appendix d: codebook
TRANSCRIPT
Appendix D: Codebook
D.1 Overview
This codebook refers to annual classifications of governmental institutions in the world along threedimensions:
1. Type of Electoral System: Majority-Plurality, Semi-proportional or Proportional Representa-tion.
2. Form of Executive: Presidential, Semi-presidential or Parliamentary.
3. Federalism of Political Authority: Unitary, Semi-federal or Federal.
The data was created as part of the dissertation ’Institutional Variance of the DemocraticPeace, 1816-2002: Electoral, Executive, and Federal Systems in Time and Space.’
284
D.1.1 Variable Definitions
Column Variable Description
SSNO Country codes from Gleditsch and Ward (1999).Year Year in which country is observed.Name Country name.Primkey Primary key for the purpose of merging datasets,
(SSNO*10000)+year.Sysmember System membership as defined by Gleditsch and Ward (1999):
0=No, 1=Yes.Election dem Electoral system in democracies (dem-aut>=3), 1816-2002:
1=Majority-Plurality, 2=Semi-PR, 3=PR, 4=Autocracy.Parlpres Form of executive, 1816-2002: 1=Presidential, 2=Semi-
presidential, 3=Parliamentary, 4=Non-elective.Federal Degree of Federalism, 1816-2002: 1=Unitary, 2=Hybrid, 3=Fed-
eral.Electiondem dur Duration of electoral system in democracies, 1946-2002.Electionall dur Duration of electoral system in all states, 1816-2002.Parlpres dur Duration of presidential/parliamentary system in all states,
1816-2002.Federal dur Duration of federal system in all states, 1816-2002.Indexksg Authority index from the Polity4 dataset (democracy-
autocracy), ranging from -10 to +10, plus -66=Interruption,-77=Interregnum, -88=Transition.
D.1.2 Cases Included
The criteria for inclusion is based on the Gleditsch and Ward (1999) revision and update of theRussett, Singer and Small (1968) list of independent states from 1816 to present. According to thislist, an independent polity needs to meet the following criteria: a) it has a relatively autonomousadministration over some territory, b) is considered a distinct entity by local actors or the state itis dependent on, and c) has a population greater than 250,000 (Gleditsch and Ward, 1999:398).96
I base the identification of democracy on the Polity4, version 1.0 (Gleditsch, 2003). Thisversion of the Polity data has been modified and extended to fit the Gleditsch and Ward (1999)system membership definition. Scholars have used different thresholds on the democracy-autocracyindex to classify democratic states, with a score of 6 is considered a strict level and a score of 3 isseen as lenient. In order to leave the choice of strictness to each user of this data, electoral systemsare recorded in all countries that receive a score of democracy-autocracy >= 3 on the Polity4 index.
D.1.3 Classification of Electoral Systems
Electoral systems ’translate the votes cast in a general election into seats won by parties and candi-dates. The key variables are the electoral formula used’ (Reynolds and Reilly, 1997:7). Furthermore,an electoral system is ’a set of elements of the electoral regulations that have a direct influence onthe conversion of votes into seats by parties and candidates. It is the basic lines of mediation that allelectoral laws apply between votes and representation integrating, as such, the core decisions that all
96Countries that do not meet the criteria for system membership are American Samoa, Andorra, Antigua andBarbuda, Aruba, Bermuda, Cayman Islands, Cook Islands, Dominica, French Guiana, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Guam,Kiribati, Lichtenstein, Marshall Islands, Micronesia (Federated State of), Monaco, Nauru, Netherlands Antilles, NewCaledonia, Niue, Northern Marina Islands, Palau, Palestinian Territory (occupied), Reunion, Saint Kitts and Nevis,Saint Lucia, Saint Pierre and Miquelon, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Samoa, San Marino, Sao Tome andPrincipe, Seychelles, Tonga, Turks and Caicos Islands, Vanuatu, Wallis and Futuna.
285
legislators must adopt when it comes to drafting an electoral laws, those that are able to bring aboutdifferent results in terms of representation with the same numbers of popular votes. It is a way toconstitute government bodies’ (ACE Project, 2003). The International Institute for Democracy andElectoral Assistance (International IDEA) (Reynolds and Reilly, 1997) and the ACE Project (2003)apply the same definitions of electoral systems.
The data here records legislative elections, including democracies only. The coding is straight-forward if the national assembly or parliament has a unicameral structure, but in the event of abi-cameral structure, the lower chamber is generally the most influential and therefore used as thebasis for the coding (Druckman and Thies, 2002:760). Electoral systems come in many forms, whichcan be classified within three main groups: plurality-majority, semi-proportional, and proportionalelections (Reynolds and Reilly, 1997:17-25).
1. Majority-Plurality Electoral Systems (Maj-Plur): Systems that use single-member districtsand favors allocating many seats to few parties or candidates. The winner is the one whoreceives the most votes or the majority of the votes.
2. Semi-Proportional Electoral Systems (Semi-PR) Systems which inherently translate votes intoseats won in a way that falls somewhere between the proportionality of proportional represen-tation systems and the majoritarianism of plurality-majority systems.
3. Proportional Representation Electoral Systems (PR): Representation proportionate to theoverall share of the national vote in order of the winning candidates’ position on the lists.
There are several difficulties involved in coding electoral systems. First, no sources system-atically record electoral systems annually for the entire 200-year period of interest. Most sourcesavailable classify electoral systems at the time of coding, which very often is not explicitly stated.Second, electoral systems exist in many different forms and discrepancies between different classifi-cations seem largely due to the application of unlike definitions and confusion of similar labels usedto classify different systems. A third problem refers to the failure of making the focus of attentionexplicit, for example whether referring to presidential or parliamentary elections, local or centralelections, or to the upper- or lower chamber of the parliament. All these problems are dealt with byconsulting different sources of information, among them are many excellent case studies and com-parative case studies. When sources are conflicting, the choice made is made explicit in footnotes(see below in coding scheme).
Another problem is that of classifying the years immediately following a period of authori-tarian rule or transition. Many of the newly independent countries are former colonies in which thefirst year of democratic rule is characterized by the former colonial power appointing a governmentor holding elections, whereas the first truly independent legislative election tends to follow withinthe next 5 years. In this situation, each country receives a code also for the first year upon inde-pendence because the governmental setup tends to be in the spirit of the electoral system, which isoften constitutionally accepted, although not always practically applied at that point.
Lastly, coding electoral systems rely on already made operational definitions of democracy.It is important to keep in mind the likely bias inherently present in classifying democracy andautocracy: the fewer democracies in a region, the laxer the region-specific criteria for classifying acountry as democratic (Geddes, 1999:13).
D.1.4 Classification of Executive
Executive systems define formal political authority between the head of state, the cabinet, and thelegislative. The two main forms of executive systems are presidentialism and parliamentarism.
The ’Executive Systems’ variable was generated through a three-stage process: It takes asits basis information from the variables ‘Type of Regime,’ ‘Head of State,’ ‘Effective Executive’
286
and ‘Legislative Selection’ from the Banks dataset (1986). These results were largely checked andcomplemented by consulting historical records. Lastly, the values have been extrapolated in order toavoid the problem of missing data. Specifically, this technique proved useful to overcome the problemof missing information during the two World Wars in the original data, and in order to extend theusage of the dataset from 1995 to 2002. If the code starting after the end of a World War differedfrom the code at the outset, the code during the war was assigned as a continuation of the code atthe war outset, because major regime changes generally took place in the aftermath of the WorldWars. In addition, the extrapolation technique was applied to avoid missing information created bydifferent criteria for inclusion in Banks (1986, 1996) and Gleditsch and Ward (1999). The generalcriteria for extrapolating being changes in the Polity4 index score of less than 3 during the relevanttime period. One example is Wurttemberg, which was included during 1816-1869 in Banks whereasGleditsch and Ward continue to regard it as an independent state until 1871. Consequently, theinformation for 1870-71 was coded based on the ending years in the Banks dataset. Another exampleis Hesse-Darmstadt in which the data for 1867-71 was based on previous Banks coding. Anothermodification of the original data was smoothening the data by recoding observations classified as‘other’ into one of the categories below. Typically, these are countries in which the head of state isclassified as ‘monarch’ for a single year within a longer period of a prime minister being regarded asthe effective executive.
1. Presidential (Pres): Systems in which the president exercises primary influence in the shapingof most major decisions affecting the state’s domestic and foreign policy. In this category fallregimes in which the effective executive was originally classified as ‘other’ or ‘military’ and thehead of state was president. The most important feature of presidential systems is that thegovernment is appointed by and contingent on presidential approval.
2. Semi-Presidential (Semi-Pres): Systems in which a prime minister works as the head of thegovernment (effective executive), whereas the head of state is a president. In some semi-presidential systems, the president possesses little effective power, at least in the democraticsemi-presidential states such as Finland and Iceland. However, in other semi-presidentialsystems, the president has some executive powers.
3. Parliamentary (Parl): Systems in which the executive is depending on legislative approval andin which the prime minister exercises primary influence in the shaping of most major decisionsaffecting the state’s domestic and foreign policy. This category also encompasses parliamentarymonarchies in which the head of state is a monarch, but the formal executive is the premier.An example of a parliamentary monarchy is contemporary Spain.
4. Military: Direct rule by the military, mostly following a coup d’etat, or an outwardly civiliangovernment that is effectively controlled by a military elite. Some of these observations areregimes in which the government achieved power through coup d’etat.
5. Non-elective: Systems in which selection of the effective executive is non-elective, such as 19thCentury European monarchies and theocracies in the Middle East.97 Franco Spain falls in thiscategory, as well as the nomenklatura systems in Eastern Europe.98 As there are examples ofin some nomenklatura systems, it is possible for a country to have an electoral system without
97Vanhanen (2000:254) interprets systems in which the governmental institution using the highest executive orlegislative power is not based on popular elections as power being concentrated in the hands of one group. Vanhanendescribes these regimes as being ’military, revolutionary, non-elective autocratic governments, and monarchies inwhich the ruler and the government responsible to the ruler dominate and exercise executive and often also legislativepower.’ Vanhanen’s description encompasses most of the regimes that I classify as non-elective.
98Nomenklatura is the communist party’s system of appointing key personnel in the government and other importantorganizations. Determining whether communist regimes were non-elective in this sense was difficult at times. The
287
actually performing elections. Other observations in this category are autocratic regimes inwhich there are no legislative or presidential elections under democratic or autocratic rule.These are Bhutan, Brunei, China, Eritrea, Quatar, Saudi Arabia, Somaliland and the UnitedArab Emirates.
D.1.5 Classification of Federalism
In most democratic states, the constitution determines the territorial distribution of powers (Hagueand Harrop, 1987:163), or in other words, the national and the sub-national concentration of politicalauthority. The two main forms are unitary states, in which sovereignity is placed at the centralgovernment, and federal states where there is a formal distribution of power between the central andthe sub-national government.
This variable was generated from a combination of sources. The starting point was the PolityIII dataset’s classification of ‘federalism of political authority’ (Gurr, Jaggers and Moore, 1989;Jaggers and Gurr, 1996) during 1816-1994. The variable was compared to other comprehensivedata sources and literature, such as Gerring and Thacker’s data on unitarism (2004), Lundell andKarvonen’s dataset on institutions (2003) and Lemco’s study of federal governments (1991). Whenthese sources differed, additional sources was consulted. The data was extended by following certainrules. First, assuming continuation backward and forward of code unless there was a transitioncode in-between. Secondly, assuming continuation backward and forward of code unless there wasa major change in the polity code.
Gurr, Jaggers and Moore (1989:21) political authority variable builds on structural patternslayed out by Eckstein and Gurr (1975). They refer to federalism of political authority as ‘an im-portant structural property of national political systems that is related to several dimensions ofauthority patterns [...]. In purely structural terms it is an aspect of Conformation: federal politieshave greater complexity of Conformation than do centralized polities. Opportunities for Partici-pation also tends to be higher in federal systems, and regional units of government potentially aremore responsive to local inputs than are centralized governments.’
Gerring and Thacker’s (2002, 2004) data and definition of federalism as ‘a highly institu-tionalized division or sharing of responsibilities between a national authority and semi-autonomousregional units.’ Gerring and Thacker’s data provide records of federalism during 1900-2001. SinceGurr, Jaggers and Moore’s and Gerring and Thacker’s universe did not always correspond to that ofmy own (as defined by Gleditsch and Ward (1999)), I altered and checked the applicability the datafor my purpose by consulting different sources on federalism. For example, I looked at Lundell andKarvonen’s (2003) comparative data set on political institutions during 1960-2002. Furthermore,Hicken and Kasuya (2003) provided an excellent source for Asia after 1945 and McHenry (1997)offered insightful discussions of federalism in post-independent African countries. Lemco (1991)provided historical information on federations.
Since the degree to which responsibilities are shared between central and local governmentalunits varies and this power-division is not always formally approved by the constitution, federalismcan sometimes be difficult to determine and operationalize. For example, the existence of territorial
1959 Constitution of North Korea was explicitly communist but established a symbolic president, an assembly and acouncil headed by the prime minister as the formally highest executive organ, when in reality all political power laidwithin the Political Bureau. Constitutional changes in 1980 replaced the North Korean president with the Council ofState in which all power was concentrated. North Korea was classified as non-elective therefore. The Socialist Republicof Vietnam (North) was similarly classified as non-elective during 1954-91: Until 1959, Ho Chi Minh’s presidentialgovernment dominated Vietnamese politics and from 1960 until 1991, parliamentary elections were held, but the realpower lied within the Communist Party. During 1960-1991 therefore, North Vietnam is classified as non-elective. Theconstitutional changes in 1992 reinstated the president as the head of state, established a national assembly, and aprime minister as the head of government, which qualified North Vietnam to be classified as semi-presidential.
288
sub-divisions in a country does not necessarily mean that these regions are guaranteed autonomy.Building on the sources layed out above, my own regime classification fall into three categories:
1. Unitary: Elective legislatures and constitutional sovereignty centered at the national govern-ment.
2. Semi-Federal: There are elective legislatures at the regional level, but constitutional sovereigntyis reserved to the national government.
3. Federal: Elective regional legislatures plus constitutional recognition of subnational authority.In this category fall countries in which the constitution formally divides legislative authoritybetween regional and central governmental units.
