application model for high-rise buildings

7/26/2019 Application Model for High-rise Buildings

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Answers for infrastructure.

Totally Integrated Power

Application Models for the

Power DistributionHigh-rise Buildings


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Contents High-rise Buildings Definition

5 Selection of System Components 54

5.1 Power Centre and Remote Stationfor Medium-voltage Feed-in 54

5.2 Medium-voltage Switchgear for the Ring-MainSubstations of the Various Distribution Levels 57

5.3 Distribution Transformers 59

5.4 Low-voltage Main Distribution 61

5.5 Subdistribution Systems and Distribution Boards

for Installation Components 655.6 Protection Devices for Electrical Installations 66

5.7 Power Management 69

6 Performance Description of the

System Components for Power Supply 72

6.1 Medium-voltage Switchgear 72

6.2 Distribution Transformers 77

6.3 Busbar Trunking Systems 78

6.4 Low-Voltage Switchgear 80

6.5 Distribution Boards 82

6.6 Power Management System 83

6.7 Network Calculation, Proof of Selectivity 84

6.8 Pressure Calculation for Internal Faults 84

7 Appendix 86

7.1 Reference to Relevant Standards 86

7.2 List of Abbreviations 88

7.3 Web-based Information 90

Your Siemens TIP Contacts 92

Imprint 94

1 Building Management Systems for Skyscrapers 6

1.1 Total Building Solutions 6

1.2 Building Automation 6

1.3 Automated Room and Zone Controls 7

1.4 Fire Protection 7

1.5 Robbery and Intruder Detection Systems 10

1.6 Safety Lighting 11

1.7 Additional Technical Installations in Buildings 12

2 Energy Management 14

2.1 Measured Quantities for Energy Transparency 15

2.2 Graphic Representations in Power Management 16

2.3 Evaluation Profiles 18

2.4 Characteristic Values 19

2.5 The Price of Electricity 20

2.6 Smart Grid 21

2.7 Operational Management 22

3 Planning Task when Erecting a Skyscraper 24

3.1 Preliminary Planning 243.2 Preliminary Planning of the

Energy Management System 25

3.3 Boundary Data for the Design Example 26

3.4 Determination of the Power Demand 27

3.5 Use of Photovoltaic Systems 34

4 Drawing Up a Power Supply Concept 38

4.1 Essentials of the Power Supply Concept 38

4.2 Power System Concept 38

4.3 Supply Concept for a Super Tall Skyscraper 42


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IntroductionHigh-rise Buildings Definition


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4 Totally Integrated Power High-rise Buildings Definition

Demands on Modern Planning

The demands placed on the power supply of a modernskyscraper are constantly increasing. A high level ofsafety, flexibility throughout the entire life cycle, a lowlevel of environmental pollution, the integration ofrenewable energies and low costs are common demandsnowadays that already have to be taken into considera-tion during the planning of a high-rise building. A specialchallenge is the coordination of the individual installa-tions. The main installations are, for example, heating,ventilation, air conditioning and refrigeration, fire pro-tection, protection against burglary, building controlsystem and power distribution. In modern planning, thedemands on a high-rise building are not simply split upamong the individual installations, but have to be coordi-nated. An optimum solution is created from the network-ing of the individual requirements. This applicationmanual provides an overview of the installations of ahigh-rise building that are important for the electricalpower distribution and describes the basic and prelimi-nary planning of the power distribution for an example.The planning requirements for an energy managementsystem for the high-rise building are also integrated.Even if a building is used for 50 years or more, the signi-ficantly shorter cycles of changes in the usage, such ashotel refurbishment, new shop owners, new IT equip-ment in the computer centre and changes to the of ficesand in the life cycle of equipment and facilities requireuseful, long-term preliminary planning.

Introduction

Because of the increasing urbanisation it is estimatedthat 70 % of the world's population will be living in citiesin 2050 compared with 50 % in 2010 and the expan-sion of mega cities, the area available in the cities mustbe better utilized. As a result, the number of floors andthe height of high-rise buildings will increase.

