annex a: food components - elsevierbooksite.elsevier.com/9780081019078/content/annexure_a.pdf ·...

Annex A: Food components

A.1 Structure of food macromolecules

This annex contains a summary of the chemical structures of the main macromole-

cules in foods, the properties, functions and sources of vitamins and minerals, and

examples of functional components of foods. More detailed information may be

found in food chemistry texts (e.g. Belitz et al., 2009; Damodaran et al., 2007) and

nutrition texts (e.g. Webster-Gandy et al., 2011; Gibney et al., 2009).

A.1.1 Carbohydrates

A.1.1.1 Sugars

Sugars may be single molecules, known as ‘monosaccharides’, which can be classi-

fied by the number of carbon atoms they contain: diose (2), triose (3), tetrose (4),

pentose (5), hexose (6), heptose (7). Two or three monosaccharides joined together

are termed ‘disaccharides’ and ‘trisaccharides’, respectively. ‘Oligosaccharides’

have up to 20 monosaccharides, joined by glycosidic bonds, and ‘polysaccharides’

are carbohydrates that contain more than 20 monosaccharides, joined by different

types of glycosidic bonds. Monosaccharides contain both hydroxyl groups and

carbonyl groups and are classified as ‘aldoses’ if the carbonyl group is an aldehyde

(e.g. pentose (five carbon atoms), or hexose (six carbon atoms)) or ‘ketoses’ if it is

a ketone (e.g. the corresponding five- and six-carbon molecules are pentulose, hexu-

lose). When the position of the aldehyde or ketone group on the molecule allows it

to react with oxidants (i.e. act as a reducing agent as, for example in Maillard reac-

tions), the sugar is known as a ‘reducing sugar’. Examples include glucose, fructose

and arabinose, and the disaccharides lactose and maltose, but not sucrose, which is

a nonreducing sugar. Reaction between the carbonyl and hydroxyl groups in the

molecule forms monosaccharides into a ring structure. Common types have five-

membered (furanose) rings or six-membered (pyranose) rings (Fig. A1).

In solution, sugars have an equilibrium mixture of open-chain and closed-ring

(or cyclic) structures. In the open-chain form, the carbon atom that has the C5O

bond is the carbonyl atom, whereas in the cyclic structure the carbonyl atom is

attached to the O of the ring and an OH group. Monosaccharides also contain ‘chi-

ral’ carbon atoms (atoms that can exist in two different spatial configurations that

are the mirror image of each other). Glucose is the most abundant aldose and the

two forms are D- and L-glucose, with the D-form occurring naturally in foods. Other

common naturally occurring monosaccharides are D-mannose, D-galactose and D-

xylose. The L-form is less common in nature, but two examples are L-arabinose and

L-galactose, which are units in polymeric carbohydrates. The only ketose found nat-

urally in foods is D-fructose (fruit sugar), which forms � 55% of high-fructose

corn syrup and � 40% of honey. Further details of the structure and orientation of

monosaccharide molecules are given by BeMiller and Whistler (1996) and the

important reactions of monosaccharides are described by Davis and Fairbanks

(2002).

A.1.1.2 Glycogen and starch

Glycogen is a branched glucose polymer that has glucose molecules linked by

α(1�4) glycosidic bonds. Starch occurs in two forms: (1) α-amylose, in which

500�20,000 D-glucose molecules are linked by α(1�4) glycosidic bonds

(Fig. A2A) in linear, helical chains; and (2) amylopectin, in which highly branched

chains of up to 30 glucose molecules are linked through α(1�4) bonds and con-

nected to each other through α(1�6) branch points. Amylopectin is therefore a

much larger molecule than amylose, typically containing 1�2 million residues,

with a mass that is four to five times that of amylose. Starch granules produce low-

viscosity pumpable slurries in cold water, and thicken due to gelatinisation when

heated to � 80�C. Details of starch gelatinisation are given by Maaruf et al. (2001),

Palav and Seetharaman (2006) and Xie et al. (2006).

A.1.1.3 Cellulose

Cellulose is composed of unbranched linear chains of 1000�10,000 D-glucose

molecules, linked together by β(1�4) glycosidic bonds (Fig. A2B). The linear struc-

ture promotes hydrogen bonding that holds together nearby cellulose molecules to

form a three-dimensional structure of microfibres, which in turn interact to form

cellulose fibres. A typical fibre contains � 500,000 cellulose molecules, and the

large number of hydrogen bonds creates a crystalline structure that has a high ten-

sile strength. As a result, cellulose is a stiff material that is used by plants as a

structural molecule to support leaves and stems. In contrast to other more amor-

phous polymeric carbohydrates, the crystalline structure also makes cellulose

CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH

HH

OHH

OH

HH

OH

H

OHOH

H

HO

O

O

OH

H

(A) (B)

Figure A1 Structure of (A) a furanose ring and (B) a pyranose ring.

e2 Annex A: Food components

insoluble and resistant to enzymic breakdown, a property that also makes cellulose

suitable as a packaging film (see Section 24.2.4). Additional details of the proper-

ties of cellulose are given by Chaplin (2014). Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) is

produced by the reaction of cellulose with chloroacetic acid to substitute polar car-

boxyl groups for hydroxyl groups. This makes the cellulose soluble and more chem-

ically reactive. The functional properties of CMC depend on how many hydroxyl

groups are involved in the substitution reaction and the chain length of the cellulose

backbone.

A.1.1.4 Polysaccharide gums

Hydrocolloids (Table A1) are linear or branched polysaccharides that increase vis-

cosity depending on the molecular weight, shape and flexibility of the hydrated

molecules. Also, the presence of electrically charged groups causes mutual repul-

sion of molecular chains that extends them to create higher viscosities (e.g. algi-

nates, carrageenans and xanthan gums). When they are used to form gels, the

polysaccharide molecules come out of solution to form a three-dimensional network

that is joined together by hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic van der Waals associa-

tions, ionic crosslinking or covalent bonding. Guar and locust bean (or carob) gums

CH2OH

H

HH

OH

H

OH

OH

Hn

O

CH2OH

H

HH

OH

OH

OH

H

O

CH2OH

CH2OH

beta (1→ 4) bondcellulose

H

HH

OH

OH

OH

OH

H

O

(A)

(B)

OCH2OH

O

O

CH2OH

alpha (1→ 4) bondstarch, glycogen

OCH2OH

O

O

Figure A2 Structure of polysaccharides: (A) α(1�4) bonds in starch and glycogen and

(B) β(1�4) glycosidic bonds in cellulose (n is the number of repeating glucose units).

e3Annex A: Food components

Table

A1Properties

ofaselectionofhydrocolloids

Hydrocolloid

pH

range

Solubility

at21� C

and65� C

Effectofion/salt

Gel

character

Acidstability

Alginates

Carrageenan

3.5�1

0Yes

Yes

Ca2

1required

forgel

Rigid/cutable/

cohesive/

thixotropic

Gelsat

pH

3.5

withcalcium

present

Kappa

4�1

0No

Yes

K1gels

Rigid/cutable

Cohesive/

thixotropic

Solutionsundergohydrolysisat

pH

3.5;gel

isstable

Iota

4�1

0No

Yes

Ca2

1gels

Lam

bda

4�1

0Yes

Yes

None

Carboxylmethylcellulose

(CMC)

4�1

0Yes

Yes

Decreases

viscosity

None

Stable

atpH

7�9

.Lower

viscosity

at

pH

5,precipitates

inmilk

(pH

,3;.6)

Gelatin

4.5�1

0Yes

Yes

None

Cutable/elastic

Stable

Gellangum

(tetra-saccharide-2

glucose1glucuronic

acid

and

rham

nose)

1�1

3No

Yes

Required

forgel

Rigid/cutable/

cohesive

Stable

inacid

conditions

Guar

gum

4�1

0Yes

Yes

None

None

Gradual

declineat

pH

3.5�1

0

Gum

Arabic

2�1

0Yes

Yes

None

None

Stable

Locustbeangum

4�1

0No

Yes

None

None(gelswith

xanthan

gum)

Stable

atpH

5�8

Micro-crystallinecellulose

(MCC)

3�1

0Yes

Yes

None

None

Insoluble

Methylcellulose

(MC)andhydroxypropyl

methylcellulose

(HPMC)

3�1

0Yes

No

None

Rigid/cutable

Stable

inacid

conditions

Pectins

2�7

No

Yes

HM

a;none

Rigid/cutable

Cohesive/

thixotropic

Stable

gelsform

edin

presence

of

sugar

andacid

orwithCa2

1LM

a;Ca2

1gels

Xanthan

1�1

3No

Yes

None

None(gelswith

locustbeangum)

Precipitationin

milk

(pH

,4.5)

aHighmethoxylandlow

methoxylpectins.

Source:

Adaptedfrom

Univar,2005.Hydrocolloids.Univar

USA

Inc.Available

at:,www.univar.com/en/Canada/Industries/Food-Ingredients.aspx.,select

‘Texture

modification’(lastaccessed

February2016);

BeM

iller,J.N.,Whistler,R.L.,1996.Carbohydrates.In:Fennem

a,O.R.(Ed.),FoodChem

istry,3rd

ed.MarcelDekker,New

York,pp.157�2

23.

are thickening agents, whose main component is a galactomannan consisting of a

chain of β-D-mannopyranosyl units joined by (1�4) bonds with α-D-galactopyrano-syl branches. Xanthan gum is composed of chains that are identical to cellulose, but

with trisaccharide side-chains of mannopyranosyl and glucuronopyranosyl units.