Classification of the above outlined categories was not always straightforward. For example dosome formally unitary regimes such as Japan assure substantial authority to regional governments,whereas power is very limited in some formally federal regimes, such as Malaysia (Hicken and Kasuya,2003:127-128). The Philippines is fairly unitary, but is classified as mixed since substantial power isgranted to governance regionally. Such aspects of the federal-unitary distinction are a reminder ofthe complexity hidden inside categories like federal and unitary, which is difficult to capture in theform used here.
289
D.2
Codin
gSch
em
e,G
overn
menta
lIn
stitutions,
1816-2
002
Countr
yC
ode
Countr
ySyst
emM
ember
ship
Dem
ocr
atic
Ele
ctora
lSyst
em1816-2
002
Exec
utive
Syst
em1816-2
002
Fed
eralism
of
Politica
lA
uth
ori
ty1816-2
002
700
Afg
hanis
tan
1816-1
888
1919-2
002
1816-1
888:
Auto
cracy
1919-1
977:
Auto
cracy
1979-1
991:
Auto
cracy
1996-2
000:
Auto
cracy
1816-1
888:
Non-E
lect
ive
1919-1
972:
Non-E
lect
ive
1973-1
977:
Military
1979-1
979:
Military
1980-1
991:
Pre
s1996-2
000:
Non-E
lect
ive
1816-1
888:
Fed
eral
1919-1
924:
Fed
eral
1925-1
977:
Unitary
1979-1
991:
Unitary
1996-2
000:
Unitary
339
Alb
ania
1913-2
002
1913-1
914:
Auto
cracy
1925-1
938:
Auto
cracy
1946-1
991:
Auto
cracy
1992-1
995:
Sem
i-P
R1996-1
996:
Auto
cracy
1997-2
002:
Sem
i-P
R
1913-1
914:
Unitary
1925-1
938:
Unitary
1946-2
002:
Unitary
615
Alg
eria
1816-1
830
1962-2
002
1816-1
830:
Auto
cracy
1962-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1816-1
830:
Non-E
lect
ive
1962-1
964:
Pre
s1965-1
975:
Military
1976-2
002:
Pre
s
1816-1
830:
Mis
sing
1962-2
002:
Unitary
540
Angola
1975-2
002
1975-1
990:
Auto
cracy
1997-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1975-1
990:
Pre
s1997-2
002:
Pre
s1975-1
990:
Unitary
1997:
Mis
sing
1998-2
002:
Unitary
160
Arg
enti
na
1816-2
002
1816-1
828:
Auto
cracy
1835-1
851:
Auto
cracy
1853-1
936:
Auto
cracy
1937-1
942:
Maj-P
lur
1943-1
945:
Auto
cracy
1948-1
954:
Auto
cracy
1957-1
972:
Auto
cracy
1973-1
975:
PR
1976-1
982:
Auto
cracy
1983-2
002:
PR
1816-1
828:
Pre
s1835-1
851:
Pre
s1853-1
929:
Pre
s1930-1
930:
Military
1931-1
945:
Pre
s1948-1
954:
Pre
s1957-1
965:
Pre
s1966-1
972:
Military
1973-2
002:
Pre
s
1816-1
828:
Fed
eral
1835-1
851:
Fed
eral
1853-1
945:
Fed
eral
1948-1
954:
Fed
eral
1957-2
002:
Fed
eral
290
(conti
nued
from
pre
vio
us
page)
Countr
yC
ode
Countr
ySyst
emM
ember
ship
Dem
ocr
atic
Ele
ctora
lSyst
em1816-2
002
Exec
utive
Syst
em1816-2
002
Fed
eralism
of
Politica
lA
uth
ori
ty1816-2
002
371
Arm
enia
1991-2
002
1991-1
995:
Sem
i-P
R1996-1
997:
Auto
cracy
1998-2
002:
Sem
i-P
R
1991-2
002:
Pre
s1991-2
002:
Unitary
900
Aust
ralia
1901-2
002
1901-2
002:
Maj-P
lur
1901-2
002:
Parl
1901-2
002:
Fed
eral
305
Aust
ria
1918-2
002
1920-1
932:
PR
1934-1
937:
Auto
cracy
1946-2
002:
PR
1920-1
932:
Sem
i-P
res
1934-1
937:
Sem
i-P
res
1946-2
002:
Sem
i-P
res
1920-1
932:
Sem
i-Fed
1934-1
937:
Sem
i-Fed
1946-2
002:
Sem
i-Fed
300
Aust
ria-H
ungary
1816-1
918
1816-1
917:
Auto
cracy
1816-1
917:
Non-E
lect
ive
1816-1
866:
Mis
sing
1867-1
917:
Sem
i-Fed
373
Aze
rbaijan
1991-2
002
1991-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1991-2
002:
Pre
s1991-2
002:
Unitary
267
Baden
1816-1
871
1816-1
871:
Auto
cracy
1816-1
871:
Non-E
lect
ive
1816-1
871:
Unitary
31
Baham
as
1973-2
002
1973-2
002:
Maj-P
lur
1973-2
002:
Parl
1973-2
002:
Unitary
692
Bahra
in1971-2
002
1971-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1971-2
002:
Non-E
lect
ive
1971-2
002:
Unitary
771
Bangla
des
h1972-2
002
1972-1
973:
Maj-P
lur
1974-1
990:
Auto
cracy
1991-2
002:
Maj-P
lur
1972-1
974:
Sem
i-P
res
1975-1
975:
Military
1976-1
981:
Sem
i-P
res
1982-1
985:
Military
1986-2
002:
Sem
i-P
res
1972-2
002:
Unitary
53
Barb
ados
1966-2
002
1966-2
002:
Maj-P
lur
1966-2
002:
Parl
1966-2
002:
Unitary
245
Bavari
a1816-1
871
1816-1
871:
Auto
cracy
1816-1
871:
Non-E
lect
ive
1816-1
871:
Unitary
370
Bel
aru
s1991-2
002
1991-1
994:
Maj-P
lur
1995-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1991-2
002:
Pre
s1991-2
002:
Unitary
291
(conti
nued
from
pre
vio
us
page)
Countr
yC
ode
Countr
ySyst
emM
ember
ship
Dem
ocr
atic
Ele
ctora
lSyst
em1816-2
002
Exec
utive
Syst
em1816-2
002
Fed
eralism
of
Politica
lA
uth
ori
ty1816-2
002
211
Bel
giu
m1830-2
002
1830-1
852:
Auto
cracy
1853-1
898:
Maj-P
lur
1899-1
913:
PR
99
1915-1
938:
PR
1944-2
002:
PR
1830-1
913:
Parl
1915-1
938:
Parl
1944-2
002:
Parl
1830-1
913:
Unitary
1915-1
938:
Unitary
1944-1
969:
Unitary
1970-1
992:
Sem
i-Fed
1993-2
002:
Fed
eral
80
Bel
ize
1981-2
002
1981-2
002:
Maj-P
lur
1981-2
002:
Parl
1981-2
002:
Unitary
434
Ben
in1960-2
002
1960-1
962:
Auto
cracy
1965-1
989:
Auto
cracy
1991-2
002:
PR
1960-1
962:
Pre
s1965-1
967:
Military
1968-1
968:
Pre
s1969-1
969:
Military
1970-1
989:
Pre
s1991-2
002:
Pre
s
1960-1
962:
Unitary
1965-1
989:
Unitary
1991-2
002:
Unitary
760
Bhuta
n1949-2
002
1949-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1949-2
002:
Non-E
lect
ive
1949-2
002:
Unitary
145
Bolivia
1825-2
002
1825-1
840:
Auto
cracy
1842-1
870:
Auto
cracy
1873-1
951:
Auto
cracy
1956-1
981:
Auto
cracy
1982-2
002:
PR
1825-1
840:
Pre
s1842-1
870:
Pre
s1873-1
929:
Pre
s1930-1
930:
Military
1931-1
951:
Pre
s1956-1
963:
Pre
s1964-1
965:
Military
1966-1
966:
Pre
s1967-1
978:
Military
1979-1
979:
Pre
s1980-1
981:
Military
1982-2
002:
Pre
s
1825-1
840:
Unitary
1842-1
870:
Unitary
1873-1
951:
Unitary
1956-2
002:
Unitary
346
Bosn
ia-
Her
zegovin
a+
1992-2
002
1992-2
002:
Mis
sing
1992-2
002:
Mis
sing
1992-2
002:
Mis
sing
571
Bots
wana
1966-2
002
1966-2
002:
Maj-P
lur
1966-2
002:
Pre
s1966-2
002:
Unitary
99B
elgiu
mw
as
the
firs
tco
untr
yto
adopt
aP
Rsy
stem
in1899,fo
llow
edby
Fin
land
in1906,and
Sw
eden
in1907
(Farr
ell,
1997:6
1-6
2).
292
(conti
nued
from
pre
vio
us
page)
Countr
yC
ode
Countr
ySyst
emM
ember
ship
Dem
ocr
atic
Ele
ctora
lSyst
em1816-2
002
Exec
utive
Syst
em1816-2
002
Fed
eralism
of
Politica
lA
uth
ori
ty1816-2
002
140
Bra
zil
1822-2
002
1822-1
929:
Auto
cracy
1934-1
944:
Auto
cracy
1946-1
963:
PR
1965-1
984:
Auto
cracy
1985-2
002:
PR
1822-1
888:
Non-E
lect
ive
1889-1
929:
Pre
s1934-1
944:
Pre
s1946-1
963:
Pre
s1965-2
002:
Pre
s
1822-1
890:
Unitary
1891-1
929:
Fed
eral
1934-1
944:
Sem
i-Fed
1946-1
963:
Fed
eral
1965-2
002:
Fed
eral
835
Bru
nei
1984-2
002
1984-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1984-2
002:
Non-E
lect
ive
1984-2
002:
Mis
sing
355
Bulg
ari
a1878-2
002
1878-1
912:
Auto
cracy
1914-1
933:
Auto
cracy
1935-1
942:
Auto
cracy
1946-1
989:
Auto
cracy
1990-2
002:
PR
1878-1
883:
Non-E
lect
ive
1884-1
893:
Parl
1894-1
912:
Non-E
lect
ive
1914-1
918:
Non-E
lect
ive
1919-1
933:
Parl
1935-1
942:
Non-E
lect
ive
1946-1
971:
Sem
i-P
res
1972-1
990:
Pre
s1991-2
002:
Sem
i-P
res
1878-1
912:
Unitary
1914-1
933:
Unitary
1935-1
942:
Unitary
1946-2
002:
Unitary
439
Burk
ina
Faso
1960-2
002
1960-1
976:
Auto
cracy
1978-1
979:
PR
1980-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1960-1
965:
Pre
s1966-1
969:
Military
1970-1
976:
Pre
s1978-1
979:
Pre
s1980-1
982:
Military
1983-1
990:
Non-E
lect
ive
1991-2
002:
Pre
s
1960-1
976:
Unitary
1978-2
002:
Unitary
516
Buru
ndi
1961-2
002
1962-1
964:
Auto
cracy
1966-1
991:
Auto
cracy
1996-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1962-1
964:
Parl
1966-1
986:
Pre
s1987-1
987:
Military
1988-1
991:
Pre
s1996-2
002:
Pre
s
1962-1
964:
Unitary
1966-1
991:
Unitary
1996-2
002:
Unitary
811
Cam
bodia
1954-2
002
1955-1
969:
Auto
cracy
1972-1
974:
Auto
cracy
1976-1
978:
Auto
cracy
1993-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1955-1
969:
Parl
1972-1
974:
Pre
s1976-1
978:
Non-E
lect
ive
1993-2
002:
Parl
1955-1
969:
Unitary
1972-1
974:
Unitary
1976-1
978:
Unitary
1993-2
002:
Unitary
471
Cam
eroon
1960-2
002
1960-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1960-2
002:
Pre
s1960:
Unitary
1961-1
972:
Fed
eral
1973-2
002:
Unitary
293
(conti
nued
from
pre
vio
us
page)
Countr
yC
ode
Countr
ySyst
emM
ember
ship
Dem
ocr
atic
Ele
ctora
lSyst
em1816-2
002
Exec
utive
Syst
em1816-2
002
Fed
eralism
of
Politica
lA
uth
ori
ty1816-2
002
20
Canada
1867-2
002
1867-2
002:
Maj-P
lur
1867-2
002:
Parl
1867-2
002:
Fed
eral
402
Cape
Ver
de
1975-2
002
1975-1
991:
Auto
cracy
1992-2
002:
PR
1975-2
002:
Pre
s1975-2
002:
Unitary
482
Cen
tral
Afr
ican
Rep
ublic
1960-2
002
1960-1
992:
Auto
cracy
1993-2
002:
Maj-P
lur1
00
1960-1
965:
Pre
s1966-1
978:
Military
1979-1
980:
Pre
s1981-1
985:
Military
1986-2
002:
Pre
s
1960-2
002:
Unitary
483
Chad
1960-2
002
1960-1
977:
Auto
cracy
1985-1
990:
Auto
cracy
1992-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1960-1
977:
Pre
s1985-1
989:
Pre
s1990-1
990:
Military
1992-2
002:
Pre
s
1960-1
977:
Unitary
1985-1
990:
Unitary
1992-2
002:
Unitary
155
Chile
1818-2
002
1818-1
873:
Auto
cracy
1874-1
923:
Maj-P
lur
1925-1
954:
Auto
cracy
1955-1
972:
PR
1973-1
988:
Auto
cracy
1989-1
989:
PR
1990-2
002:
PR
101
1818-1
825:
Military
1826-1
923:
Pre
s1925-1
972:
Pre
s1973-1
980:
Military
1981-2
002:
Pre
s
1818-1
825:
Unitary
1826-1
827:
Sem
i-Fed
1828-1
923:
Unitary
1925-2
002:
Unitary
100T
he
Nati
onalA
ssem
bly
was
susp
ended
follow
ing
aco
up
15
Marc
h2003
(IP
U,2003).
101B
oth
Colo
mer
(2004:9
7)
and
Rey
nold
sand
Rei
lly
(1997)
chara
cter
ize
the
Chilea
nel
ecto
ralsy
stem
as
pro
port
ionalre
pre
senta
tion.
