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Antarctica

Antarctica

This map uses an orthographic projection, near-polar aspect. TheSouth Pole is near the center, where longitudinal lines converge.

Area (Overall)

(ice-free)

(ice-covered)

14,000,000 km2 (5,400,000sq mi)[1]

280,000 km2 (100,000 sqmi)13,720,000 km2 (5,300,000sq mi)

Population(permanent)(non-permanent)

7th0approx. 1,000

Dependencies· Bouvet Island· French Southern Territories· Heard Island and McDonaldIslands· South Georgia and the SouthSandwich Islands

Official Territoriallands

Antarctic Treaty System

· Adelie Land· Antártica· Argentine Antarctica· Australian AntarcticTerritory· British Antarctic Territory· Queen Maud Land· Peter I Island· Ross Dependency

Unofficial

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Antarctica (pronounced /ænˈtɑrktɪkə/ ( listen)) isEarth's southernmost continent, underlying theSouth Pole. It is situated in the Antarctic region ofthe southern hemisphere, almost entirely south ofthe Antarctic Circle, and is surrounded by theSouthern Ocean. At 14.0 million km2 (5.4million sq mi), it is the fifth-largest continent inarea after Asia, Africa, North America, and SouthAmerica. About 98% of Antarctica is covered byice, which averages at least 1.6 kilometres(1.0 mi) in thickness.

Antarctica, on average, is the coldest, driest, andwindiest continent, and has the highest averageelevation of all the continents.[2] Antarctica isconsidered a desert, with annual precipitation ofonly 200 mm (8 inches) along the coast and farless inland.[3] There are no permanent humanresidents but anywhere from 1,000 to 5,000people reside throughout the year at the researchstations scattered across the continent. Only cold-adapted plants and animals survive there,including penguins, seals, nematodes,Tardigrades, mites, many types of algae and othermicroorganisms, and tundra vegetation.

Although myths and speculation about a TerraAustralis ("Southern Land") date back toantiquity, the first confirmed sighting of thecontinent is commonly accepted to have occurredin 1820 by the Russian expedition of MikhailLazarev and Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen.The continent, however, remained largelyneglected for the rest of the 19th century becauseof its hostile environment, lack of resources, andisolation. The first formal use of the name"Antarctica" as a continental name in the 1890s isattributed to the Scottish cartographer JohnGeorge Bartholomew. The name Antarctica is theromanized version of the Greek compound wordανταρκτική (antarktiké), feminine ofανταρκτικός (antarktikos),[4] meaning "opposite

4

8

1

Coordinates: 90°S 0°E

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UnofficialTerritorial claims Brazilian Antarctica

Reserved the rightto make claims · Russian Federation

· United States of America

Time Zones NoneUTC-3 (Graham Land only)

Internet Top-leveldomain

.aq

Calling Code Dependent on the parentcountry of each base

Adelie Penguin chicks in Antarctica,with MS Explorer and an iceberg in

the background.

to the north".[5]

The Antarctic Treaty was signed in 1959 bytwelve countries; to date, forty-six countries havesigned the treaty. The treaty prohibits militaryactivities and mineral mining, supports scientificresearch, and protects the continent's ecozone.Ongoing experiments are conducted by more than4,000 scientists of many nationalities and withdifferent research interests.[1]

Contents1 History2 Geography3 Geology

3.1 Geological history andpaleontology

3.1.1 Paleozoic era (540–250Ma)3.1.2 Mesozoic era (250–65Ma)3.1.3 Gondwanaland breakup(160–23 Ma)

3.2 Geology of present-dayAntarctica

4 Climate5 Population6 Flora and fauna

6.1 Flora6.2 Fauna

7 Politics7.1 Antarctic territories7.2 Countries interested inparticipating in a possibleterritorial division of Antarctica

8 Economy9 Transport10 Research

10.1 Princess Elisabeth PolarScience Station10.2 Meteorites10.3 Volcanic eruption

11 Ice mass and global sea level12 Effects of global warming13 Ozone depletion

1

2

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The snow surface at Dome C Stationis typical of most of the continent's

surface.

An iceberg dwarfs a ship in this1920s English magazine illustration

of a whaler in the Antarctic.

14 See also15 References16 External links

HistoryMain article: History of AntarcticaSee also: List of Antarctic expeditions

Belief in the existence of a Terra Australis — a vast continent in thefar south of the globe to "balance" the northern lands of Europe,Asia and North Africa — had existed since the times of Ptolemy (1stcentury AD), who suggested the idea to preserve the symmetry of allknown landmasses in the world. Depictions of a large southernlandmass were common in maps such as the early 16th centuryTurkish Piri Reis map. Even in the late 17th century, after explorershad found that South America and Australia were not part of thefabled "Antarctica", geographers believed that the continent wasmuch larger than its actual size.

European maps continued to show this hypothetical land untilCaptain James Cook's ships, HMS Resolution and Adventure,crossed the Antarctic Circle on 17 January 1773, in December 1773and again in January 1774.[6] Cook in fact came within about75 miles (121 km) of the Antarctic coast before retreating in the faceof field ice in January 1773.[7] The first confirmed sighting ofAntarctica can be narrowed down to the crews of ships captained bythree individuals. According to various organizations (the NationalScience Foundation,[8] NASA,[9] the University of California, SanDiego,[10] and other sources),[11][12] ships captained by three mensighted Antarctica in 1820: Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen (acaptain in the Russian Imperial Navy), Edward Bransfield (a captainin the Royal Navy), and Nathaniel Palmer (an American sealer out ofStonington, Connecticut). Von Bellingshausen saw Antarctica on 27January 1820, three days before Bransfield sighted land, and tenmonths before Palmer did so in November 1820. On that day thetwo-ship expedition led by Von Bellingshausen and MikhailPetrovich Lazarev reached a point within 32 kilometers (20 mi) ofthe Antarctic mainland and saw ice fields there. The first documentedlanding on mainland Antarctica was by the American sealer JohnDavis in West Antarctica on 7 February 1821, although somehistorians dispute this claim.

