APES LAB Review

Brian Kaestner

Saint Mary’s Hall

Introductory Environmental Journal

Basic Lab Format:Purpose/HypothesisMaterialsProcedureData CollectionData AnalysisConclusion

The Dynamics of Plate Tectonics: Earthquakes and

Volcanic Activity

Features of the Crust

Oceanic crustOceanic crust(lithosphere)(lithosphere)

AbyssalAbyssalhillshills AbyssalAbyssal

floorfloorOceanicOceanic

ridgeridgeTrenchTrench

VolcanoesVolcanoes

Folded mountain beltFolded mountain belt

CratonCraton

Mantle (lithosphere)Mantle (lithosphere)

Mantle (asthenosphere)Mantle (asthenosphere)

Ab

ys

sa

l p

lain

Continental crust(lithosphere)

MantleMantle(lithosphere)(lithosphere)

Continentalrise

Continentalslope

Continentalshelf

Abyssal plain

AbyssalAbyssalfloorfloor

Fig. 10.3, p. 213

Fig. 10.5b, p. 214

EURASIAN PLATE

CHINASUBPLATE PHILIPINE

PLATE

INDIAN-AUSTRLIAN PLATE

PACIFICPLATE

JUAN DEFUCA PLATE

COCOSPLATE

CARIBBEAN PLATE

NORTHAMERICAN

PLATE

SOUTHAMERICAN

PLATE

EURASIAN PLATE

ANATOLIAN PLATE

ARABIAN PLATE

AFRICAN PLATE

AFRICAN PLATE

CarlsbergRidge

Southwest IndianOcean Ridge

ANTARCTIC PLATE

Transformfault

East PacificRise

Transformfault

Mid-IndianOceanRidge

Southeast IndianOcean Ridge

Mid-AtlanticOceanRidge

ReykjanesRidge

Transformfault

Divergent ( ) andtransform fault ( )boundaries

Convergentplate boundaries

Plate motionat convergentplate boundaries

Plate motionat divergentplate boundaries

Internal EarthProcesses

Internal EarthProcessesPlate tectonicsPlate tectonics

Divergent boundaryDivergent boundary

Convergent boundaryConvergent boundary

Subduction zoneSubduction zone

Transform faultTransform fault

Ring of FireRing of Fire

Lithosphere

AsthenosphereOceanic ridge at a divergentOceanic ridge at a divergentplate boundaryplate boundary

Lithosphere

TrenchTrench Volcanic island arcVolcanic island arc

Asthenosphere

Risingmagma

Subductionzone

Trench and volcanic island arc atTrench and volcanic island arc ata convergent plate boundarya convergent plate boundary

Fracture zoneFracture zone

Transformfault

Lithosphere

Asthenosphere

Transform fault connecting twoTransform fault connecting twodivergent plate boundariesdivergent plate boundaries

Fig. 10.6, p. 215Refer to Fig. 10-5 p. 214

The Rock Cycle and Soil Formation

The Rock CycleThe Rock Cycle

Igneous RockGranite, Pumice,

Basalt

Sedimentary RockShale, Sandstone,

Limestone

Metamorphic RockSlate, Quartzite,

Marble

Magma(Molten Rock)

WeatheringWeathering

ErosionErosion

TransportTransport DepositionDeposition

External ProcessesInternal ProcessesExternal ProcessesInternal Processes

Heat,Pressure

Heat,Pressure

Heat,

Pressure

Heat,

Pressure

Fig. 10.8, p. 217

Soils: FormationSoils: FormationSoil horizonsSoil horizons Soil profile Soil profile Humus Humus

O horizonO horizonLeaf litterLeaf litter

A horizonA horizonTopsoilTopsoil

B horizonB horizonSubsoilSubsoil

C horizonC horizonParentParent

materialmaterial

Mature soilMature soil

Young soilYoung soil

RegolithRegolithRegolithRegolith

BedrockBedrockBedrockBedrock

Immature soilImmature soil

Fig. 10.12, p. 220

Fig. 10.13, p. 221

Flatworm

Rove beetle

AntCentipede

Mite

Pseudoscorpion

Groundbeetle

Adultfly

Millipede

Flylarvae

Sowbug

Mite

Earthworms

Slug

Snail

Roundworms

Protozoa

Bacteria

Organic debris

BeetleMites

Fungi

Springtail

Actinomycetes

Fig. 10.15a, p. 223

Weak humus-mineral mixture

Mosaicof closelypackedpebbles,boulders

Dry, brown toreddish-brownwith variableaccumulationsof clay, calciumcarbonate, andsoluble salts