How
ever
,R
eynold
sand
Rei
lly
(1997:9
3)
conce
de
that
this
elec
tora
lsy
stem
larg
ely
work
sas
two-p
art
ysy
stem
.A
ccord
ing
toB
lais
and
Mass
icott
e(1
997:1
11),
Chile
isth
eonly
dem
ocr
acy
that
does
not
fit
into
any
ofth
eth
ree
elec
tora
lsy
stem
cate
gori
es.
294
(conti
nued
from
pre
vio
us
page)
Countr
yC
ode
Countr
ySyst
emM
ember
ship
Dem
ocr
atic
Ele
ctora
lSyst
em1816-2
002
Exec
utive
Syst
em1816-2
002
Fed
eralism
of
Politica
lA
uth
ori
ty1816-2
002
710
Chin
a1816-2
002
1816-1
859:
Auto
cracy
1862-1
910:
Auto
cracy
1912-1
912:
Auto
cracy
1914-1
936:
Auto
cracy
1946-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1816-1
859:
Non-E
lect
ive
1862-1
910:
Non-E
lect
ive
1912-1
912:
Pre
s1914-1
923:
Pre
s1924-1
927:
Military
1928-1
936:
Pre
s1946-1
958:
Pre
s1959-1
982:
Non-E
lect
ive
1983-2
002:
Pre
s
1816-1
859:
Unitary
1862-1
910:
Unitary
1912:
Unitary
1914-1
936:
Unitary
1946-2
002:
Unitary
100
Colo
mbia
1831-2
002
1830-1
859:
Auto
cracy
1861-1
866:
Auto
cracy
1867-1
885:
Maj-P
lur
1886-1
929:
Auto
cracy
1930:
Maj-P
lur
1931-1
947:
PR
1948-1
956:
Auto
cracy
1957-2
002:
PR
1830-1
859:
Pre
s1861-1
952:
Pre
s1953-1
958:
Military
1959-2
002:
Pre
s
1830-1
852:
Unitary
1853-1
859:
Fed
eral
1861-1
885:
Fed
eral
1886-2
002:
Sem
i-Fed
581
Com
oro
s1975-2
002
1975-1
975:
Maj-P
lur
1976-1
989:
Auto
cracy
1990-1
994:
Maj-P
lur
1996-1
998:
Maj-P
lur
1999-2
001:
Auto
cracy
2002-2
002:
Maj-P
lur
1975-1
994:
Pre
s1996-1
998:
Pre
s1999-1
999:
Military
2000-2
002:
Parl
1975-1
994:
Fed
eral
1996-2
002:
Fed
eral
484
Congo
1960-2
002
1960-1
962:
Maj-P
lur
1963-1
990:
Auto
cracy
1992-1
996:
Maj-P
lur
1997-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1960-1
990:
Pre
s1992-2
002:
Pre
s1960-1
990:
Unitary
1992-2
002:
Unitary
490
Congo,D
emocr
atic
Rep
ublic
of(Z
air
e)1960-2
002
1965-1
991:
Auto
cracy
1965-1
991:
Pre
s1965:
Fed
eral
1966-1
991:
Unitary
295
(conti
nued
from
pre
vio
us
page)
Countr
yC
ode
Countr
ySyst
emM
ember
ship
Dem
ocr
atic
Ele
ctora
lSyst
em1816-2
002
Exec
utive
Syst
em1816-2
002
Fed
eralism
of
Politica
lA
uth
ori
ty1816-2
002
94
Cost
aR
ica+
102
1840-2
002
1840-1
852:
Auto
cracy
1853-1
892:
Mis
sing
1893-1
952:
Sem
i-P
R1953-2
002:
PR
1840-2
002:
Pre
s1840-2
002:
Unitary
437
Cote
D’Ivoir
e1960-2
002
1960-1
998:
Auto
cracy
2000-2
002:
Maj-P
lur
1960-1
998:
Pre
s2000-2
002:
Pre
s1960-1
998:
Unitary
2000-2
002:
Unitary
344
Cro
atia
1991-2
002
1991-1
998:
Auto
cracy
2000-2
002:
Sem
i-P
R1991-1
998:
Pre
s2000-2
002:
Pre
s1991-1
998:
Unitary
2000-2
002:
Unitary
40
Cuba
1902-2
002
1902-1
927:
PR
1928-1
932:
Auto
cracy
1933-1
947:
PR
1948-1
951:
PR
1955-1
958:
Auto
cracy
1961-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1902-1
951:
Pre
s1955-1
958:
Pre
s1961-1
975:
Sem
i-P
res
1976-2
002:
Pre
s
1902-1
951:
Unitary
1955-1
958:
Unitary
1961-2
002:
Unitary
352
Cypru
s1960-2
002
1960-1
962:
Maj-P
lur
1968-2
002:
PR
1960-1
962:
Pre
s1968-2
002:
Pre
s1960-1
962:
Fed
eral
1968-2
002:
Unitary
316
Cze
chR
epublic
1993-2
002
1993-2
002:
PR
1993-2
002:
Sem
i-P
res
1993-2
002:
Unitary
315
Cze
chosl
ovakia
1919-1
992
1919-1
938:
PR
1945-1
946:
PR
1948-1
967:
Auto
cracy
1969-1
989:
Auto
cracy
1990-1
992:
Sem
i-P
R
1919-1
938:
Sem
i-P
res
1945-1
946:
Sem
i-P
res
1948-1
967:
Non-E
lect
ive
1969-1
989:
Non-E
lect
ive
1990-1
992:
Sem
i-P
res
1919-1
938:
Unitary
1945-1
946:
Unit
ary
1948-1
967:
Unitary
1969-1
992:
Fed
eral
102A
ccord
ing
toLijphart
(1984:3
9),
the
long
Cost
aR
ican
dem
ocr
atic
rule
was
inte
rrupte
dby
civil
war
in1948.
This
inte
rrupti
on
isnot
reco
rded
inth
ePolity
4data
set.
296
(conti
nued
from
pre
vio
us
page)
Countr
yC
ode
Countr
ySyst
emM
ember
ship
Dem
ocr
atic
Ele
ctora
lSyst
em1816-2
002
Exec
utive
Syst
em1816-2
002
Fed
eralism
of
Politica
lA
uth
ori
ty1816-2
002
390
Den
mark
1816-2
002
1816-1
900:
Auto
cracy
1915-1
919:
Maj-P
lur
1920-1
939:
PR
1945-2
002:
PR
1816-1
848:
Non-E
lect
ive
1849-1
900:
Parl
1915-1
939:
Parl
1945-2
002:
Parl
1816-1
900:
Unitary
1915-1
939:
Unitary
1945-2
002:
Unitary
522
Djibouti
1977-2
002
1977-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1977-2
002:
Pre
s1977-2
002:
Unitary
42
Dom
inic
an
Rep
ub-
lic
1845-2
002
1845-1
860:
Auto
cracy
1865-1
913:
Auto
cracy
1925-1
929:
Auto
cracy
1932-1
960:
Auto
cracy
1963-1
963:
PR
1966-1
977:
Auto
cracy
1978-2
002:
PR
1845-1
860:
Pre
s1865-1
913:
Pre
s1925-1
929:
Pre
s1932-1
960:
Pre
s1963-1
963:
Pre
s1966-2
002:
Pre
s
1845-1
860:
Unitary
1865-1
913:
Unitary
1925-1
929:
Unitary
1932-1
960:
Unitary
1963:
Unitary
1966-2
002:
Unitary
860
East
Tim
or+
2002-2
002
2002-2
002:
PR
2002-2
002:
Sem
i-P
res
2002:
Mis
sing
130
Ecu
ador
1830-2
002
1830-1
967:
Auto
cracy
1968-1
968:
Sem
i-P
R1969-1
969:
PR
1970-1
978:
Auto
cracy
1979-2
002:
Sem
i-P
R
1830-1
962:
Pre
s1963-1
965:
Military
1966-2
002:
Pre
s
1830-2
002:
Unitary
651
Egypt+
1827-1
855
1922-2
002
1827-1
855:
Auto
cracy
1922-1
927:
Mis
sing
1930-1
933:
Auto
cracy
1935-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1827-1
855:
Non-E
lect
ive
1922-1
927:
Non-E
lect
ive
1930-1
933:
Non-E
lect
ive
1935-1
951:
Non-E
lect
ive
1952-1
952:
Military
1953-1
956:
Non-E
lect
ive
1957-2
002:
Pre
s
1827-1
855:
Unitary
1922-1
927:
Unitary
1930-1
933:
Unitary
1935-1
957:
Unitary
1958-1
960:
Sem
i-Fed
1961-2
002:
Unitary
297
(conti
nued
from
pre
vio
us
page)
Countr
yC
ode
Countr
ySyst
emM
ember
ship
Dem
ocr
atic
Ele
ctora
lSyst
em1816-2
002
Exec
utive
Syst
em1816-2
002
Fed
eralism
of
Politica
lA
uth
ori
ty1816-2
002
92
ElSalv
ador
1840-2
002
1840-1
854:
Auto
cracy
1858-1
947:
Auto
cracy
1950-1
978:
Auto
cracy
1984-2
002:
PR
1840-1
854:
Pre
s1858-1
947:
Pre
s1950-1
959:
Pre
s1960-1
960:
Military
1961-1
978:
Pre
s1984-2
002:
Pre
s
1840-1
854:
Unitary
1858-1
947:
Unitary
1950-1
978:
Unitary
1984-2
002:
Unitary
411
Equato
rialG
uin
ea1960-2
002
1960-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1960-1
978:
Pre
s1979-1
981:
Military
1982-2
002:
Pre
s
1960-1
967:
Mis
sing
1968-2
002:
Unitary
531
Eri
trea
1993-2
002
1993-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1993-2
002:
Pre
s1993-2
002:
Unitary
366
Est
onia
1918-1
940
1991-2
002
1919-1
932:
PR
1936-1
940:
Auto
cracy
1991-2
002:
PR
1919-1
919:
Sem
i-P
res
1920-1
932:
Parl
1936-1
940:
Pre
s1991-2
002:
Sem
i-P
res
1919-1
932:
Unitary
1936-1
940:
Unitary
1991-2
002:
Unitary
530
Eth
iopia
+1855-2
002
1855-1
929:
Mis
sing
1930-1
935:
Auto
cracy
1942-1
973:
Auto
cracy
1975-1
990:
Auto
cracy
1995-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1855-1
935:
Non-E
lect
ive
1942-1
973:
Non-E
lect
ive
1975-1
986:
Military
1987-1
990:
Pre
s1995-2
002:
Sem
i-P
res
1855-1
935:
Unitary
1942-1
951:
Unitary
1952-1
962:
Fed
eral
1963-1
973:
Unitary
1975-1
990:
Unitary
1995-2
002:
Fed
eral
950
Fiji
1970-2
002
1970-1
986:
Maj-P
lur1
03
1987-1
989:
Auto
cracy
1990-1
999:
Maj-P
lur
2001-2
002:
Maj-P
lur
1970-1
986:
Parl
1987-1
989:
Military
1990-1
999:
Sem
i-P
res
2001-2
002:
Sem
i-P
res
1970-1
999:
Unitary
375
Fin
land
1917-2
002
1917-1
929:
PR
1931-2
002:
PR
1917-1
929:
Sem
i-P
res
1931-2
002:
Sem
i-P
res
1917-1
929:
Unitary
1931-2
002:
Unitary
103U
pon
indep
enden
cefr
om
Bri
tain
,B
ritish
rule
sust
ain
eda
pow
erfu
lin
stitutionalfr
am
ework
for
the
Fijigover
nm
ent
(Nort
on,2002:1
37).
The
Leg
isla
tive
Counci
lin
stitute
din
1970
was
stro
ngly
dis
pro
port
ionate
toth
eet
hnic
com
posi
tion
ofth
est
ate
at
the
tim
e(N
ort
on,2002:1
51).
298
(conti
nued
from
pre
vio
us
page)
Countr
yC
ode
Countr
ySyst
emM
ember
ship
Dem
ocr
atic
Ele
ctora
lSyst
em1816-2
002
Exec
utive
Syst
em1816-2
002
Fed
eralism
of
Politica
lA
uth
ori
ty1816-2
002
220
Fra
nce
1816-2
002
1816-1
847:
Auto
cracy
1848-1
850:
Maj-P
lur
1852-1
859:
Auto
cracy
1863-1
869:
Auto
cracy
1877-1
939:
Maj-P
lur
1940-1
943:
Auto
cracy
1946-1
957:
PR
104
1958-2
002:
Maj-P
lur
1816-1
847:
Non-E
lect
ive
1848-1
850:
Pre
s1852-1
859:
Non-E
lect
ive
1863-1
869:
Non-E
lect
ive
1877-1
878:
Pre
s1879-1
943:
Sem
i-P
res
1946-1
957:
Sem
i-P
res
1958-2
002:
Pre
s
1816-1
850:
Unitary
1852-1
857:
Unitary
1858:
Sem
i-Fed
1859:
Unitary
1863-1
869:
Unitary
1877-1
943:
Unitary
1946-2
002:
Unitary
481+
Gabon
1960-2
002
1960-1
989:
Auto
cracy
1991-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1960-1
989:
Pre
s1991-2
002:
Pre
s1960-2
002:
Mis
sing
420
Gam
bia
1965-2
002
1965-1
993:
Maj-P
lur1
05
1994-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1965-1
993:
Pre
s1994-1
995:
Military
1996-2
002:
Pre
s
1965-1
989:
Unitary
1991-2
002:
Unitary
372
Geo
rgia
1991-2
002
1991-2
002:
Sem
i-P
R1991-2
002:
Pre
s1991-2
002:
Sem
i-Fed
265
Ger
man
Dem
o-
cratic
Rep
ublic
1949-1
990
1949-1
988:
Auto
cracy
1949-1
988:
Non-E
lect
ive
1949-1
988:
Unitary
260
Ger
man
Fed
eral
Rep
ublic
1949-2
002
1949-2
002:
PR
1949-2
002:
Sem
i-P
res
1949-2
002:
Fed
eral
255
Ger
many
(Pru
ssia
)1816-1
945
1816-1
866:
Auto
cracy
1871-1
917:
Auto
cracy
1919-1
932:
PR
1933-1
944:
Auto
cracy
1816-1
866:
Non-E
lect
ive
1871-1
889:
Parl
1890-1
917:
Non-E
lect
ive
1919-1
944:
Sem
i-P
res
1816-1
866:
Unitary
1871-1
917:
Sem
i-Fed
1919-1
932:
Sem
i-Fed
1933-1
944:
Unitary
104A
ccord
ing
toLijphart
(1984:1
51-1
54)
the
Fre
nch
IVR
epublic
(1950-1
957)
exer
cise
da
PR
elec
tora
lsy
stem
wit
hm
ajo
rita
rian
elem
ents
,and
am
ajo
rity
-plu
rality
syst
emduri
ng
the
Fre
nch
VR
epublic
(1958-1
962).
