcine plasma (need animal proteins)

antiboitics

C. Poultry Diets

Corn and SBM based

Grit for gizzard

Salt

Ground limestone and Dical-Phos - 1.2 lbs. dietary CA required per dozen egg

TM premix, Vitamin premixCoccidiostat – prevents coccidiosis (protozoan parasite)

Layers – alfalfa meal (2-3%), xanthophyll (gives yellow pigmentation to yolk)

Broilers – 4% fat for faster growth

D. Sheep Diets

176 lb. Ewe

TDN (lb) CP (lb) Ca (g)

maintenance 1.6 .27 3.3

1st 15 weeks of pregnancy 1.8 .31 3.3

Last 4 weeks of gestation 2.9 .49 4.8

1st 8 weeks of lactation 4.3 .96 14.4

(suckling twins)

Finishing lambs daily requirements

Weight Crude Protein (lb)

66 .42

88 .41

110 .35

Complete diet for mature horses

Oats 44.5%

Corn 25.0%

Wheat bran 7.0%

Dehydrated alfalfa 10.0%

Molasses 12.0%

Limestone .5%

Salt .75%

Premix .25%

Horses only require 10% protein in the diet