Carrageenans are a group of .100 types of sulphated galactans that are derived

from seaweed. The basic structure has chains of D-galactopyranosyl units that have

alternating (1�3)-α-D and (1�4)-β-D-glycosidic linkages with sulphate groups

esterified to the hydroxyl groups. The three basic types are named ‘kappa’, ‘iota’

and ‘lambda’, which form gels with potassium or calcium ions. Alginates are the

sodium salt of alginic acid, a polyuronic acid composed of units of β-D-mannopyra-

nosyluronic acid and α-DL-gulopyranosyluronic acid.Pectins are a group of poly-α-D-galactopyranosyluronic acids that have differing

amounts of methyl ester groups along the chains. High-methoxyl pectins have more

than half the carboxyl groups that methyl esters have, whereas low-methoxyl pec-

tins have less that half the carboxyl groups of methyl esters and form gels with cal-

cium ions. Gum arabic has two fractions: highly branched arabinogalactan chains

with side chains of galactopyranosyl units, and another fraction that has proteins as

an integral part of the structure.

A.1.2 Lipids

Lipids are mono-, di- and triesters of glycerol with fatty acids (monocarboxylic

acids). Glycerol is a trihydric alcohol (containing three hydroxyl (�OH) groups that

can combine with up to three fatty acids to form a wide variety of monoacylglycer-

ols, diacylglycerols or triacylglycerols) (Fig. A3). A monoacylglycerol has one fatty

acid unit per molecule of glycerol, which may be attached to carbon atom 1 or 2 on

the glycerol molecule; a diacylglycerol has two fatty acids as either the 1,2 form or

the 1,3 form depending on how they are attached to the glycerol molecule.

Triacylglycerols are the main constituents of vegetable oils and animal fats, and

(A) (B)

(C) (D)

CH3(CH2)7-C=C-(CH2)7-C-OH

CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7C(O)O-CH2

CH3(CH2)14C(O)O-CH2

CH3(CH2)14C(O)O-CH2

HO-CH

HO-CH

HO-CH2

||||

|

|

CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7C(O)O-CH2

CH3(CH2)14C(O)O-CH2

CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7C(O)O-CH|

|

OH H

Figure A3 Components of lipids: (A) oleic acid; (B) 1-monoacylglyceride;

(C) 1,3-diacylglyceride and (D) triacylglyceride.


their structure involves a chain of carbon atoms with a carboxyl group (�COOH) at

one end. The triacylglyceride structural formula (Fig. A3D showing olive oil) con-

sists of two radicals of oleic acid and one of palmitic acid attached to the glycerol

molecule (the vertical chain of carbon atoms). Saturated fatty acids (SFAs) have no

double bonds between the carbon atoms, monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs)

have only one double bond, and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) have more

than one double bond. Nawar (1996) has reviewed different forms of nomenclature

of lipids and in this book the common names for fats and fatty acids are normally

used (Table A2). The numbers at the beginning of the scientific names indicate the

locations of the double bonds. By convention, the carbon atom of the carboxyl

group is number one and Greek numbers such as ‘di, tri, tetra, penta, and hexa’ are

used to describe the length of carbon chains. For example, linoleic acid is 9,12-

octadecadienoic acid, which indicates that there is an 18-carbon atom chain (octa

deca) with two double bonds (di en) located at carbon atoms 9 and 12, with carbon

atom 1 being a carboxyl group (oic acid).

The structural formula corresponds to:

CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH5CHCH2CH5CHCH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2COOH

which can be abbreviated as

CH3ðCH2Þ4CH5CHCH2CH5CHðCH2Þ7COOH

Fatty acids can also be written as, for example C18:2, which indicates that the

fatty acid consists of an 18-carbon atom chain with two double bonds. Although

this could describe a number of possible fatty acids that have this chemical compo-

sition, in common use it shows the naturally occurring fatty acid (i.e. linoleic acid).

Double bonds are ‘conjugated’ when they are separated from each other by one

single bond (e.g. �CH5CH�CH5CH�) so 9,11-conjugated linoleic acid has the

formula:

CH3ðCH2Þ5CH5CH2CH5CHðCH2Þ7COOH

‘Configurational isomers’ are described by Latin prefixes ‘cis’ (on the same

side) and ‘trans’ (on the other side) to indicate the orientation of hydrogen atoms to

the double bond. Naturally occurring fatty acids mostly have the cis-configuration.

Fats crystallise below their melting point in a two-stage process: nucleation fol-

lowed by crystal growth. Details of this process in relation to water are described

in Section 22.1.1, but fats also crystallise in a similar way. The size and shape of

crystals depends on the temperature but are also influenced by minor components

in the oil (e.g., free fatty acids) and by stirring. Lipids can also be polymorphic;

adopting different crystal morphologies and changing from one form to another

without melting. These transformations take place to produce the more

stable forms of the crystals. The factors that determine the type of polymorphic


Table

A2Chem

icalnames

anddescriptionsofsomecommonfattyacids

Chem

icalnames

anddescriptionsofsomecommonfattyacids

Commonname

Carbonatoms

Double

bonds

Scientificname

Sources

Butyricacid

40

Butanoic

acid

Butterfat

Caproic

acid

60

Hexanoic

acid

Butterfat

Caprylicacid

80

Octanoic

acid

Coconutoil

Capricacid

10

0Decanoic

acid

Coconutoil

Lauricacid

12

0Dodecanoic

acid

Coconutoil

Myristic

acid

14

0Tetradecanoic

acid

Palm

kernel

oil

Palmitic

acid

16

0Hexadecanoic

acid

Palm

oil

Palmitoleic

acid

16

19-H

exadecenoic

acid

Anim

alfats

Stearic

acid

18

0Octadecanoic

acid

Anim

alfats

Oleic

acid

18

19-O

ctadecenoic

acid

Oliveoil

Ricinoleic

acid

18

112-H

ydroxy-9-octadecenoic

acid

Castoroil

Vaccenic

acid

18

111-O

ctadecenoic

acid

Butterfat

Linoleic

acid

18

29,12-O

ctadecadienoic

acid

Grapeseed

oil

α-Linolenic

acid

(ALA)

18

39,12,15-O

ctadecatrienoic

acid

Flaxseed

(linseed)oil

γ-Linolenic

acid

(GLA)

18

36,9,12-O

ctadecatrienoic

acid

Borageoil

Arachidic

acid

20

0Eicosanoic

acid

Peanutoil,fish

oil

Gadoleic

acid

20

19-Eicosenoic

acid

Fishoil

Arachidonic

acid

(AA)

20

45,8,11,14-Eicosatetraenoic

acid

Liver

fats

EPA

20

55,8,11,14,17-Eicosapentaenoic

acid

Fishoil

Behenic

acid

22

0Docosanoic

acid

Rapeseed(canola)oil

Erucicacid

22

113-D

ocosenoic

acid

Rapeseedoil

DHA

22

64,7,10,13,16,19-D

ocosahexaenoic

acid

Fishoil

Lignocericacid

24

0Tetracosanoic

acid

Smallam

ountsin

mostfats

Source:

From

Zam

ora,A.,2016.Fats,Oils,Fatty

Acids,Triglycerides.Available

at:,www.scientificpsychic.com/fitness/fattyacids.htm

l.(lastaccessed

February2016).

form include temperature and rate of cooling, the purity of the oil and the pres-

ence of crystalline nucleii. Details of polymorphism in cocoa butter used in choc-

olate manufacture are given in Section 5.3.1. Greek letters (α to ω) are used to

identify the location of the double bonds, with the α-carbon atom being closest to

the carboxyl group (carbon atom 2), and the ω-carbon atom being the last in the

chain. Using the example of linoleic acid, this is an ω6 fatty acid because it has a

double bond that is six carbon atoms away from the ω carbon atom. Similarly,

α-linolenic acid is an ω3 fatty acid because it has a double bond three carbon

atoms away from the ω carbon atom (Fig. A4). The classification can be found by

subtracting the highest double-bond location in the scientific name from the num-

ber of carbon atoms in the fatty acid chain. Crops are bred to contain high levels

of monounsaturated or polyunsaturated fatty acids (e.g. oleic types of safflower

oil have � 78% monounsaturated, 15% polyunsaturated, and 7% saturated fatty

acids) (Table A3; see also Section 18.3).

A.1.2.1 Phospholipids

Phospholipids, including lecithin and cephalin, are natural emulsifiers that consist

of an alcohol, such as glycerol, fatty acids and a phosphoric acid compound.

Lecithin has a mixture of diacylglycerides of stearic, palmitic and oleic acids that

are linked to the choline ester of phosphoric acid. Phospholipids are present in cell

walls and other membranes where the fatty acid tails are oriented toward each other

and the phosphate groups form the outer surfaces of the membrane. These semiper-

meable bilipid layers regulate the type of molecules that can pass through the

membrane.

A.1.3 Amino acids and proteins

Amino acids are the units from which proteins are formed. An amino acid consists

of a central (α) carbon atom to which are bound an amino (NH2) group, a hydrogen

atom, a carboxyl (COOH) group and a side chain (R). Each amino acid has a simi-

lar, yet unique structure. The different side chains vary in their complexity and

(A)

(B)

1215ω 9

12 9

ω

1COOH

1COOH

Linoleic acid (omega-6)

Alpha-linoleic acid (omega-3)

Figure A4 Structure of (A) linoleic acid and (B) α-linolenic acid.