Rei
lly
(2001:1
5,
fn.
10)
wri
tes
that
the
two-r
ound
run-o
ffm
ajo
rity
syst
emin
legis
lative
elec
tions
isty
pic
ally
ass
oci
ate
dw
ith
Fra
nce
.LeD
uc
etal.
(1996:5
4,
65-6
6)
class
ify
Fra
nce
as
aco
untr
yth
at
use
sdiff
eren
tel
ecto
ral
form
ula
s:it
use
sm
ajo
rity
-runoff
for
pre
siden
tial
elec
tions,
majo
rity
-plu
rality
insi
ngle
-mem
ber
dis
tric
tsfo
rle
gis
lative
and
dep
art
men
tal
elec
tions,
majo
rity
-plu
rality
inm
ulti-m
ember
dis
tric
tsfo
rse
nato
rial
and
smaller
munic
ipaliti
es.
105G
am
bia
gain
edin
dep
enden
cefr
om
Bri
tain
in1965.
Until1984,th
epre
siden
tof
Gam
bia
was
elec
ted
by
the
House
of
Rep
rese
nta
tives
,but
subse
quen
tly,
ther
ehas
bee
nse
para
teel
ecti
ons
toth
ele
gis
latu
reand
the
pre
siden
t(S
ain
e,2003:3
77).
299
(conti
nued
from
pre
vio
us
page)
Countr
yC
ode
Countr
ySyst
emM
ember
ship
Dem
ocr
atic
Ele
ctora
lSyst
em1816-2
002
Exec
utive
Syst
em1816-2
002
Fed
eralism
of
Politica
lA
uth
ori
ty1816-2
002
452
Ghana
1957-2
002
1957-1
968:
Auto
cracy
1970-1
971:
Maj-P
lur
1972-1
977:
Auto
cracy
1979-1
980:
Maj-P
lur
1981-1
990:
Auto
cracy
1992-2
000:
Auto
cracy
2001-2
002:
Maj-P
lur
1957-1
959:
Parl
1960-1
965:
Pre
s1966-1
968:
Military
1970-1
971:
Pre
s1972-1
977:
Military
1979-1
980:
Pre
s1981-1
990:
Military
1992-2
002:
Pre
s
1957-1
968:
Unitary
1970-1
977:
Unitary
1979-1
990:
Unitary
1992-2
002:
Unitary
99
Gre
at
Colo
mbia
1821-1
830
1821-1
830:
Auto
cracy
1821-1
830:
Pre
s1821-1
830:
Fed
eral
350
Gre
ece
1827-2
002
1827-1
861:
Auto
cracy
1864-1
914:
Maj-P
lur
1915-1
915:
Auto
cracy
1920-1
921:
Auto
cracy
1924-1
925:
Auto
cracy
1926-1
927:
PR
1928-1
931:
Maj-P
lur
1932:
PR
1933-1
935:
Maj-P
lur
1936-1
940:
Auto
cracy
1944-1
951:
PR
1952-1
955:
Maj-P
lur
1956-1
957:
Sem
i-P
R1958-1
966:
PR
1967-1
973:
Auto
cracy
1975-2
002:
PR
1827-1
843:
Non-E
lect
ive
1844-1
861:
Parl
1864-1
915:
Parl
1920-1
921:
Parl
1924-1
924:
Parl
1925-1
925:
Military
1926-1
934:
Parl
1935-1
940:
Military
1944-1
966:
Parl
1967-1
973:
Military
1975-2
002:
Sem
i-P
res
1827-1
861:
Unitary
1864-1
915:
Unitary
1920-1
921:
Unitary
1924-1
940:
Unitary
1944-1
973:
Unitary
1975-2
002:
Unitary
90
Guate
mala
1840-2
002
1840-1
870:
Auto
cracy
1873-1
943:
Auto
cracy
1944-1
949:
Sem
i-P
R1950-1
965:
Auto
cracy
1966-1
969:
Sem
i-P
R1970-1
984:
Auto
cracy
1986-2
002:
Sem
i-P
R
1840-1
870:
Pre
s1873-1
981:
Pre
s1982-1
984:
Military
1986-2
002:
Pre
s
1840-1
870:
Unitary
1873-1
984:
Unitary
1986-2
002:
Unitary
438
Guin
ea1958-2
002
1958-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1958-2
002:
Pre
s1958-2
002:
Unitary
300
(conti
nued
from
pre
vio
us
page)
Countr
yC
ode
Countr
ySyst
emM
ember
ship
Dem
ocr
atic
Ele
ctora
lSyst
em1816-2
002
Exec
utive
Syst
em1816-2
002
Fed
eralism
of
Politica
lA
uth
ori
ty1816-2
002
404
Guin
ea-B
issa
u1974-2
002
1974-1
993:
Auto
cracy
1994-1
997:
PR
2000-2
002:
PR
1974-1
979:
Pre
s1980-1
983:
Military
1984-1
997:
Pre
s2000-2
002:
Pre
s
1974-1
997:
Unitary
2000-2
002:
Unitary
110
Guyana
1966-2
002
1966-1
991:
Auto
cracy
1992-2
002:
PR
1966-1
969:
Parl
1970-1
979:
Sem
i-P
res
1980-2
002:
Pre
s
1966-2
002:
Unitary
41
Haiti
1816-1
914
1934-2
002
1816-1
914:
Auto
cracy
1934-1
945:
Auto
cracy
1950-1
985:
Auto
cracy
1988-1
989:
Auto
cracy
1990-1
990:
Maj-P
lur
1991-1
993:
Auto
cracy
1994-1
998:
Maj-P
lur
2000-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1816-1
819:
Military
1820-1
914:
Pre
s1934-1
945:
Pre
s1950-1
950:
Military
1951-1
985:
Pre
s1988-1
989:
Military
1990-1
991:
Pre
s1992-1
993:
Military
1994-1
998:
Pre
s2000-2
002:
Pre
s
1816-1
914:
Unitary
1934-1
945:
Unitary
1950-1
985:
Unitary
1988-1
998:
Unitary
2000-2
002:
Unitary
240
Hanover
1816-1
871
1816-1
871:
Auto
cracy
1816-1
871:
Non-E
lect
ive
1816-1
871:
Mis
sing
275
Hes
se-D
arm
stadt
1816-1
871
1816-1
871:
Auto
cracy
1816-1
871:
Non-E
lect
ive
1816-1
871:
Mis
sing
273
Hes
se-K
ass
el+
1816-1
871
1816-1
871:
Auto
cracy
1816-1
871:
Non-E
lect
ive
1816-1
871:
Mis
sing
91
Hondura
s+1840-2
002
1840-1
851:
Auto
cracy
1854-1
893:
Auto
cracy
1894-1
903:
Mis
sing
1904-1
906:
Auto
cracy
1908-1
911:
Mis
sing
1913-1
918:
Mis
sing
1920-1
923:
Mis
sing
1925-1
929:
Mis
sing
1930-1
935:
Maj-P
lur
1936-1
979:
Auto
cracy
1982-2
002:
PR
1840-1
851:
Pre
s1854-1
906:
Pre
s1908-1
911:
Pre
s1913-1
918:
Pre
s1920-1
923:
Pre
s1925-1
955:
Pre
s1956-1
956:
Military
1957-1
962:
Pre
s1963-1
964:
Military
1965-1
971:
Pre
s1972-1
979:
Military
1982-2
002:
Pre
s
1840-1
851:
Unitary
1854-1
906:
Unitary
1908-1
911:
Unitary
1913-1
918:
Unitary
1920-1
923:
Unitary
1925-1
979:
Unitary
1982-2
002:
Unitary
301
(conti
nued
from
pre
vio
us
page)
Countr
yC
ode
Countr
ySyst
emM
ember
ship
Dem
ocr
atic
Ele
ctora
lSyst
em1816-2
002
Exec
utive
Syst
em1816-2
002
Fed
eralism
of
Politica
lA
uth
ori
ty1816-2
002
310
Hungary
1918-2
002
1919-1
943:
Auto
cracy
1948-1
955:
Auto
cracy
1957-1
988:
Auto
cracy
1990-2
002:
Sem
i-P
R106
1919-1
943:
Non-E
lect
ive
1948-1
955:
Non-E
lect
ive
1957-1
988:
Non-E
lect
ive
1990-2
002:
Sem
i-P
res
1919-1
943:
Unitary
1948-1
955:
Unitary
1957-1
988:
Unitary
1990-2
002:
Unitary
395
Icel
and
1944-2
002
1944-1
958:
Sem
i-P
R1959-2
002:
PR
1944-2
002:
Sem
i-P
res
1944-2
002:
Unitary
750
India
1947-2
002
1947-2
002:
Maj-P
lur
1947-2
002:
Sem
i-P
res
1947-2
002:
Fed
eral
850
Indones
ia1945-2
002
1945-1
947:
Auto
cracy
1948-1
949:
PR
1950-1
998:
Auto
cracy
1999-2
002:
PR
107
1945-2
002:
Pre
s1945-1
948:
Unitary
1949-1
950:
Fed
eral
1951-2
002:
Unitary
630
Iran,
Isla
mic
Rep
ublic
of
(Per
sia)
1816-2
002
1816-1
905:
Auto
cracy
1925-1
952:
Auto
cracy
1955-1
978:
Auto
cracy
1982-1
996:
Auto
cracy
1997-2
002:
Maj-P
lur
1816-1
905:
Non-E
lect
ive
1925-1
952:
Non-E
lect
ive
1955-1
959:
Parl
1960-1
962:
Non-E
lect
ive
1963-1
975:
Parl
1976-1
978:
Non-E
lect
ive
1982-2
002:
Pre
s
1816-1
905:
Unitary
1925-1
952:
Unitary
1955-1
978:
Unitary
1982-2
002:
Unitary
645
Iraq
1932-2
002
1932-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1932-1
957:
Non-E
lect
ive
1958-1
978:
Military
1979-1
994:
Non-E
lect
ive
1995-2
002:
Pre
s
1932-2
002:
Unitary
106T
his
code
issu
pport
edby
Bir
ch(2
001);
Bla
isand
Mass
icott
e(1
996:6
6);
Norr
is(2
003);
Shugart
and
Watt
enber
g(2
001:2
31-2
54).
How
ever
,R
eynold
sand
Rei
lly
(1997)
and
Inte
rnationalID
EA
(2003)
claim
that
Hungary
has
aP
Rsy
stem
.
107A
ccord
ing
toLip
set
(1995:8
6-9
1),
Indones
iaw
as
occ
upie
dby
the
Japanes
eduri
ng
1942-1
945,
follow
edby
adec
lara
tion
of
indep
enden
ceand
afo
ur-
yea
rre
vo-
luti
onary
stru
ggle
again
stth
eD
utc
hco
lonia
lpow
er(L
ijphart
,1977:1
83).
Indones
iaw
as
gra
nte
dfo
rmal
indep
enden
cein
1949
and
aco
nst
itutional
parl
iam
enta
rydem
ocr
acy
duri
ng
its
firs
tnin
eyea
rsas
aso
ver
eign
republic,
1950-1
959,
hold
ing
ale
gis
lative
elec
tion
in1955.
The
PR
elec
tora
lsy
stem
resu
lted
ina
wea
kand
div
ided
gover
nm
ent,
whic
hw
as
repla
ced
by
a‘g
uid
eddem
ocr
acy
’in
1959.
Acc
ord
ing
toth
eco
nst
itution,th
eH
ouse
ofR
epre
senta
tives
funct
ions
as
asi
ngle
-cham
ber
legis
latu
reand
have
400
dir
ectly
elec
ted
mem
ber
sand
100
pre
siden
tialappoin
tees
,th
ree
quart
erofw
hom
repre
sent
the
arm
edfo
rces
.E
lect
ions
are
hel
dev
ery
five
yea
rs(D
erbysh
ire
and
Der
bysh
ire,
1996:1
45).
302
(conti
nued
from
pre
vio
us
page)
Countr
yC
ode
Countr
ySyst
emM
ember
ship
Dem
ocr
atic
Ele
ctora
lSyst
em1816-2
002
Exec
utive
Syst
em1816-2
002
Fed
eralism
of
Politica
lA
uth
ori
ty1816-2
002
205
Irel
and
1921-2
002
1921-2
002:
PR
1921-1
936:
Parl
1937-2
002:
Sem
i-P
res
1921-2
002:
Unitary
666
Isra
el1948-2
002
1948-2
002:
PR
1948-2
002:
Sem
i-P
res
1948-2
002:
Unitary
325
Italy
/Sard
inia
1816-2
002
1816-1
921:
Auto
cracy
1928-1
942:
Auto
cracy
1948-1
992:
PR
1993-2
002:
Sem
i-P
R108
1816-1
860:
Non-E
lect
ive
1861-1
921:
Parl
1928-1
942:
Parl
1948-2
002:
Sem
i-P
res
1816-1
860:
Mis
sing
1861-1
921:
Unitary
1928-1
942:
Unitary
1948-2
002:
Unitary
51
Jam
aic
a1962-2
002
1962-2
002:
Maj-P
lur
1962-2
002:
Parl
1962-2
002:
Unitary
740
Japan
1816-2
002
1816-1
857:
Auto
cracy
1868-1
944:
Auto
cracy
1952-2
002:
Sem
i-P
R
1816-1
857:
Military
1868-1
884:
Non-E
lect
ive
1885-1
894:
Parl
1895-1
909:
Non-E
lect
ive
1910-1
931:
Parl
1932-1
944:
Military
1952-2
002:
Parl
1816-1
857:
Unitary
1868-1
944:
Unitary
1952-2
002:
Unitary
663
Jord
an
1946-2
002
1946-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1946-2
002:
Non-E
lect
ive
1946-2
002:
Unitary
705
Kaza
kst
an
1991-2
002
1991-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1991-2
002:
Pre
s1991-2
002:
Unitary
501
Ken
ya
1963-2
002
1963-2
001:
Auto
cracy
2002:
Maj-P
lur
1963-2
002:
Pre
s1963-1
965:
Fed
eral
1966-2
002:
Unitary
730
Kore
a1816-1
910
1816-1
910:
Auto
cracy
1816-1
910:
Non-E
lect
ive
1816-1
910:
Unitary
731
Kore
a,
Dem
ocr
atic
Peo
ple
’sR
epublic
of(N
ort
h)
1948-2
002
1948-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1948-1
971:
Parl
1972-2
002:
Non-E
lect
ive
1948-2
002:
Unitary
108It
aly
wen
tth
rough
an
elec
tora
lre
form
in1993
that
abolish
edth
elist
PR
syst
emfo
rth
eSen
ate
and
toch
ange
the
elec
tora
lsy
stem
for
the
Cham
ber
ofD
eputies
(Farr
ell,
1997:8
0).