Desert Soil(hot, dry climate)

Grassland Soil(semiarid climate)

Alkaline,dark,and richin humus

Clay,calciumcompounds

Fig. 10.15b, p. 223

Acidiclight-coloredhumus

Iron andaluminumcompoundsmixed withclay

Forest litterleaf mold

Humus-mineralmixture

Light, grayish-brown, silt loam

Dark brownFirm clay

Acid litterand humus

Humus andiron andaluminumcompounds

Light-coloredand acidic

Tropical Rain Forest Soil(humid, tropical climate)

Deciduous Forest Soil(humid, mild climate)

Coniferous Forest Soil(humid, cold climate)

Environmental Influences on Population Distribution

Population Dispersion

ClumpedClumped(elephants)(elephants)

UniformUniform(creosote bush)(creosote bush)

RandomRandom(dandelions)(dandelions)

Fig. 9.2, p. 199

Factors Affecting Population SizePOPULATION SIZE

Growth factors(biotic potential)

Favorable lightFavorable temperatureFavorable chemical environment(optimal level of critical nutrients)

Abiotic

BioticHigh reproductive rate

Generalized niche

Adequate food supply

Suitable habitat

Ability to compete for resources

Ability to hide from or defendagainst predatorsAbility to resist diseases and parasitesAbility to migrate and live in other habitatsAbility to adapt to environmentalchange

Decrease factors(environmental resistance)

Too much or too little lightTemperature too high or too lowUnfavorable chemical environment(too much or too little of critical nutrients)

Abiotic

BioticLow reproductive rate

Specialized niche

Inadequate food supply

Unsuitable or destroyed habitat

Too many competitorsInsufficient ability to hide from or defendagainst predatorsInability to resist diseases and parasitesInability to migrate and live in other habitatsInability to adapt to environmentalchange

Fig. 9.3, p. 200

Reproductive Patterns and SurvivalReproductive Patterns and Survival Asexual reproduction Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction Sexual reproduction

r-selected species r-selected species K-selected species K-selected species

r-Selected Species

cockroach dandelion

Many small offspringLittle or no parental care and protection ofoffspringEarly reproductive ageMost offspring die before reaching reproductive ageSmall adultsAdapted to unstable climate and environmental conditionsHigh population growth rate (r)Population size fluctuates wildly above and below carrying capacity (K)Generalist nicheLow ability to competeEarly successional species

Fewer, larger offspringHigh parental care and protection of offspringLater reproductive ageMost offspring survive to reproductive ageLarger adultsAdapted to stable climate and environmental conditionsLower population growth rate (r)Population size fairly stable and usually close to carrying capacity (K)Specialist nicheHigh ability to competeLate successional species

elephant saguaro

K-Selected Species

Fig. 9.10b, p. 205

Survivorship Curves

Per

cen

tag

e su

rviv

ing

(lo

g s

cale

)P

erce

nta

ge

surv

ivin

g (

log

sca

le)

100100

1010

11

00

AgeAge

Fig. 9.11, p. 206

Fig. 9.12, p. 208

Physiological changesPsychological changesBehavior changesFewer or no offspringGenetic defectsBirth defectsCancersDeath

Organism Level

Change in population sizeChange in age structure (old, young, and weak may die)Survival of strains genetically resistant to stressLoss of genetic diversity and adaptabilityExtinction

Population Level Population Level

Disruption of energy flow throughfood chains and webs

Disruption of biogeochemical cyclesLower species diversityHabitat loss or degradationLess complex food websLower stabilityEcosystem collapse

Environmental Stress

Population Studies

Sampling PopulationSpecies Diversity IndexPopulation DistributionPopulation DensityDoubling TimeCarrying Capacity + Limiting factorsPopulation Growth RateSuccessionFood Webs

Human Population Demographics

DT = 70/pgr

DT = doubling timepgr = population growth rate (%)

Factors Affecting Human Population SizeFactors Affecting Human Population Size

Population change equationPopulation change equation

Zero population growth (ZPG)Zero population growth (ZPG)

Crude birth rate (BR)Crude birth rate (BR)