Table

A3Fattyacidcompositionofsomecommonedible

fats

andoils

Oilorfat

Ratio:

unsaturated/

saturated

Per

centbyweightoftotalfattyacids

Saturated

Monounsaturated

Polyunsaturated

Capric

acid

C10:0

Lauric

acid

C12:0

Myristic

acid

C14:0

Palm

itic

acid

C16:0

Stearic

acid

C18:0

Oleic

acidC18:1

Linoleic

acid(ω

6)

C18:2

α-linolenic

acid(ω

3)

C18:3

Alm

ond

9.7

��

�7

269

17

�Beeftallow

0.9

��

324

19

43

31

Butterfat(cow)

0.5

33

11

27

12

29

21

Cocoabutter

0.6

��

�25

38

32

3�

Coconut

0.1

647

18

93

62

�Codliver

2.9

��

817

�22

5�

Cottonseed

2.8

��

122

319

54

1

Flaxseed

9.0

��

�3

721

16

53

Grapeseed

7.3

��

�8

415

73

�Lard(pork

fat)

1.2

��

226

14

44

10

�Maize

(corn)

6.7

��

�11

228

58

1

Olive

4.6

��

�13

371

10

1

Palm

1.0

��

145

440

10

�Palm

kernel

0.2

448

16

83

15

2�

Palmolein

1.3

��

137

446

11

�Peanut(groundnut)

4.0

��

�11

248

32

�Rapeseed

15.7

��

�4

262

22

10

Safflower

a10.1

��

�7

213

78

�Sesam

e6.6

��

�9

441

45

�Soybean

5.7

��

�11

424

54

7

Sunflower

a7.3

��

�7

519

68

1

Walnut

5.3

��

�11

528

51

5

Palm

olein

istheliquid

oilobtained

byfractionationofpalm

oilaftercrystallisationat

controlled

temperatures.

Note:Thereisconsiderablevariationin

compositionbetweenvarieties

ofcropsoranim

als.Averagevalues

areused.Percentages

may

notequal100%

dueto

roundingandother

constituentsnotlisted.

aNothigh-oleic

variety.

Source:

Adaptedfrom

Zam

ora,A.,2016.Fats,Oils,Fatty

Acids,Triglycerides.Available

at:,www.scientificpsychic.com/fitness/fattyacids.htm

l.(lastaccessed

February2016).

properties and produce amino acids that have different physicochemical properties.

Amino acids can be classified by the chemical nature of the side chains into two

groups: polar (or hydrophilic) side chains that interact with water; and nonpolar (or

hydrophobic) types that do not react with water. Polar amino acids are: arginine,

asparagine, aspartic acid (or aspartate), glutamine, glutamic acid (or glutamate), his-

tidine, lysine, serine and threonine. Nonpolar amino acids are: alanine, cysteine,

glycine, isoleucine, leucine, methionine, phenylalanine, proline, tryptophan, tyro-

sine and valine. Amino acids can also be grouped into those that have ionisable

side chains (e.g. arginine, aspartate, cysteine, glutamate, histidine, lysine and tyro-

sine). These amino acids contribute to the charge exhibited by peptides and pro-

teins. Both the amino group and the carboxyl group of each amino acid are

ionisable and the acid dissociation constants (pKa values, see Section 1.1.3) of

amino acid side chains are important for the activity of enzymes and the stability of

proteins. This is because ionisation alters their physical properties such as solubility

and lipophilicity. At physiological pH, amino acids exist as ‘zwitterions’ that have

a negatively charged carboxyl group and a positively charged amino group.

Examples of pKa values of amino acid side chains are given in Table A4. The

α-carbon of amino acids is chiral, which produces two optically active forms, desig-

nated D- and L-forms. The L-forms are most common, although some peptides con-

tain both D- and L-amino acids. Proteins are also chiral and consist of only L-amino

acids, which is important in understanding their function (e.g. some enzymes bind

one stereoisomer of a compound with a thousand times greater affinity than the

other). A covalent peptide bond is formed by dehydration between the carbon atom

in the carboxyl group of one amino acid to the nitrogen atom of the amino group of

another amino acid (Fig. A5).

Peptides are formed by linking amino acids via amide bonds. Amides are made

by condensing together a carboxylic acid and an amine. Peptides that contain ,25

amino acids are ‘oligopeptides’ and longer peptides are ‘polypeptides’. Peptides

have a polarity, with a free amino group on the amino-terminal residue and a free

carboxyl group on the carboxyl-terminal residue (Fig. A6), both of which are ioni-

sable groups. There may also be ionisable groups in the side chains of some amino

acids. The overall charge on a peptide (or protein) is the sum of the charges of each

Table A4 Examples of acid dissociation constants of amino acidside chains

Amino acid pKa Functional group

Arginine 12.0 Guanidinium

Aspartate and glutamate 4.4 Carboxyl

Cysteine 8.5 Sulphydryl

Histidine 6.5 Imidazole

Lysine 10.0 Amine

Tyrosine 10.0 Phenol

Source: Adapted from Gorga, F.R., 2007. Introduction to protein structure. Available at: ,http://webhost.bridgew.edu/fgorga/proteins/default.htm. (last accessed February 2016).


ionisable group, and depends on its amino acid content and the pH of the solution.

When the pH of a solution equals the pKa of an ionisable group, the group exists as

an equal mixture of its acidic form and the conjugate base. The pH at which a zwit-

terion is neutral is known as the ‘isoelectric point’. If the pH is less than the pKa,

(A)

(B)

R1 OH

O

Cα C

H

H2N

R1 H

Cα

C

O O

NH NHCH C

R

C N

H O

H2N

R2 OH

O

Cα C

H

R2 OH

O

Cα C

H

peptide bond

H2N+

H2O+

rotationrestricted

rotationpossible

Figure A5 (A) Formation of a peptide bond between two amino acid residues and

(B) rotation of peptide bond.

NH2 – CH – C – NH – CH – C – NH – CH – C – NH – CH – C – OH

O

R1 R2 R3 R4

O O O

amino-terminalor

N-terminalresidue

carboxy-terminalor

C-terminalresidue

Figure A6 A tetrapeptide showing a free amino group on the amino-terminal residue and

free carboxyl group on the carboxyl-terminal residue of an amino acid.


the acid form predominates, whereas a pH greater than the pKa enables the base to

predominate. The further the pH is from the pKa the more unbalanced are the acid

and base groups.

A protein has a series of amino acid residues linked by peptide bonds, with a

‘backbone’ made up by the repeated sequence of three atoms of each amino acid

residue (the amide N, the α carbon and the carbonyl carbon). Because the bond

between the carbonyl carbon and the nitrogen is a partial double bond, rotation

around this bond is restricted and the peptide unit has a rigid structure (Fig. A5).

Rotation in the peptide backbone is restricted to bonds involving the α-carbon and

the chain can rotate to create three-dimensional structures in proteins. There are

four levels of structure that can be described as:

1. Primary structure (the sequence of amino acid residues in the polypeptide chain, which is

determined by the gene that encodes it)

2. Secondary structure (formed by hydrogen bonds between backbone atoms in a chain, pro-

ducing two types of stable structures: α-helices and β-sheets)3. Tertiary structure (the arrangement of α-helices, β-sheets and random coils along a poly-

peptide chain. The polypeptide folds so that the side chains of nonpolar amino acids are

within the structure and the side chains of polar residues are exposed on the outer surface.

The tertiary structure of some proteins is stabilised by disulphide bonds between cysteine

residues)

4. Quaternary structure (the spatial organisation of chains if there are more than one poly-

peptide chain in a complex protein). Not all proteins show a quaternary structure and in

many the polypeptides fold independently into a stable tertiary structure with the folded

units associating with each other to form the final structure. In contrast, quaternary struc-

tures are stabilised by noncovalent interactions including hydrogen bonding, van der

Walls interactions and ionic bonding. These intricate three-dimensional structures are

unique to each protein and it is these that allow proteins to function. Most globular pro-

teins consist of a core composed mainly of hydrophobic residues surrounded by a skin of

mainly hydrophilic residues. Disulphide bonds are formed by the oxidation of thiol (�SH)

groups in cysteine residues (Fig. A7) and they can occur within a single polypeptide chain

where they stabilise the tertiary structures, or between two chains, where they stabilise

quaternary structures.

HS

“H2”-

SH

S S

Figure A7 Disulphide bond formation.


The wide variety of protein configurations is due to the large number of different

sequences of amino acid residues, which by convention is written with the amino

terminus on the left and the carboxyl terminus on the right. Amino acid sequences

can be written using either a three-letter code or a one-letter code (see Table 1.8).

For example, the code for a small eight-residue peptide is written as:

Asp�Ile�Glu�Phe�Arg�Val�Leu�His. de Jongh and Broersen (2012) review

the different types of protein modification including phosphorylation (attachment of

phosphate to serine, tyrosine or threonine), methylation (attachment of a methyl

group to arginine or the N-terminus of the protein), glycosylation (attachment of

carbohydrates to lysine or the N-terminus) and acetylation (attachment of acetyl to

an amino group such as lysine or the N-terminus).

A.2 Vitamins and minerals

Tables A5 and A6 give a summary of the properties, functions and sources of vita-

mins and minerals.

Arsenic is essential in trace amounts; its deficiency depresses growth and impairs

reproduction. Boron may affect the metabolism of calcium and magnesium, mem-

brane function and prevents some forms of cardiovascular disease. Its deficiency is

linked to osteoporosis and arthritis and may be related to vitamin D production.