Inth
eC
ham
ber
of
Dep
uti
es’sy
stem
,th
evote
rshave
two
separa
tevote
s,one
for
const
ituen
cypolitici
ans
and
one
for
part
ylist
s.Farr
ellw
rite
sth
at
this
implies
that
the
Cham
ber
ofD
eputies
’sy
stem
share
featu
res
com
mon
with
the
two-v
ote
or
am
ixed
syst
em.
303
(conti
nued
from
pre
vio
us
page)
Countr
yC
ode
Countr
ySyst
emM
ember
ship
Dem
ocr
atic
Ele
ctora
lSyst
em1816-2
002
Exec
utive
Syst
em1816-2
002
Fed
eralism
of
Politica
lA
uth
ori
ty1816-2
002
732
Kore
a,
Rep
ublic
of
(South
)1948-2
002
1948-1
959:
Auto
cracy
1960-1
960:
Maj-P
lur
1961-1
962:
Auto
cracy
1963-1
971:
Sem
i-P
R109
1972-1
986:
Auto
cracy
1988-2
002:
Sem
i-P
R
1948-1
986:
Pre
s1988-2
002:
Pre
s1948-1
986:
Unitary
1988-2
002:
Unitary
690
Kuw
ait
1961-2
002
1961-1
989:
Auto
cracy
1991-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1961-1
989:
Non-E
lect
ive
1991-2
002:
Non-E
lect
ive
1961-1
989:
Unitary
1991-2
002:
Unitary
703
Kyrg
yz
Rep
ublic
1991-2
002
1991-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1991-2
002:
Pre
s1991-2
002:
Unitary
812
Laos
1954-2
002
1958-1
959:
Maj-P
lur
1960-1
960:
Auto
cracy
1975-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1958-1
959:
Parl
1960-1
960:
Military
1975-2
002:
Sem
i-P
res
1958-1
960:
Unitary
1975-2
002:
Unitary
367
Latv
ia+
1918-1
940
1991-2
002
1918-1
933:
Mis
sing110
1934-1
940:
Auto
cracy
1991-2
002:
PR
1918-1
940:
Sem
i-P
res
1991-2
002:
Sem
i-P
res
1918-1
940:
Unitary
1991-2
002:
Unitary
660
Leb
anon
1944-2
002
1944-1
969:
Auto
cracy
1970-1
974:
Maj-P
lur
1944-1
974:
Pre
s1944-1
974:
Unitary
570
Les
oth
o1966-2
002
1966-1
969:
Maj-P
lur1
11
1970-1
992:
Auto
cracy
1993-1
997:
Maj-P
lur
2002-2
002:
Maj-P
lur
1966-1
969:
Parl
1970-1
985:
Non-E
lect
ive
1986-1
992:
Military
1993-1
997:
Parl
2002-2
002:
Parl
1966-1
997:
Unitary
2002:
Unitary
109South
Kore
ahas
applied
Sem
i-P
Rco
mbin
ing
elec
tora
lfo
rmula
sfr
om
1962
topre
sent
(Hic
ken
and
Kasu
ya,2003:1
33-1
36).
110T
he
multip
lici
tyofpart
iesin
the
parl
iam
ent(S
aei
ma)(2
2in
1922
and
24
in1931)m
ade
itim
poss
ible
tofo
rma
stable
gover
nm
entduri
ng
1920-1
934
(Ency
clopæ
dia
Bri
tannic
a,2003).
111R
eynold
sand
Rei
lly
(1997:1
7)
des
crib
eLes
oth
oas
acl
ass
ical
majo
rita
rian
FP
TP
syst
em,
and
the
web
site
list
sLes
oth
oas
havin
ga
plu
rality
syst
emin
1965,
1970,1993,and
2002.
IPU
(2003)
des
crib
esLes
oth
o’s
syst
emas
mix
edin
2002.
304
(conti
nued
from
pre
vio
us
page)
Countr
yC
ode
Countr
ySyst
emM
ember
ship
Dem
ocr
atic
Ele
ctora
lSyst
em1816-2
002
Exec
utive
Syst
em1816-2
002
Fed
eralism
of
Politica
lA
uth
ori
ty1816-2
002
450
Lib
eria
+1847-2
002
1847-1
883:
Mis
sing112
1884-1
989:
Auto
cracy
1997-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1847-1
979:
Pre
s1980-1
983:
Military
1984-1
989:
Pre
s1997-2
002:
Pre
s
1847-1
989:
Unitary
1997-2
002:
Unitary
620
Lib
ya
1816-1
835
1951-2
002
1816-1
834:
Auto
cracy
1951-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1816-1
834:
Non-E
lect
ive
1951-1
968:
Non-E
lect
ive
1969-2
002:
Military
1816-1
834:
Mis
sing
1951-1
963:
Fed
eral
1964-2
002:
Unitary
368
Lithuania
1918-1
940
1991-2
002
1918-1
925:
PR
1928-1
940:
Auto
cracy
1991-2
002:
Sem
i-P
R
1918-1
925:
Sem
i-P
res
1928-1
940:
Pre
s1991-2
002:
Sem
i-P
res
1918-1
925:
Unitary
1928-1
940:
Unitary
1991-2
002:
Unitary
212
Luxem
bourg
1867-2
002
1867-1
889:
Auto
cracy
1890-1
918:
Maj-P
lur
1919-1
939:
PR
1946-2
002:
PR
1867-1
939:
Parl
1946-2
002:
Parl
1867-1
939:
Unitary
1946-2
002:
Unitary
343
Mace
donia
1991-2
002
1991-1
997:
Maj-P
lur1
13
1998-2
002:
Sem
i-P
R1991-2
002:
Pre
s1991-2
002:
Unitary
112Lib
eria
was
founded
in1820
as
apla
ceof
refu
ge
for
free
dsl
aves
from
the
Unit
edSta
tes
and
the
Cari
bbea
n,w
hose
des
cendants
are
today’s
Am
eric
o-L
iber
ians.
The
are
aw
as
ade
fact
oA
mer
ican
colo
ny,
gover
ned
by
agen
tsofth
eA
mer
ican
Colo
niz
ati
on
Soci
ety,
until1847,w
hen
itm
ade
afo
rmaldec
lara
tion
ofin
dep
enden
ceas
the
Rep
ublic
ofLib
eria
.For
133
yea
rsaft
erin
dep
enden
ce,Lib
eria
was
apoor
but
pea
cefu
lone-
part
yst
ate
rule
dby
the
Am
eric
o-L
iber
ian-d
om
inate
dTru
eW
hig
Part
y(C
arr
,2003).
The
1847
const
itution
was
dra
wn
usi
ng
that
ofth
eU
nited
Sta
tes
as
am
odel
(Ency
clopæ
dia
Bri
tannic
a,2003).
113IP
U(2
003)
des
crib
esth
eM
ace
donia
nle
gis
lative
elec
tion
syst
emas
part
ylist
pro
port
ional
syst
em,
esta
blish
edby
the
elec
tora
lla
wfr
om
Sep
tem
ber
21,
1990.
Inte
rnati
onal
IDE
A(2
003)
des
crib
esM
ace
donia
as
havin
ga
para
llel
TR
Ssy
stem
inth
e1994,
1998,
2002
legis
lati
ve
elec
tions.
The
Carr
(2003)
elec
tion
arc
hiv
edes
crib
esM
ace
donia
as
havin
gP
Rle
gis
lati
ve
elec
tion
in1998.
305
(conti
nued
from
pre
vio
us
page)
Countr
yC
ode
Countr
ySyst
emM
ember
ship
Dem
ocr
atic
Ele
ctora
lSyst
em1816-2
002
Exec
utive
Syst
em1816-2
002
Fed
eralism
of
Politica
lA
uth
ori
ty1816-2
002
580
Madagasc
ar/
Malg
asy
1816-1
896
1960-2
002
1816-1
896:
Auto
cracy
1960-1
990:
Auto
cracy
1992-2
002:
PR
114
1816-1
896:
Non-E
lect
ive
1960-1
971:
Pre
s1972-1
975:
Military
1976-1
990:
Pre
s1992-2
002:
Pre
s
1816-1
896:
Mis
sing
1960-1
990:
Unitary
1992-2
002:
Unitary
553
Mala
wi
1964-2
002
1964-1
993:
Auto
cracy
1994-2
002:
Maj-P
lur
1964-1
965:
Parl
1966-2
002:
Pre
s1964-2
002:
Unitary
820
Mala
ysi
a1957-2
002
1957-1
968:
Maj-P
lur
1969-1
970:
Auto
cracy
1971-2
002:
Maj-P
lur
1957-2
002:
Parl
1957-2
002:
Fed
eral
781
Mald
ives
1965-2
002
1965-1
975:
Maj-P
lur
1976-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1965-1
967:
Non-E
lect
ive
1968-2
002:
Pre
s1965-2
002:
Unitary
432
Mali
1960-2
002
1960-1
990:
Auto
cracy
1992-2
002:
Maj-P
lur
1960-1
967:
Pre
s1968-1
978:
Military
1979-1
990:
Pre
s1992-2
002:
Pre
s
1960-1
990:
Unitary
1992-2
002:
Unitary
338
Malt
a1964-2
002
1964-2
002:
PR
1964-2
002:
Sem
i-P
res
1964-2
002:
Unitary
435
Mauri
tania
1960-2
002
1960-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1960-2
002:
Pre
s1960-2
002:
Unitary
590
Mauri
tius
1968-2
002
1968-2
002:
Maj-P
lur
1968-1
991:
Parl
1992-2
002:
Sem
i-P
res
1968-2
002:
Unitary
280
Mec
kle
mburg
-Sch
wer
in+
1816-1
871
1816-1
871:
Auto
cracy
1816-1
871:
Non-E
lect
ive
1816-1
871:
Mis
sing
114D
iffer
ent
sourc
esdis
agre
eon
how
tocl
ass
ify
the
elec
tion
syst
emin
Madagasc
ar.
Acc
ord
ing
toLib
rary
ofC
ongre
ss(2
003),
the
Madagasc
ar
legis
lative
elec
tion
isa
pro
port
ionalre
pre
senta
tion
list
-syst
em.
Inte
rnati
onalID
EA
(2003)
class
ifies
the
Madagasc
ar
legis
lati
ve
elec
tion
syst
emas
Para
llel
FP
TP,w
hic
hdiff
ers
from
the
Lis
tP
Rdes
crip
tion
from
the
Rey
nold
sand
Rei
lly
(1997).
IPU
(2003)
class
ify
Madagasc
ar
as
ase
mi-P
Rsy
stem
.
306
(conti
nued
from
pre
vio
us
page)
Countr
yC
ode
Countr
ySyst
emM
ember
ship
Dem
ocr
atic
Ele
ctora
lSyst
em1816-2
002
Exec
utive
Syst
em1816-2
002
Fed
eralism
of
Politica
lA
uth
ori
ty1816-2
002
70
Mex
ico
1821-2
002
1821-1
833:
Auto
cracy
1835-1
845:
Auto
cracy
1848-1
862:
Auto
cracy
1864-1
875:
Auto
cracy
1880-1
910:
Auto
cracy
1917-1
993:
Auto
cracy
1994-2
002:
Sem
i-P
R115
1821-1
833:
Pre
s1835-1
845:
Pre
s1848-1
862:
Pre
s1864-1
875:
Pre
s1880-1
910:
Pre
s1917-2
002:
Pre
s
1821-1
833:
Fed
eral
1835-1
845:
Unitary
1848-1
862:
Unitary
1864-1
875:
Unitary
1880-1
910:
Unitary
1917-2
002:
Fed
eral
332
Moden
a1816-1
861
1816-1
861:
Auto
cracy
1816-1
861:
Non-E
lect
ive
1816-1
861:
Unitary
359
Mold
ova
1991-2
002
1991-2
002:
PR
116
1991-2
002:
Pre
s1991-2
002:
Unitary
712
Mongolia
1921-2
002
1921-1
991:
Auto
cracy
1992-2
002:
Maj-P
lur
1921-1
951:
Non-E
lect
ive
1952-1
991:
Parl
1992-2
002:
Sem
i-P
res
1921-1
928:
Sem
i-Fed
1929-2
002:
Unitary
341
Monte
neg
ro+
1868-1
915
1868-1
915:
Auto
cracy
1868-1
915:
Non-E
lect
ive
1868-1
915:
Mis
sing
600
Moro
cco
1816-1
904
1956-2
002
1816-1
904:
Auto
cracy
1956-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1816-1
904:
Non-E
lect
ive
1956-1
962:
Non-E
lect
ive
1963-1
964:
Parl
1965-1
969:
Non-E
lect
ive
1970-1
971:
Parl
1972-1
976:
Non-E
lect
ive
1977-2
002:
Parl
1816-1
904:
Mis
sing
1956-2
002:
Unitary
541
Moza
mbiq
ue
1975-2
002
1975-1
993:
Auto
cracy
1994-2
002:
PR
1975-2
002:
Pre
s1975-2
002:
Unitary
115R
eynold
sand
Rei
lly
(1997)
and
Inte
rnationalID
EA
(2003)
chara
cter
izes
Mex
ico
as
aM
MP
PR
syst
em.