In December, 1839, as part of the United States Exploring Expedition of 1838–42 conducted by the UnitedStates Navy (sometimes called the "Ex. Ex.", or "the Wilkes Expedition"), an expedition sailed fromSydney, Australia, into the Antarctic Ocean, as it was then known, and reported the discovery "of anAntarctic continent west of the Balleny Islands". That part of Antarctica was later named "Wilkes Land", a

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Nimrod Expedition South Pole Party(left to right): Wild, Shackleton,

Marshall and Adams

Antarctic continent west of the Balleny Islands". That part of Antarctica was later named "Wilkes Land", aname it maintains to this day.

Explorer James Clark Ross passed through what is now known as the Ross Sea and discovered Ross Island(both of which were named for him) in 1841. He sailed along a huge wall of ice that was later named theRoss Ice Shelf (also named for him). Mount Erebus and Mount Terror are named after two ships from hisexpedition: HMS Erebus and Terror.[13] Mercator Cooper landed in East Antarctica on 26 January1853.[14]

During the Nimrod Expedition led by Ernest Shackleton in 1907,parties led by T. W. Edgeworth David became the first to climbMount Erebus and to reach the South Magnetic Pole. DouglasMawson, who assumed the leadership of the Magnetic Pole party ontheir perilous return, went on to lead several expeditions untilretiring in 1931.[15] In addition, Shackleton himself and three othermembers of his expedition made several firsts in December 1908 –February 1909: they were the first humans to traverse the Ross IceShelf, the first to traverse the Transantarctic Mountain Range (viathe Beardmore Glacier), and the first to set foot on the South PolarPlateau. An expedition led by Norwegian polar explorer RoaldAmundsen from the ship Fram became the first to reach thegeographic South Pole on 14 December 1911, using a route from the

Bay of Whales and up the Axel Heiberg Glacier.[16] One month later, the ill-fated Scott Expedition reachedthe pole.

Richard Evelyn Byrd led several voyages to the Antarctic by plane in the 1930s and 1940s. He is creditedwith implementing mechanized land transport on the continent and conducting extensive geological andbiological research.[17] However, it was not until 31 October 1956 that anyone set foot on the South Poleagain; on that day a U.S. Navy group led by Rear Admiral George J. Dufek successfully landed an aircraftthere.[18]

The first person to sail single-handed to Antarctica was the New Zealander David Henry Lewis, in a 10-meter steel sloop Ice Bird.

GeographyMain article: Geography of AntarcticaSee also: Extreme points of Antarctica, Antarctic territories, and List of Antarctic and sub-Antarcticislands

Centered asymmetrically around the South Pole and largely south ofthe Antarctic Circle, Antarctica is the southernmost continent and issurrounded by the Southern Ocean; alternatively, it may beconsidered to be surrounded by the southern Pacific, Atlantic, andIndian Oceans, or by the southern waters of the World Ocean. Itcovers more than 14,000,000 km2 (5,400,000 sq mi), making it thefifth-largest continent, about 1.3 times as large as Europe. Thecoastline measures 17,968 km (11,165 mi) and is mostly

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A satellite composite image ofAntarctica

Elevation colorized relief

Speed of ice streams

Size comparison Europe-AntarcticaMaritime Antarctica

coastline measures 17,968 km (11,165 mi) and is mostlycharacterized by ice formations, as the following table shows:

Coastal types around Antarctica (Drewry, 1983)Type Frequency

Ice shelf (floating ice front) 44%Ice walls (resting on ground) 38%Ice stream/outlet glacier (ice front or ice wall) 13%Rock 5%

Total 100%

Antarctica is divided in two by the Transantarctic Mountains close tothe neck between the Ross Sea and the Weddell Sea. The portionwest of the Weddell Sea and east of the Ross Sea is called WestAntarctica and the remainder East Antarctica, because they roughlycorrespond to the Western and Eastern Hemispheres relative to theGreenwich meridian.

About 98% of Antarctica is covered by the Antarctic ice sheet, asheet of ice averaging at least 1.6 km (1.0 mi) thick. The continenthas about 90% of the world's ice (and thereby about 70% of theworld's fresh water). If all of this ice were melted, sea levels wouldrise about 60 m (200 ft).[19] In most of the interior of the continent,precipitation is very low, down to 20 mm (0.8 in) per year; in a few"blue ice" areas precipitation is lower than mass loss by sublimationand so the local mass balance is negative. In the dry valleys thesame effect occurs over a rock base, leading to a desiccatedlandscape.

West Antarctica is covered by the West Antarctic Ice Sheet. Thesheet has been of recent concern because of the real, if small,possibility of its collapse. If the sheet were to break down, oceanlevels would rise by several metres in a relatively geologically short

period of time, perhaps amatter of centuries. SeveralAntarctic ice streams, whichaccount for about 10% of theice sheet, flow to one of themany Antarctic ice shelves.

East Antarctica lies on theIndian Ocean side of theTransantarctic Mountains andcomprises Coats Land, QueenMaud Land, Enderby Land,

Mac Robertson Land, Wilkes Land and Victoria Land. All but a small portion of this region lies within theEastern Hemisphere. East Antarctica is largely covered by the East Antarctic Ice Sheet.

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Mount Erebus, an active volcano onRoss Island.

Survey route

Vinson Massif, the highest peak in Antarctica at 4,892 m(16,050 ft), is located in the Ellsworth Mountains. Antarcticacontains many other mountains, both on the main continent and thesurrounding islands. Located on Ross Island, Mount Erebus is theworld's southernmost active volcano. Another well-known volcanois found on Deception Island, which is famous for a giant eruptionin 1970. Minor eruptions are frequent and lava flow has beenobserved in recent years. Other dormant volcanoes may potentiallybe active.[20] In 2004, an underwater volcano was found in theAntarctic Peninsula by American and Canadian researchers. Recentevidence shows this unnamed volcano may be active.[21]

Antarctica is home to more than 70 lakes that lie at the base of the continental ice sheet. Lake Vostok,discovered beneath Russia's Vostok Station in 1996, is the largest of these subglacial lakes. It was oncebelieved that the lake had been sealed off for 500,000 to one million years but a recent survey suggeststhat, every so often, there are large flows of water from one lake to another.[22]

There is some evidence, in the form of ice cores drilled to about 400 m (1,300 ft) above the water line, thatLake Vostok's waters may contain microbial life. The frozen surface of the lake shares similarities withJupiter's moon Europa. If life is discovered in Lake Vostok, this would strengthen the argument for thepossibility of life on Europa.[23] On 7 February 2008, a NASA team embarked on a mission to LakeUntersee, searching for extremophiles in its highly alkaline waters. If found, these resilient creatures couldfurther bolster the argument for extraterrestrial life in extremely cold, methane-rich environments.[24]

GeologyMain article: Geology of Antarctica

Geological history and paleontology

More than 170 million years ago, Antarctica was part of the supercontinent Gondwana. Over time,Gondwana gradually broke apart and Antarctica as we know it today was formed around 25 million yearsago.