Crude death rate (DR)Crude death rate (DR)

Refer to Fig. 11-2 p. 239Refer to Fig. 11-2 p. 239

PopulationChange

PopulationChange == (Births + Immigration) – (Deaths + Emigration)(Births + Immigration) – (Deaths + Emigration)

The Demographic Transition

LowLow

HighHigh

Rel

ativ

e p

op

ula

tio

n s

ize

Rel

ativ

e p

op

ula

tio

n s

ize

Bir

th r

ate

and

dea

th r

ate

(nu

mb

er p

er 1

,000

per

yea

r)B

irth

rat

e an

d d

eath

rat

e(n

um

ber

per

1,0

00 p

er y

ear) 8080

7070

6060

5050

4040

3030

2020

1010

00

Stage 1Preindustrial

Stage 1Preindustrial

Stage 2Transindustrial

Stage 2Transindustrial

Stage 3IndustrialStage 3

IndustrialStage 4

PostindustrialStage 4

Postindustrial

Lowgrowth rate

Lowgrowth rate

Increasing Growthgrowth rate

Increasing Growthgrowth rate

Very highgrowth rateVery high

growth rateDecreasinggrowth rateDecreasinggrowth rate

Lowgrowth rate

Lowgrowth rate

Zerogrowth rate

Zerogrowth rate

Negativegrowth rate

Negativegrowth rate

Birth rate

Total population

Death rate

TimeTimeTimeTimeFig. 11.26, p. 255

Factors Affecting Natural Rate of Increase

Developed Countries5050

4040

3030

2020

1010

0017751775

18001800 1850

185019001900

19501950

20002000 2050

2050

Rat

e p

er 1

,000

peo

ple

Rat

e p

er 1

,000

peo

ple

Year

Rate ofnatural increase

Crudebirth rate

Crudedeath rate

Rate of natural increase = crude birth rate = crude death rate Rate of natural increase = crude birth rate = crude death rate

Developed Countries5050

4040

3030

2020

1010

0017751775

18001800 1850

185019001900

19501950

20002000 2050

2050

Rat

e p

er 1

,000

peo

ple

Rat

e p

er 1

,000

peo

ple Crude

birth rate

Rate ofnaturalincrease Crude

death rate

Year

Fig. 11.13, p. 245

Ages 0-14Ages 0-14 Ages 15-44Ages 15-44 Ages 45-85+Ages 45-85+

Rapid GrowthGuatemala

NigeriaSaudi Arabia

Rapid GrowthGuatemala

NigeriaSaudi Arabia

Slow GrowthUnited States

AustraliaCanada

Slow GrowthUnited States

AustraliaCanada

MaleMale FemaleFemale

Zero GrowthSpainAustriaGreece

Zero GrowthSpainAustriaGreece

Negative GrowthGermanyBulgariaSweden

Negative GrowthGermanyBulgariaSweden

Population Age StructurePopulation Age Structure

Fig. 11.16a, p. 247

Soil Analysis

Soil Properties Infiltration Infiltration

Leaching Leaching

Porosity/permeability Porosity/permeability

Texture Texture

Structure Structure

pH pH

100%clay100%clay

IncreasingIncreasingpercentage siltpercentage silt

IncreasingIncreasingpercentage claypercentage clay

00

2020

4040

6060

8080

8080

6060

4040

2020

00100%sand100%sand 8080 6060 4040 2020 100%silt100%silt

Increasing percentage sandIncreasing percentage sand

Fig. 10.16, p. 224

Water Water

High permeability Low permeability

Fig. 10.17, p. 224

Fig. 10.17, p. 224

Water Water

High permeability Low permeability

Fig. 10.16, p. 224

100%clay

Increasingpercentage silt

Increasingpercentage clay

0

20

40

60

80

80

60

40

20

0

100%sand 80 60 40 20 100%silt

Increasing percentage sand

sandyclay

clay

siltyclay

silty clayloam

clayloam

loam siltyloam

silt

sandy clayloam

sandyloam

loamy sandsand

Energy Consumption

The Importance of Improving Energy EfficiencyThe Importance of Improving Energy Efficiency