Acc
ord
ing
toShugart
and
Watt
enber
g’s
case
study
of
the
Mex
ican
elec
tora
lre
form
s(2
001:2
09-2
30,598),
Mex
ico
switch
edfr
om
PR
toa
MM
Msy
stem
(Mix
edM
ember
Majo
rita
rian)
in1994.
116R
eynold
sand
Rei
lly
(1997)
class
ify
the
Mold
ova
elec
tora
lsy
stem
as
aT
RS
majo
rity
syst
emin
1997.
307
(conti
nued
from
pre
vio
us
page)
Countr
yC
ode
Countr
ySyst
emM
ember
ship
Dem
ocr
atic
Ele
ctora
lSyst
em1816-2
002
Exec
utive
Syst
em1816-2
002
Fed
eralism
of
Politica
lA
uth
ori
ty1816-2
002
775
Myanm
ar
(Burm
a)+
1816-1
885
1948-2
002117
1816-1
885:
Auto
cracy
1948-1
961:
Maj-P
lur
1962-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1816-1
885:
Non-E
lect
ive
1948-1
961:
Parl
1962-2
002:
Military
1816-1
885:
Mis
sing
1948-1
962:
Fed
eral
1963-2
002:
Unitary
565
Nam
ibia
1990-2
002
1990-2
002:
PR
1990-2
002:
Pre
s1990-2
002:
Unitary
790
Nep
al
1816-2
002
1816-1
956:
Auto
cracy
1959-1
989:
Auto
cracy
1990-2
001:
Maj-P
lur
2002-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1816-1
956:
Non-E
lect
ive
1959-1
989:
Non-E
lect
ive
1990-2
001:
Parl
2002-2
002:
Non-E
lect
ive
1816-1
956:
Unitary
1959-2
002:
Unitary
210
Net
her
lands
1816-2
002
1816-1
916:
Auto
cracy
1917-1
939:
PR
1945-2
002:
PR
1816-1
847:
Non-E
lect
ive
1848-1
939:
Parl
1945-2
002:
Parl
1816-1
939:
Unitary
1945-2
002:
Unitary
920
New
Zea
land
1907-2
002
1907-1
992:
Maj-P
lur
1993-2
002:
PR
118
1907-2
002:
Parl
1907-2
002:
Unitary
93
Nic
ara
gua
1840-2
002
1840-1
925:
Auto
cracy
1928-1
978:
Auto
cracy
1981-1
989:
Auto
cracy
1990-2
002:
PR
1840-1
925:
Pre
s1928-1
978:
Pre
s1981-1
984:
Military
1985-2
002:
Pre
s
1840-1
925:
Unitary
1928-1
978:
Unitary
1981-2
002:
Unitary
436
Nig
er1960-2
002
1960-1
990:
Auto
cracy
1992-1
995:
Sem
i-P
R1996-1
998:
Auto
cracy
1999-2
002:
Sem
i-P
R
1960-1
973:
Pre
s1974-1
986:
Military
1987-1
990:
Pre
s1992-2
002:
Pre
s
1960-1
990:
Unitary
1992-2
002:
Unitary
117A
ccord
ing
toLip
set
(1998:5
1),
the
Bri
tish
colo
nia
lru
leen
ded
in1948.
Upon
indep
enden
ce,
Burm
aadopte
da
multi-part
ydem
ocr
ati
csy
stem
dom
inate
dby
apoliti
cal
coalition,
whic
hgave
way
toa
military
regim
ein
1958.
Dem
ocr
ati
cru
lew
as
re-inst
itute
dth
rough
elec
tions
in1960
and
last
edunti
l1962.
Inte
rest
ingly
,B
urm
are
ceiv
esth
esc
ore
8on
the
Polity
4auth
ori
tyin
dex
thro
ughout
this
per
iod,in
cludin
gth
e1958
military
regim
e.
118T
he
new
PR
(MM
P)
syst
emin
New
Zea
land
was
inst
ituti
onalize
din
1993,but
the
firs
tel
ecti
on
apply
ing
the
new
syst
emdid
not
take
pla
ceuntil1996.
308
(conti
nued
from
pre
vio
us
page)
Countr
yC
ode
Countr
ySyst
emM
ember
ship
Dem
ocr
atic
Ele
ctora
lSyst
em1816-2
002
Exec
utive
Syst
em1816-2
002
Fed
eralism
of
Politica
lA
uth
ori
ty1816-2
002
475
Nig
eria
1960-2
002
1960-1
965:
Maj-P
lur
1966-1
977:
Auto
cracy
1979-1
983:
Maj-P
lur
1984-1
997:
Auto
cracy
1999-2
002:
Maj-P
lur
1960-1
965:
Sem
i-P
res
1966-1
977:
Military
1979-1
983:
Pre
s1984-1
997:
Military
1999-2
002:
Pre
s
1960-1
977:
Fed
eral
1979-1
983:
Fed
eral
1984-1
997:
Unitary
1999-2
002:
Mis
sing
385
Norw
ay
1905-2
002
1905-1
919:
Maj-P
lur
1920-1
939:
PR
1945-2
002:
PR
1905-1
939:
Parl
1945-2
002:
Parl
1905-1
939:
Unitary
1945-2
002:
Unitary
698
Om
an
1816-2
002
1816-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1816-2
002:
Non-E
lect
ive
1816-1
919:
Unitary
1920-1
956:
Fed
eral
1957-2
002:
Unitary
564
Ora
nge
Fre
eSta
te+
1854-1
910
1854-1
910:
Mis
sing119
1854-1
910:
Pre
s1854-1
910:
Unitary
770
Pakis
tan
1947-2
002
1947-1
948:
Auto
cracy
1949-1
957:
Maj-P
lur
1958-1
968:
Auto
cracy
1973-1
976:
Maj-P
lur
1977-1
987:
Auto
cracy
1988-1
998:
Maj-P
lur
1999-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1947-1
955:
Parl
1956-1
968:
Pre
s1973-1
976:
Pre
s1977-1
985:
Military
1986-1
998:
Pre
s1999-2
002:
Military
1947-1
954:
Unitary
1955-1
968:
Fed
eral
1973-2
002:
Fed
eral
95
Panam
a1903-2
002
1903-1
954:
Auto
cracy
1955-1
955:
PR
1956-1
967:
Sem
i-P
R1968-1
988:
Auto
cracy
1989-1
989:
PR
1990-2
002:
Sem
i-P
R120
1903-1
967:
Pre
s1968-1
968:
Military
1969-2
002:
Pre
s
1903-2
002:
Unitary
119A
ccord
ing
toE
ncy
clopeæ
dia
Bri
tannic
a(2
003),
the
politica
lst
ruct
ure
of
the
form
erB
riti
shco
lony
com
bin
edtr
aditio
nal
Boer
inst
ituti
ons
with
Dutc
hand
Am
eric
an
const
ituti
onalth
eory
.T
he
mem
ber
softh
eunic
am
eralle
gis
lati
ve
ass
embly
,th
eVolk
sraad
wer
eel
ecte
dby
white
adult
male
sonly
.
120Panam
ahas
aunic
am
eral
legis
latu
re,
the
Leg
isla
tive
Ass
embly
(Asa
mble
aLeg
isla
tiva),
whic
hhas
71
mem
ber
sel
ecte
dfo
rfive-
yea
rte
rms
from
single
-mem
ber
and
mult
i-m
ember
const
ituen
cies
(Carr
,2003).
309
(conti
nued
from
pre
vio
us
page)
Countr
yC
ode
Countr
ySyst
emM
ember
ship
Dem
ocr
atic
Ele
ctora
lSyst
em1816-2
002
Exec
utive
Syst
em1816-2
002
Fed
eralism
of
Politica
lA
uth
ori
ty1816-2
002
327
PapalSta
tes
1816-1
870
1816-1
847:
Auto
cracy
1850-1
870:
Auto
cracy
1816-1
847:
Non-E
lect
ive
1850-1
870:
Non-E
lect
ive
1816-1
847:
Unitary
1850-1
870:
Unitary
910
Papua
New
Guin
ea1975-2
002
1975-2
002:
Maj-P
lur
1975-2
002:
Parl
1975-2
002:
Sem
i-Fed
150
Para
guay
1816-2
002
1816-1
868:
Auto
cracy
1870-1
991:
Auto
cracy
1992-2
002:
PR
1816-1
839:
Pre
s1840-1
840:
Military
1841-1
868:
Pre
s1870-2
002:
Pre
s
1816-1
868:
Unitary
1870-2
002:
Unitary
335
Parm
a1816-1
860
1816-1
861:
Auto
cracy
1816-1
861:
Non-E
lect
ive
1816-1
861:
Unitary
135
Per
u1824-2
002
1828-1
834:
PR
1835-1
880:
Auto
cracy
1883-1
918:
Auto
cracy
1920-1
929:
Auto
cracy
1933-1
949:
Auto
cracy
1950-1
967:
PR
1968-1
977:
Auto
cracy
1980-1
991:
PR
1992-1
999:
Auto
cracy
2001-2
002:
PR
1828-1
880:
Pre
s1883-1
918:
Pre
s1920-1
929:
Pre
s1933-1
947:
Pre
s1948-1
949:
Military
1950-1
961:
Pre
s1962-1
962:
Military
1963-1
967:
Pre
s1968-1
977:
Military
1980-1
999:
Pre
s2001-2
002:
Pre
s
1828-1
836:
Unitary
1837-1
838:
Fed
eral
1839-1
880:
Unitary
1883-1
895:
Unitary
1896-1
918:
Fed
eral
1920-1
929:
Unitary
1933-1
977:
Unitary
1980-1
999:
Unitary
2001-2
002:
Unitary
840
Philip
pin
es1946-2
002
1946-1
949:
Auto
cracy
1950-1
968:
Maj-P
lur1
21
1969-1
985:
Auto
cracy
1987-1
994:
Maj-P
lur
1995-2
002:
Sem
i-P
R122
1946-1
985:
Pre
s1987-2
002:
Pre
s1946-1
971:
Unitary
1972-1
985:
Sem
i-Fed
1987-2
002:
Sem
i-Fed
121A
ccord
ing
toth
eE
ncy
clopeæ
dia
Bri
tannic
a(2
003),
the
Philip
pin
eshas
bee
ngover
ned
under
thre
eco
nst
itutions,
the
firs
tof
whic
hw
as
pro
mulg
ate
din
1935,
duri
ng
the
per
iod
of
U.S
.adm
inis
tration.
Itw
as
close
lym
odel
edon
the
U.S
.C
onst
ituti
on
and
incl
uded
pro
vis
ions
for
abic
am
eralle
gis
lative
bra
nch
,an
exec
uti
ve
bra
nch
hea
ded
by
apre
siden
t,and
an
indep
enden
tju
dic
iary
.D
uri
ng
the
per
iod
of
mart
ial
law
(1972-8
1)
under
Pre
siden
tFer
din
and
E.
Marc
os,
this
const
ituti
on
was
abolish
edand
repla
ced
by
anew
const
itution
(adopte
din
January
1973)
that
changed
the
Philip
pin
egover
nm
ent
from
aU
.S.-st
yle
pre
siden
tial
syst
emto
aparl
iam
enta
ryfo
rm.
122In
tern
ati
onalID
EA
(2003)cl
ass
ifies
the
Philip
pin
osy
stem
asPara
llel
FP
TP
and
plu
rality
,w
her
easD
erbysh
ire
and
Der
bysh
ire
(1996:5
45)and
Carr
(2003)cl
ass
ify
itas
am
ixed
syst
em.
Hic
ken
and
Kasu
ya
(2003:1
36-1
37)
defi
ne
the
Philip
pin
esas
havin
gan
elec
tora
lfo
rmula
with
both
Plu
rality
and
Mix
edP
Rfr
om
1995.
‘The
310
(conti
nued
from
pre
vio
us
page)
Countr
yC
ode
Countr
ySyst
emM
ember
ship
Dem
ocr
atic
Ele
ctora
lSyst
em1816-2
002
Exec
utive
Syst
em1816-2
002
Fed
eralism
of
Politica
lA
uth
ori
ty1816-2
002
290
Pola
nd
1918-2
002
1918-1
925:
PR
123
1926-1
938:
Auto
cracy
1947-1
988:
Auto
cracy
1989-2
002:
PR
1918-1
925:
Pre
s1926-1
938:
Military
1947-1
980:
Non-E
lect
ive
1981-1
981:
Military
1982-1
988:
Non-E
lect
ive
1989-1
996:
Pre
s1997-2
002:
Sem
i-P
res
1918-1
938:
Unitary
1947-2
002:
Unitary
235
Port
ugal
1816-2
002
1823-1
832:
Auto
cracy
1834-1
909:
Auto
cracy
1911-1
925:
PR
1930-1
973:
Auto
cracy
1976-2
002:
PR
1823-1
832:
Non-E
lect
ive
1834-1
909:
Non-E
lect
ive
1911-1
925:
Parl
1930-1
973:
Parl
1976-2
002:
Sem
i-P
res
1823-1
832:
Unitary
1834-1
909:
Unitary
1911-1
925:
Unitary
1930-1
973:
Unitary
1976-2
002:
Unitary
694
Qata
r1971-2
002
1971-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1971-2
002:
Non-E
lect
ive
1971-2
002:
Unitary
360
Rum
ania
1878-2
002
1878-1
915:
Auto
cracy
1917-1
939:
Auto
cracy
1941-1
943:
Auto
cracy
1948-1
988:
Auto
cracy
1990-2
002:
PR
1878-1
915:
Non-E
lect
ive
1917-1
937:
Parl
1938-1
939:
Non-E
lect
ive
1941-1
943:
Parl
1948-1
965:
Non-E
lect
ive
1966-1
988:
Pre
s1990-2
002:
Pre
s
1878-1
915:
Unitary
1917-1
939:
Unitary
1941-1
943:
Unitary
1948-1
988:
Unitary
1990-2
002:
Unitary
365
Russ
ia(S
ovie
tU
nio
n)
1816-2
002
1816-1
904:
Auto
cracy
1906-1
991:
Auto
cracy
1992-2
002:
Sem
i-P
R
1816-1
904:
Non-E
lect
ive
1906-1
990:
Non-E
lect
ive
1991-2
002:
Pre
s
1816-1
904:
Unitary
1906-1
921:
Unitary
1922-2
002:
Fed
eral
517
Rw
anda
1962-2
002
1962-1
992:
Auto
cracy
1994-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1962-1
972:
Pre
s1973-1
977:
Military
1978-1
992:
Pre
s1994-2
002:
Pre
s
1962-1
992:
Unitary
1994-1
995:
Mis
sing
1996-2
002:
Unitary
pro
vis
ion
for
am
ixed
-mem
ber
syst
emw
as
incl
uded
inth
e1987
Const
itution
but
ala
wfu
lly
imple
men
ting
the
mea
sure
was
not
pass
eduntil1995
and
not
use
din
an
elec
tion
until1998.