Definition of a High-rise Building

In Wikipedia, a tall, continuously habitable building ofmany storeys (at the end of the 19th century these werebuildings with at least ten storeys) is called a high-risebuilding or skyscraper. Wikipedia Germany (www.wikipe-dia.de) defined (on 31.08.2012) a building, according tothe state building codes, as a high-rise building "Whenthe floor of at least one room is more than 22 metresabove ground level. This is because fire brigade ladderscan only rescue people from rooms that are 23 metresabove ground level. For higher buildings, i.e. high-risebuildings, additional fire protection provisions have to bemade, such as separate escape staircases. The require-ments are specified in the High-Rise Directive."

Recently there has been real race to erect the highestbuilding. According to Wikipedia, a classification accord-ing to height has been introduced for clearer structuring(see below).

High-rise Buildings Definition

Classification of high-rise buildings according to height

DesignationHeight

in metresBuilding time

in years

Skyscraper 150-299.99 Approx. 24

Super tall skyscraper 300-499.99 3-5

Hyper tall skyscraper > 500 >5


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Chapter 1Building Management Systemsfor Skyscrapers

1.1 Total Building Solutions 6

1.2 Building Automation 6

1.3 Automated Room and Zone Controls 7

1.4 Fire Protection 7

1.5 Robbery and Intruder Detection Systems 10

1.6 Safety Lighting 11

1.7 Additional Technical Installationsin Buildings 12


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6 Totally Integrated Power Building Management Systems for Skyscrapers

1.2 Building Automation

Building automation means comprehensive solutions andservices for controlling the heating, ventilation, airconditioning, lighting, shutters and sun shields as well asthe integration of electric power distribution -rangingacross individual rooms, entire floors and completebuildings and also managing distributed property areas.

Buildings are responsible for about 40 % of the totalenergy consumption within the European Union (EU).With Directive 2010/31/EU, the Energy Performance ofBuildings Directive (EPBD), the European Union pursuesthe goal to improve the energy efficiency of propertiesby 20 % until 2020, compared to the reference year1990. Amongst the most important measures specifiedare the creation of an energy certificate for buildings (orenergy passport) and the determination of minimumrequirements for buildings.

In the European standard EN 15232, "Energy Perfor-mance of Buildings Effects of the Building Automationand the Building Management", the components ofbuilding automation systems are evaluated with regardto their effect on the energy consumption of buildings.

In accordance with the new standard, building automa-tion systems (BAS) are divided into four different perfor-mance classes (Fig. 1/1): Class D corresponds to systems that are not energy-

efficient; buildings with such systems have to bemodernized, new buildings may not be equipped withthese systems.

In the modern world of today and tomorrow, buildingsshall provide maximum safety, consume few resources

during construction and operation and be flexibly adapt-able to future requirements. The intelligent integrationof all building services installations offers an optimum tobe attained for safety, energy efficiency environmentalcompatibility and flexibility in combination with maxi-mum comfort. A tailored total solution for electric powerdistribution, building automation, fire protection andsecurity systems create the added value the client ex-pects.

1.1 Total Building Solutions

Total Building Solutions establish a balance between therequirements for safety and security of people andproperty and the desire for ease-of-use and problem-freeoperation. The result is a highly automated, intelligentbuilding, designed for the entire life cycle of the prop-erty. In its requirements and structures, the Total Build-ing Solution refers to the Technical Building Manage-ment (TBM) disciplines.

These customized solutions comprise: A central building control system Security and personnel control systems Control of heating, ventilation, air conditioning and

refrigeration Automated room and zone controls Power distribution Fire protection Protection against burglary and intrusion Access control Surveillance systems (CCTV and video) Lighting systems Integration of third-party systems Display of messages and building data

1 Building Management Systemsfor Skyscrapers

Fig. 1/1: Performance classes of the building automation systems

according to EN 15232

BACS Energy Performance Classes EN 15232

High energy performanceBACS and TBM

AdvancedBACS and TBM

StandardBACS

Non-energy-efficientBACS

BACS Building Automation and Control SystemsTBM Technical Building Management System

A

B

C

D


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7Totally Integrated Power Building Management Systems for Skyscrapers

Class C corresponds to the average standard BAS sys-tem requirements currently in use.