Net useful energy Net useful energy

Life cycle cost Life cycle cost

Least EfficientLeast Efficient Incandescent lights Incandescent lights Internal combustion

engine

Internal combustion engine

Nuclear power plants Nuclear power plants

Energy InputsEnergy Inputs SystemSystem OutputsOutputs

U.S.economy

andlifestyles

84%

7%

5%4%

9%

7%

41%

43%

Nonrenewable fossil Nonrenewable fossil fuelsfuels

Nonrenewable nuclearNonrenewable nuclear

Hydropower, geothermal,Hydropower, geothermal,wind, solarwind, solarBiomassBiomass

Useful energyUseful energy

PetrochemicalsPetrochemicals

Unavoidable energy Unavoidable energy wastewasteUnnecessary energy Unnecessary energy wastewaste

Fig. 15.2, p. 359

Ways to Improve Energy EfficiencyWays to Improve Energy EfficiencyInsulationInsulationElimination of air leaksElimination of air leaksAir to air heat exchangersAir to air heat exchangersCogenerationCogenerationEfficient electric motorsEfficient electric motorsHigh-efficiency lightingHigh-efficiency lightingIncreasing fuel economyIncreasing fuel economy

Solutions: A Sustainable Energy StrategySolutions: A Sustainable Energy Strategy

Improve Energy Efficiency

Increase fuel-efficiencystandards for vehicles,buildings, and appliances

Mandate governmentpurchases of efficient vehicles and other devices

Provide tax credits for buying efficient cars, houses, and appliances

Offer tax credits for investments in efficiency

Reward utilities forreducing demand

Encourage independentpower producers

Increase efficiencyresearch and development

More Renewable Energy

Increase renewable energy to 40% by 2020

Provide subsidies and tax credits for renewable energy

Use full-cost accounting and least-cost analysis for com-paring all energy alternatives

Encourage government purchase of renewable energy devices

Increase renewable energyresearch and development

Reduce Pollution andHealth Risk

Cut coal use 50% by 2020

Phase out coal subsidies

Levy taxes on coal and oil use

Phase out nuclear power or put it on hold until 2020

Phase out nuclear power subsidies

Fig. 15.42, p. 392

Air Pollution

Outdoor Air PollutionOutdoor Air Pollution Primary pollutants Primary pollutants Secondary pollutants Secondary pollutants

Primary Pollutants

Secondary Pollutants

SourcesNatural Stationary

CO CO2

SO2 NO NO2

Most hydrocarbons

Most suspendedparticles

SO3

HNO3 H2SO4

H2O2 O3 PANs

Most and saltsNO3–

Mobile

SO42–

Fig. 17.4, p. 422See Table 17-1 p. 421See Table 17-2 p. 422

Temperature InversionsSubsidence inversionSubsidence inversion

Radiation inversionRadiation inversionWarmer airWarmer air

Inversion layerInversion layer

Cool layer

MountainMountainMountain

ValleyValley

Decreasing temperatureDecreasing temperature

Incr

easi

ng

alt

itu

de

Incr

easi

ng

alt

itu

de

Fig. 17.8, p. 426

Regional Outdoor Air Pollution from Acid Deposition

Regional Outdoor Air Pollution from Acid Deposition

Acid depositionAcid depositionWet depositionWet deposition Dry depositionDry deposition

Wind

Transformation tosulfuric acid (H2SO4)and nitric acid (HNO3)

Nitric oxide (NO)

Acid fog

Ocean

Sulfur dioxide (SO2)and NO

Windborne ammonia gasand particles of cultivated soilpartially neutralize acids andform dry sulfate and nitrate salts

Dry aciddeposition(sulfur dioxidegas and particlesof sulfate andnitrate salts)

Farm

Lakes indeep soilhigh in limestoneare buffered

Lakes in shallowsoil low inlimestonebecomeacidic

Wet acid deposition(droplets of H2SO4 andHNO3 dissolved in rainand snow)

Fig. 17.9, p. 428

Solutions: Preventing and Reducing Air Pollution

Solutions: Preventing and Reducing Air Pollution

Clean Air ActClean Air Act

National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)

National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)