Inth
ein
teri
m,both
Pre
siden
tA
quin
oand
Pre
siden
tR
am
os
appoin
ted
som
ese
ctora
lre
pre
senta
tives
toth
elo
wer
cham
ber
’(I
bid
).
123A
ccord
ing
toE
ncy
clopæ
dia
Bri
tannic
a(2
003),
the
const
itution
of1921
made
the
parl
iam
entsu
pre
me
vis
-a-v
isth
eex
ecutive.
The
pro
port
ionalsy
stem
ofuniv
ersa
lsu
ffra
ge
(whic
hin
cluded
wom
en)
nec
essi
tate
dco
alition
cabin
ets,
and,ex
cept
at
tim
esofnati
onalcr
isis
,th
ele
ftand
the
right
hard
lyco
oper
ate
d.
311
(conti
nued
from
pre
vio
us
page)
Countr
yC
ode
Countr
ySyst
emM
ember
ship
Dem
ocr
atic
Ele
ctora
lSyst
em1816-2
002
Exec
utive
Syst
em1816-2
002
Fed
eralism
of
Politica
lA
uth
ori
ty1816-2
002
670
SaudiA
rabia
1932-2
002
1932-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1932-2
002:
Non-E
lect
ive
1932-2
002:
Unitary
269
Saxony
1816-1
871
1816-1
847:
Auto
cracy
1849-1
871:
Auto
cracy
1816-1
847:
Non-E
lect
ive
1849-1
871:
Non-E
lect
ive
1816-1
847:
Unitary
1849-1
871:
Unitary
433
Sen
egal
1960-2
002
1960-1
961:
Auto
cracy
1963-1
999:
Auto
cracy
2000-2
002:
Sem
i-P
R
1960-1
961:
Pre
s1963-2
002:
Pre
s1960-1
961:
Unitary
1963-2
002:
Unitary
340
Ser
bia
+1878-1
915
1878-1
902:
Auto
cracy
1903-1
914:
Mis
sing
1878-1
914:
Non-E
lect
ive
1878-1
914:
Mis
sing
451
Sie
rra
Leo
ne
1961-2
002
1961-1
966:
Maj-P
lur1
24
1967-1
995:
Auto
cracy
1996-1
996:
PR
2002-2
002:
Sem
i-P
R
1961-1
966:
Parl
1967-1
967:
Military
1968-1
970:
Parl
1971-1
991:
Pre
s1992-1
996:
Military
2002-2
002:
Pre
s
1961-1
969:
Fed
eral
1970-1
996:
Sem
i-Fed
2002:
Mis
sing
830
Sin
gapore
1965-2
002
1965-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1965-2
002:
Sem
i-P
res
1965-2
002:
Unitary
317
Slo
vakia
1993-2
002
1993-2
002:
PR
1993-2
002:
Sem
i-P
res
1993-2
002:
Unitary
349
Slo
ven
ia1991-2
002
1991-2
002:
PR
1991-2
002:
Sem
i-P
res
1991-2
002:
Unitary
940
Solo
mon
Isla
nds
1978-2
002
1978-2
000:
Maj-P
lur
2001-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1978-2
002:
Parl
1978-2
002:
Fed
eral
124A
ccord
ing
toE
ncy
clopæ
dia
Bri
tannic
a(2
003),
parl
iam
enta
ryin
stituti
ons
wer
ein
troduce
din
stages
duri
ng
the
1950s
on
the
Bri
tish
patt
ern.
The
last
stage
was
reach
edon
Apri
l27,1961,w
hen
Sie
rra
Leo
ne
bec
am
ean
indep
enden
tst
ate
wit
hin
the
Bri
tish
Com
monw
ealt
h.
Inte
rnationalID
EA
(2003)
list
sSie
rra
Leo
ne
as
havin
gan
FP
TP
elec
tora
lsy
stem
on
the
vote
rtu
rnout
UR
L,w
hic
hacc
ord
ing
tose
ver
also
urc
esse
ems
tobe
the
case
untilth
eco
nst
ituti
onalre
vis
ion
in1991
(Der
bysh
ire
and
Der
bysh
ire,
1996:3
96-3
97;H
irsc
h,2001:1
14-1
15).
note
sth
at
Sie
rra
Leo
ne
had
aP
Rsy
stem
in1997
(Rey
nold
sand
Rei
lly,
1997)
and
in2002,w
her
eas
Carr
(2003)
des
crib
esSie
rra
Leo
ne’
sle
gis
lati
ve
elec
tora
lsy
stem
as
PR
wit
hso
me
modifi
cations.
Acc
ord
ing
toH
irsc
h(2
001:1
14-1
15),
Sie
rra
Leo
nea
ns
vote
dover
whel
min
gly
infa
vor
ofin
troduci
ng
am
ult
i-part
ysy
stem
ina
1991
refe
rendum
.T
he
new
law
was
endors
edand
pass
edin
tola
wth
esa
me
yea
r.C
IA-
The
Worl
dFact
book
(2002)
list
sth
eper
centa
ges
of
vote
by
part
yin
the
2002
legis
lati
ve
elec
tions
as:
SLP
P70.0
6%
,A
PC
22.3
5%
,P
LP
3%
,oth
ers
4.5
9%
;and
the
seats
dis
trib
ute
dby
part
y:
SLP
P83,A
PC
27,P
LP
2,w
hic
hsu
pport
sth
ecl
aim
that
Sie
rra
Leo
ne
use
sa
sem
i-P
Rel
ecto
ralsy
stem
duri
ng
its
rece
nt
per
iod
ofdem
ocr
ati
cgover
nm
ent.
312
(conti
nued
from
pre
vio
us
page)
Countr
yC
ode
Countr
ySyst
emM
ember
ship
Dem
ocr
atic
Ele
ctora
lSyst
em1816-2
002
Exec
utive
Syst
em1816-2
002
Fed
eralism
of
Politica
lA
uth
ori
ty1816-2
002
520
Som
alia
1960-2
002125
1960-1
968:
Sem
i-P
R1969-1
990:
Auto
cracy
1960-1
968:
Pre
s1969-1
975:
Military
1976-1
990:
Pre
s
1960-1
968:
Fed
eral
1969-1
990:
Sem
i-Fed
560
South
Afr
ica
1910-2
002126
1910-1
991:
Maj-P
lur
1994-2
002:
PR
127
1910-1
960:
Parl
1961-1
983:
Sem
i-P
res
1984-1
991:
Pre
s1994-2
002:
Pre
s
1910-1
991:
Unitary
1994-2
002:
Sem
i-Fed
125A
ccord
ing
toth
eW
orl
dFact
book
(2002),
Som
alia
bec
am
ein
dep
enden
ton
1July
1960
(fro
ma
mer
ger
ofB
riti
shSom
alila
nd,w
hic
hbec
am
ein
dep
enden
tfr
om
the
UK
on
26
June
1960,and
Italian
Som
alila
nd,w
hic
hbec
am
ein
dep
enden
tfr
om
the
Italian-a
dm
inis
tere
dU
Ntr
ust
eesh
ipon
1July
1960,to
form
the
Som
ali
Rep
ublic)
.
126D
uri
ng
1910-1
991,South
Afr
ica
rece
ives
asc
ore
of4
on
the
Polity
IVdem
ocr
acy
-auto
cracy
index
,w
hic
hth
eore
tica
lly
mea
ns
the
countr
yis
adem
ocr
acy
duri
ng
the
apart
hei
dre
gim
e.South
Afr
ica
isa
spec
ialca
seand
not
repre
senta
tive
for
oth
erco
untr
ies
that
rece
ive
the
sam
esc
ore
on
the
auth
ori
tyin
dex
.Im
ake
an
exce
pti
on
toth
eobvio
us
auto
crati
cch
ara
cter
istics
inth
isca
se,and
trea
tSouth
Afr
ica
as
dem
ocr
atic.
127South
Afr
ica’s
firs
tdem
ocr
ati
cel
ection
wit
huniv
ersa
lsu
ffra
ge
took
pla
cein
1994.
313
(conti
nued
from
pre
vio
us
page)
Countr
yC
ode
Countr
ySyst
emM
ember
ship
Dem
ocr
atic
Ele
ctora
lSyst
em1816-2
002
Exec
utive
Syst
em1816-2
002
Fed
eralism
of
Politica
lA
uth
ori
ty1816-2
002
230
Spain
1816-2
002
1816-1
835:
Auto
cracy
1837-1
867:
Auto
cracy
1871-1
873:
Auto
cracy
1876-1
878:
Auto
cracy
1879-1
922:
Maj-P
lur1
28
1923-1
929:
Auto
cracy
1931-1
938:
Maj-P
lur
1939-1
974:
Auto
cracy
1978-2
002:
Sem
i-P
R129
1816-1
835:
Non-E
lect
ive
1837-1
839:
Non-E
lect
ive
1840-1
845:
Parl
1846-1
846:
Non-E
lect
ive
1847-1
867:
Parl
1871-1
872:
Parl
1873:
Pre
s130
1876-1
922:
Parl
1923-1
929:
Military
1931-1
936:
Sem
i-P
res
1937-1
974:
Non-E
lect
ive
1978-2
002:
Parl
1816-1
835:
Unitary
1837-1
867:
Unitary
1871-1
873:
Unitary
1876-1
929:
Unitary
1931-1
974:
Unitary
1978-1
979:
Unitary
1980-2
002:
Sem
i-Fed
780
Sri
Lanka
(Cey
lon)
1948-2
002
1948-1
978:
Maj-P
lur1
31
1979-2
002:
PR
1948-1
977:
Parl
1978-2
002:
Pre
s1948-2
002:
Unitary
128Lib
rary
of
Congre
ss(2
003)
des
crib
es1898
as
atu
rnin
gpoin
tin
the
Spanis
hdem
ocr
atic
gover
nm
ent.
The
Spanis
hdef
eat
by
the
United
Sta
tes
inth
ew
ar
over
Cuba,
pro
mpte
dpolitica
lre
evalu
ati
on
inSpain
.A
ple
thora
of
new
,oft
ensh
ort
-liv
ed,
per
sonalist
part
ies
and
regio
nalgro
ups
on
both
the
left
and
the
right
(that
bro
ke
the
heg
emony
ofth
etw
o-p
art
ysy
stem
and
ult
imate
lyle
ftth
eparl
iam
enta
ryst
ruct
ure
indis
arr
ay)
sought
solu
tions
toth
eco
untr
y’s
pro
ble
ms.
By
1915
itw
as
vir
tually
imposs
ible
tofo
rma
coaliti
on
gover
nm
ent
that
could
com
mand
the
support
ofa
parl
iam
enta
rym
ajo
rity
.T
he
Novem
ber
1932
elec
tion
com
bin
edel
ecto
ral
list
sand
enco
ura
ged
coaliti
ons,
whic
hin
tended
topre
ven
tparl
iam
enta
ryfr
agm
enta
tion
inth
em
ult
ipart
ysy
stem
.H
ow
ever
,Lip
set
(1998:1
60)
des
crib
esth
eel
ecto
ral
law
in1933
as
‘favori
ng
the
conse
rvative
coalition
again
sta
div
ided
left
.’
129Spain
has
ase
mi-P
Rsy
stem
acc
ord
ing
toIP
U(2
003),
whic
hco
rres
ponds
toB
lais
and
Mass
icott
e(1
996:6
7)
who
chara
cter
ize
Spain
as
havin
ga
PR
syst
emw
hic
hco
nta
ins
many
modifi
cations
whic
hm
ake
itst
rict
lydis
pro
port
ional.
Mack
ieand
Rose
(1991)
des
crib
ehow
the
dep
uti
esto
the
ass
embly
are
elec
ted
acc
ord
ing
todiff
eren
tru
les
dep
endin
gon
the
elec
ting
pro
vin
ce.
The
Nort
hA
fric
an
terr
itori
esofC
euta
and
Mel
illa
and
the
isla
nds
(Mallorc
a,G
ran
Canari
aand
Ten
erife)
all
elec
tth
eir
dep
uti
esby
aplu
rality
syst
emw
her
eas
the
gen
eralel
ecti
on
syst
emis
multi-m
ember
const
ituen
cies
by
d’H
ondt
elec
tora
lsy
stem
.
130T
he
Fir
stSpanis
hre
public
was
hea
ded
by
pre
siden
tE
milio
Cast
elar
yR
ipoll
and
last
edfr
om
Sep
tem
ber
1873
until
January
1874
(Ency
clopæ
dia
Bri
tannic
a,
2007).
131Sri
Lanka
has
one
of
the
longes
tex
per
ience
with
hold
ing
dem
ocr
atic
elec
tions
of
the
Asi
an
state
s(R
eilly,
2001:1
15).
Sri
Lanka
moved
from
aB
ritish
type
parl
iam
enta
rysy
stem
toa
mix
edpre
siden
tial-parl
iam
enta
rysy
stem
like
the
Fre
nch
inth
e1978
const
ituti
onal
changes
.A
PR
elec
tora
lsy
stem
was
intr
oduce
dto
parl
iam
enta
ryel
ections
in1978,but
was
not
applied
untilth
esu
bse
quen
tel
ection
adec
ade
late
r(H
icken
and
Kasu
ya
(2003:1
38,fn
.G
;R
eilly,
2001:1
17).