Paleozoic era (540–250 Ma)

During the Cambrian period, Gondwana had a mild climate. WestAntarctica was partially in the Northern Hemisphere, and during thisperiod large amounts of sandstones, limestones and shales weredeposited. East Antarctica was at the equator, where sea floorinvertebrates and trilobites flourished in the tropical seas. By thestart of the Devonian period (416 Ma), Gondwana was in moresouthern latitudes and the climate was cooler, though fossils of landplants are known from this time. Sand and silts were laid down inwhat is now the Ellsworth, Horlick and Pensacola Mountains.Glaciation began at the end of the Devonian period (360 Ma), asGondwana became centered around the South Pole and the climate

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Survey route

Bransfield Strait

Gondwana became centered around the South Pole and the climatecooled, though flora remained. During the Permian period, the plantlife became dominated by fern-like plants such as Glossopteris, which grew in swamps. Over time theseswamps became deposits of coal in the Transantarctic Mountains. Towards the end of the Permian period,continued warming led to a dry, hot climate over much of Gondwana.[25]

Mesozoic era (250–65 Ma)

As a result of continued warming, the polar ice caps melted andmuch of Gondwana became a desert. In Eastern Antarctica, the seedfern became established, and large amounts of sandstone and shalewere laid down at this time. Synapsids, commonly known as"mammal-like reptiles", were common in Antarctica during the LatePermian and Early Triassic and included forms such asLystrosaurus. The Antarctic Peninsula began to form during theJurassic period (206–146 Ma), and islands gradually rose out of theocean. Ginkgo trees and cycads were plentiful during this period. InWest Antarctica, coniferous forests dominated through the entireCretaceous period (146–65 Ma), though Southern beech began totake over at the end of this period. Ammonites were common in the

seas around Antarctica, and dinosaurs were also present, though only three Antarctic dinosaur genera(Cryolophosaurus and Glacialisaurus, from the Hanson Formation,[26] and Antarctopelta) have beendescribed to date.[27] It was during this period that Gondwana began to break up.

Gondwanaland breakup (160–23 Ma)

The cooling of Antarctica occurred stepwise, as the continental spread changed the oceanic currents fromlongitudinal equator-to-pole temperature-equalizing currents to latitudinal currents that preserved andaccentuated latitude temperature differences.

Africa separated from Antarctica around 160 Ma, followed by the Indian subcontinent, in the earlyCretaceous (about 125 Ma). About 65 Ma, Antarctica (then connected to Australia) still had a tropical tosubtropical climate, complete with a marsupial fauna. About 40 Ma Australia-New Guinea separated fromAntarctica, so that latitudinal currents could isolate Antarctica from Australia, and the first ice began toappear. During the Eocene-Oligocene extinction event about 34 million years ago; CO2 levels have beenfound to be about 760 ppm[28] and had been decreasing from earlier levels in the thousands of ppm.Around 23 Ma, the Drake Passage opened between Antarctica and South America, resulting in theAntarctic Circumpolar Current that completely isolated the continent. Models of the changes suggest thatdeclining CO2 levels became more important.[29] The ice began to spread, replacing the forests that thencovered the continent. Since about 15 Ma, the continent has been mostly covered with ice,[30] with theAntarctic ice cap reaching its present extension around 6 Ma.

Geology of present-day Antarctica

The geological study of Antarctica has been greatly hindered by thefact that nearly all of the continent is permanently covered with athick layer of ice. However, new techniques such as remote sensing,ground-penetrating radar and satellite imagery have begun to reveal

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Subglacial topography andbathymetry of bedrock underlying

Antarctica ice sheet.

Antarctica without its ice sheet. Thismap does not consider that sea levelwould rise because of the melted ice,nor that the landmass would rise byseveral hundred meters over a fewtens of thousands of years after the

weight of the ice was no longerdepressing the landmass.

The blue ice covering Lake Fryxell,in the Transantarctic Mountains,

ground-penetrating radar and satellite imagery have begun to revealthe structures beneath the ice.

Geologically, West Antarctica closely resembles the Andes mountainrange of South America.[25] The Antarctic Peninsula was formed byuplift and metamorphism of sea bed sediments during the latePaleozoic and the early Mesozoic eras. This sediment uplift wasaccompanied by igneous intrusions and volcanism. The mostcommon rocks in West Antarctica are andesite and rhyolitevolcanics formed during the Jurassic period. There is also evidenceof volcanic activity, even after the ice sheet had formed, in MarieByrd Land and Alexander Island. The only anomalous area of WestAntarctica is the Ellsworth Mountains region, where the stratigraphyis more similar to the eastern part of the continent.

East Antarctica is geologically varied, dating from the Precambrianera, with some rocks formed more than 3 billion years ago. It iscomposed of a metamorphic and igneous platform which is the basisof the continental shield. On top of this base are various modernrocks, such as sandstones, limestones, coal and shales laid downduring the Devonian and Jurassic periods to form the TransantarcticMountains. In coastal areas such as Shackleton Range and VictoriaLand some faulting has occurred.

The main mineral resource known on the continent is coal.[30] It wasfirst recorded near the Beardmore Glacier by Frank Wild on theNimrod Expedition, and now low-grade coal is known across manyparts of the Transantarctic Mountains. The Prince Charles Mountainscontain significant deposits of iron ore. The most valuable resourcesof Antarctica lie offshore, namely the oil and natural gas fieldsfound in the Ross Sea in 1973. Exploitation of all mineral resourcesis banned until the year 2048 by the Protocol on EnvironmentalProtection to the Antarctic Treaty.