Class B designates further advanced systems and Class A corresponds to highly efficient systems.

This standard also contains procedures for the calcula-tion of energy performance by means of user profiles forbuilding types of varying complexity: Offices Hotels Classrooms, lecture theatres Restaurants Retail / wholesale centres Hospitals

Combinations of these standard elements provide clearspecifications of how to achieve a certain performanceclass.

1.3 Automated Room andZone Controls

Modern automated room control concepts provideintegrated solutions for the air conditioning, lighting andsun shielding as an important precondition for the well-being and performance capability of those using theroom. Switches and regulators for the operation of allroom functions are available in various designs to satisfyindividual requirements and architectural demands.

Communicative systems should be used to satisfy therequirements of EN 15232 for a Class A building. Opencommunication protocols such as LON or KNX/EIB inaccordance with EN 50090 (VDE 0829) satisfy this re-quirement. A further advantage of such systems is theease they can be extended with or flexibly adapted forvarious types of use.

1.4 Fire Protection

Fire requires an initial ignition and then oxygen to keepburning. Therefore, wherever people live and work,there is always a danger of fire. Constructional measuresalone are not sufficient to prevent the initial ignitionturning into a real fire. For this reason, effective fireprotection is essential. Effective fire protection is inplace, when the following two conditions are satisfied.Firstly, the fire must be detected quickly and clearly andsignalled. And secondly, correct measures must beimplemented as quickly as possible. This is the only wayto avoid direct fire and consequential damage or at leastto keep this to a minimum. Implementing the chain ofaction "Prevent Detect Fight Learn can be consid-ered the control loop of integral fire protection (Fig. 1/2).

The Model High-Rise Directive (MHRD) in Germanydemands for fire protection: Fire fighting lifts

with separate wells, into which fire and smokecannot infiltrate

with stops on every building floor

at a distance of max. 50 m (running direction) toevery place on that floor

Positive pressure ventilation systems, so that theinfiltration of smoke into interior safety stairwells andtheir lobbies as well as firefighters' lift shafts and theirlobbies is prevented (provide for standby units)

Automatic fire extinguishing systems with two risingmains cables in separate shafts

Fire alarm systems, fire alarm control centre, fireemergency lift control; fire alarm systems must beequipped with automatic fire detectors, which ensurecomplete monitoring of all of the

rooms

installation ducts and conduits

hollow spaces of false floors

hollow spaces of suspended ceilings

(mains-powered smoke detectors are sufficient for

apartments).


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The fire detection system

An important element in fire prevention is the time

between fire detection and intervention. The shorter thistime that be kept, the less the immediate damage andthe consequential damage. Intelligent, high-speedevaluation models of advanced fire detection systemssuch as the SINTESO detectors with ASATM(AdvancedSignal Analysis) technology enable smoke and fire to bedetected immediately and clearly, no matter how diffi-cult the environmental conditions. These detectors canbe programmed optimally for the conditions at thelocation of use (Fig. 1/3).

The alarm and evacuation system

The effectiveness of clear and unequivocal communica-tion during a crisis situation is also of prime importancein the fire protection. An elec tro-acoustical or speech-controlled alarm and evacuation system has proven tobe the best solution in all cases. Unique fire alarmsignals, reassuring behaviour rules and clear instructionshelp to avoid panic breaking out.

In addition to the prompt detection of the fire, quickand orderly evacuation of the building is of prime impor-tance to save lives. Especially with regard to court

1.4.1 Fire Protection Concept

Protective measures must be planned and carried out insuch a way that smoke is detected as fast as possible, fire spreading is hindered, an alarm is triggered early and evacuation is carried

out quickly the fire brigade can take appropriate action, the fire can be extinguished in the shortest possible

time and without damage to people and property efficient smoke evacuation is ensured.

