ap biology summer assignment · 15. the chromosomal basis of inheritance marking period 2 16. the...

AP Biology

Summer Assignment

Cherokee AP Biology Summer Assignment 2018

Key Dates:

8/1 – Last day to drop class if you change your mind

1st Class Meeting – Reading quizzes on chapters for summer assignments

4th Class Meeting – Test on summer assignment chapters 3-6 (Guided Reading for Chapters 1 and 2 are included, but will not be on the test) You must know pH for the test

I will only check my email twice all summer. It is your responsibility to be sure that you are following directions in this packet and discussed in the meeting.

Textbook Information:

The assigned chapters and questions are from Biology, 8th edition by Neil Campbell and Jane Reece. The ISBN for the 8th edition book is 0-8053-6844-2. You may choose to purchase your own book, as you can highlight, write, or mark the book up as you please. Google “cheap used textbooks” and you will find all kinds of options. We just checked and you can buy used copies of this book for as little as $8.00. You are not required to purchase your own copy of the book, but it’s nice to be able to highlight and write notes in a text as you read. Many past students find this to be a vital resource.

We have school-owned textbooks for those who do not wish to purchase their own book. If you need to get this book over the summer, contact Karen McShane in the North Counseling Center (ext. 2225).

Please see Mr. Dilks’s or Mrs. Justice’s e-board for the directions on how to sign up for the online textbook.

We strongly recommend the Baron’s AP test Preparation book. Even if you are not planning on taking the test, this is a great resource to have through the year.

Summer Assignment:

AP Biology is an intense course that covers A LOT of material. The chapters assigned this summer will not be

formally covered in class. On the first day of school you will have a reading quiz on the chapters that you have

read and outlined over the summer. You will be able to use HANDWRITTEN GUIDED READING PACKETS AND

POGILS to complete these reading quizzes. Feel free to include diagrams or pictures in your notes. We will have

a test on the assigned material on our 4th class meeting. You may find it useful to highlight, outline, re-read, and

explain the content to someone else. The majority of this information has been presented to you already in

your introductory biology course. Be sure to know this INSIDE AND OUT!!!

Chapters to comprehend (chapters in the 8thedition of the text, due first day back):

Chapter 3: Water & the Fitness of the Fitness of the Environment

Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life

Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of Macromolecules

Chapter 6: A Tour of the Cell YOU NEED TO READ AND UNDERSTAND THESE CHAPTERS. JUST DOING THE “WRITTEN

ASSIGNMENTS” IS NOT ENOUGH. COMPREHENSION IS KEY!

Written assignments (Due 1st Day Back)

Guided Reading (chapters 3-6)

POGIL o Biochemistry Basics o Membrane Structure o Protein Structure

Check basic level of understanding:

For each chapter, we strongly suggest you answer the self-quiz and essay questions at the end of each chapter. The answers are in the textbook to check your understanding (this will not be collected or graded, but it will help your comprehension).

You need to actively read the chapters being covered

What you need the first day of class o Completed summer assignment (Reading and written) o Lab Notebook – must be a composition book o 3 ring binder (at least 2”) with loose leaf

What to expect in the course:

Whether you are planning on taking the AP Biology Exam or not, the course will be designed to prepare

students for this exam. The pace will be quick, and you are expected to spend a good amount of time reading

and studying on your own. To give you some frame of reference, in Accelerated Biology it would take about 12

school days to cover and test one chapter. In AP Biology, we will only spend about 3-4 school days to cover the

material in one chapter. There is an expectation that you will use your free to time to fill in any unintended

comprehension gaps created by the pace of the course (and obviously, see me for extra help as needed). We

will test once every few chapters. There may be cumulative tests given sporadically throughout the school year.

Adequate notice will be given so that you can prepare appropriately.

Classes are designed to be highly interactive, with questions frequently presented to students to ascertain understanding and encourage critical thinking.

Prior to the AP Biology Exam, expect homework every night, over weekends, and over holiday breaks. Homework will often include critical reading, outlining, preparing for laboratory exercises, and formal questioning.

Our sole bit of studying advice is to learn to be an academic tortoise; don’t be a hare! Study the material every night to the point of comprehension – don’t wait until the last minute and cram.

Advanced Placement Biology Syllabus

This course will be designed to prepare you to take the AP Biology test in May

Mr. Dilks

email: [email protected]

E-board: rdilks.lrhsd.org

Remind 101: text @mrdilks to 81010

Mrs. Justice

email: [email protected]

E-board: ljustice.lrhsd.org

Remind 101: text @mrsjustice to 81010

Materials:

1. Textbook 3. 3 ring binder (AT LEAST 2”) with loose leaf 2. Marble Composition book 4. Scientific Calculator

Evaluative Criteria:

Tests

Approximately 2-3 per MP; announced usually a week prior to testing. Tests will cover multiple chapters (as opposed to chapter tests). Approximately 50% of your test grade will be based on a multiple choice portion of the test and the other 50% will be based on your free response portion of the test. This is designed to reflect the setup of the AP Biology Exam. The test material will be taken from lecture, the textbook, and laboratory work.

Quizzes

There will be periodic announced and unannounced quizzes throughout the course. They will cover lecture material, homework assignments and laboratory material.

Laboratory Exercises & Reports

This course is a laboratory based experience

Laboratory assessment will include pre- lab readings and quizzes, post-lab questioning, and lab reports

Lab reports will be graded on scientific methods, precision and accuracy of results, accuracy of calculations, laboratory techniques, report format, and the ability to reach sound conclusions

Other than obtaining data with a lab partner, the remaining sections of the lab assignment must always be an independent effort.

Homework

Homework may include reading the assigned chapters in the text, questioning, projects, and presentations.

Each student is expected to write his/her own assignment independently. Homework is expected to be turned in at the beginning of the class period on time.

No late assignments will be accepted for credit

Homework also includes preparing formal lab reports, as described above

Other lab activities may be graded as informal homework assignments Keep in mind, technology is a tool not an excuse for late assignments.

Bio Nerd “Hall of Fame”

Will be on a plaque outside of our rooms Can be achieved by attaining either of the following two criteria

o Earning straight A’s for all 4 MP and a 5 on the AP test

Grading Policy (The Point System):

The final quarter grade will be calculated as a percentage of the maximum points possible Points Earned / Total Possible Points = Final Grade

Sign up for remind 101

Ask students and parents to text @mrdilks to 81010 or @mrsjustice to 81010

This is the class code for AP Biology. Students can always use mrdilks or mrsjustice to join this class.

Updates and reminders will be sent out via remind.com and you are expected to monitor this

Attendance Criteria:

If you are absent on the day an assignment is due, it is due the day you return to school. Just to clarify, not the next time the class meets, your first day returning to school.