ClimateMain article: Climate of Antarctica

Antarctica is the coldest place on Earth. The coldest naturaltemperature ever recorded on Earth was −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F) at theRussian Vostok Station in Antarctica on 21 July 1983.[31] Forcomparison, this is 11 °C (20 °F) colder than subliming dry ice.Antarctica is a frozen desert with little precipitation; the South Poleitself receives less than 10 cm (4 in) per year, on average.Temperatures reach a minimum of between −80 °C (−112 °F) and−90 °C (−130 °F) in the interior in winter and reach a maximum ofbetween 5 °C (41 °F) and 15 °C (59 °F) near the coast in summer.Sunburn is often a health issue as the snow surface reflects almost

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in the Transantarctic Mountains,comes from glacial meltwater from

the Canada Glacier and other smallerglaciers.

Mountain glaciation

all of the ultraviolet light falling on it.[32]

East Antarctica is colder than its western counterpart because of itshigher elevation. Weather fronts rarely penetrate far into thecontinent, leaving the center cold and dry. Despite the lack of precipitation over the central portion of thecontinent, ice there lasts for extended time periods. Heavy snowfalls are not uncommon on the coastalportion of the continent, where snowfalls of up to 1.22 metres (48 in) in 48 hours have been recorded.

At the edge of the continent, strong katabatic winds off the polar plateau often blow at storm force. In theinterior, however, wind speeds are typically moderate. During summer, more solar radiation reaches thesurface during clear days at the South Pole than at the equator because of the 24 hours of sunlight each dayat the Pole.[1]

Antarctica is colder than the Arctic for two reasons. First, much of the continent is more than 3 kilometres(2 mi) above sea level, and temperature decreases with elevation. Second, the Arctic Ocean covers thenorth polar zone: the ocean's relative warmth is transferred through the icepack and prevents temperaturesin the Arctic regions from reaching the extremes typical of the land surface of Antarctica.

Given the latitude, long periods of constant darkness or constantsunlight create climates unfamiliar to human beings in much of therest of the world. The aurora australis, commonly known as thesouthern lights, is a glow observed in the night sky near the SouthPole created by the plasma-full solar winds that pass by the Earth.Another unique spectacle is diamond dust, a ground-level cloudcomposed of tiny ice crystals. It generally forms under otherwiseclear or nearly clear skies, so people sometimes also refer to it asclear-sky precipitation. A sun dog, a frequent atmospheric opticalphenomenon, is a bright "spot" beside the true sun.[32]

PopulationSee also: Demographics of Antarctica and List of research stations in Antarctica

Antarctica has no permanent residents, but a number of governments maintain permanent manned researchstations throughout the continent. The number of people conducting and supporting scientific research andother work on the continent and its nearby islands varies from about 1,000 in winter to about 5,000 in thesummer. Many of the stations are staffed year-round, the winter-over personnel typically arriving fromtheir home countries for a one-year assignment. An Orthodox church opened in 2004 at the RussianBellingshausen Station is also manned year-round by one or two priests, who are similarly rotated everyyear.[33][34]

The first semi-permanent inhabitants of regions near Antarctica(areas situated south of the Antarctic Convergence) were British andAmerican sealers who used to spend a year or more on SouthGeorgia, from 1786 onward. During the whaling era, which lasteduntil 1966, the population of that island varied from over 1,000 inthe summer (over 2,000 in some years) to some 200 in the winter.Most of the whalers were Norwegian, with an increasing proportionof Britons. The settlements included Grytviken, Leith Harbour, King

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Two researchers studying planktonthrough microscopes

Field work being carried out onMelnik Peak, Livingston Island

of Britons. The settlements included Grytviken, Leith Harbour, KingEdward Point, Stromness, Husvik, Prince Olav Harbour, OceanHarbour and Godthul. Managers and other senior officers of thewhaling stations often lived together with their families. Amongthem was the founder of Grytviken, Captain Carl Anton Larsen, aprominent Norwegian whaler and explorer who, along with hisfamily, adopted British citizenship in 1910.

The first child born in the southern polar region was Norwegian girlSolveig Gunbjørg Jacobsen, born in Grytviken on 8 October 1913,and her birth was registered by the resident British Magistrate ofSouth Georgia. She was a daughter of Fridthjof Jacobsen, theassistant manager of the whaling station, and of Klara OletteJacobsen. Jacobsen arrived on the island in 1904 to become themanager of Grytviken, serving from 1914 to 1921; two of hischildren were born on the island.[35]

Emilio Marcos Palma was the first person born south of the 60thparallel south (the continental limit according to the AntarcticTreaty[36]), as well as the first one born on the Antarctic mainland,in 1978 at Base Esperanza, on the tip of the AntarcticPeninsula[37][38]; his parents were sent there along with seven other families by the Argentine governmentto determine if family life was suitable on the continent. In 1984, Juan Pablo Camacho was born at the FreiMontalva Station, becoming the first Chilean born in Antarctica. Several bases are now home to familieswith children attending schools at the station.[39] As of 2009, eleven children were born in Antarctica(south of the 60th parallel south): eight at the Argentinean Esperanza Base[40] and three at the Chilean FreiMontalva Station.[41]

Flora and faunaSee also: Antarctic ecozone

Flora

The climate of Antarctica does not allow extensive vegetation. A combination of freezing temperatures,poor soil quality, lack of moisture, and lack of sunlight inhibit plant growth. As a result, plant life is limitedto mostly mosses and liverworts. The autotrophic community is made up of mostly protists. The flora of thecontinent largely consists of lichens, bryophytes, algae, and fungi. Growth generally occurs in the summer,and only for a few weeks at most.

There are more than 200 species of lichens and about 50 species of

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More than 200 species of lichens areknown to exist in Antarctica.

Emperor Penguins in Ross Sea,Antarctica.