Optimally coordinated fire detection, alarm, evacuationand fire extinguishing systems are the basis of this fireprotection concept and protect more effectively thanseparate solutions. The fire protection system can alsobe easily integrated with a management system in alarger security concept with intrusion protection, accesscontrol and video surveillance. This results in the crea-tion of a comprehensive hazard management. Integra-tion in the building control system and the associatedintelligent interaction result in a more effective protec-tion of people, property and the environment.

Fig. 1/2: Control loop of integral fire protection

Event analysis for external measures

Internal Fire Protection Concept

Event analysis for internal measures

Detection ReactionPreventive Fire

Protection:

Preventive Fire

Protection:Standards/Regulations

Development

Fire ProtectionConcept

Infrastructure

Alarm/

Evacuation

Extinguishing

Avoid:Unintended burning Damaging fire

Damage containment


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rulings on compensation claims, evacuation is playingan increasingly important role. But what is most impor-

tant is that panic does not break out among the users orresidents of the building in an emergency. This is bestachieved with reassuring information and clear instruc-tions.

In heavily frequented high-rise buildings, e.g. in shops,doctor's practices, hotel areas and parking areas, effi-cient evacuation of people is crucial. The rule of thumbis, the faster the evacuation, the greater the chance ofsurvival. In this context it is important that panic doesnot break out, which is prevented by reassuring informa-tion and clear instructions. It is therefore best when afire alarm occurs that spoken messages are used for theevacuation. Spoken instructions via loudspeakers areclear, they are understood and followed. This greatlyincreases the chances for people to save themselves. Forthis reason, speech-controlled alarm systems are anideal complement to fire alarm systems in all buildings.

The fire extinguishing system

Each application requires a suitable extinguisher.Whether powder, wet, foam or a combination of theseextinguishing systems: a fire extinguishing strategy that

has been worked out individually and tailor-made notonly protects your building, but also the environment

when a fire breaks out.

A fire extinguishing system cannot prevent a fire start-ing. However, with prompt detection, it can extinguisha fire when it is still small. Especially in intensely usedbuildings such as high-rise buildings where there arespecial risks (many people, expensive property, highdowntime costs, etc.), this is of invaluable, existentialimportance.

The basis for this is quick and clear detection so that firesources are detected and located immediately. Depend-ing on the situation, the correct intervention is started atthe right time.

As an automatic fire extinguishing system represents theoptimum initial intervention method in most cases,Siemens supplies a wide range of extinguishing systems.Adapted to the respective field of application (risk andtarget of protection), each of these systems providesoptimum protection. The comprehensive range of extin-guishing equipment also ensures that the quickest andbest effect is achieved, suited to the situation in eachspecial case.

Fig. 1/3: Functioning principle of ASAtechnology

0102030

0102030

1 2 3 4Detection bydetector sensor Real time interpretationof the situation and ... ... dynamic influencingof parameters

Danger signal

No alarm

Alarm

More sensitive

Less sensitive

Sensor signal/signal shape

Result

Clear

environments

Moderate

environmen

ts

Harsh

environments

ASAtechnologyTM


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1.6 Safety Lighting

The German MHRD demands a safety lighting system forhigh-rise buildings which is automatically switched on incase of a failure in the normal lighting. It must be availa-ble on emergency escape routes in the lobby areas of lifts for the safety signs of emergency escape routes

In addition to this, safety lighting fulfils more protectionrequirements, such as the illumination of fire fightingand alarm systems, thus facilitating rescue activities.

In contrast to IEC 60364-5-56 (VDE 0100-560), wherethe "Emergency Lighting Guide is purely for informa-tion, the German pre-standard DIN V VDE V 0108-100stipulates the following for the safety lighting of high-rise buildings: Illuminance in compliance with DIN EN 1838 A switch-over time between 1 and 15 seconds

depending on the risk of panic breaking out and thedanger evaluation

A rated operating time of 3 hours for the safety powersource (Note: 8 hours are required for residential-purpose high-rise buildings unless the safety lighting iscontinually operated together with the normal lighting.In that case, illuminated push-buttons acting as localswitching devices must be fitted in such a way that itcan be identified from any place even if the normallighting fails. Safety lighting must automatically switchoff after a settable time, when supplied from a powersource for safety purposes.)