Primary and secondary standardsPrimary and secondary standards

Output control vs. input controlOutput control vs. input control

Emission Reduction

Prevention Dispersionor Cleanup

Burn low-sulfurcoal

Remove sulfurfrom coal

Convert coalto a liquid orgaseous fuel

Shift to lesspolluting fuels

Disperseemissions abovethermal inversionlayer with tallsmokestacks

Removepollutants aftercombustion

Tax each unitof pollutionproduced

Fig. 17.21, p. 442

Electrostatic Precipitator

Dirty gasDust discharge

ElectrodesCleaned gas

Fig. 17.22, p. 442

Reducing IndoorAir Pollution

Prevention Cleanup orDilutionCover ceiling

tiles and liningof AC ducts toprevent releaseof mineral fibers

Ban smoking orlimit it to well-ventilated areas

Set stricterformaldehydeemissionsstandards forcarpet,furniture,and buildingmaterials

Prevent radoninfiltration

Use officemachines inwell-ventilatedareas

Use lesspollutingsubstitutes forharmfulcleaningagents, paints, and other products

Use adjustablefresh air ventsfor work spaces

Increase intakeof outside air

Change airmore frequently

Circulate building’s airthrough rooftopgreenhouses

Use exhausthoods for stoves andappliances burning naturalgas

Install efficientchimneys forwood-burningstoves

Fig. 17.24, p. 443

Toxicity Testing

Risk and ProbabilityRisk and ProbabilityRiskRisk

ProbabilityProbability

Riskassessment

Riskassessment

Riskmanagement

Riskmanagement

Hazard identificationWhat is the hazard?

Probability of riskHow likely is the event?

Consequences of riskWhat is the likelydamage?

Risk Assessment Risk Management

Comparative risk analysisHow does it comparewith other risks?

Risk reductionHow much shouldit be reduced?

Risk reduction strategyHow will the riskbe reduced?

Financial commitmentHow much moneyshould be spent?

Fig. 16.2, p. 297

Poisons

Poison Poison

LD50 LD50

Median lethal dose Median lethal dose

See Table 16-1 p. 400See Table 16-1 p. 400

25

100100

7575

5050

00 22 44 66 88 1010 1212 1414 1616

Per

cen

tag

e o

f p

op

ula

tio

n k

ille

d b

y a

giv

en d

ose

Per

cen

tag

e o

f p

op

ula

tio

n k

ille

d b

y a

giv

en d

ose

Dose (hypothetical units)Dose (hypothetical units)

LD50

Fig. 16.5, p. 400See Table 16-1 p. 400

Risk AnalysisRisk AnalysisRisk analysisRisk analysis

Comparative riskanalysis

Comparative riskanalysis

Cost-benefitanalysis

Cost-benefitanalysis

Risk managementRisk management

Risk perceptionRisk perception

Riskprobability

Riskassessment

Riskseverity

Is the riskacceptable?

Acceptable ifbenefitsoutweigh costs

Cost–benefit ExpressedpreferencesAcceptable ifpeople agree toaccept the risks

Naturalstandards

Acceptable ifrisk is notgreater thanthose created bynatural hazard

RevealedpreferencesAcceptable ifrisk is notgreater thanthose currentlytolerated

Fig. 16.14, p. 412

Water Quality Testing

DOBODTempPhosphatesNitratesTurbidity

Types and Sources of Water PollutionTypes and Sources of Water Pollution

Point sourcesPoint sources

Nonpoint sourcesNonpoint sources

Biological oxygen demand

Biological oxygen demand

Water qualityWater quality

Refer to Tables 19-1 and 19-2 p. 477 and 478

Refer to Tables 19-1 and 19-2 p. 477 and 478

WaterWaterQualityQuality

GoodGood 8-98-9

Do (ppm) at 20˚CDo (ppm) at 20˚C

SlightlySlightlypollutedpolluted

ModeratelyModeratelypollutedpolluted

HeavilyHeavilypollutedpolluted

GravelyGravelypollutedpolluted

6.7-86.7-8

4.5-6.74.5-6.7

Below 4.5Below 4.5

Below 4Below 4Fig. 19.2, p. 478

Pollution of StreamsPollution of Streams Oxygen sag curve Oxygen sag curve Factors influencing recovery Factors influencing recovery

Clean ZoneClean Zone DecompositionDecompositionZoneZone

Septic ZoneSeptic Zone Recovery ZoneRecovery Zone Clean ZoneClean Zone

Normal clean water organisms(Trout, perch, bass,

mayfly, stonefly)

Trash fish(carp, gar,Leeches)

Fish absent, fungi,Sludge worms,

bacteria(anaerobic)

Trash fish(carp, gar,Leeches)

Normal clean water organisms(Trout, perch, bass,

mayfly, stonefly)