There are more than 200 species of lichens and about 50 species ofbryophytes, such as mosses. Seven hundred species of algae exist,most of which are phytoplankton. Multicolored snow algae anddiatoms are especially abundant in the coastal regions during thesummer. There are two species of flowering plants found in theAntarctic Peninsula: Deschampsia antarctica (Antarctic hair grass)and Colobanthus quitensis (Antarctic pearlwort).[42]

Fauna

Few terrestrial vertebrates live in Antarctica.[43] Invertebrate lifeincludes microscopic mites like the Alaskozetes antarcticus, lice,nematodes, tardigrades, rotifers, krill and springtails. Recentlyancient ecosystems consisting of several types of bacteria have beenfound living trapped deep beneath glaciers.[44] The flightless midge Belgica antarctica, just 12 millimeters(0.5 in) in size, is the largest purely terrestrial animal in Antarctica. The Snow Petrel is one of only threebirds that breed exclusively in Antarctica.[45]

A variety of marine animals exist and rely, directly or indirectly, onthe phytoplankton. Antarctic sea life includes penguins, blue whales,orcas, colossal squids and fur seals. The Emperor penguin is the onlypenguin that breeds during the winter in Antarctica, while the AdéliePenguin breeds farther south than any other penguin. TheRockhopper penguin has distinctive feathers around the eyes, givingthe appearance of elaborate eyelashes. King penguins, Chinstrappenguins, and Gentoo Penguins also breed in the Antarctic.

The Antarctic fur seal was very heavily hunted in the 18th and 19thcenturies for its pelt by sealers from the United States and theUnited Kingdom. The Weddell Seal, a "true seal", is named after SirJames Weddell, commander of British sealing expeditions in theWeddell Sea. Antarctic krill, which congregates in large schools, isthe keystone species of the ecosystem of the Southern Ocean, and isan important food organism for whales, seals, leopard seals, furseals, squid, icefish, penguins, albatrosses and many other birds.[46]

The passing of the Antarctic Conservation Act in the U.S. broughtseveral restrictions to U.S. activity on the continent. Theintroduction of alien plants or animals can bring a criminal penalty,

as can the extraction of any indigenous species. The overfishing of krill, which plays a large role in theAntarctic ecosystem, led officials to enact regulations on fishing. The Convention for the Conservation ofAntarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), a treaty that came into force in 1980, requires thatregulations managing all Southern Ocean fisheries consider potential effects on the entire Antarcticecosystem.[1] Despite these new acts, unregulated and illegal fishing, particularly of Patagonian toothfish(marketed as Chilean Sea Bass in the U.S.), remains a serious problem. The illegal fishing of toothfish hasbeen increasing, with estimates of 32,000 tonnes (35,300 short tons) in 2000.[47][48]

A census of sea life carried out during the International Polar Year and which involved some 500researchers is due for release in 2010. The research is part of the global Census of Marine Life (CoML) and

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Designed by Graham Bartram, this isthe most popular unofficial flag of

Antarctica, symbolizing thecontinent's neutrality.

HMS Endurance: the Royal Navy'sAntarctic patrol ship.

researchers is due for release in 2010. The research is part of the global Census of Marine Life (CoML) andhas disclosed some remarkable findings. More than 235 marine organisms live in both polar regions, havingbridged the gap of 12,000 km. Large animals such as some cetaceans and birds make the round tripannually. More surprising are small forms of life such as mudworms, sea cucumbers and free-swimmingsnails found in both polar oceans. Various factors may aid in their distribution - fairly uniform temperaturesof the deep ocean at the poles and the equator which differ by no more than 5 °C, and the major currentsystems or marine conveyor belt which transport egg and larvae stages.[49]

PoliticsAntarctica has nogovernment, although variouscountries claim sovereignty incertain regions. While few ofthese countries have mutuallyrecognised each other'sclaims,[50] the validity ofthese claims are generally notrecognised universally.[1]

New claims on Antarcticahave been suspended since1959 and the continent is

considered politically neutral. Its status is regulated by the 1959Antarctic Treaty and other related agreements, collectively called the Antarctic Treaty System. Antarctica isdefined as all land and ice shelves south of 60° S for the purposes of the Treaty System. The treaty wassigned by twelve countries including the Soviet Union (and later Russia), the United Kingdom, Argentina,Chile, Australia, and the United States.[51] It set aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve, establishedfreedom of scientific investigation and environmental protection, and banned military activity on thecontinent. This was the first arms control agreement established during the Cold War.

In 1983, the Antarctic Treaty Parties began negotiations on a convention to regulate mining inAntarctica.[52] A coalition of international organisations[53] launched a public pressure campaign to preventany minerals development in the region, led largely by Greenpeace International[54] which established itsown scientific station–World Park Base–in the Ross Sea region[55] and conducted annual expeditions todocument environmental effects of humans on the continent.[56] In 1988, the Convention on the Regulationof Antarctic Mineral Resources (CRAMRA) was adopted.[57] The following year, however, Australia andFrance announced that they would not ratify the convention, rendering it dead for all intents and purposes.They proposed instead that a comprehensive regime to protect the Antarctic environment be negotiated inits place.[58] The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (the ‘Madrid Protocol’) wasnegotiated as other countries followed suit and on 14 January 1998 it entered into force.[59] The MadridProtocol bans all mining in Antarctica, designating the continent as a ‘natural reserve devoted to peace andscience’.

The Antarctic Treaty prohibits any military activity in Antarctica, including the establishment of militarybases and fortifications, military manoeuvers, and weapons testing. Military personnel or equipment are

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permitted only for scientific research or other peaceful purposes.[60] The only documented military landmanoeuvre was Operation NINETY by the Argentine military.[61]

The United States military issues the Antarctica Service Medal to military members or civilians whoperform research duty in Antarctica. The medal includes a "wintered over" bar issued to those who remainon the continent for 2 six-month seasons.[62]

Antarctic territories

Argentina Australia Chile France New Zealand Norway UnitedKingdom

Main article: Antarctic territorial claims

Date Country Territory Claim limits 1908 United Kingdom British Antarctic Territory 20°W to 80°W1923 New Zealand Ross Dependency 150°W to 160°E1924 France Adélie Land 142°2'E to 136°11'E

1929 Norway Peter I Island 68°50′S 90°35′W

1933 Australia Australian Antarctic Territory 160°E to 142°2'E and136°11'E to 44°38'E

1939 Norway Queen Maud Land 44°38'E to 20°W

1940 Chile Antártica 53°W to 90°W

1943 Argentina Argentine Antarctica 25°W to 74°W

— None Unclaimed territory(Marie Byrd Land)

90°W to 150°W(except the Peter I Island)

The Argentine, British, and Chilean claims all overlap, and have caused friction. The areas shown asAustralia's and New Zealand's claims were British territory until they were handed over following thecountries' independence. Australia currently claims the largest area. Australia and New Zealand bothrecognise the British claim, and vice-versa.