If you are absent on the day that an assignment was given, upon your return you will have the same number of days you were absent to complete the assignment. ( For example, if you were absent Monday and Tuesday then come back to school on Wednesday, you will have two days to complete homework assigned Monday)

Check e-board and Genesis frequently. I will not track you down for missing assignments.

Missing assignments must be made up THE NEXT DAY (EVEN IF OUR CLASS DOES NOT MEET!!) If you do not make it up the next day, it may not be eligible for any credit.

If you are absent on the day of a quiz/test, you must take the test on the day of your return. On the day of your return you must see me before first period to schedule the make-up.

If you are absent on the day of a laboratory exercise, you will to approach me before first period and schedule a time to complete the exercise.

Only miss a test if you are physically unable to attend school or have family emergency

Make up test ONLY GIVEN THE FOLLOWING WEEK, FRIDAY AFTER SCHOOL. NO EXCEPTIONS.

Tips for Success in Science:

Engage yourself! In class and at home, work towards understanding, not just knowing Be engaged and an active learner during lecture. Read the chapter first before the topics are covered in class. After class, read and re-read material covered in class. If necessary, outline the chapter

in your notebook. Study day to day. In science, new material always builds on the old. Be an academic

tortoise, not a hare! Reference the AP Biology course guide frequently to ensure you understand vital

concepts.

Rules & Regulations:

Students are encouraged to work together to gain an understanding of the material, however all written work must be the students’ own original creation. Copying answers for any assignment is cheating. Copying and pasting from any source (whether copyright protected or open source) will not be accepted for credit and will be written up for plagiarism.

Students will always work in complete sentences.

Not listening to directions is unacceptable in the classroom / laboratory.

Use of cell phones, iPods, and other electronic devices is NOT PERMITTED AT ANY TIME unless permission is given by the instructor.

Honesty Policy:

All forms of academic dishonesty, including cheating, fabrication, facilitating academic dishonesty, and

plagiarism are deemed misconduct subject to imposition of discipline by the administration.

I have read and understood these policies and procedures.

Student signature: ___________________________ Parent/Guardian signature: ______________________

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Tenative Schedule Summer Work – Chapters 3, 4, 5, and 6.

Reading quiz on chapters (first day we return to school)

Test will be on the 4th day that we meet coming back in September

Marking Period 1 7. Membrane Structure and Function 8. An Introduction to Metabolism 9. Cellular Respiration: Harvesting Chemical Energy 10. Photosynthesis 11. Cell Communication 45. Hormones and the Endocrine System 12. The Cell Cycle 13. Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles 14. Mendel and the Gene Idea 15. The Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance

Marking Period 2 16. The Molecular Basis of Inheritance 17. From Gene to Protein 18. Control of Gene Expression 19. Viruses 21. Genomes and Their Evolution 22. Descent with Modification: A Darwinian View of Life 23. The Evolution of Populations 24. The Origin of Species 25. The History of Life on Earth 26. Phylogeny and the Tree of Life

Marking Period 3 48. Neurons, Synapses, and Signaling 49. Nervous Systems 50. Sensory and Motor Mechanisms 51. Animal Behavior 39. Plant Responses to Internal and External Signals 43. The Immune System 44. Osmoregulation and Excretion 47. Animal Development 52. An Introduction to Ecology and the Biosphere 53. Population Ecology 54. Community Ecology

Marking Period 4 55. Ecosystems 56. Conservation Biology and Restoration Ecology

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AP Biology Exam May 13, 2019 Laboratory Exercises Required By the College Board

Lab 8: Biotechnology: Bacterial Transformation (.pdf/1.01MB)

Lab 9: Biotechnology: Restriction Enzyme Analysis of DNA (.pdf/1.1MB)

Lab 7: Cell Division: Mitosis and Meiosis (.pdf/1.7MB)

Lab 1: Artificial Selection (.pdf/1.2MB)

Lab 2: Mathematical Modeling: Hardy-Weinberg (.pdf/1.4MB)

Lab 3: Comparing DNA Sequences to Understand Evolutionary Relationships with BLAST (.pdf/1.8MB)

Lab 4: Diffusion and Osmosis (.pdf/972KB)

Lab 13: Enzyme Activity (.pdf/1.04MB)

Lab 5: Photosynthesis (.pdf/1.9MB)

Lab 6: Cellular Respiration (.pdf/1.1MB)

Lab 10: Energy Dynamics (.pdf/1.2MB)

Lab 11: Transpiration (.pdf/1.1MB)

Lab 12: Fruit Fly Behavior (.pdf/927Kb)

http://media.collegeboard.com/digitalServices/pdf/ap/bio-manual/CB_Bio_Lab_08_WEB_1_24_12.pdf













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Name Period

Chapter 1: Introduction: Themes in the Study of Life

Begin your study of biology this year by reading Chapter 1. It will serve as a reminder about biological concepts that you may have learned in an earlier course and give you an overview of what you will study this year. 1. In the overview, Figure 1.3 recalls many of the properties of life. Label the seven

properties illustrated here, and give a different example of each.

Concept 1.1 Themes connect the concepts of biology

2. What are emergent properties? Give two examples.

3. Life is organize on many scales as seen in the picture below s.

Figure 1.4 zooms you in from viewing Earth from space all the way to the level of molecules. As you study this figure, write in a brief definition of each level. biosphere ecosystem

. - 5 -

community

population

organism

organs/organ systems

tissues

cells

organelles

molecules

4. Our study of biology will be organized around recurring themes. Make a list here of the

themes that are presented, and give an example that illustrates each theme. Watch for these themes throughout your study this entire year. This will help you see the big picture and organize your thinking. (Go to the Summary of Key Concepts at the end of the chapter for a concise look at the themes.)

Theme 1 Example

Theme 2:

Theme 3:

Theme 4:

Theme 5:

Theme 6:

Theme 7: (Find it in 1.2.)

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5. As you read this section, you will be reminded of things you may have studied in an earlier course. Since this material will be presented in detail in future chapters, you will come back to these ideas, so don’t fret if some of the concepts presented are unfamiliar. However, to guide your study, define each of the terms in bold as you come to them.

eukaryotic cell

prokaryotic cell

DNA

genes

genome

negative feedback/positive feedback

Concept 1.2 The Core Theme: Evolution accounts for the unity and diversity of life

6. Life is organized into groups. Study Figure 1.14. • Which level contains the greatest diversity of organism?

• The least?

• Write out the levels of organization in order.

• Most people use a mnemonic device to remember these levels. If you have one, write it here.