Chlorine is essential in maintaining cellular fluid and electrolyte balances and its

deficiency can cause hair and tooth loss, poor muscular contraction and impaired

digestion. Cobalt is an integral part of vitamin B12 and deficiency may lead to per-

nicious anaemia, retarded growth and nervous disorders. Fluorine is incorporated

into bones and teeth and may increase the deposition of calcium. However, at high

levels, it is toxic and has adverse effects on many enzyme systems. Gallium con-

trols brain chemistry and may have antitumour activity. Lithium controls aggres-

siveness. Silicon is needed for production of connective tissues (tendons, cartilage,

blood vessels, nails, skin and hair) and with calcium to makes bones. Tin supports

hair growth and can enhance reflexes. Deficiency symptoms include baldness,

reduced response to loud noises and reduced haemoglobin synthesis. Vanadium is

required for development of bones, cartilage and teeth and for cellular metabolism.

Deficiency may be linked to reproductive problems and kidney disease.

Lanthanum, praeseodymium, neodymium, thulium, samarium, europium and ytter-

bium are each involved in enhanced cell growth and extended lifespan.

A.3 Functional components of foods

Table A7 shows examples of the sources and potential benefits of selected func-

tional components of foods.


Table

A5Nature,properties,functionsandsources

ofvitamins

Vitamin

Nature,properties

andfunctions

Main

sources

Deficiency

diseases

Water-soluble

vitamins

Vitam

inC

(ascorbic

acid)

Occurs

asboth

ascorbic

acid

and

dehydroascorbic

acid.A

major

functionissynthesisof

hydroxyproline,acomponentof

collagen

andconnectivetissues.

Essential

forgrowth

ofcartilage,

bones,teethandforwoundhealing.It

isan

antioxidant,helpsabsorb

iron

andmaintain

healthytissues

Nearlyallfreshfruitsandvegetables,

especiallyberries,citrusfruits,green

vegetables,tomatoes

andleafygreen

vegetables

Scurvy,anaemia,capillary

wallrupture/

bruising,nosebleeds,bleedinggums,

low

infectionresistance,muscle

degeneration,poordigestion,

weakened

cartilages

andslow-healing

wounds

Thiamine

(vitam

inB1)

Thiaminepyrophosphateisacoenzyme

forseveral

enzymes

involved

in

decarboxylationreactions(e.g.

decarboxylationofpyruvate)

for

metabolism

ofcarbohydratesinto

energy.Essential

forcorrectheart

functionandhealthynervecells

Meats,dairy

products,leafygreen

vegetables,grainsandlegumes

Polyneuritis,encephalopathy,infantile

beriberi,oedem

a,abdominal

pain,

problemswithmuscle

tonein

the

gastrointestinal

tract,vomiting,

nervoussystem

disorders,seizures,

palpitations,tachycardia,circulatory

collapse,andim

munesystem

problems

Riboflavin

(vitam

inB2)

Precursorto

thecoenzymes

flavin

adeninedinucleotide(FAD)and

flavin

mononucleotide(FMN),which

arehydrogen

carriers

inanumber

of

oxidation�r

eductionreactionswithin

mitochondria.Im

portantforbody

growth

andproductionofredblood

cells

Widevariety

offoods,includingmilk,

meatsandgrains

Ariboflavinosiswithsimilaritiesto

niacindeficiency

(sore

throat

with

swellingofthemouth

andthroat

mucosa,crackingoflipsandmouth,

moistscalyskin,anddecreased

red

bloodcellcountwithnorm

alcellsize

andhaemoglobin

content)

Niacin

(nicotinam

ide)

Precursorto

thecoenzymes

nicotinam

ideadeninedinucleotide

(NAD)andnicotinam

ideadenine

dinucleotidephosphate(N

ADPH),

whicharehydrogen

carriers

in

processes

such

asglycolysis,Kreb’s

cycleandoxidativephosphorylation.

Cholesterol-loweringeffects

Meats,fish,dairy

products,leafygreen

vegetables,potatoes

andnuts.Can

be

synthesised

inthebodyin

small

amountsfrom

tryptophan

Pellagra,whichaffectstheskin,central

nervoussystem

andgastrointestinal

tract(dem

entia,dermatitisand

diarrhoea)

Pyridoxine

(Vitam

inB6)

Occurs

inthreeform

s:pyridoxine,

pyridoxal

andpyridoxam

ine.The

precursorto

pyridoxal

phosphate,a

coenzymeforseveral

reactions

involvingprotein

metabolism

,

includingtransaminationreactions

necessary

forsynthesisofam

ino

acids.Helpsform

redbloodcellsand

maintain

brain

function

Pyridoxal

andpyridoxam

inein

meat,

milk,fish

andpoultry,and

pyridoxine,pyridoxal

inanumber

of

vegetablesincludingpotatoes

and

tomatoes

Deficiency

isuncommonin

adults.In

infants:dermatitis,abdominal

pain,

vomiting,ataxia

andseizures

Pantothenic

acid

Theprecursorto

coenzymeA,an

enzymecritical

totheoxidationand/

orsynthesisofcarbohydratesand

fattyacidsduringmetabolism

.Plays

arole

intheproductionofhorm

ones

andcholesterol

Avariety

offoods,includinggrains,

brassicas,legumes,eggyolk,fish,

yeastandmeat.Alsosynthesised

by

intestinal

bacteria

Veryrare

andhas

beenobserved

only

in

casesofseveremalnutrition

Biotin

Functionsas

acoenzymeforseveral

enzymes

that

catalyse

carboxylation,

decarboxylationanddeamination

reactions(e.g.pyruvatecarboxylase

intheKreb’s

cycle)

forthe

metabolism

ofproteinsand

carbohydrates,andin

theproduction

ofhorm

ones

andcholesterol

Eggyolk,legumes,nuts,potatoes

and

liver.Alsosynthesised

byintestinal

bacteria

Rarely,ifever,occurs

inindividuals

whoconsumearegulardietbut

includes

severedermatitis,loss

of

hair,andlack

ofmuscular

coordination

(Continued)

Table

A5(C

ontinued)

Vitamin

Nature,properties

andfunctions

Main

sources

Deficiency

diseases

Cyanocobalam

in

(vitam

inB12)

Acobalt-containingcoenzymeinvolved

innumerousmetabolicpathways.

Importantformetabolism

andhelps

form

redbloodcellsandmaintain

the

central

nervoussystem

Anim

alproducts:meat,cheese,fish

and

seafood,eggs,kidney,liver,milkand

milkproducts,(essentially

absent

from

plantproducts),microbial

synthesis

Defectin

redbloodcellform

ation

(perniciousanaemia),dim

inished

reflex

responses,mem

ory

impairm

ent,hallucinations,muscle

weakness,problemswithdigestion,

absorptionandmetabolism

of

carbohydratesandfats,im

paired

fertility,growth

anddevelopment

Folicacid

(folate)

Occurs

invariousform

sexpressed

as

pteroglutamic

equivalents.A

coenzymein

thesynthesisofseveral

aminoacids,as

wellas

DNA

purines

andthymine.Required

forenergy

production,protein

metabolism

,

form

ationofredbloodcellsandvital

fornorm

algrowth

anddevelopment

Beans,pulses,meats,organ

meats,bran,

cheese,chicken,dates,dark-green

green

leafyvegetables,milk,oranges,

rootvegetablesfish,whole

grains,

yeast,eggs.Alsosynthesised

by

intestinal

bacteria

Depression,anxiety,fatigue,growth

failure

andanaemia

andbirth

defects

(e.g.spinabifida)

inpregnantwomen

Fat-soluble

vitamins

Vitam

inA(retinol)

Required

forarangeoffunctions,

includingproductionofvision

pigments,resistance

toinfectious

agents,maintenance

ofepithelialcells

insofttissue,mucousmem

branes,

andskin,form

ationandmaintenance

ofhealthyteethandbones.Disease

resultsfrom

both

deficiency

and

excess

Anim

altissues,especiallyfish,liver

and

dairy

products.Transβ-carotenein

green

plantsandyellow

fruitsand

vegetablescanbeconvertedto

vitam

inA

followingingestion

Itchingandburningeyes,eyesties,

nightblindness,blindness,dry

hairor

skin,allergies,loss

ofappetite,loss

ofsm

ell,fatigue,insomnia,im

paired

growth,steroid

synthesisreduction;

decreased

immunesystem

function,

cancersusceptibility

Vitam

inD

(cholecalciferol)

Asteroid

horm

onethat

facilitates

absorptionofcalcium

from

the

intestine,andin

maintainingblood

calcium

homoeostasisandforhealthy

teethandbones.Receptors

are

presentin

mostcellsanditmay

have

manyadditional

effects

Synthesised

intheskin

when

exposedto

UV

light.Alsopresentat

low

concentrationsin

somefoods(fish,

eggs,dairy

products,oatmeal,sw

eet

potatoes),andadded

asergocalciferol

infortifiedfoods(e.g.margarine)

Brittle,softandfragilebones

(osteoporosisandosteopenia)or

teeth,rickets,hypocalcem

ia,poor

metabolism

,diarrhoea,insomnia,

irregularheartbeat,myopia,

nervousness,paleskin,sensitivityto

pain

Vitam

inE

(tocopherol)