Countries interested in participating in a possible territorial division of Antarctica

This group of countries participating as members of Antarctica Treaty have a territorial interest in theAntarctic continent but the provisions of the Treaty do not allow them to make their claims while it is inforce.[63][64]

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The illegal capture and sale of thePatagonian toothfish has led to

several arrests. Pictured here is theAntarctic toothfish, a sister species.

Antarctic postal services.

Brazil has a designated 'zone of interest' that is not an actual claim. Peru has formally reserved its right to make a claim.[63][64]

Russia has reserved its right to claim "territories discovered by Russians", which potentially mayrefer to the entire continent.[citation needed]

South Africa has formally reserved its right to make a claim.[63][64]

Spain has formally reserved its right to make a claim. United States has formally reserved its right to make a claim.

EconomyMain article: Economy of Antarctica

Although coal, hydrocarbons, iron ore, platinum, copper, chromium,nickel, gold and other minerals have been found, they have not beenin large enough quantities to exploit. The 1991 Protocol onEnvironmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty also restricts astruggle for resources. In 1998, a compromise agreement wasreached to place an indefinite ban on mining, to be reviewed in2048, further limiting economic development and exploitation. Theprimary economic activity is the capture and offshore trading of fish.Antarctic fisheries in 2000–01 reported landing 112,934 tonnes.

Small-scale "expedition tourism" has existed since 1957 and iscurrently subject to Antarctic Treaty and Environmental Protocolprovisions, but in effect self-regulated by the InternationalAssociation of Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO). Not all vesselsassociated with Antarctic tourism are members of IAATO, butIAATO members account for 95% of the tourist activity. Travel islargely by small or medium ship, focusing on specific sceniclocations with accessible concentrations of iconic wildlife. A total of37,506 tourists visited during the 2006–07 Austral summer withnearly all of them coming from commercial ships. The number ispredicted to increase to over 80,000 by 2010.[65][66]

There has been some recent concern over the potential adverseenvironmental and ecosystem effects caused by the influx ofvisitors. A call for stricter regulations for ships and a tourism quotahas been made by some environmentalists and scientists.[67] Theprimary response by Antarctic Treaty Parties has been to develop, through their Committee forEnvironmental Protection and in partnership with IAATO, "site use guidelines" setting landing limits andclosed or restricted zones on the more frequently visited sites. Antarctic sight seeing flights (which did notland) operated out of Australia and New Zealand until the fatal crash of Air New Zealand Flight 901 in1979 on Mount Erebus, which killed all 257 aboard. Qantas resumed commercial overflights to Antarcticafrom Australia in the mid-1990s.

Transport

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A full moon and 25-second exposureallowed sufficient light for this phototo be taken at Amundsen-Scott South

Pole Station during the longAntarctic night. The station can beseen at far left, the power plant in

the center and the mechanic's garagein the lower right. The green light in

the background is the AuroraAustralis.

Main article: Transport in Antarctica

Transport on the continent has transformed from explorers crossing the isolated remote area of Antarcticaon foot to a more open area due to human technologies enabling more convenient and faster transport byland and predominantly by air and water. The use of dogs to pull researchers and sledges has been bannedon objections that dogs are an alien species to Antarctica and menaces to wildlife as superpredators.

ResearchSee also: List of research stations in Antarctica

Each year, scientists from 27 different nations conduct experimentsnot reproducible in any other place in the world. In the summermore than 4,000 scientists operate research stations; this numberdecreases to nearly 1,000 in the winter.[1] McMurdo Station iscapable of housing more than 1,000 scientists, visitors, and tourists.

Researchers include biologists, geologists, oceanographers,physicists, astronomers, glaciologists, and meteorologists.Geologists tend to study plate tectonics, meteorites from outer space,and resources from the breakup of the supercontinentGondwanaland. Glaciologists in Antarctica are concerned with thestudy of the history and dynamics of floating ice, seasonal snow,glaciers, and ice sheets. Biologists, in addition to examining thewildlife, are interested in how harsh temperatures and the presenceof people affect adaptation and survival strategies in a wide varietyof organisms. Medical physicians have made discoveries concerningthe spreading of viruses and the body's response to extreme seasonaltemperatures. Astrophysicists at Amundsen-Scott South Pole Stationstudy the celestial dome and cosmic microwave backgroundradiation. Many astronomical observations are better made from the interior of Antarctica than from mostsurface locations because of the high elevation, which results in a thin atmosphere, low temperature, whichminimizes the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere, and absence of light pollution, thus allowing fora view of space clearer than anywhere else on Earth. Antarctic ice serves as both the shield and thedetection medium for the largest neutrino telescope in the world, built 2 kilometers below Amundsen-Scottstation.[68]

Since the 1970s, an important focus of study has been the ozone layer in the atmosphere above Antarctica.In 1985, three British Scientists working on data they had gathered at Halley Station on the Brunt Ice Shelfdiscovered the existence of a hole in this layer. In 1998, NASA satellite data showed that the Antarcticozone hole was the largest on record, covering 27 million km2 (10 million sq mi). It was eventuallydetermined that the destruction of the ozone was caused by chlorofluorocarbons emitted by humanproducts. With the ban of CFCs in the Montreal Protocol of 1989, it is believed that the ozone hole willclose up over the next fifty years.

Princess Elisabeth Polar Science Station

On 6 September 2007, Belgian-based International Polar Foundation unveiled the Princess Elisabethstation, the world's first zero-emissions polar science station in Antarctica to research climate change.