8 ppm

Dissolved oxygen

Biological oxygendemand

Oxygen sag

2 ppm

8 ppm

Co

nce

ntr

ati

on

Co

nce

ntr

ati

on

Typ

es o

fT

ypes

of

org

anis

ms

org

anis

ms

Time of distance downstreamTime of distance downstream

Direction of flow

Point of waste orheat discharge

Fig. 19.3, p. 479

Pollution of Lakes Eutrophication Eutrophication

Slow turnover

Slow turnover

Thermal stratification

Thermal stratification

Discharge of untreatedmunicipal sewage

(nitrates and phosphates)Nitrogen compounds

produced by carsand factories

Discharge of treatedmunicipal sewage

(primary and secondarytreatment:

nitrates and phosphates)

Discharge of detergents

( phosphates)

Natural runoff(nitrates andphosphates

Manure runoffFrom feedlots(nitrates andPhosphates,

ammonia)

Dissolving of nitrogen oxides

(from internal combustionengines and furnaces)

Runoff and erosion(from from cultivation,mining, construction,

and poor land use)

Runoff from streets,lawns, and construction

lots (nitrates andphosphates)

Lake ecosystemnutrient overload

and breakdown of chemical cycling

Fig. 19.5, p. 482

Water/Wastewater Treatment

Technological Approach: Sewage Treatment

Mechanical and biological treatmentMechanical and biological treatment

Raw sewagefrom sewers

Bar screenGritchamber Settling tank Aeration tank Settling tank

Chlorinedisinfection tank

Sludge

Sludge digester

Activated sludge

Air pump

(kills bacteria)

To river, lake,or ocean

Sludge drying bed

Disposed of in landfill orocean or applied to cropland,pasture, or rangeland

Primary Secondary

Fig. 19.15, p. 494

Technological Approach: Advanced Sewage Treatment

Removes specific pollutantsRemoves specific pollutantsEffluent fromSecondarytreatment

Alumflocculation

plus sedimentsActivated

carbon

Desalination(electrodialysis

or reverse osmosis)Nitrate

removal

Specializedcompound

removal(DDT, etc.)

98% ofsuspended solids

90% ofphosphates

98% ofdissolvedorganics

Most ofdissolved salts

Recycled to landfor irrigation

and fertilization

To rivers, lakes,streams, oceans,

reservoirs, or industries

Fig. 19.16, p. 495

Solid Waste Management

Fig. 21.4, p. 521

1st Priority 2nd Priority Last Priority

Primary Pollutionand Waste Prevention

• Change industrial process to eliminate use of harmful chemicals

• Purchase different products

• Use less of a harmful product

• Reduce packaging and materials in products

• Make products that last longer and are recyclable, reusable or easy to repair

Secondary Pollution and Waste Prevention

• Reduce products

• Repair products

• Recycle

• Compost

• Buy reusable and recyclable products

Waste Management

• Treat waste to reduce toxicity

• Incinerate waste

• Bury waste in landfill

• Release waste into environment for dispersal or dilution

Fig. 21.7, p. 530

Reduces globalwarming

Reduces aciddeposition

Reduces urbanair pollution

Make fuelsupplies

last longer

Reducesair pollution

Savesenergy

Reducesenergy demand

Reduceswater pollution

Recycling

Reduces solidwaste disposal

Reducesmineraldemand

Protectsspecies

Reduceshabitat

destruction

Fig. 21.9, p. 534

Source materials

Natural gas Petroleum Coal

Feedstocks

Monomers (small molecules)

Polymers

Resins (giant molecules)

Productsbottles, milk jugs,

Sodabottles, drums,

containers

Productsappliance

housing, CDs,toys, plastic parts,

aircraft, boats

ProductsVinyl, siding,

plastic film andbags, pipe

Refining

Polymerzation

Manufacturing

Blow molding(hollow objects)

Molding(solid objects)

Extrusion(Flat, rolled, andtubular shapes)