Agroupofeightcompounds�

four

tocopherolsandfourtocotrienols,

each

havingadifferentpotency

expressed

asα-tocopherol

equivalents.Functionas

antioxidants,

particularlyto

preventoxidationof

unsaturatedfattyacidsandmaintain

theintegrity

ofcellmem

branes.A

role

inredbloodcellform

ationand

use

ofvitam

inK

Vegetable

oils,herring,whole

grains/

unrefined

cereals,wheatgerm,

oatmeal,darkleafygreen

vegetables,

nuts,eggs,milk,organ

meats,sw

eet

potatoes,soybeans

Enlarged

prostategland,gastrointestinal

disease,hairloss,im

potency

or

sterility,miscarriages,muscular

wasting,orweakness,reduced

circulation,slow

tissuehealing,

increasedsusceptibilityto

cancer,

cardiovasculardisease

andcataracts

Vitam

inK

Necessary

forform

ationofseveral

blood-clottingfactors.Essential

role

inbloodclottingandboneform

ation

Darkgreen

leafyvegetables,soybeans,

eggyolks,liver,oatmeal,rye,and

wheat,majority

synthesised

by

bacteriain

largeintestine

Brittle

orfragilebones

(osteoporosis),

low

bloodplateletcountandpoor

bloodclotting,highbloodglucose

levels

Source:

Adaptedfrom

Bowen,R.,2003.Vitam

ins:introduction.Available

at:,www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/misc_topics/vitam

ins.htm

l.(lastaccessed

February2016);McG

ee,W.,

2007.Vitam

ins,Medical

Encyclopedia.Available

at:,www.nlm

.nih.gov/m

edlineplus/ency/article/002399.htm

.(lastaccessed

February2016);Higdon,J.,2004.Pantothenic

Acid.Micronutrient

Inform

ationCentre,

LinusPaulingInstitute.Available

at:,http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/m

ic/vitam

ins/pa/or/biotin.

(lastaccessed

February2016).

Table

A6Properties,functionsandsources

ofminerals

Mineral

Properties

andfunctions

Main

sources

Actionin

foods

Deficiency

diseases

Calcium

Maintainingbloodelectrolyte

balance,structure

and

rigidityofbones

andteeth;

itisinvolved

inblood

clotting,transm

issionof

impulses

from

nerves

to

muscles,regulationofthe

parathyroid

glandand

heartbeat,andfunctioning

ofmuscles,skin,softtissues

andcirculatory,digestive,

enzymatic

andim

mune

system

s.Vitam

inD

is

essential

forcalcium

absorptionandutilisation

Dairy

products,molasses,

nuts,cereals,fruits,tofu,

seafoods,green

leafy

vegetables,seaw

eeds

Texture

modifier:Form

sgels

withnegativelycharged

macromoleculessuch

as

alginates,low-m

ethoxyl

pectins,soyproteins,

caseins,etc.Firmscanned

vegetableswhen

added

to

canningbrine

Eczem

a,fragilebones,heart

palpitations,hypertension,

muscle

cram

ps,

osteomalacia,osteoporosis,

osteopenia,periodontal

disease,rickets,tooth

decay,

slowed

nerveim

pulse

response,decreased

muscle

growth,arthritis

Chromium

Essential

forabsorptionand

metabolism

ofglucose

for

energyproductionand

synthesisofcholesterol,fats

andprotein.Itappears

to

increase

theeffectivenessof

insulinanditsabilityto

regulate

bloodsugar

levels.

Itmay

also

beinvolved

in

protein

synthesis.Correct

functioningofadrenal

glands,brain,blood

circulatory

system

,heart,

immunesystem

,liver

and

whitebloodcells

Fruits,black

pepper,calves’

liver,meat,whole

grains,

maize

andmaize

oil,dairy

products,mushrooms,

potatoes,beer,oysters,

legumes

�Incorrectam

inoacid

metabolism

,increased

serum

cholesterol,myopia,

protein/caloriemalnutrition,

susceptibilityto

infection,

lowered

orescalatedblood

sugar

levels,coronaryartery

disease

Copper

Anumber

ofproteinsand

enzymes

contain

copper,

someofwhichareessential

fortheutilisationofiron.It

isinvolved

inprotein

metabolism

,respiration,

healingprocesses,

maintenance

ofhaircolour,

andform

ationofmyelin

sheathsthat

protect

nerve

fibres,anditisablood

antioxidant.Itcombines

withzincandvitam

inCto

form

elastinandform

ation

ofbones

andredbloodcells

Avocado,barley,cauliflower,

nuts,lamb,oranges,organ

meats,raisins,salm

onand

seafood(oysters),legumes,

green

leafyvegetables,

soybeans

Catalystforlipid

peroxidation,ascorbic

acid

oxidation,nonenzymatic

oxidativebrowning.Colour

modifier:May

cause

black

discolorationin

canned,

curedmeats.Enzyme

cofactorfor

polyphenoloxidase

Elevated

serum

cholesterol,

fracturesandbone

deform

ities,osteoporosis,

impairedrespiration,skin

sores,slowed

healing

processes,poorhairand

skin

colouring,loss

intaste

sensitivity

Texture

stabiliser:Stabilises

egg-w

hitefoam

s

Iodine

Trace

amountsarerequired

for

correctfunctioningof

immunesystem

,brain

and

thyroid

glandwhich

regulatesthebody’s

productionofenergyand

metabolicrate.Itis

involved

inconversionof

caroteneto

vitam

inA,

protein

synthesisand

synthesisofcholesterol

Iodised

salts,seafood,

seaw

eeds,asparagus,fish,

garlic,beans,mushrooms,

sesameseeds,soybeans,

spinach

KIO

3isadoughim

prover,

improves

bakingqualityof

wheatflour

Thyroid

dysfunction,goitre

(enlarged

thyroid)and

hypothyroidism,leadingto

slowed

mentalandphysical

development

Iron

Required

forproductionof

haemoglobin

and

myoglobin,someenzymes,

oxygenationofredblood

cells,healthygrowth

and

resistance

todisease,

Liver,redmeat,darkgreen

leafyvegetables,eggs,

seafood,fish,brewer’s

yeast,dates,legumes,

peaches,pears,pumpkins,

raisins,rice

andwheat

CatalystforFe2

1andFe3

1

andlipid

peroxidationin

foods.Colourmodifier�

colouroffreshmeat

dependsonvalence

ofFein

myoglobin

and

Iron-deficiency

anaemia,

breathingdifficulties,brittle

nails,hairloss,dizziness,

constipation

(Continued)

Table

A6(C

ontinued)

Mineral

Properties

andfunctions

Main

sources

Actionin

foods

Deficiency

diseases

healthyim

munesystem

and

energy

bran,sesameseedsand

soybeans

haemoglobin:Fe2

1isred,

Fe3

1isbrown.Form

s

green,blueorblack

complexes

with

polyphenoliccompounds.

ReactswithS22to

form

black

FeS

incanned

foods.

Enzymecofactor:

Lipoxygenase,

cytochromes,

ribonucleotidereductase

Magnesium

Essential

forenzymeactivity

andprotein

synthesis,assists

incalcium

andpotassium

uptaketo

maintain

blood

electrolyte

balance,

importantrole

inbone

form

ation,carbohydrate

and

mineral

metabolism

,

functioningofarteries,

bones,cells,digestive,

immuneandreproductive

system

s,heart,nerves,and

teeth.Extracellular

magnesium

iscritical

for

maintainingelectrical

potentialsofnerveand

muscle

mem

branes

andfor

Mostfoods,especiallydairy

products,fruits,fish,meat,

seafood,garlic,limabeans,

sesameseeds,tofu,green

leafyvegetables,whole

grains

Colourmodifier�

removal

of

Mgfrom

chlorophyll

changes

colourfrom

green

toolive-brown

Decreased

bloodpressure

and

bodytemperature,coronary

heartdisease,interference

withtransm

issionofnerve

andmuscle

impulses

causes

disorientation,hyperactivity,

noisesensitivity,insomnia,

muscle

weaknessor

trem

ors;disruptionofpH

balance,calcium

depositsin

kidneys,bloodvesselsand

heart,digestivedisorders

andmanyother

symptoms

transm

issionofnerve

impulses

tomuscles.Use

of

diuretics,laxatives,

vomitinganddiarrhoea

can

significantlycontribute

to

magnesium

requirem

ent

Manganese

Anantioxidant,activates

enzymes

andhas

rolesin

protein,carbohydrate

and

fatmetabolism

,bloodsugar

regulation,healthynerves

andim

munesystem

,sex

horm

oneproduction,

skeletal

development

Whole

grains,fruits,

vegetables

Enzymecofactor:pyruvate

carboxylase,superoxide

dismutase

Poorreproductive

perform

ance,growth

retardationandcongenital

malform

ations,abnorm

al

form

ationofboneand

cartilageandim

paired

glucose

tolerance

Molybdenum

Essential

forseveral

metabolic

enzymes

foroxidationof

fatsandmetabolism

of

calcium,magnesium,copper

andnitrogen.Itmay

also

be

anantioxidant

Plantfoods

�Im

pairedreproductionand

weightgain,increasedrate

ofheartbeatandbreathing,

visual

problemsand

shortened

life

expectancy

Nickel

Activatorforsomeenzymes

andinvolved

inhorm

one

andlipid

metabolism

and

cellmem

braneintegrity

Plantfoods

Catalystforhydrogenationof

vegetable

oils�

finely

divided,elem

entalNiis

mostwidelyusedforthis

process

Reducedgrowth,im

paired

liver

function,changes

in

skin

colourand

reproductiveproblems

Phosphorus

Abalance

ofmagnesium,

calcium

andphosphorusis

required

fortheseminerals

tobeusedeffectively.