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AP Biology Reading Guide Chapter 1: Introduction: Themes in the Study of Life

Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw

7. Taxonomy is the branch of biology that names and classifies organisms. Because of new molecular information, there have been many changes in placement of certain groups in recent years. Notice that all life is now organized in your text into 3 domains rather than the 5 kingdoms you may have learned earlier. Put the kingdoms mentioned in the text in the space above the proper domain names shown here.

Bacteria Archaea Eukarya

8. What two main points were articulated in Darwin’s The Origin of Species?

9. What did Darwin propose as the mechanism of evolution? Summarize this mechanism. 10. Study Figure 1.22, which shows an evolutionary “tree.” What is indicated by each twig? What

do the branch points represent? Where did the “common ancestor” of the Galápagos finches originate?

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Concept 1.3 Scientists use two main forms of inquiry in their study of nature

11. What are the two main types of scientific inquiry? Give an example of each.

12. What is data?

13. Distinguish between quantitative and qualitative data. Which type would be presented in a data chart and could be graphed? Which type is found in the field sketches made by Jane Goodall?

14. In science, how do we define hypothesis?

15. A scientific hypothesis has two important qualities. The first is that it is testable. What is the second?

16. Are scientific hypotheses proved? Explain your answer!

17. Look at Figure 1.24. Use it to write a hypothesis using the “If . . . then . . .” format.

18. What is a controlled experiment?

19. The text points out a common misconception about the term “controlled experiment”. In the snake mimicry experiment, what factors were held constant?

20. Why are supernatural explanations outside the bounds of science?

AP Biology Reading Guide

Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. - 1 -


21. Explain what is meant by a scientific theory by giving the three ways your text separates a theory from a hypothesis or mere speculation.

1. 2. 3. Testing Your Knowledge: Self-Quiz Answers Now you should be ready to test your knowledge. Place your answers here: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.




Name Period

Chapter 2: The Chemical Context of Life

This chapter covers the basics that you may have learned in your chemistry class. Whether your teacher goes over this chapter, or assigns it for you do review on your own, the questions that follow should help you focus on the most important points.

Concept 2.1 Matter consists of chemical elements in pure form and in combinations called compounds

1. Define and give an example of the following terms:

matter element compound

2. What four elements make up 96% of all living matter?

3. What is the difference between an essential element and a trace element?

essential element trace element

Concept 2.2 An element’s properties depend on the structure of its atoms

4. Sketch a model of an atom of helium, showing the electrons, protons, neutrons, and atomic nucleus.

5. What is the atomic number of helium? Its atomic mass?

6. Here are some more terms that you should firmly grasp. Define each term. neutron proton electron

atomic number




atomic mass isotope electron shells energy

7. Consider this entry in the periodic table for carbon.

What is the atomic mass? atomic number?

How many electrons does carbon have? neutrons?

6

C

12

8. Which is the only subatomic particle that is directly involved in the chemical reactions between atoms?

9. What is potential energy?

10. Explain which has more potential energy in each pair:

a. boy at the top of a slide/boy at the bottom

b. electron in the first energy shell/electron in the third energy shell

c. water/glucose




11. What determines the chemical behavior of an atom?

12. Here is an electron distribution diagram for sodium:

a. How many valence electrons does it have? Circle the valence electron(s).

b. How many protons does it have?

Concept 2.3 The formation and function of molecules depend on chemical bonding between atoms

13. Define molecule.

14. Now, refer back to your definition of a compound and fill in the following chart:

Molecule? (y/n) Compound? (y/n) Molecular Formula Structural Formula Water

Carbon dioxide

Methane

O2 O2

15. What type of bond is seen in O2? Explain what this means.

16. What is meant by electronegativity?

17. Explain the difference between a nonpolar covalent bond and a polar covalent bond.




18. Make an electron distribution diagram of water. Which element is most electronegative? Why is water considered a polar molecule? Label the regions that are more positive or more negative. (This is a very important concept. Spend some time with this one!)

19. Another bond type is the ionic bond. Explain what is happening in the figure below (2.14):

20. What two elements are involved above?

21. Define anion and cation. In the preceding example, which is the anion?

22. What is a hydrogen bond? Indicate where the hydrogen bond occurs in this figure.

23. Explain van der Waals interactions. Though they represent very weak attractions, when these interactions are numerous they can stick a gecko to the ceiling!


24. Here is a list of the types of bonds and interactions discussed in this section. Place them in order from the strongest to the weakest: hydrogen bonds, van der Waals interactions, covalent bonds, ionic bonds.

STRONG

WEAK

25. Use morphine and endorphins as examples to explain why molecular shape is crucial in biology.

Concept 2.4 Chemical reactions make and break chemical bonds

26. Write the chemical shorthand equation for photosynthesis. Label the reactants and the products.

27. For the equation you just wrote, how many molecules of carbon dioxide are there?

How many molecules of glucose? How many elements in glucose?

28. What is meant by dynamic equilibrium? Does this imply equal concentrations of each reactant and product?

Testing Your Knowledge: Self-Quiz Answers Now you should be ready to test your knowledge. Place your answers here:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.


Name Period

Chapter 3: Water and the Fitness of the Environment

Concept 3.1 The polarity of water molecules results in hydrogen bonding

1. Study the water molecules at the right. On the central molecule, label oxygen (O) and hydrogen (H).

2. What is a polar molecule? Why is water considered polar?

3. Now, add + and – signs to indicate the charged regions of each molecule. Then, indicate the hydrogen bonds.

4. Explain hydrogen bonding. How many hydrogen bonds can

a single water molecule form?

Concept 3.2 Four emergent properties of water contribute to Earth’s fitness for life

Hydrogen bonding accounts for the unique properties of water. Let’s look at several.

Cohesion

5. Distinguish between cohesion and adhesion.

6. What is demonstrated when you see beads of water on a waxed car hood?

7. Which property explains the ability of a water strider to walk on water?

Moderation of Temperature

8. The calorie is a unit of heat. Define calorie.

9. Water has high specific heat. What does this mean? How does water’s specific heat compare to alcohol’s?

10. Explain how hydrogen bonding contributes to water’s high specific heat.


11. Summarize how water’s high specific heat contributes to the moderation of temperature. How is this property important to life?

12. Define evaporation. What is heat of vaporization? Explain at least three effects of this property on living organisms.

Expansion upon Freezing

13. Ice floats! So what? Consider what would happen if ponds and other bodies of water accumulated ice at the bottom. Describe why this property of water is important.

14. Now, explain why ice floats. Why is 4oC the critical temperature in this story?

Solvent of Life

15. Review and define these terms: solvent

solution

solute

16. Consider coffee to which you have added sugar. Which is the solvent? The solute?

17. Explain why water is such a fine solvent.

18. Define hydrophobic and hydrophilic.

19. You already know that some materials, such as olive oil, will not dissolve in water. In fact, oil will float on top of water. Explain this property in terms of hydrogen bonding.