Fig. 21.10, p. 536

Power plant

Steam

Turbine GeneratorElectricity

Crane

Furnace

Boiler

Wetscrubber

Electrostaticprecipitator

Conveyor

Water Bottomash

Conven-tional

landfill

Wastetreatment

HazardousWastelandfill

Dirtywater

Waste pit

Smokestack

Flyash

Fig. 21.12, p. 537

Topsoil

Sand

Clay

Garbage

Garbage

Sand

Synthetic liner

Sand

Clay

Subsoil

When landfill is full,layers of soil and clayseal in trash

Methane storageand compressor

building

Electricitygeneratorbuilding

Leachatetreatment system

Methane gasrecovery

Pipe collect explosivemethane gas used as fuel

to generate electricity

Compactedsolid waste

Leachatestorage tanks

Leachatemonitoringwell

Leachatemonitoringwell

GroundwaterGroundwater

Groundwatermonitoringwell

Groundwatermonitoringwell

Leachate pipesLeachate pipes Leachate pumped upto storage tanks for

safe disposal

Leachate pumped upto storage tanks for

safe disposal

Clay and plastic liningto prevent leaks; pipescollect leachate from

bottom of landfill

The Greenhouse Effect

The Natural Greenhouse EffectThe Natural Greenhouse EffectGreenhouse effectGreenhouse effect Greenhouse gases

(Refer to Table 18-1 p. 448)

Greenhouse gases(Refer to Table 18-1 p. 448)

Rays of sunlight penetrate Rays of sunlight penetrate the lower atmosphere and the lower atmosphere and warm the earth's surface.warm the earth's surface.

The earth's surface absorbs much of The earth's surface absorbs much of the incoming solar radiation and the incoming solar radiation and degrades it to longer-wavelength degrades it to longer-wavelength infrared radiation (heat), which rises infrared radiation (heat), which rises into the lower atmosphere. Some of into the lower atmosphere. Some of this heat escapes into space and some this heat escapes into space and some is absorbed by molecules of is absorbed by molecules of greenhouse gases and emitted as greenhouse gases and emitted as infrared radiation, which warms the infrared radiation, which warms the lower atmosphere.lower atmosphere.

As concentrations of greenhouse As concentrations of greenhouse gases rise, their molecules gases rise, their molecules absorb and emit more infrared absorb and emit more infrared radiation, which adds more heat radiation, which adds more heat to the to the lower atmosphere.lower atmosphere.

(a)(a) (b)(b) (c)(c)

Fig. 6.13, p. 128

Carbon dioxide

Temperaturechange End of

last ice age

160 120 80 40 0Thousands of years before present

Co

nc

entr

ati

on

of

carb

on

dio

xid

ein

th

e a

tmo

sph

ere

(p

pm

)

180

200

220

240

260

280

300

320

340

360

380

–10.0

–7.5

–5.0

–2.5

0

+2.5

Va

riat

ion

of

tem

pe

ratu

re (

˚C)

fro

m c

urr

en

t le

vel

Fig. 18.3, p. 449

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Year1800 1900 2000 2100

260

310

360

410P

arts

per

mil

lio

n

Fig. 18.4a, p. 450

Methane (CH4)

Year1800 1900 2000 2100

0.6

1.2

1.8

2.4P

arts

per

mil

lio

n

Fig. 18.4b, p. 450

Year

1990 2000 2025 2050 2075 2100

100

150

200

250

Ind

ex

(19

00

= 1

00

)Carbon dioxide

MethaneNitrous oxide

Fig. 18.5, p. 451

Human Activities and Earth’s ClimateIncreased use of fossil fuelsIncreased use of fossil fuels