Essential

componentof

boneandto

utilise

vitam

ins

tometabolise

foodand

Mostfoods,especially

asparagus,maize,dairy

products,eggs,fish,fruits,

garlic,sunflower

seeds,

meats,wheatbranand

whole

grains

Acidulent�

H3PO4in

soft

drinks.Leaveningacid

�Ca(HPO4) 2isafast-acting

leaveningacid.Moisture

retentionin

meats�

sodium

tripolyphosphate

improves

moisture

retention

Boneloss,weakness,anorexia.

Highlevelsofphosphorus

caninhibitcalcium

uptake

andmay

resultin

osteoporosis,arthritis,

pyorrhoea,ricketsandtooth

(Continued)

Table

A6(C

ontinued)

Mineral

Properties

andfunctions

Main

sources

Actionin

foods

Deficiency

diseases

maintain

electrolyte

balance,correctfunctioning

ofbrain

cells,circulatory

anddigestivesystem

s,eyes,

liver,muscles,nerves

and

teeth/bones

incuredmeats.

Emulsificationaid�

phosphates

areusedto

aid

emulsificationin

comminutedmeatsandin

processed

cheeses.

Stabiliser

inevaporated

milk

decay.Nervousdisorders,

heartandkidney

problems

Potassium

Importantin

abalance

with

sodium

forcellular

metabolism

andregulating

transfer

ofnutrientsto

cells,

maintainingbloodpressure

andelectrolyte

balance,

transm

ittingelectrochem

ical

impulses.Correct

functioningofblood,

endocrine/digestiveand

nervoussystem

s,heart,

kidneys,musclesandskin.

Use

ofdiuretics,laxatives,

vomitinganddiarrhoea

can

significantlycontribute

to

potassium

requirem

ent

Dairy

products,fish,fruit,

meat,poultry,vegetables,

whole

grains,beans,nuts,

potatoes,wheatbranand

yam

s

KClmay

beusedas

asalt

substitute,butmay

cause

bitterflavour.Leavening

agent�

potassium

acid

tartrate

Interference

withtransm

ission

ofnerveandmuscle

impulses,heartpalpitations

andarrhythmias,heart

attack,stroke.Decreased

bloodpressure,salt

retention,oedem

a,increased

cholesterol,muscle

weakness,respiratory

distress,weakreflexes

Selenium

Anantioxidantthat

protectsall

mem

branes,reducescancer

risk,enhancesim

mune

system

andprotectsagainst

heartdisease.Required

with

vitam

inEforproductionof

antibodies,bindingoftoxic

metals,am

inoacid

metabolism

andpromotion

ofgrowth

andfertility.

Productionof

prostaglandinswhichaffect

bloodpressure

andplatelet

aggregation

Seafoods,organ

meats,

cereals(dependingon

levelsin

soils)

Enzymecofactorfor

glutathioneperoxidase

Premature

aging,heartattack,

musculardystrophy,cystic

fibrosis,infertilityand

increasedrisk

ofcancer

Keshan

disease

(endem

ic

cardiomyopathyin

China)

was

associated

with

selenium

deficiency

Sodium

Withpotassium

for

maintainingcellularwater

balance

andblood

electrolyte

balance/pH

and

needed

forstomach,

lymphatic

system

,nerveand

muscle

function.Excessive

saltincreasesbloodpressure

Virtually

allfoods,especially

celery,eggs,meat,dairy

products,miso,poultry,

processed

foods,salt,

seafoodandseaw

eeds

Flavourmodifier�

NaC

l

elicitstheclassicsaltytaste

infoods.Preservative�

NaC

lmay

beusedto

lower

water

activityin

foods.

Leaveningagents�

many

leavingagentsaresodium

salts,e.g.sodium

bicarbonate,sodium

aluminium

sulphate,

sodium

acid

pyrophosphate

Cramps,decreased

resistance

toinfection,muscle

shrinkageorweakness,low

bloodsugar

levels,

dehydration,heart

palpitationsandheart

attack,arthritis,rheumatism,

neuralgia,shortattention

span

andmentalconfusion

Sulphur

Essential

forresistingbacterial

infection,aidsoxidation

reactions,stim

ulatesbile

secretionsin

theliver

and

protectsagainsttoxic

substances.Required

for

correctfunctioningofskin,

immunesystem

,blood,liver

Brusselssprouts,beans,

cabbage,eggs,garlic,fish,

meatsandonions

Browninginhibitor�

sulphur

dioxideandsulphites

inhibitboth

enzymatic

and

nonenzymatic

browning

Poorresistance

tobacterial

infections

Usedin

dried

fruits.

Antimicrobial�

prevents/

controlsmicrobialgrowth.

Widelyusedin

wine

making

(Continued)

Table

A6(C

ontinued)

Mineral

Properties

andfunctions

Main

sources

Actionin

foods

Deficiency

diseases

Zinc

Needed

tomaintain

required

functioningofim

mune

system

,thymusandspleen,

maintainingconcentrations

ofvitam

inEin

theblood,

correctfunctioningof

blood,bones,eyes,heart,

joints,liver

andprostate

gland.A

componentof

insulinandmanyenzymes,

includingthose

involved

in

metabolism

ofphosphorus,

proteinsandalcohol.Levels

canbedecreased

by

diarrhoea,kidney

disease,

cirrhosisoftheliver,

diabetes

Fish,meats,seafood,whole

grains,liver,eggyolks,

beans,mushrooms,nuts,

pumpkin

seeds,sardines,

soybeans,wheatgerm

ZnO

isusedin

theliningof

cansforprotein-richfoods

tolessen

form

ationofblack

FeS

duringheating.Zncan

beadded

togreen

beansto

helpstabilisethecolour

duringcanning

Poormem

ory,decreased

learningability,delayed

sexual

maturity,sterility,

growth

retardationand

dwarfism

,loss

oftasteand

smell,poorcirculation,

susceptibilityto

infections

andprolonged

wound

healing,retarded

growth,

prostateandim

munesystem

disorders,liver

dam

age

Source:

Adaptedfrom

Romito,K.,O’Brien,R.,2014.Minerals:TheirFunctionsandSources

Guide.WebMD.Available

at:,www.webmd.com/vitam

ins-and-supplements/tc/minerals-their-

functions-and-sources-credits.

(,www.webmd.com.

.search

‘minerals-their-functions-and-sources’)(lastaccessed

February2016);Miller,D.R.,1996.Minerals.In:Fennem

a,O.R.(Ed.),

FoodChem

istry.MarcelDekker,New

York,pp.617�6

50;Anon,2011.Functionsandfoodsources

ofsomecommonminerals.DieticiansofCanada.

Available

at:,www.dietitians.ca/Your-

Health/Nutrition-A

-Z/M

inerals/Functions-and-Food-Sources-of-Common-M

inerals.aspx.

(,www.dietitians.ca.

.select

‘YourHealth’.

‘NutritionA-Z’.

‘Minerals’)(lastaccessed

February

2016).

Table

A7Examplesoffunctionalcomponents

offoods

Component

Source

Potentialbenefit

Carotenoids

Beta-carotene

Carrots,variousfruits

Neutralises

free

radicalswhichmay

dam

agecells;bolsters

cellularantioxidant

defences

Lutein,zeaxanthin

Kale,spinach,maize,

eggs,citrusfruits

May

contribute

tomaintenance

ofhealthyvision

Lycopene

Tomatoes,processed

tomatoproducts

Role

incancerrisk

reductionincludingbreast,digestivetract,cervix,bladder,

skin

andpossibly

lung

Dietary

(functionalandtotal)fibre

Insoluble

fibre

Wheatbran

May

contribute

tomaintenance

ofahealthydigestivetract

Beta-glucan

Oat

bran,rolled

oats,oat

flour

Cholesterol-lowering,canreduce

totalandlow-density

lipoprotein

(LDL)

cholesterol,therebyreducingtherisk

ofcoronaryheartdisease

(CHD)

Soluble

fibre

Psyllium

seed

husk

May

reduce

risk

ofCHD

Whole

grains

Cerealgrains

May

reduce

risk

ofCHD

andcancer;may

contribute

tomaintenance

ofhealthy

bloodglucose

levels

Fattyacids

Monounsaturatedfattyacids

Treenuts

May

reduce

risk

ofCHD

byalteringbloodcholesterollevels

Polyunsaturatedfattyacids

(PUFAs)

�omega-3fattyacids

�ALA

Walnuts,flax

May

contribute

tomaintenance

ofmentalandvisual

function

PUFAs�

Omega-3fattyacids

�DHA/EPA

Salmon,tuna,marineand

other

fish

oils

Can

lower

triglyceridefatsin

theblood.May

reduce

risk

ofCHD,may

contribute

tomaintenance

ofmentalandvisual

function

Thecardioprotectiveeffect

offish

consumptionobserved

insomeinvestigations,

butnotin

others.n23fattyacidslower

triglyceridelevelsbutincrease

LDL

cholesterol

(Continued)

Table

A7(C

ontinued)

Component

Source

Potentialbenefit

PUFAs�

conjugated

linoleic

acid

(CLA)