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Antarctic meteorite, namedALH84001, from Mars.

station, the world's first zero-emissions polar science station in Antarctica to research climate change.Costing $16.3 million, the prefabricated station, which is part of International Polar Year, was shipped tothe South Pole from Belgium by the end of 2008 to monitor the health of the polar regions. Belgian polarexplorer Alain Hubert stated: "This base will be the first of its kind to produce zero emissions, making it aunique model of how energy should be used in the Antarctic." Johan Berte is the leader of the stationdesign team and manager of the project which conducts research in climatology, glaciology andmicrobiology.[69]

Meteorites

Meteorites from Antarctica are an important area of study ofmaterial formed early in the solar system; most are thought to comefrom asteroids, but some may have originated on larger planets. Thefirst meteorites were found in 1912. In 1969, a Japanese expeditiondiscovered nine meteorites. Most of these meteorites have fallenonto the ice sheet in the last million years. Motion of the ice sheettends to concentrate the meteorites at blocking locations such asmountain ranges, with wind erosion bringing them to the surfaceafter centuries beneath accumulated snowfall. Compared withmeteorites collected in more temperate regions on Earth, theAntarctic meteorites are well-preserved.[70]

This large collection of meteorites allows a better understanding of the abundance of meteorite types in thesolar system and how meteorites relate to asteroids and comets. New types of meteorites and raremeteorites have been found. Among these are pieces blasted off the Moon, and probably Mars, by impacts.These specimens, particularly ALH84001 discovered by ANSMET, are at the center of the controversyabout possible evidence of microbial life on Mars. Because meteorites in space absorb and record cosmicradiation, the time elapsed since the meteorite hit the Earth can be determined from laboratory studies. Theelapsed time since fall, or terrestrial residence age, of a meteorite represents more information that might beuseful in environmental studies of Antarctic ice sheets.[70]

In 2006, a team of researchers from Ohio State University used gravity measurements by NASA's GRACEsatellites to discover the 300-mile (480 km)-wide Wilkes Land crater, which probably formed about 250million years ago.[71]

Volcanic eruption

In January 2008, the British Antarctic Survey (BAS) scientists, led by Hugh Corr and David Vaughan,reported (in the journal Nature Geoscience) that 2,200 years ago, a volcano erupted under Antarctica icesheet (based on airborne survey with radar images). The biggest eruption in Antarctica in the last 10,000years, the volcanic ash was found deposited on the ice surface under the Hudson Mountains, close to PineIsland Glacier.[72]

Ice mass and global sea levelSee also: Current sea level rise

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Warming trend from 1957 through 2006

Due to its location at the South Pole, Antarctica receives relatively little solar radiation. This means that itis a very cold continent where water is mostly in the form of ice. Precipitation is low (most of Antarctica isa desert) and almost always in the form of snow, which accumulates and forms a giant ice sheet whichcovers the land. Parts of this ice sheet form moving glaciers known as ice streams, which flow towards theedges of the continent. Next to the continental shore are many ice shelves. These are floating extensions ofoutflowing glaciers from the continental ice mass. Offshore, temperatures are also low enough that ice isformed from seawater through most of the year. It is important to understand the various types of Antarcticice to understand possible effects on sea levels and the implications of global warming.

Sea ice extent expands annually in the Antarctic winter and most of this ice melts in the summer. This iceis formed from the ocean water and floats in the same water and thus does not contribute to rise in sealevel. The extent of sea ice around Antarctica has remained roughly constant in recent decades, althoughthe thickness changes are unclear.[73][74]

Melting of floating ice shelves (ice that originated on the land) does not in itself contribute much to sea-level rise (since the ice displaces only its own mass of water). However it is the outflow of the ice from theland to form the ice shelf which causes a rise in global sea level. This effect is offset by snow falling backonto the continent. Recent decades have witnessed several dramatic collapses of large ice shelves aroundthe coast of Antarctica, especially along the Antarctic Peninsula. Concerns have been raised that disruptionof ice shelves may result in increased glacial outflow from the continental ice mass.[75]

On the continent itself, the large volume of ice present stores around 70% of the world's fresh water.[19]

This ice sheet is constantly gaining ice from snowfall and losing ice through outflow to the sea. WestAntarctica is currently experiencing a net outflow of glacial ice, which will increase global sea level overtime. A review of the scientific studies looking at data from 1992 to 2006 suggested a net loss of around 50Gigatonnes of ice per year was a reasonable estimate (around 0.14 mm of sea level rise).[76] Significantacceleration of outflow glaciers in the Amundsen Sea Embayment may have more than doubled this figurefor the year 2006.[77]

East Antarctica is a cold region with a ground base above sea level and occupies most of the continent.This area is dominated by small accumulations of snowfall which becomes ice and thus eventually seawardglacial flows. The mass balance of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet as a whole is thought to be slightly positive(lowering sea level) or near to balance.[76][77] However, increased ice outflow has been suggested in someregions.[77][78]

Effects of global warmingSome of Antarctica has been warming up, particularly strongwarming has been noted on the Antarctic Peninsula. A study byEric Steig published in 2009 noted for the first time that thecontinent-wide average surface temperature trend of Antarctica isslightly positive at >0.05 °C (0.09 °F) per decade from 1957 to2006. This study also noted that West Antarctica has warmed bymore than 0.1 °C (0.2 °F) per decade in the last 50 years, and thiswarming is strongest in winter and spring. This is partly offset byfall cooling in East Antarctica.[79] There is evidence from onestudy that Antarctica is warming as a result of human carbon

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Warming trend from 1957 through 2006

Image of the largest Antarctic ozonehole ever recorded due to CFC

accumulation (September 2006).

dioxide emissions.[80] However, the small amount of surfacewarming in West Antarctica is not believed to be directly affectingthe West Antarctic Ice Sheet's contribution to sea level. Instead therecent increases in glacier outflow are believed to be due to aninflow of warm water from the deep ocean, just off the continentalshelf.[81][82] The net contribution to sea level from the Antarctic Peninsula is more likely to be a directresult of the much greater atmospheric warming there.[83]

In 2003 the Antarctic Peninsula's Larsen-B ice shelf collapsed.[84] Between 28 February and 8 March 2008,about 570 square kilometres (220 sq mi) of ice from the Wilkins Ice Shelf on the southwest part of thepeninsula collapsed, putting the remaining 15,000 km2 (5,800 sq mi) of the ice shelf at risk. The ice wasbeing held back by a "thread" of ice about 6 km wide,[85][86] prior to its collapse on 5 April 2009.[87][88]

According to NASA, the most widespread Antarctic surface melting of the past 30 years occurred in 2005,when an area of ice comparable in size to California briefly melted and refroze; this may have resultedfrom temperatures rising to as high as 5 °C (41 °F).[89]