Deforestation Deforestation

Global warmingGlobal warming

Melting icecaps and glaciersMelting icecaps and glaciers

Coral reef bleachingCoral reef bleaching

Some Possible Effects of a Warmer World

Some Possible Effects of a Warmer World

• Increased deaths from heat and disease

• Disruption of food and water supplies

• Spread of tropical diseases to temperate areas

• Increased respiratory disease

• Increased water pollution from coastal flooding

Human Health

• Rising sea levels• Flooding of low-lying

islands and coastal cities• Flooding of coastal

estuaries, wetlands, and coral reefs

• Beach erosion• Disruption of coastal

fisheries• Contamination of coastal

aquifiers with salt water

Sea Level and Coastal Areas

• Changes in forest composition and locations

• Disappearance of some forests

• Increased fires from drying

• Loss of wildlife habitat and species

Forests

• Changes in water supply

• Decreased water quality

• Increased drought

• Increased flooding

Water Resources

• Shifts in food-growing areas

• Changes in crop yields

• Increased irrigation demands

• Increased pests, crop diseases, and weeds in warmer areas

Agriculture

• Extinction of some plant and animal species

• Loss of habitats

• Disruption of aquatic life

Biodiversity

• Prolonged heat waves and droughts

• Increased flooding

• More intense hurricanes, typhoons, tornadoes, and violent storms

Weather Extremes

• Increased deaths

• More environmental refugees

• Increased migration

Human Population

Fig. 18.12, p. 458

Solutions: Dealing with the Threat of Climate Change

Solutions: Dealing with the Threat of Climate Change

OptionsOptions

Do nothing Do nothing

Do more research Do more research

Act now to reduce risks

Act now to reduce risks

No-regrets strategy No-regrets strategy

Prevention Cleanup

Cut fossil fueluse (especiallycoal)

Shift from coalto natural gas

Transfer energyefficiency andrenewable energytechnologiesto developingcountries

Improve energyefficiency

Shift torenewableenergy resources

Reducedeforestation

Use sustainableagriculture

Slow populationgrowth

Remove CO2

from smokestackand vehicleemissions

Store (sequesterCO2 by plantingtrees)

Sequester CO2

underground

Sequester CO2 in soil

Sequester CO2 in deep ocean

Fig. 18.14, p. 461

Acid Deposition

Regional Outdoor Air Pollution from Acid Deposition

Regional Outdoor Air Pollution from Acid Deposition

Acid depositionAcid depositionWet depositionWet deposition Dry depositionDry deposition

Wind

Transformation tosulfuric acid (H2SO4)and nitric acid (HNO3)

Nitric oxide (NO)

Acid fog

Ocean

Sulfur dioxide (SO2)and NO

Windborne ammonia gasand particles of cultivated soilpartially neutralize acids andform dry sulfate and nitrate salts

Dry aciddeposition(sulfur dioxidegas and particlesof sulfate andnitrate salts)

Farm

Lakes indeep soilhigh in limestoneare buffered

Lakes in shallowsoil low inlimestonebecomeacidic

Wet acid deposition(droplets of H2SO4 andHNO3 dissolved in rainand snow)

Fig. 17.9, p. 428

Acid Deposition and Humans Respiratory diseases Respiratory diseases

Toxic metal leaching Toxic metal leaching

Decreased visibility Decreased visibility

Damage to structures, especially containing limestone

Damage to structures, especially containing limestone

Decreased productivity and profitability of fisheries, forests, and farms

Decreased productivity and profitability of fisheries, forests, and farms

Acid Deposition and Aquatic Systems Fish declines Fish declines

Undesirable species

Undesirable species

Aluminum toxicity

Aluminum toxicity

Acid shock Acid shock

WaterWaterboatmanboatman

WhirligigWhirligig

Yellow perchYellow perch

Lake troutLake trout

Brown troutBrown trout

SalamanderSalamander(embryonic)(embryonic)

MayflyMayfly

SmallmouthSmallmouthbassbass

MusselMussel

6.56.5 6.06.0 5.55.5 5.05.0 4.54.5 4.04.0 3.53.5pHpH

Fig. 17.13, p. 430

Acid Deposition, Plants, and Soil Nutrient

leaching

Nutrient leaching

Heavy metal release

Heavy metal release

Weakens trees Weakens trees

Emissions

Effects of Weather

Aciddeposition

Dryweather

Lowprecipitation

Increasedevapotranspiration

Increasedtranspiration

LakeGroundwater

SO2 NOX

H2O2 O3

PANs Others

Increasedsusceptibility

to frost,pests, fungi,

mosses,and disease

Dead leavesor needles

Reducedphotosynthesis

and growth

Tree deathDamageto treecrown

Waterdeficit

Nutrientdeficiency

Bark damage

Direct damageto leaves

and needles

Leaching ofsoil nutrients

Acidsand soilnutrients

Damage tofine roots Disturbance

of wateruptake

Disturbanceof nutrient

uptake

Soil acidification

Kills certainessential soil

microorganisms

Release of toxic metal ionsN

itra

te

Su

lfat

e

Mag

nes

ium

Alu

min

um

Cal

ciu

m

Po

tass

ium

Aci

ds

Fig. 17.14, p. 432See Connections p. 431

The Effects of Radiation on Growth

Calculate growth rateGraph exp and control dataAnalyze effectsPredict effects due to natural exposure and nuclear accidents