Beefandlamb;some

cheeses,flaxseed

oil

May

contribute

tomaintenance

ofdesirable

bodycompositionandhealthy

immunefunction.Anticarcinogenic.CLA

increasesin

processed

foods

(significantbecause

manymutagensandcarcinogenshavebeenidentified

in

cooked

meats).Effectivein

suppressingtumours

inmice,may

beunique

mechanism(s)bywhichCLA

modulatestumourdevelopment

Flavonoids

Anthocyanidins

Berries,cherries,red

grapes

Bolsters

cellularantioxidantdefences;may

contribute

tomaintenance

ofbrain

function

Flavanols

Tea,cocoa,chocolate,

apples,grapes

May

contribute

tomaintenance

ofhearthealth.Cancerchem

opreventiveeffects

inanim

alsbutinconclusiveepidem

iological

studies.Benefitsmay

berestricted

tohighintakes

inhigh-riskpopulations.May

also

reduce

risk

ofCVD

butnot

yet

conclusive

Catechins,epicatechins,

procyanidins

Flavanones

Citrusfruits

Neutralisefree

radicalsthat

may

dam

agecells;bolstercellularantioxidant

defences.Protectiveagainstavariety

ofcancers.Evidence

accumulatingof

cancerpreventativeeffect

oflimonene�

suggestedas

agoodcandidatefor

human

chem

oprevention.A

metabolite

oflimonene,perrillylalcohol,

undergoingphaseIclinical

trialsin

patientswithadvancedmalignancies

Flavonols

Onions,apples,tea,

broccoli

Neutralisefree

radicalswhichmay

dam

agecells;bolstercellularantioxidant

defences

Proanthocyanidins

Cranberries,cocoa,apples,

strawberries,grapes,

wine,peanuts,

cinnam

on

Inhibitadherence

ofE.colito

uroepithelialcells.Contribute

tomaintenance

of

urinarytracthealthandhearthealth

Isothiocyanates

Sulphoraphane

Cruciferousvegetables:

cauliflower,broccoli,

cabbage,kale,

horseradish

Decreased

cancerrisk.May

enhance

detoxificationofundesirable

compounds

andbolstercellularantioxidantdefences.Enzymemyrosinasecatalyses

glucosinolatesto

isothiocyanates

andindoles.Indole-3

carbinolisbeing

studiedforcancerchem

opreventiveproperties,particularlythemam

mary

gland.Sulforaphaneisan

isothiocyanatein

broccoli

Phenols

Red

wine

Growingevidence

that

phenoliccontentin

redwinecanreduce

risk

ofCVD.

PhenolicsubstancespreventoxidationofLDLin

theprocess

ofatherogenesis.

Alcohol-free

wineshownto

increase

totalplasm

aantioxidantcapacity.Grape

juiceiseffectivein

inhibitingtheoxidationofLDL.Red

winealso

asourceof

trans-resveratrol,shownto

haveoestrogenic

properties

whichmay

explain

cardiovascularbenefits,andalso

shownto

inhibitcarcinogenesisin

vivo

Caffeic

acid,ferulicacid

Apples,pears,citrusfruits,

somevegetables

May

bolstercellularantioxidantdefences;may

contribute

tomaintenance

of

healthyvisionandhearthealth

Plantstanols/sterols

Freestanols/sterols

Maize,soy,wheat,wood

oils,fortifiedfoodsand

beverages

May

reduce

risk

ofCHD

Stanol/sterolesters

Fortifiedtable

spreads,

stanolesterdietary

supplements

Blocksabsorptionfrom

thegutofcholesterolin

bileandcholesterolingestedin

food.Can

lower

totalcholesterolandLDLcholesterollevels,raisingornot

changingHDL-cholesterolin

thebloodandhavingnoreported

sideeffects.

May

reduce

risk

ofCHD

Polyols

Sugar

alcohols�

xylitol,sorbitol,

mannitol,lactitol

Somechew

inggumsand

other

foodapplications

May

reduce

risk

ofdentalcaries

(Continued)

Table

A7(C

ontinued)

Component

Source

Potentialbenefit

Prebiotics

Inulin,fructo-oligosaccharides,

polydextrose

Whole

grains,onions,

somefruits,garlic,

honey,leeks,fortified

foodsandbeverages

May

improvegastrointestinal

health;may

improvecalcium

absorption

Probiotics

Lactobacilli,bifidobacteria

Yoghurt,other

dairy

and

nondairy

applications

May

improvegastrointestinal

healthandsystem

icim

munity

Phytoestrogens

Isoflavones

Soybeansandsoy-based

foods

May

reduce

risk

ofCHD

butexactmechanism

ofhypocholesterolemic

effect

not

fullyelucidated.Thoughtto

playpreventiveandtherapeuticrolesin

CVD,

cancers

ofthebreast,prostateandbowel,osteoporosis,andthealleviationof

menopausalsymptoms.Because

isoflavones

areweakestrogens,they

may

act

asantiestrogenscompetingwithendogenousestrogensforbindingto

oestrogen

receptor.Thismay

explain

whypopulationsthat

consumesignificantam

ounts

ofsoyhavereducedrisk

ofoestrogen-dependentcancerbutepidem

iological

resultsareinconsistent.Nopublished

clinical

trialsontherole

ofsoyin

reducingcancerrisk

Daidzein,Genistein

Lignans�

enterodioland

enterolactone,form

edin

intestinal

tractbybacterial

actiononplantlignan

precursors

Flaxseed,rye,some

vegetables

May

contribute

tomaintenance

ofhealthheartandhealthyim

munefunction

Enterodiolandenterolactonesimilar

toestrogensandpossessweakly

oestrogenic

andantiestrogenic

activitiesandmay

playarole

inpreventionofoestrogen-

dependentcancers,butnoepidem

iological

dataandrelativelyfew

anim

al

studiesto

supportthishypothesis

Soyprotein

Soyprotein

Soybeansandsoy-based

foods

May

helpreduce

risk

ofCHD

Sulphides/thiols

Diallylsulphide,allylmethyl

trisulphide

Garlic,onions,leeks

Cancerchem

opreventive,antibioticandcholesterol-loweringproperties.May

enhance

detoxificationofundesirable

compounds;may

contribute

to

maintenance

ofhealthyim

munefunction.Cardioprotectiveeffectsmay

bedue

tocholesterol-loweringeffect

butgarliccomponentresponsible

isunclear.

Aminoacid,alliin,isconvertedbyallinaseinto

allicinwhichdecomposesto

form

numeroussulphur-containingcompounds,someofwhichmay

have

chem

opreventiveactivity.Inconclusiveresultsmay

bedueto

variationin

organosulphurcompoundsin

garlicproducts.Allium

vegetablesmay

have

protectiveeffect

againstgastrointestinal

tractcancers.Garlicadvocatedfor

preventionofCVD,possibly

throughantihypertensiveproperties

but

insufficientevidence

torecommenditas

aroutineclinical

therapy

Dithiolthiones

Cruciferousvegetables

Contribute

tomaintenance

ofhealthyim

munefunction

CHD,coronaryheartdisease;CVD,cardiovasculardisease;HDL,high-density

lipoproteins;LDL,low-density

lipoproteins.

Source:

Adaptedfrom:IFIC,2006.Functional

Foods.International

FoodInform

ationCouncil.Available

at:,www.foodinsight.org/Background_on_Functional_Foods.

(lastaccessed

February

2016);Arvanitoyannis,I.S.,van

Houwelingen-K

oukaliaroglou,M.,2005.Functional

foods:asurvey

ofhealthclaims,prosandcons,andcurrentlegislation.Crit.Rev.Food.Sci.Nutr.45(5),

385�4

04;Ascherio,A.,Rim

m,E.B.,Stampfer,M.J.,Giovannucci,E.L.,Willett,W.C.,1995.Dietary

intakeofmarinen23fattyacids,fish

intake,andtherisk

ofcoronarydisease

amongmen.

N.Engl.J.Med.332,977�9

82;Clinton,S.K.,1998.Lycopene:

chem

istry,biologyandim

plicationsforhuman

healthanddisease,Nutr.Rev.56(2),35�5

1;Frankel,E.N.,Kanner,J.,German,J.

B.,Parks,E.,Kinsella,J.E.,1993.Inhibitionofoxidationofhuman

low-density

lipoprotein

byphenolicsubstancesin

redwine.Lancet341,454�4

57;Gould,M.N.,1997.Cancer

chem

opreventionandtherapybymonoterpenes.Environ.HealthPerspect.105,977�9

79;Hasler,C.M

.,1998.Functional

foods:theirrole

indisease

preventionandhealthpromotion,Institute

of

FoodTechnologistsExpertPanel

onFoodSafetyandNutrition.FoodTechnol.52(2),57�6

2;Jang,M.,Cai,J.,Udeani,G.,Slowing,K.V.,Thomas,C.F.,Beecher,C.W

.W.et

al.,1997.Cancer

chem

opreventiveactivityofresveratrol,anaturalproduct

derived

from

grapes.Science

275,218�2

20;Katiyar,S.K.,Mukhtar,H.,1996.Tea

inchem

opreventionofcancer:epidem

iologic

and

experim

entalstudies(review).Int.J.Oncol.8(2),221�2

38;Kohlm

eier,L.,Weerings,K.G.C.,Steck,S.,Kok,F.J.,1997.Tea

andcancerprevention�

anevaluationoftheepidem

iologic

literature.Nutr.Cancer27(1),1�1

3;Law

son,L.D.,Wang,Z.-Y.J.,Hughes,B.G.,1991.IdentificationandHPLCquantitationofthesulphides

anddialk(en)ylthiosulfinates

incommercial

garlic

products.Planta

Med.57(4),363�3

70;Li,Y.,Elie,M.,Blaner,W.S.,Brandt-Rauf,P.,Ford,J.,1997.Lycopene,sm

okingandlungcancer.Proc.Am.Assoc.CancerRes.38,113(abstract

#758);

Messina,M.,Barnes,S.,Setchell,K.D.R.,1997.Phytooestrogensandbreastcancer.Lancet350,971�9

72;Schmidt,D.R.,Sobota,A.E.,1988.Anexam

inationoftheanti-adherence

activityof

cranberry

juiceonurinaryandnonurinarybacterial

isolates.Microbios55:173�1

81;Tijburg,L.B.M

.,Mattern,T.,Folts,J.D.,Weisgerber,U.M

.,Katan,M.B.,1997.Tea

flavonoidsand

cardiovasculardiseases:areview.Crit.Rev.Food.Sci.Nutr.37(8),771�7

85;Verhoeven,D.T.H.,Verhagen,H.,Goldbohm,R.A.,van

den

Brandt,P.A.,van

Poppel,G.,1997.A

review

of

mechanismsunderlyinganticarcinogenicitybybrassicavegetables.Chem

.Biochem

.Interact.103(2),79�1

29.