20. Now, let’s do a little work that will enable you to prepare solutions. Read the section on solute concentrations carefully, and show the calculations here for preparing a 1-molar solution of sucrose. Steps to help you do this follow. The first step is done for you. Fill in the rest.

Steps to prepare a solution:

a. Write the molecular formula. C12H22O11

b. Use your periodic table to calculate the mass of each element. Multiply by the number of atoms

of the element. (For example, O has a mass of 16. Therefore one mole of O has a mass of 16 x 11 = 176 g/mole.)

c. Add the masses of each element in the molecule.

d. Add this mass of the compound to water to bring it to a volume of 1 liter. This makes 1 liter of a 1-M (1 molar) solution.

21. Can you prepare 1 liter of a 0.5-molar glucose solution? Show your work here.

22. Define molarity.

Concept 3.3 Acidic and basic conditions affect living organisms

23. What two ions form when water dissociates?

You should have answered “hydronium (H3O+) and hydroxide ions (OH–)” in the preceding question. However, by convention, we will represent the hydronium ion as H+.

24. What is the concentration of each ion in pure water at 25oC?

25. Water has a pH of 7. pH is defined as the negative log of the hydrogen ion concentration [H+]. Can you now see how water is assigned a pH of 7?

26. To go a step further, the product of H+ and OH– concentrations is constant at 10–14.

[H+}[OH–} = 10–14.


Fred and Theresa Holtzclaw Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life



Water, which is neutral with a pH of 7, has an equal number of H+ and OH– ions. Now, define acid

base

27. Because the pH scale is logarithmic, each numerical change represents a 10X change in ion concentration.

a. So, how many times more acidic is a pH of 3 compared to a pH of 5?

b. How many times more basic is a pH of 12 compared to a pH of 8?

c. Explain difference between a pH of 8 and a pH of 12 in terms of H+ concentration.

28. On the pH chart, label pH 1–14. Label neutral, acid, base. Indicate the locations of pure water, urine, gastric juice, and bleach.

29. Even a slight change in pH can be harmful! How do buffers moderate pH change?

30. Exercise will result in the production of CO2, which will acidify the blood. Explain the buffering system that minimizes blood pH changes.

31. Acid precipitation is increasing. Explain its sources.

32. Discuss how CO2 emissions affect marine life and ecosystems.


1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.




Name Period

Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life

Concept 4.1 Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds

1. Study this figure of Stanley Miller’s experiment to simulate conditions thought to have existed on the early Earth. Explain the elements of this experiment, using arrows to indicate what occurs in various parts of the apparatus.

2. What was collected in the sample for chemical analysis? What was concluded from the results of this experiment?

Concept 4.2 Carbon atoms can form diverse molecules by bonding to four other atoms 3. Make an electron distribution diagram of carbon. It is essential that you know the answers to

these questions:

a. How many valence electrons does carbon have?

b. How many bonds can carbon form?

b. What type of bonds does it form with other elements?

4. Carbon chains form skeletons. List here the types of skeletons that can be formed. 5. What is a hydrocarbon? Name two. Are hydrocarbons hydrophobic or hydrophilic?




6. In Chapter 2 you learned what an isotope is. Since students often confuse this word with isomer, please define each term here and give an example.

Definition Example isotope

isomer

7. Use this figure to identify the three types of isomers. For each type, give a key character and an example.

8. Give one example of enantiomers that

vary in their pharmacological effect.

Concept 4.3 A small number of chemical groups are key to the functioning of biological molecules 9. Here is an idea that will recur throughout your study of the function of molecules: Change the

structure, change the function. You see this in enantiomers, you will see it in proteins and enzymes, and now we are going to look at testosterone and estradiol. Notice how similar these two molecules are, and yet you know what a vastly different effect each has. Label each molecule in the sketch below, and circle the differences.

10. Define functional group.

AP Reading Guide


Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of Large Biological Molecules


11. There are seven functional groups. Complete the following chart.

Hydroxyl Carbonyl Carboxyl Amino Sulfhydryl Phosphate Methyl Structure

Example

Functional Properties

12. You will need to master the chart and the information in it. Using the functional groups above, see if you can answer the following prompts:

a. –NH2

b. Can form cross-links that stabilize protein structure

c. Key component of ATP

d. Can affect gene expression

e. CH3

f. Is always polar

g. Determines the two groups of sugars

h. Has acidic properties

i. –COOH

j. Acts as a base

k. Circle and identify three functional groups in the molecule shown above.


1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

AP Reading Guide




Name Period


Concept 5.1 Macromolecules are polymers, built from monomers

1. The large molecules of all living things fall into just four main classes. Name them.

2. Circle the three classes that are called macromolecules. Define macromolecule.

3. What is a polymer?

a monomerr?

4. Monomers are connected in what type of reaction? What occurs in this reaction?

5. Large molecules (polymers) are converted to monomers in what type of reaction?

6. The root words of hydrolysis will be used many times to form other words you will learn this year. What does each root word mean? Hydro

– lysis

7. Consider the following reaction:

C6H12O6 + C6H12O6-7 C12H22O11

a. The equation is not balanced; it is missing a molecule of water. Write it in on the

correct side of the equation.

b. So, what kind of reaction is this?

c. Is C6H12O6 (glucose) a monomer, or a polymer?

d. To summarize, when two monomers are joined, a molecule of is always removed.

AP Reading Guide




Concept 5.2 Carbohydrates serve as fuel and building material

8. Let’s look at carbohydrates, which include sugars and starches. First, what are the monomers of all carbohydrates?

9. Most monosaccharides are some multiple of (CH2O). For example, ribose is a 5-carbon sugar with the formula C5H10O5. It is a pentose sugar. (From the root penta–, meaning 5.) What is the formula of a hexose sugar?

10. Here are the three hexose sugars. Label each of them. Notice that all sugars have the same two functional groups. Name them:

C=O

—OH

11. What is the difference between an aldehyde sugar and a ketone sugar?

12. So, as a quick review, all of these sugars have the same chemical formula: C6H12O6. What term did you learn in Chapter 3 for compounds that have the same molecular formulas but different structural formulas?

AP Reading Guide




13. Here is the abbreviated ring structure of glucose. Where are all the carbons?

Pay attention to the numbering system. This will be important as we progress in our study. Circle the number 3 carbon. Put a square around the number 5 carbon.

14. Let’s look at our reaction in question 7 again: C6H12O6 + C6H12O6-7 C12H22O11 + H2O Notice that two monomers are joined to make a polymer. Since the monomers are monosaccharides, the polymer is a disaccharide. Three disaccharides are important to us with the formula C12H22O11. Name them below and fill out the chart.