Continually operated illuminated or back-lit safety sign A central power system (CPS) or a low power system,

(LPS) or a single-battery system are permitted A maximum interruption time of 0 to 15 seconds is

permitted for a power generating unit for safetylighting

(transport network) structure. In conjunction with aVideo Web Client, operation, control and access is

possible from anywhere in the world.

1.5.3 Time Management and AccessControl Systems

Last not least, the proper technology for access control isa matter of security rules for individual parts of thehigh-rise building. The aim is to find rules (as to whoshall be entitled to access equipment, facilities and data)which allow the authentication of persons to be flexiblyadapted to individual or corporate requirements andaccess rights to be configured geographically and tem-porally at the same time. Therefore, open system solu-tions with flexible networks are required. Its specialstructures and the specific workflows also have aneffect. Factors such as the size of the building, its layout,the number of people, doors, lift and access gate controlas well as additional functions also have to be taken intoaccount.

Future-oriented solutions include not only the linking ofbusiness management applications, but also the integra-tion of other security systems. When linked to the build-ing management systems, the information can also beoptimally used under energy performance aspects.


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1.7.2 Standby Power Supply System

All of the electrically operated life safety equipment,such as emergency lighting, lifts for firefighters and forthe evacuation of people, indoor radio communicationfor security staff, water pressure risers, fire alarm andfire fighting systems, safety-relevant ventilation and gasalarm systems, as well as access control and accessprevention systems must be connected to the standbypower supply. Specifications concerning safety-purposepower sources can be found in IEC 60364-7-718(DIN VDE 0100-718). Please note that an interruption ofpower supply of up to 15 seconds is permissible. Standbypower supply equipment must be fire-resistant andself-contained for low-voltage main distribution alsospatially separate from the normal power supply. How-ever, critical consumers which must not be exposed topower interruptions (e.g. smoke vent flaps, which workaccording to the static current principle) must be backedby an uninterruptible power supply system (UPS).

1.7.3 Water Pressure Boosters

According to the Guideline for High-rise Buildings issuedby the Bavarian State Ministry for the Interior, wet risingmain piping must be operated through water pressurebooster installations if the pressure at the most unfa-vourable tap is less than 3 bar assuming a water flowrate of 100 l/min (connection of a C-nozzle). In dry risingmain piping, water pressure booster installations mustbe built in if the measure between the feeding point forwater supply and the topmost tap is more than 80 me-tres. Water pressure booster installations must ensure apressure of min. 3 bar and max. 8 bar assuming a flowrate of 100 l/min at all tap points.

1.7 Additional TechnicalInstallations in Buildings

1.7.1 Lifts

The following applies in accordance with the Guidelinefor High-rise Buildings issued by the Bavarian StateMinistry for the Interior: High-rise buildings must have atleast two lifts with stops on every complete storey. Bothlifts must be within easy reach from every part of thestorey. Lift stops must only be accessible from corridorsor lobbies. In storeys without windows (e.g.undergroundcar parks, basements, technical equipment floors), liftaccess must be confined to lobbies only. At least one liftmust be suitable for carrying wheelchairs, stretchers andloads (minimum depth of 2.1 metres) and must be di-rectly accessible from the public traffic zone and allstoreys providing recreation rooms, without that passen-gers would be required to overcome any stairs. A signmust be fixed at the access ways to the lifts indicatingthat their use is prohibited in case of fire. In the lobbiesto the lifts, signs must indicate the storey level numberand the nearest stairs. Additionally, it may be requiredthat lifts be connected to a standby power supply so thatthey can at least be driven to the building entrance levelone after the other in case of a general power failure.Requirements concerning firefighters' lifts are describedin section 1.4.