References

Anon, 2011. Functions and food sources of some common minerals. Dieticians of Canada.

Available at: www.dietitians.ca/Your-Health/Nutrition-A-Z/Minerals/Functions-and-

Food-Sources-of-Common-Minerals.aspx (www.dietitians.ca . select ‘Your Health’ .

‘Nutrition A-Z’ . ‘Minerals’) (last accessed February 2016).

Arvanitoyannis, I.S., van Houwelingen-Koukaliaroglou, M., 2005. Functional foods: a survey

of health claims, pros and cons, and current legislation. Crit. Rev. Food. Sci. Nutr. 45

(5), 385�404, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10408390590967667.

Ascherio, A., Rimm, E.B., Stampfer, M.J., Giovannucci, E.L., Willett, W.C., 1995. Dietary

intake of marine n2 3 fatty acids, fish intake, and the risk of coronary disease among

men. N. Engl.. J. Med. 332, 977�982, http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM19950413332

1501.

Belitz, H.-D., Grosch, W., Schieberle, P., 2009. Food Chemistry. 4th ed Springer-Verlag,

Berlin.

BeMiller, J.N., Whistler, R.L., 1996. Carbohydrates. In: Fennema, O.R. (Ed.), Food

Chemistry, 3rd ed Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 157�223.

Bowen, R., 2003. Vitamins: introduction. Available at: www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/path-

phys/misc_topics/vitamins.html (last accessed February 2016).

Chaplin, M., 2014. Cellulose. Water Structure and Science. London South Bank University.

Available at:http://www1.lsbu.ac.uk/water/hycel.html(last accessed February 2016).

Clinton, S.K., 1998. Lycopene: chemistry, biology and implications for human health and

disease. Nutr. Rev. 56 (2), 35�51, http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-4887.1998.tb01691.x.

Damodaran, S., Kirk, L., Parkin, K.L., Fennema, O.R., 2007. Fennema’s Food Chemistry.

4th ed CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

Davis, B.G., Fairbanks, A.J., 2002. Carbohydrate Chemistry, Oxford Chemistry Primers.

Oxford University Press, Oxford.

de Jongh, H.H.J., Broersen, K., 2012. In: Nawaz, Z. (Ed.), Application potential of food pro-

tein modification, Advances in Chemical Engineering. InTech. Available at: www.

intechopen.com/download/pdf/33976 (last accessed February 2016).

Frankel, E.N., Kanner, J., German, J.B., Parks, E., Kinsella, J.E., 1993. Inhibition of oxida-

tion of human low-density lipoprotein by phenolic substances in red wine. Lancet. 341,

454�457, doi:10.1016/0140-6736(93)90206-V.

Gibney, M.J., Lanham-New, S.A., Cassidy, A., Vorster, H.H. (Eds.), 2009. Introduction to

Human Nutrition. Wiley Blackwell, Chichester.

Gorga, F.R., 2007. Introduction to protein structure. Available at: http://webhost.bridgew.edu/

fgorga/proteins/default.htm (last accessed February 2016).

Gould, M.N., 1997. Cancer chemoprevention and therapy by monoterpenes. Environ. Health

Perspect. 105, 977�979, http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3433313.

Hasler, C.M., 1998. Functional foods: their role in disease prevention and health promotion,

Institute of Food Technologists Expert Panel on Food Safety and Nutrition. Food

Technol. 52 (2), 57�62.

Higdon, J., 2004. Pantothenic Acid. Micronutrient Information Center, Linus Pauling

Institute. Available at: http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/vitamins/pa/or/biotin (last accessed

February 2016).

IFIC, 2006. Functional Foods. International Food Information Council. Available at: www.

foodinsight.org/Background_on_Functional_Foods (last accessed February 2016).


Jang, M., Cai, J., Udeani, G., Slowing, K.V., Thomas, C.F., Beecher, C.W.W., et al., 1997.

Cancer chemopreventive activity of resveratrol, a natural product derived from grapes.

Science. 275, 218�220, http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.275.5297.218.

Katiyar, S.K., Mukhtar, H., 1996. Tea in chemoprevention of cancer: epidemiologic and

experimental studies (review). Int. J. Oncol. 8 (2), 221�238.

Kohlmeier, L., Weerings, K.G.C., Steck, S., Kok, F.J., 1997. Tea and cancer prevention � an

evaluation of the epidemiologic literature. Nutr. Cancer. 27 (1), 1�13, http://dx.doi.org/

10.1080/01635589709514494.

Lawson, L.D., Wang, Z.-Y.J., Hughes, B.G., 1991. Identification and HPLC quantitation of

the sulfides and dialk(en)ylthiosulfinates in commercial garlic products. Planta Med. 57

(4), 363�370.

Li, Y., Elie, M., Blaner, W.S., Brandt-Rauf, P., Ford, J., 1997. Lycopene, smoking and lung

cancer. Proc. Am. Assoc. Cancer Res. 38, 113 (abstract #758).

Maaruf, A.G., Che Man, Y.B., Asbi, B.A., Junainah, A.H., Kennedy, J.F., 2001. Effect of

water content on the gelatinisation temperature of sago starch. Carbohydr. Polym. 46

(4), 331�337. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0144-8617(00)00335-0.

McGee, W., 2007. Vitamins, Medical Encyclopaedia. Available at: www.nlm.nih.gov/

medlineplus/ency/article/002399.htm (last accessed February 2016).

Messina, M., Barnes, S., Setchell, K.D.R., 1997. Phytooestrogens and breast cancer. Lancet.

350, 971�972, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(05)64062-7.

Miller, D.R., 1996. Minerals. In: Fennema, O.R. (Ed.), Food Chemistry. Marcel Dekker,

New York, pp. 617�650.

Nawar, W.W., 1996. Lipids. In: Fennema, O.R. (Ed.), Food Chemistry, 3rd ed Marcel

Dekker, New York, pp. 225�319.

Palav, T., Seetharaman, K., 2006. Mechanism of starch gelatinization and polymer leaching

during microwave heating. Carbohydr. Polym. 65 (3), 364�370, http://dx.doi.org/

10.1016/j.carbpol.2006.01.024.

Romito, K., O’Brien, R., 2014. Minerals: Their Functions and Sources Guide. WebMD.

Available at: www.webmd.com/vitamins-and-supplements/tc/minerals-their-functions-

and-sources-credits (www.webmd.com . search ‘minerals-their-functions-and-sources’)

(last accessed February 2016).

Schmidt, D.R., Sobota, A.E., 1988. An examination of the anti-adherence activity of cran-

berry juice on urinary and nonurinary bacterial isolates. Microbios. 55, 173�181.

Tijburg, L.B.M., Mattern, T., Folts, J.D., Weisgerber, U.M., Katan, M.B., 1997. Tea flavo-

noids and cardiovascular diseases: a review. Crit. Rev. Food. Sci. Nutr. 37 (8),

771�785, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10408399709527802.

Univar, 2005. Hydrocolloids. Univar USA Inc. Available at: www.univar.com/en/Canada/

Industries/Food-Ingredients.aspx, select ‘Texture modification’ (last accessed February

2016).

Verhoeven, D.T.H., Verhagen, H., Goldbohm, R.A., van den Brandt, P.A., van Poppel, G.,

1997. A review of mechanisms underlying anticarcinogenicity by brassica vegetables.

Chem. Biochem. Interact. 103 (2), 79�129, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0009-2797(96)

03745-3.

Webster-Gandy, J., Madden, A., Holdsworth, M. (Eds.), 2011. Oxford Handbook of Nutrition

and Dietetics. Oxofrd University Press, Oxford.

Xie, F., Liu, H., Chen, P., Xue, T., Chen, L., Yu, L., et al., 2006. Starch gelatinization under

shearless and shear conditions. Int. J. Food Eng. 2 (5), 6-1�6-31, http://dx.doi.org/

10.2202/1556-3758.1162.

Zamora, A., 2016. Fats, Oils, Fatty Acids, Triglycerides. Available at: www.scientificpsychic.

com/fitness/fattyacids.html (last accessed February 2016).


annex a: food components - elsevierbooksite.elsevier.com/9780081019078/content/annexure_a.pdf ·...

Documents