Disaccharide Formed from which two monosaccharides? Found where?

15. Have you noticed that all the sugars end in –ose? This root word means .

16. What is a glycosidic linkage?

17. Here is a molecule of starch, which shows 1–4 glycosidic linkages. Translate and explain this terminology in terms of carbon numbering.

AP Reading Guide




18. There are two categories of polysaccharides. Name them and give examples.

Type of Polysaccharide Examples

19. Why can you not digest cellulose? What organisms can?

20. Let’s review some key points about the carbohydrates. Each prompt below describes a unique carbohydrate. Name the correct carbohydrate for each.

a. Has 1–4 B glucose linkages

b. Is a storage polysaccharide produced by vertebrates; stored in your liver

c. Two monomers of this form maltose

d. Glucose + form sucrose

e. Monosaccharide commonly called “fruit sugar”

f. “Milk sugar”

g. Structural polysaccharide that gives cockroaches their crunch

h. Malt sugar; used to brew beer

i. Structural polysaccharide that comprises plant cell walls

Concept 5.3 Lipids are a diverse group of hydrophobic molecules

21. Lipids include fats, waxes, oils, phospholipids, and steroids. What characteristic do all lipids share?

22. What are the building blocks of fats? Label them on this figure.


AP Reading Guide Chapter 5: The Structure and Function of Large Biological Molecules


23. If a fat is composed of 3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol molecule, how many water molecules will be removed to form it? Again, what is this process called?

24. On the figure with question 22, label the ester linkages. 25. Draw a fatty acid chain that is 8 carbons long and is unsaturated. Circle the element in your

chain that makes it unsaturated, and explain what this means. 26. Name two saturated fats.

27. Name two unsaturated fats.

28. Why are many unsaturated fats liquid at room temperature?

29. What is a trans fat? Why should you limit them in your diet?

30. List four important functions of fats.

31. Here is a figure that shows the structure of a phospholipid. Label the sketch to show the phosphate group, the glycerol, and the fatty acid chains. Also indicate the region that is hydrophobic and the region that is hydrophilic.

32. Why is the “tail” hydrophobic?


AP Reading Guide



33. Which of the two fatty acid chains in the figure with question 31 is unsaturated? Label it. How do you know it is unsaturated?

34. To summarize, a phospholipid has a glycerol attached to a phosphate group and two fatty acid chains. The head is hydrophilic, and the tail is hydrophobic. Now, sketch the phospholipid bilayer structure of a plasma membrane. Label the hydrophilc heads, hydrophobic tails, and location of water.

35. Study your sketch. Why are the tails all located in the interior?

36. Some people refer to this structure as three hexagons and a doghouse. What is it?

37. What are other examples of steroids?

Concept 5.4 Proteins have many structures, resulting in a wide range of functions

38. Table 5.1 is loaded with important information. Select any five types of proteins and summarize each type here.

Type of Protein Function Example


AP Reading Guide



39. Enzymes are an important type of protein. They will be studied in Chapter 8. For now, use this sketch to review what you know about enzymes. Label the active site, the substrate, and the products. Show what happens to water.

40. Is this reaction dehydration synthesis or hydrolysis?

41. The monomers of proteins are amino acids. Sketch an amino acid here. Label the alpha or central carbon, amino group, carboxyl group, and R group.

42. What is represented by R? How many are there?


AP Reading Guide



43. Study the figure. See if you can understand why some R groups are nonpolar, some polar, and others electrically charged (acidic or basic). If you were given an R group, could you place it in the correct group? Work on the R groups until you can see common elements in each category.

44. Define these terms:

dipeptide

polypeptide peptide bond Label each of these terms on the diagrams.


AP Reading Guide



45. There are four levels of protein structure. Refer to Figure 5.21, and summarize each level in the following table.

Level of Protein Structure Explanation Example Primary (Io)

Secondary (IIo) Alpha helix

Beta pleated sheet

Tertiary (IIIo)

Quaternary (IVo)

46. Label each of the levels of protein structure on this figure.


AP Reading Guide



47. Enzymes are globular proteins that exhibit at least tertiary structure. On this figure, identify and explain each interaction that folds this portion.

48. Do you remember when, in Chapter 4, we said, “Change the structure, change the function”?

Explain how that principle applies to sickle-cell disease. Why is the structure changed?

49. Besides mutation, which changes the primary structure of a protein, protein structure can

be changed by denaturation. Define denaturation, and give at least three ways a protein may become denatured.

50. Chaperone proteins or chaperonins assist in the proper folding of proteins. Annotate this

figure to explain the process.


AP Reading Guide




AP Reading Guide



Concept 5.5 Nucleic acids store and transmit hereditary information DNA and RNA will be the core topics of Chapter 17. For now, you should just review the general functions and know the components. 51. The flow of genetic information is from DNA -7 RNA-7 protein. Use this figure to explain the

process. Label the nucleus, DNA, mRNA, ribosome, and amino acids.

52. The components of a nucleic acid are a sugar, a nitrogenous base, and a phosphate group. Label each on the figure below.

53. You may recall that early in this chapter we looked at the numbering system for the carbons of

a sugar. Label the end of the strand on the left side of the figure below that has the number 5 sugar 5' and the other end of the chain 3'.


AP Reading Guide



54. Notice that there are five nitrogen bases. Which four are found in DNA?

55. Which four are found in RNA? 56. How do ribose and deoxyribose sugars differ?

57. To summarize, what are the three components of a nucleotide?

58. Here is a model of DNA, which was proposed by James Watson and Francis Crick. What is this

shape called?

59. Why are the strands said to be antiparallel? 60. What two molecules make up the “uprights”?


AP Reading Guide



61. What molecules make up the rungs?

62. For the two nucleotides of DNA below, provide the complementary base. A — C —

63. In a DNA double helix, a region along one DNA strand has this sequence of nitrogenous bases:

5'-T A G G C C T-3'

Write the complementary strand. Indicate the 5' and 3' ends of the new strand.

Testing Your Knowledge: Self-Quiz Answers Now you should be ready to test your knowledge. Place your answers here: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.



Chapter 6: A Tour of the Cell


This summary table from the Chapter 5 Review is an excellent study tool. Use it to organize material from this chapter in your mind.





Name Period


Concept 6.1 To study cells, biologists use microscopes and the tools of biochemistry

1. The study of cells has been limited by their small size, and so they were not seen and described until 1665, when Robert Hooke first looked at dead cells from an oak tree. His contemporary, Anton van Leeuwenhoek, crafted lenses; and with the improvements in optical aids, a new world was opened. Magnification and resolving power limit what can be seen. Explain the difference.