Ozone depletionMain article: Ozone depletion

Each year a large area of low ozone concentration or "ozone hole"grows over Antarctica. This hole covers the whole continent and isat its largest in September. The year 2008 saw the longest lastinghole on record, which remained until the end of December.[90] Thehole was detected by scientists in 1985[91] and has tended toincrease over the years of observation. The ozone hole is attributedto the emission of chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs into the atmosphere,which decompose the ozone into other gases.[92]

Some scientific studies suggest that ozone depletion may have adominant role in the recent climate changes in Antarctica (and awider area of the Southern Hemisphere).[91] Ozone absorbs largeamounts of ultraviolet radiation in the stratosphere. Ozone depletionover Antarctica can cause a cooling of around 6 °C in the localstratosphere. This cooling has the effect of intensifying the westerly winds which flow around the continent(the polar vortex) and thus prevents outflow of the cold air near the South Pole. As a result, the continentalmass of the East Antarctic ice sheet is held at lower temperatures, and the peripheral areas of Antarctica,especially the Antarctic Peninsula, are subject to higher temperatures, which promote acceleratedmelting.[91] Recent models also suggest that the ozone depletion/enhanced polar vortex effect also accountsfor the recent increase in sea-ice just offshore of the continent.[93]

See also

Antarctic Geopolitics

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Geographic regions

Antarctic PeninsulaAntarctica ecozoneEast AntarcticaWest AntarcticaExtreme points of the AntarcticList of Antarctic and sub-Antarctic islandsMcMurdo SoundRoss SeaWeddell Sea

Geography

Ancient world mapsList of Bulgarian toponyms in AntarcticaList of deserts by areaList of places with fewer than ten residents(Note: refers to permanent residents)List of research stations in AntarcticaWorld map

Antarctica TreatyAntarctic Treaty SecretariatArgentine Antarctic GeopoliticsBrazil Antarctic GeopoliticsChile Antarctic GeopoliticsFlags of Antarctica

Other

Tourism in AntarcticaAntarctic StampsAntarctica MarathonCommunications in AntarcticaThe Icebird, an Australian supply vessel.Life in the Freezer, a BBC natural historytelevision series on life on and aroundAntarcticaList of mammals of AntarcticaMarch of the Penguins, an Academy Awardwinning documentary film depicting theannual journey Emperor Penguins make totheir ancestral breeding grounds.Soviet Antarctic ExpeditionTrinity Church, Antarctica

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factbook/geos/ay.html#People) . United States Central Intelligence Agency. 2007-03-08.https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ay.html#People. Retrieved 2007-03-14.

2. ^ "National Geophysical Data Center" (http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/image/2minrelief.html) . National Satellite,Data, and Information Service. http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/image/2minrelief.html. Retrieved 9 June 2006.

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16. ^ "Roald Amundsen" (http://www.south-pole.com/p0000101.htm) . south-pole.com. http://www.south-pole.com/p0000101.htm. Retrieved 2006-02-09.

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http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v421/n6920/abs/nature01290.html. Retrieved 2009-10-19.30. ^ a b edited by Mary Trewby. (September 2002). Trewby, Mary (ed.). ed. Antarctica: An Encyclopedia from

Abbott Ice Shelf to Zooplankton. Firefly Books. ISBN 1-55297-590-8.31. ^ Gavin Hudson (2008-12-14). "The Coldest Inhabited Places on Earth" (http://ecoworldly.com/2008/12/14/the-

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34. ^ "Владимир Петраков: «Антарктика – это особая атмосфера, где живут очень интересные люди» (VladimirPetrakov: "Antarctic is a special world, full of very interesting people"" (http://pravoslavye.org.ua/index.php?action=fullinfo&r_type=&id=22495) (in Russian). http://pravoslavye.org.ua/index.php?action=fullinfo&r_type=&id=22495. (Interview with Father Vladimir Petrakov, a priest who twice spent a year atthe station)

35. ^ R.K. Headland, The Island of South Georgia, Cambridge University Press, 1984.36. ^ The text of the Antarctic Treaty (http://www.nsf.gov/od/opp/antarct/anttrty.jsp) , article VI ("Area covered by

Treaty") states: "The provisions of the present Treaty shall apply to the area south of 60º South latitude"37. ^ Explorer's Gazette Volume 9, Issue 1 (http://www.oaea.net/Volume9,Issue1.pdf)38. ^ Times On Line article on Antarctica (http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article2859563.ece)39. ^ "Questions and answers"

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http://www.nas.nasa.gov/About/Education/Ozone/antarctic.html. Retrieved 2009-02-07.93. ^ Turner J., Comiso J.C., Marshall G.J., Lachlan-Cope T.A., Bracegirdle T., Maksym T., Meredith M.P., Wang

Z., Orr A. (2009). "Non-annular atmospheric circulation change induced by stratospheric ozone depletion and itsrole in the recent increase of Antarctic sea ice extent". Geophysical Research Letters 36: L08502.doi:10.1029/2009GL037524 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1029%2F2009GL037524) .

External linksAntarctic region (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Polar_Regions/Antarctic//) at the Open DirectoryProjectAntarctica (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ay.html) entry at TheWorld FactbookAntarctic Treaty Secretariat (http://www.ats.aq/) , de facto governmentBritish Antarctic Survey (BAS) (http://www.antarctica.ac.uk)U.S. Antarctic Program Portal (http://www.usap.gov/)Australian Antarctic Division (http://www.aad.gov.au/)South African National Antarctic Programme - Official Website (http://www.sanap.ac.za)Portals on the World - Antarctica (http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/frd/antarctica/antarctica.html)from the Library of CongressNASA's LIMA (http://lima.nasa.gov/) (Landsat Image Mosaic of Antarctica) (USGS mirror(http://lima.usgs.gov/) )The Antarctic Sun (http://antarcticsun.usap.gov/) (Online newspaper of the U.S. Antarctic Program)Antarctica travel guide (http://wikitravel.org/en/Antarctica) from WikiTravel (http://wikitravel.org/)interactive Daily Satellite Map (http://ice-map.appspot.com/?map=Ant&lat=-89.99&lon=0)

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarctica"Categories: Antarctica | Continents | Extreme points of Earth | Poles | Greek loanwords