Owing to the high number of passengers with differentdestinations and the need to transport loads, high-risebuildings that accommodate a hotel would require atleast 20 or more lifts. Modern lifts for supertall andhypertall skyscrapers reach a travel speed of over 15 m/sand heights of 500 metres and more. It should be notedthat an acceleration of more than 1.2 m/s2or respec-tively, an equivalent abrupt slowing down may have adisagreeable effect on sensitive passengers. In order toreach a speed of 15 m/s, the lift needs 12.5 secondsassuming this degree of acceleration. In order to limitthe pressure exerted upon the passengers' ears, an

atmospheric pressure control may be used and an aero-dynamic passenger cabin may reduce the loss of perfor-mance as well as noise caused by the air resistance in thelift well.

Therefore it is reasonable to use express lifts to over-come large heights. At least two groups of express liftsseem suitable for tall skyscrapers. They take their pas-sengers to different heights and force them to change atthe respective top end. Besides firefighters' lifts andexpress lifts, goods lifts and escalators for the shoppingcentre must also be factored in.


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Chapter 2Energy Management

2.1 Measured Quantitiesfor Energy Transparency 15

2.2 Graphic Representationsin Power Management 16

2.3 Evaluation Profiles 18

2.4 Characteristic Values 19

2.5 The Price of Electricity 20

2.6 Smart Grid 21

2.7 Operational Management 22


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14 Totally Integrated Power Energy Management

into accounts." All resources enabling this coordination aredefined as energy management systems in this standard:

"Energy management systems comprise the organisationaland information structures required to put energy manage-ment into practice. This includes the technical resourcesinvolved, such as software and hardware."

If energy management requirements are to be consideredin addition to personal and system protection, measuringinstruments as part of electrical power distribution mustalso be factored in. This is necessary in order to be able toverify the implementation and operation of a energymanagement system as required in EN 50001. For theplanning work, this means identifying measuring points atan early stage, defining the scope of measurements andspecifying measuring instruments. Without metrologythere is no energy transparency and thus no energy man-agement.

There is a growing tendency to expect an analysis of theplant life cycle costs to come from the planning engineer.Limit values obtained in the plant dimensioning process areunsuitable for determining the cost for losses. The powerlosses of transformers, busbar trunking systems and ca-bling figure prominently in life cycle cost calculations.Current is factored in with its square value.

For an ohmic load, power lossPvis calculated as follows:

Pv=I2R(currentI, specific resistanceR).

The costs for losses are the product of the electricity priceand power losses. But without a realistic load curve for theperiod under review, it is not possible to obtain an estima-tion of power consumption that reflects operating condi-tions. However, this is a prerequisite for the determinationof power losses and hence the life cycle costs.

On average, 5 % of the energy procured are dissipated asheat (power losses) within an electrical power distributionsystem. Owing to consumption-optimized dimensioning ofindividual distribution system components, such as trans-

formers, busbar trunking systems and cables, according tothe load curve, there is an absolute energy saving potentialof up to 1 % (in relation to the 5 % power loss in the wholepower distribution system, this means a relative saving of20 %), really a non-negligible dimension over a period of 20years. Under the aspect of life cycle costs, the optimizationof transformers, busbar trunking systems and cablingshould be part of the standard scope of services in present-day engineering and electrical design and thus should beasked for and offered accordingly.

High supply and operational reliability and flexible use arethe key factors of every modern power distribution system.

With the energy costs making up a greater share of thetotal operating costs of a building, optimization of theoperating costs is an absolutely essential goal, even at theplanning stage. Essential elements are an ecologically andeconomically focused optimization of energy consumptionand energy costs.

Even in the design stage of a high-rise building, energyanalyses are called for. When basic data is established andpre-planning work is carried out, which corresponds toPhase 1 and 2 according to the Regulation of Architects'and Engineers' Fees (HOAI) in Germany, targets must beagreed upon as to the kind of energy to be utilized and themeasuring systems to be employed and an energy conceptmust be developed.