2. The development of electron microscopes has further opened our window on the cell and its organelles. What is considered a major disadvantage of the electron microscopes?

3. Study the electron micrographs in your text. Describe the different types of images obtained from: scanning electron microscopy (SEM)

transmission electron microscopy (TEM)

4. In cell fractionation, whole cells are broken up in a blender, and this slurry is centrifuged several times. Each time, smaller and smaller cell parts are isolated. This will isolate different organelles and allow study of their biochemical activities. Which organelles are the smallest ones isolated in this procedure?

Concept 6.2 Eukaryotic cells have internal membranes that compartmentalize their functions

5. Which two domains consist of prokaryotic cells?

6. A major difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells is the location of their DNA. Describe this difference.





7. On the sketch of a prokaryotic cell, label each of these features and give its function or description.

cell wall plasma membrane bacterial chromosome nucleoid cytoplasm flagella

8. Why are cells so small? Explain the relationship of surface area to volume.

9. Describe how many neurons and intestinal cells each have greatly increased surface area.

Concept 6.3 The eukaryotic cell’s genetic instructions are housed in the nucleus and carried out by the ribosomes 10. In the figure below, label the nuclear envelope, nuclear pores, and pore complex.

11. Describe the nuclear envelope. How many layers is it? What connects the layers?





12. What is the nuclear lamina? Nuclear matrix?

13. Found within the nucleus are the chromosomes. They are made of chromatin. What are the two components of chromatin? When do the thin chromatin fibers condense to become distinct chromosomes?

14. When are the nucleoli visible? What are assembled here?

15. What is the function of ribosomes? What are their two components?

16. Ribosomes in any type of organism are all the same, but we distinguish between two types of ribosomes based on where they are found and the destination of the protein product made. Complete this chart to demonstrate this concept.

Type of Ribosome Location Product

Free ribosomes

Bound ribosomes

Concept 6.4 The endomembrane system regulates protein traffic and performs metabolic functions in the cell

17. List all the structures of the endomembrane system.





18. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) makes up more than half the total membrane system in many eukaryotic cells. Use this sketch to explain the lumen, transport vesicles, and the difference between smooth and rough ER.

19. List and describe three major functions of the smooth ER.

20. Why does alcohol abuse increase tolerance to other drugs such as barbiturates?

21. The rough ER is studded with ribosomes. As proteins are synthesized, they are threaded into the lumen of the rough ER. Some of these proteins have carbohydrates attached to them in the ER to form glycoproteins. What does the ER then do with these secretory proteins?

22. Besides packaging secretory proteins into transport vesicles, what is another major function of the rough ER?





23. The transport vesicles formed from the rough ER fuse with the Golgi apparatus. Use this sketch to label the cisterna of the Golgi apparatus, and its cis and trans faces. Describe what happens to a transport vesicle and its contents when it arrives at the Golgi.

24. What is a lysosome? What do they contain? What is their pH?

25. One function of lysosomes is intracellular digestion of particles engulfed by phagocytosis. Describe this process of digestion. What human cells carry out phagocytosis?





26. A second function of lysosomes is to recycle cellular components in a process called autophagy. Describe this process.

27. What happens in Tay-Sachs disease? Explain the role of the lysosomes in Tay-Sachs.

28. There are many types of vacuoles. Briefly describe: food vacuoles

contractile vacuoles

central vacuoles in plants

(give at least three functions/materials stored here)

29. Use this figure to explain how the elements of the endomembrane system function together to secrete a protein and to digest a cellular component. Label as you explain.


AP Biology Reading Guide Chapter 6: A Tour of the Cell


Concept 6.5 Mitochondria and chloroplasts change energy from one form to another 30. Mitochondria and chloroplasts are not considered part of the endomembrane system,

although they are enclosed by membranes. Sketch a mitochondrion here and label its outer membrane, inner membrane, inner membrane space, cristae, matrix, and ribosomes.

31. Now sketch a chloroplast and label its outer membrane, inner membrane, inner membrane

space, thylakoids, granum, and stroma. Notice that the mitochondrion had two membrane compartments, while the chloroplast has three compartments.

32. What is the function of the mitochondria?

33. What is the function of the chloroplasts? 34. Recall the relationship of structure to function. Why is the inner membrane of the

mitochondria highly folded? What role do all the individual thylakoid membranes serve? (Same answer for both questions.) Chloroplasts and mitochondria both have ribosomes and their own DNA. You will learn later about their evolution, but for now hold onto these facts. They are semiautonomous organelles that grow and reproduce within the cell. And you’re lucky today— there is not a question here!


35. Explain the important role played by peroxisomes. SUMMARY On these diagrams of plant and animal cells, label each organelle and give a brief statement of its function. (you may want to copy and paste this to enlarge the diagram.

Concept 6.6 The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers that organizes structures and activities in the cell 36. What is the cytoskeleton?

37. What are the three roles of the cytoskeleton? 38. There are three main types of fibers that make up the cytoskeleton. Name them.

39. Microtubules are hollow rods made of a globular protein called tubulin. Each tubulin protein is

a dimer made of two subunits. These are easily assembled and disassembled. What are four functions of microtubules?


40. Animal cells have a centrosome that contains a pair of centrioles. Plant cells do not have centrioles. What is another name for centrosomes? What is believed to be the role of centrioles?

41. Describe the organization of microtubules in a centriole. Make a sketch here that shows this arrangement in cross section.

42. Cilia and flagella are also composed of microtubules. The arrangement of microtubules is said to be “9 + 2.” Make a sketch of a cross section here.

43. Compare and contrast cilia and flagella. (This is a specific instruction that means you are to tell how they are alike—compare—and tell how they are different—contrast. Remember this hint when you see a similar phrase on an exam.)

44. How do motor proteins called dyneins cause movement of cilia? What is the role of ATP in this movement? This figure might help you explain.


45. Microfilaments are solid, and they are built from a double chain of actin. What are four functions of microfilaments? What are the motor proteins that move the microfilaments?

46. Intermediate filaments are bigger than microfilaments but smaller than microtubules. They

are more permanent fixtures of cells. Give two functions of intermediate filaments.

Concept 6.7 Extracellular components and connections between cells help coordinate cellular activities 47 What are three functions of the cell wall?

48. What is the composition of the cell wall?

49. What is the relatively thin and flexible wall secreted first by a plant cell?

50. What is the middle lamella? Where is it found? What material is it made of?

51. Explain the deposition of a secondary cell wall.

52. On the sketch, label the primary cell wall, secondary cell wall, middle lamella, cytosol, plasma membrane, central vacuole, and plasmodesmata.


53. Animal cells do not have cell walls, but they do have an extracellular matrix (ECM). On this figure, label the elements indicated, and give the role of each.