314
(conti
nued
from
pre
vio
us
page)
Countr
yC
ode
Countr
ySyst
emM
ember
ship
Dem
ocr
atic
Ele
ctora
lSyst
em1816-2
002
Exec
utive
Syst
em1816-2
002
Fed
eralism
of
Politica
lA
uth
ori
ty1816-2
002
625
Sudan
1956-2
002
1956-1
957:
Maj-P
lur
1958-1
963:
Auto
cracy
1965-1
968:
Maj-P
lur
1971-1
984:
Auto
cracy
1986-1
988:
Maj-P
lur
1989-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1956-1
957:
Parl
1958-1
963:
Military
1965-1
968:
Parl
1971-1
984:
Pre
s1986-1
988:
Pre
s1989-1
992:
Military
1993-2
002:
Pre
s
1956-1
963:
Unitary
1965-1
968:
Unitary
1971:
Unitary
1972-1
984:
Sem
i-Fed
1986-1
997:
Sem
i-Fed
1998-2
002:
Fed
eral
115
Suri
nam
1975-2
002
1975-1
980:
PR
1981-1
988:
Auto
cracy
1989-1
990:
PR
1991-1
992:
Auto
cracy
1993-2
002:
PR
1975-1
979:
Sem
i-P
res
1980-1
987:
Military
1988-2
002:
Pre
s
1975-2
002:
Unitary
572
Sw
azi
land
1968-2
002
1968-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1968-2
002:
Non-E
lect
ive
1968-2
002:
Unitary
380
Sw
eden
1816-2
002
1816-1
906:
Auto
cracy
1917-2
002:
PR
1816-1
882:
Non-E
lect
ive
1883-1
906:
Parl
1917-2
002:
Parl
1816-1
906:
Unitary
1917-2
002:
Unitary
225
Sw
itze
rland
1816-2
002
1816-1
917:
Maj-P
lur
1918-2
002:
PR
1816-1
847:
Mis
sing
1848-2
002:
Sem
i-P
res
1816-2
002:
Fed
eral
652
Syri
a+
1946-2
002
1946-1
948:
Mis
sing132
1949-1
953:
Auto
cracy
1954-1
957:
Mis
sing
1961-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1946-1
948:
Pre
s1949-1
953:
Military
1954-1
957:
Pre
s1961-2
002:
Pre
s
1946-1
957:
Unitary
1961-2
002:
Unitary
713
Taiw
an/
Rep
ublic
ofC
hin
a1949-2
002
1949-1
991:
Auto
cracy
1992-2
002:
Sem
i-P
R1949-1
974:
Military
1975-1
975:
Parl
1976-1
977:
Sem
i-P
res
1978-2
002:
Pre
s
1949-2
002:
Unitary
702
Tajikis
tan
1991-2
002
1991-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1991-2
002:
Pre
s1991-2
002:
Unitary
510
Tanza
nia
/Tanganyik
a1961-2
002
1961-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1961-2
002:
Pre
s1961-2
002:
Sem
i-Fed
132Syri
aw
as
adm
inis
tere
dby
the
Fre
nch
untilin
dep
enden
cein
1946,w
hic
hm
ight
have
affec
ted
thei
radapta
tion
ofdem
ocr
ati
csy
stem
.
315
(conti
nued
from
pre
vio
us
page)
Countr
yC
ode
Countr
ySyst
emM
ember
ship
Dem
ocr
atic
Ele
ctora
lSyst
em1816-2
002
Exec
utive
Syst
em1816-2
002
Fed
eralism
of
Politica
lA
uth
ori
ty1816-2
002
800
Thailand
1816-2
002
1816-1
931:
Auto
cracy
1935-1
940:
Auto
cracy
1942-1
967:
Auto
cracy
1969-1
972:
Auto
cracy
1974-1
975:
Maj-P
lur
1976-1
976:
Auto
cracy
1978-1
987:
Auto
cracy
1988-1
990:
Maj-P
lur
1991-1
991:
Auto
cracy
1992-1
996:
Maj-P
lur
1997-2
002:
Sem
i-P
R133
1816-1
931:
Non-E
lect
ive
1935-1
940:
Parl
1942-1
946:
Parl
1947-1
948:
Military
1949-1
950:
Parl
1951-1
951:
Military
1952-1
956:
Parl
1957-1
957:
Military
1958-1
958:
Parl
1959-1
959:
Military
1960-1
967:
Parl
1969-1
972:
Parl
1974-1
975:
Parl
1976-1
976:
Military
1978-1
987:
Military
1988-1
990:
Parl
1991-1
991:
Military
1992-2
002:
Parl
1816-1
867:
Sem
i-Fed
1868-1
931:
Unitary
1935-1
940:
Unitary
1942-1
967:
Unitary
1969-1
972:
Unitary
1974-1
976:
Unitary
1978-2
002:
Unitary
711
Tib
et1913-1
950
1913-1
950:
Auto
cracy
1913-1
950:
Non-E
lect
ive
1913-1
950:
Mis
sing
461
Togo
1960-2
002
1960-1
990:
Auto
cracy
1993-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1960-1
990:
Pre
s1993-2
002:
Pre
s1960-1
990:
Unitary
1993-2
002:
Unitary
563
Tra
nsv
aal+
1852-1
910
1852-1
910:
Auto
cracy
1852-1
910:
Pre
s1852-1
910:
Mis
sing
52
Tri
nid
ad
and
To-
bago
1962-2
002
1962-2
002:
Maj-P
lur
1962-1
975:
Parl
1976-2
002:
Sem
i-P
res
1962-2
002:
Unitary
616
Tunis
ia1816-1
881
1956-2
002
1816-1
881:
Auto
cracy
1956-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1816-1
881:
Non-E
lect
ive
1956-2
002:
Pre
s1816-1
881:
Mis
sing
1956-2
002:
Unitary
133In
contr
ast
toIn
tern
ationalID
EA
(2003)
whic
hdefi
nes
Thailand
as
havin
ga
Maj-P
lur
syst
emduri
ng
all
yea
rsas
adem
ocr
acy
,H
icken
and
Kasu
ya
(2003:1
37)
class
ify
Thailand
as
aSem
i-P
Rsy
stem
from
1997
topre
sent,
com
bin
ing
Lis
tP
Rand
Plu
rality
elec
tora
lfo
rmula
s.
316
(conti
nued
from
pre
vio
us
page)
Countr
yC
ode
Countr
ySyst
emM
ember
ship
Dem
ocr
atic
Ele
ctora
lSyst
em1816-2
002
Exec
utive
Syst
em1816-2
002
Fed
eralism
of
Politica
lA
uth
ori
ty1816-2
002
640
Turk
ey/
Ott
om
an
Em
pir
e1816-2
002
1816-1
917:
Auto
cracy
1923-1
945:
Auto
cracy
1946-1
959:
PR
1961-1
970:
PR
1971-1
972:
Auto
cracy
1973-1
979:
PR
1980-1
982:
Auto
cracy
1983-2
002:
PR
1816-1
917:
Non-E
lect
ive
1923-1
959:
Pre
s1961-1
979:
Sem
i-P
res
1980-1
981:
Military
1982-2
002:
Sem
i-P
res
1816-1
917:
Fed
eral
1923-1
959:
Unitary
1961-2
002:
Unitary
701
Turk
men
ista
n1991-2
002
1991-2
000:
Auto
cracy
2001-2
002:
Mis
sing
1991-2
002:
Pre
s1991-2
002:
Unitary
337
Tusc
any
1816-1
861
1816-1
861:
Auto
cracy
1816-1
861:
Non-E
lect
ive
1816-1
861:
Unitary
329
Tw
oSic
ilie
s1816-1
861
1816-1
861:
Auto
cracy
1816-1
861:
Non-E
lect
ive
1816-1
861:
Unitary
500
Uganda
1962-2
002
1962-1
965:
Maj-P
lur
1967-1
978:
Auto
cracy
1980-1
984:
Maj-P
lur
1986-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1962-1
965:
Parl
1967-1
978:
Pre
s1980-1
984:
Pre
s1986-2
002:
Pre
s
1962-1
965:
Fed
eral
1967-1
978:
Unitary
1980-1
984:
Unitary
1986-2
002:
Unitary
369
Ukra
ine
1991-2
002
1991-1
997:
Maj-P
lur
1998-2
002:
Sem
i-P
R1991-2
002:
Sem
i-P
res
1991-2
002:
Sem
i-Fed
696
United
Ara
bE
mi-
rate
s1971-2
002
1971-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1971-2
002:
Pre
s1971-2
002:
Fed
eral
200
United
Kin
gdom
1816-2
002
1816-1
836:
Auto
cracy
1837-1
866:
Maj-P
lur
1867-1
883:
Sem
i-P
R1884-2
002:
Maj-P
lur
1816-2
002:
Parl
1816-2
002:
Unitary
89
United
Pro
vin
ces
ofC
entr
alA
mer
ica
1823-1
839
1823-1
839:
Auto
cracy
1823-1
839:
Pre
s1823-1
839:
Fed
eral
2U
nited
Sta
tes
of
Am
eric
a1816-2
002134
1816-2
002:
Maj-P
lur
1816-2
002:
Pre
s1816-2
002:
Fed
eral
134M
ost
Afr
ican-A
mer
icans
could
not
vote
inth
eSouth
until
1960
(Carr
,2003).
Nev
erth
eles
s,th
eU
nit
edSta
tes
has
score
dth
em
axim
um
of
10
on
the
Polity
4auth
ori
tyin
dex
since
1872.
317
(conti
nued
from
pre
vio
us
page)
Countr
yC
ode
Countr
ySyst
emM
ember
ship
Dem
ocr
atic
Ele
ctora
lSyst
em1816-2
002
Exec
utive
Syst
em1816-2
002
Fed
eralism
of
Politica
lA
uth
ori
ty1816-2
002
165
Uru
guay
1830-2
002
1830-1
918:
Auto
cracy
1919-1
933:
Maj-P
lur1
35
1934-1
951:
Auto
cracy
1952-1
970:
Maj-P
lur
1973-1
984:
Auto
cracy
1985-2
002:
Maj-P
lur
1830-1
970:
Pre
s1973-1
974:
Military
1975-2
002:
Pre
s
1830-1
970:
Unitary
1973-2
002:
Unitary
704
Uzb
ekis
tan
1991-2
002
1991-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1991-2
002:
Pre
s1991-2
002:
Unitary
101
Ven
ezuel
a1829-2
002
1829-1
934:
Auto
cracy
1936-1
957:
Auto
cracy
1958-2
002:
PR
1829-1
934:
Pre
s1936-1
947:
Pre
s1948-1
958:
Military
1959-2
002:
Pre
s
1829-1
863:
Unitary
1864-1
869:
Sem
i-Fed
1870-1
934:
Unitary
1936-2
002:
Fed
eral
815
Vie
tnam
1816-1
893
1816-1
893:
Auto
cracy
1816-1
893:
Non-E
lect
ive
1816-1
893:
Mis
sing
816
Vie
tnam
,D
emo-
cratic
Rep
ublic
of
1954-2
002
1954-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1954-1
959:
Pre
s1960-1
991:
Non-E
lect
ive
1992-2
002:
Sem
i-P
res
1954-2
002:
Unitary
817
Vie
tnam
,R
epublic
of
1975-2
002
1954-1
975:
Auto
cracy
1954-1
962:
Pre
s1963-1
963:
Military
1964-1
964:
Sem
i-P
res
1965-1
966:
Military
1967-1
975:
Sem
i-P
res
1954-1
975:
Unitary
271
Wurt
tem
ber
g1816-1
871
1816-1
871:
Auto
cracy
1816-1
871:
Non-E
lect
ive
1816-1
871:
Unitary
678
Yem
en(A
rab
Re-
public
of)
1918-2
002
1918-1
945:
Auto
cracy
1948-1
989:
Auto
cracy
1993-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1918-1
945:
Non-E
lect
ive
1948-1
961:
Non-E
lect
ive
1962-1
977:
Military
1978-1
989:
Pre
s1993-2
002:
Pre
s
1918-1
945:
Unitary
1948-1
989:
Unitary
1993-2
002:
Unitary
680
Yem
en,
Peo
ple
’sR
epublic
of
1990-2
002
1967-1
990:
Auto
cracy
1967-1
990:
Pre
s1967-1
990:
Unitary
135N
ationaloffi
cials
inU
ruguay
are
elec
ted
ever
yfive
yea
rs.
All
Uru
guayans
18
yea
rsofage
and
old
erare
requir
edto
vote
.E
lect
ions
have
bee
nse
cret
and
obligato
rysi
nce
1918,and
a1932
law
gra
nte
dw
om
enth
eri
ght
tovote
(Ency
clopæ
dia
Bri
tannic
a,2003).
318
(conti
nued
from
pre
vio
us
page)
Countr
yC
ode
Countr
ySyst
emM
ember
ship
Dem
ocr
atic
Ele
ctora
lSyst
em1816-2
002
Exec
utive
Syst
em1816-2
002
Fed
eralism
of
Politica
lA
uth
ori
ty1816-2
002
345+
Yugosl
avia
(Ser
-bia
)1918-2
002
2000-2
002:
PR
1921-1
936:
Non-E
lect
ive
1939-1
940:
Non-E
lect
ive
1945-1
951:
Sem
i-P
res
1953-1
962:
Sem
i-P
res
1963-1
979:
Pre
s1980-2
002:
Sem
i-P
res
1921-1
936:
Unitary
1939-1
940:
Unitary
1945-1
951:
Fed
eral
1953-2
002:
Fed
eral
551
Zam
bia
1964-2
002
1964-1
990:
Auto
cracy
1991-1
995:
Maj-P
lur
1996-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1964-2
002:
Pre
s1964-2
002:
Unitary
511
Zanzi
bar
1963-1
964
1963-1
964:
Auto
cracy
1963-1
964:
Parl
1963-1
964:
Mis
sing
552
Zim
babw
e1965-2
002
1965-1
978:
Maj-P
lur
1980-1
982:
PR
136
1983-2
002:
Auto
cracy
1965-1
969:
Parl
1970-1
978:
Sem
i-P
res
1980-1
986:
Sem
i-P
res
1987-2
002:
Pre
s
1965-1
978:
Unitary
1980-2
002:
Unitary
+In
form
atio
nm
issi
ng.
136A
ccord
ing
toR
eynold
s(1
999:6
4-6
7),
Zim
babw
esw
itch
edel
ecto
ral
syst
ems
from
plu
rality
toP
Rin
the
1980
parl
iam
enta
ryel
ection,
but
rever
ted
back
toa
plu
rality
syst
emin
1984.
319
D.3 Sources
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