54. What are the intercellular junctions between plant cells? What can pass through them? 55. Animals cells do not have plasmodesmata. This figure shows the three types of

intercellular junctions seen in animal cells. Label each type and summarize its role.


Here’s a great chart to summarize three concepts—study it!

Biochemistry Basics 1

Testing Your Knowledge: Self-Quiz Answers Now you should be ready to test your knowledge. Place your answers here: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.


Why?


Biochemistry Basics Why? What concepts from chemistry are helpful in studying biology?

Typically chemistry is a prerequisite course for advanced biology courses. This is because everything in your body, everything in a plant, everything in a virus, etc. is made of atoms. The structures and properties of the molecules in an organism determine the features and properties of the organism. Which molecules are polar, which are nonpolar? Which molecules have acidic properties, which have basic properties? A quick review of these concepts at the beginning of your advanced biology course will help you to understand the molecular basis for life.

Model 1 – Molecular Drawings

1. Name the three molecules that are illustrated in Model 1.

2. Name the three types of drawings that are used to illustrate the molecules in Model 1.


3. How many bonds are typically formed by each of the following atoms:

Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen

4. Which types of drawings in Model 1 provide more accurate images of the shape of a molecule? Justify your reasoning.

5. Refer to Model 1.

a. Symbols or atoms of what element(s) are missing from the line drawings?

b. In reading a line drawing, how do you know where atoms of these elements are in the

structure if they are missing from the drawing?

6. Locate the carbon and hydrogen atoms in the line drawing of isoleucine shown below and draw them in as if the drawing were a Lewis structure.

7. Isopropyl alcohol is a three-carbon molecule with an –OH group attached to the middle carbon atom. Draw this molecule using all three types of drawings.

8. If you were asked to write the chemical formula for one of the compounds in Model 1, which type of the drawing would be the easiest to use? Justify your reasoning.

9. What is the advantage to a scientist in using a line drawing rather than a ball-and-stick model or Lewis structure?


Model 2 – Properties of Biological Molecules


10. Consider the polar molecules in Model 2.

a. In general, the presence of atoms of what element(s) makes a molecule polar?

b. What property do atoms of these elements have that helps make the molecules they

are in polar?

c. Can nonpolar molecules also have atoms of these elements? If yes, what distinguishes a nonpolar molecule from a polar molecule?

11. In chemistry there is a saying “like dissolves like,” which means things will mix with or dissolve into each other best when their polarities are similar.

a. Is water polar or nonpolar?

b. Is oil polar or nonpolar?

c. Which of the substances in Model 2 would dissolve well in water? Justify your reasoning.

d. Which of the substances in Model 2 are more likely to dissolve well in oil? Justify your

reasoning.

e. Which class of substances in Model 2, polar or nonpolar, is more likely to be found in

high concentrations in the bloodstream of a vertebrate? Justify your reasoning.

12. Refer to Model 2.

a. What is another term for a polar molecule?

b. What is another term for a nonpolar molecule?

c. Give the literal translation for the terms you gave in parts a and b above.


13. Functional groups are key groups of atoms in biological molecules. Describe the carboxyl functional group that both acidic molecules in Model 2 have in common.

14. Recall the definition of an acid that you learned in chemistry. Explain how the reaction below illustrates the acidic properties of lactic acid.

15. Describe the functional group, called an amine group, that the basic molecules in Model 2 all have in common?

16. Recall the definition of a base that you learned in chemistry. Explain how the reaction below illustrates the basic properties of adrenaline.

17. Predict the approximate pH (pH = 7, pH > 7 or pH < 7) of fairly concentrated aqueous solutions of the following compounds from Model 2.

Lactic acid

Amino acid

Dopamine

Lactose


18. In chemistry you learned that covalent bonds are one type of intramolecular bond. They occur between nonmetal atoms in a molecule. You may have also learned about a type of intermo- lecular bond called a hydrogen bond. Hydrogen bonds are weak attractive forces between polar molecules containing the very polar bonds such as H-O, H-N or H-F.

a. Label at least two covalent bonds in the diagram above.

b. Label at least one hydrogen bond in the diagram above.

19. Which of the molecules in Model 2 would form hydrogen bonds with itself (that is, other molecules of the same type) or with water molecules if in a solution?


Extension Questions 20. Although amino acids have “acid” in their name, some are acidic in water solutions, some

are basic, and others are neutral. Propose an explanation for this observation based on the structures and descriptions of the amino acids below.

21. The structure shown below is a line drawing of noncyclic AMP, an important messenger molecule in molecular communication systems.

a. Draw the missing carbon and hydrogen atoms on the molecule.

b. Write the chemical formula for a molecule of noncyclic AMP.

Protein Structure 1

22. The phosphate functional group in the noncyclic AMP molecule of Question 21 contains “acidic hydrogens.”

a. Explain what this phrase means.

b. Draw the noncyclic AMP molecule after it has dissolved in water.

Protein Structure 2

Protein Structure What are the levels of protein structure and what role do functional groups play?

Proteins accomplish many cellular tasks such as facilitating chemical reactions, providing structure, and carrying information from one cell to another. How a protein chain coils up and folds determines its three-dimensional shape. Its shape will, in turn, determine how it interacts with other molecules and thus performs its function in the cell.

Model 1 – Formation of a Peptide Bond

1. Examine the amino acids in Model 1.

a. Circle an amine group in the diagram.

b. Draw a triangle around a carboxylic acid (carboxyl) group.

2. How are the amino acids similar to one another?

3. How are the amino acids different from one another?

Protein Structure 3

4. How many amino acids are involved in the reaction to make a dipeptide?

5. In Model 1 the original amino acids are combined through a condensation reaction to make

the dipeptide.

a. What does R1 represent in the dipeptide?

b. What does R 2 represent in the dipeptide?

6. Put a box around the atoms in the amino acids that become the H2O molecule produced by the reaction in Model 1.

7. A peptide bond is a covalent bond linking two amino acids together in a peptide.

a. Circle the peptide bond in Model 1.

b. Between which two atoms in the dipeptide is the peptide bond located?

c. Between what two functional groups is the peptide bond located?

8. There are 22 different amino acids found in nature. Two were shown in Model 1. Additional

examples are shown below. With your group, write one or two grammatically correct sentences to describe how these amino acids are similar and how they are different. Use the terms R-group, amine group, and carboxyl group in your description

Protein Structure 4

Model 2 – Protein Structure (Part A)

Primary Structure

Amino acid sequence: Ser – Tyr – Ala – Phe – Val – Cys – Tyr – Asp – Cys – Gly

Peptide structure:

9. Locate the primary structure of the polypeptide in Model 2.

a. Draw an arrow to two different peptide bonds in the diagram.

b. Circle three separate amino acids that were joined together to make the polypeptide.

Protein Structure 5

10. The first five amino acids in this polypeptide are serine, tyrosine, alanine, phenylalanine, and valine, in that order (Ser-Tyr-Ala-Phe-Val). If the amino acids were changed or rearranged (i.e., to Val-Phe-Ala-Ser-Tyr), the polypeptide would have a different name and identity. With your group, use this information to write a definition of the primary structure of a protein.

11. Locate the secondary protein structure in Model 2.

a. What types of bonds are holding the secondary structure in place?

b. What groups on the amino acids are always involved in these bonds?

12. Draw a rectangle around two different R groups on the amino acids in the secondary

structure in Model 2.

13. Is there any interaction between R groups in the secondary structure in Model 2?

14. Secondary protein structure can take the form of an alpha(α)-helix or a beta(β)-pleated

sheet, as illustrated below.

a. Which drawing represents an α-helix, Molecule 1 or Molecule 2? Explain your reasoning.

b. Which drawing represents a β-pleated sheet? Explain your reasoning.

15. With your group, write a grammatically correct sentence that summarizes how the secondary protein structure is formed from the primary structure.

Protein Structure 6

Protein Structure 7

16. Examine the tertiary structure in Model 3 and note the interactions that hold this level of structure in place.

a. Four types of bonds or interactions are shown. Label them with the following terms.

Disulfide bridge Hydrogen bond

Hydrophobic interactions Ionic bond

b. Describe the part of the amino acid that participates in these interactions.

c. How does your answer in part b differ from the bonds that stabilize the secondary

structure?

17. What type of functional groups or atoms would need to be present in the R-groups for

hydrogen bonding to occur between two amino acids in a protein chain?

18. What type of functional groups or atoms would need to be present in the R-groups for hydrophobic interactions to occur between two amino acids in a protein chain?

19. How many polypeptide chains are shown in the tertiary protein structure in Model 3?

20. Many proteins, but not all, have a fourth level of structure termed quaternary structure.

a. How many polypeptide chains are shown in the quaternary structure of the protein in Model 3?

b. What types of bonds and interactions hold the quaternary structure in place?

Protein Structure 8

21. With your group, using grammatically correct sentences, define the following.

a. Tertiary protein structure.

b. Quaternary protein structure.

22. Imagine a protein chain that includes the following amino acids among several others.

a. Which of the amino acids could form a hydrogen bond with another amino acid in the chain to stabilize the secondary structure of a β-pleated sheet?

b. Which of the amino acids could form disulfide bonds with another amino acid in the chain to stabilize the tertiary structure of the protein?

c. Which of the amino acids could participate in hydrophobic interactions with another amino acid in the chain to stabilize the tertiary structure of the protein?

d. What types of bonds or interactions could asparagine form with another amino acid in the chain in order to form a quaternary structure with another protein chain?

Protein Structure 9

23. Fill in the following chart using what you’ve learned from Models 1–3.

Structure Bond(s) or interactions holding the structure

together

Short description Number of

polypeptide chains involved

Primary

1

Secondary

1

Tertiary

1

Quaternary

2 or more

Read This! Heating and changing pH levels are two ways to disrupt the shape of a protein. High temperatures or pH levels that vary from the natural environment of the protein will break hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, disulfide bridges, and hydrophobic interactions. Covalent bonds will usually remain undisturbed. This process of destroying the shape of a protein is called denaturing.

24. Which of the four levels of protein structure is maintained after denaturing? Explain your answer.

Protein Structure 1

0

25. Proteins carry out a variety of functions, and their function is critically dependent upon their structure and shape. Enzymes are proteins. What would happen to the structure and function of an enzyme that was exposed to heat or a drastic change in pH?

26. When people get their hair chemically straightened, one chemical is put on the hair to break the disulfide bonds that give the hair strands their shape (curled) and a second chemical is used to reform the disulfide bonds to hold the hair in a new position (straight).

a. What level(s) of protein structure is/are affected by these processes?

b. Why doesn’t the hair stay straight forever after this treatment?

Extension Questions 27. If a mutation in the DNA of an organism results in the replacement of an amino acid

containing a polar R-group with another amino acid containing a nonpolar R-group, how might the structure of the protein be affected? Address the impact on all levels of the protein structure in your answer.

28. Egg whites are primarily composed of the protein albumin. One familiar example of the denaturing of proteins is the difference between the albumin structure in a raw egg versus a cooked egg. Using what you know about the levels of structure in proteins, propose an explanation of changes in albumin (and other proteins) that occur during cooking.

29. Predict what would happen to the egg white if a raw egg were placed in vinegar. Explain your thinking.

Analyzing and Interpreting Scientific Data 1

1

Analyzing and Interpreting Scientific Data How can analyzing and interpreting scientific data allow scientists to make informed decisions?

Why? During scientific investigations, scientists gather data and present it in the form of charts, tables or graphs. The data must be properly collected, analyzed, and interpreted to allow scientists to make informed decisions regarding the validity of their study and any further work that may be necessary to achieve their objectives. The ability to present and use data charts, tables, and graphs correctly is essential for good scientific practice and also prevents unnecessary or inappropriate work and misinterpretation of the data.

Model 1 – Graphs and Charts of Classroom Measurement Data


2

1. According to the data in Model 1, how many females fall within the range 146–155 cm tall?

2. According to the data in Model 1, how many males are 181 cm or above in height?

3. Using the graph(s) in Model 1, determine the approximate average height of males

and of females.

4. Refer to the data in Model 1.

a. How many males are taller than 175 cm and approximately what percentage of the total is that?

b. Which graph(s)/chart(s) illustrate the answer to the previous question?

5. Which type of graph or chart in Model 1 shows a side by side comparison of data?

6. Which type of graph or chart in Model 1 shows trends in data across an entire data set?

7. Describe two trends in male and female height using the line graph.

8. Use complete sentences to compare the presentation of height data in the three graphs.

Discuss any information that is located on more than one graph, and any unique information that is available on each.

9. If you wanted to see if a correlation exists between the height of an individual and his/her hand length, what would be the best type of graph/chart to make? Explain your reasoning.

10. What conclusions can you draw comparing the height, hand length, and knuckle width of males and females? State your conclusions in complete sentences.


3

11. Refer to the data in Model 2.

a. What value for foot width is most frequent in males?

b. What is this value called?

12. Determine the median value for foot width for males and for females. Describe in complete sentences the method you used to determine the median values.

13. Determine the mean for each data group, and describe in a complete sentence how you calculated them.


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ap biology summer assignment · 15. the chromosomal basis of inheritance marking period 2 16. the...

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