Based on the energy flows in the building, energy transpar-ency, energy management and energy efficiency all inter-act. Data collection and data processing ensure energytransparency on which a functioning energy managementis based. A building's energetic efficiency is directly influ-enced by the integration of automation systems and thedefinition of energy efficiency levels for the equipment asbased on client specifications:

Energy efficiency

Energy efficiency describes the relation between energyoutlay and resulting benefit. To determine the efficiency h(e.g. of lift motors), the ratio of power input in relation tothe effective power output is evaluated over a definedperiod of time. Efficiency targets are fundamental elementsof planning.

Energy transparency

Energy transparency creates the data basis for actions,reactions and improvements. Basically, energy transparencyis part of operational management, since energy flows canonly be analysed with precision in practice. Even so, the

measuring, evaluation and data management systemsshouldn't be forgotten in the pre-planning stage.

Energy Management

The VDI 4602 Sheet 1 guideline defines energy manage-ment as follows: "Energy management is the clear-sighted,organisational, and systematized coordination of procure-ment, conversion, distribution and usage of energy to meetrequirements taking ecological and economical objectives

2 Energy Management


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15Totally Integrated Power Energy Management

2.1 Measured Quantities for EnergyTransparency

Feed-in, transformers and generators are dimensioned onthe basis of their apparent power S in kVA. Currents Imeasured in A are crucial for the busbars, cabling, protec-tion and switching devices integrated in the electricalpower distribution system. Loads are always factored inwith their active power P in kW and the associated cos .

If these electrical quantities, which served as the planningbasis, are to be substantiated during operation, appropriate

measuring devices need to be provided. When allocatingthe energy consumed to different cost centres, the quantityof work or energy W (in kWh) within the feed-in system andfor every power consumer to be allocated must also bemeasured (Fig. 2/1).

To ensure transparency of plant operation, it is useful tomeasure voltage (U in V), current (I in A), power factor andthe proportion of total harmonic distortion (THD) (total

Fig. 2/1: From energy management to energy efficiency with the help of energy transparency

DistributionSystem Operator

Feed-in

Generator

(in-plant power generation)G

Distribution

Transformer

UPS

Application

ConsumersDrivesLighting

Power Distribution

Electricity Supplier

Energy Efficiency

Energy Transparency

Documentation andevaluation of energy flows

Power Management

Coordination of purchaseactivities

Covering applicationrequirements

Following economic/ ecological goals

Automation


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2.2 Graphic Representations in PowerManagement

The measured values as rows of figures constitute the basisfor various graphics in an energy management system.Normally, users can only understand the response ofindividual system components and the interconnectionbetween energy usage and the corresponding energydemand by analysing the graphs of the measured values.

Note: Owing to their time relation, mean values of poweroutput and power consumption determined at 15-minuteintervals can be derived from one another. Measurement: Mean active power P (kWh) at a 15-minute

intervalMean power consumption E = P 0.25 h [kWh]

Measurement: Mean power consumption h( kWh) at a15-minute intervalMean active power P = E / 0.25 h [kW]

2.2.1 Load curves

Load curves are graphs of measured values in their chrono-logical order. Time is entered on the X-axis, measuredvalues on the Y-axis.

harmonic content both for voltage and current) at thetransformer in addition to the above mentioned apparent

power. In the distribution network, it is sufficient to per-form a single voltage measurement directly downstream ofthe transformer. For the distribution networks downstreamof the transformer, it is sufficient to be aware of the voltagedrop. Based on a certain maximum prospective current,voltage drop dimensioning verifies that every final consum-ers keeps within the permitted voltage limits (max. +10 % /-14 %). IEC 60038 (VDE 0175-1) specifies a permissibledeviation of +/- 10 % for alternating current networks of anominal voltage between 100 V and 1,000 V and refers tothe additionally permitted 4 % voltage drop within a con-sumer installation, as described in IEC 60364-5-52(DIN VDE 0100-520) (Fig. 2/2).

A generator is treated like a transformer, but in addition,the produced work W must be measured in kWh.

Leased or tenant areas are billed on the basis of electricityconsumption W in kWh. An electricity meter records theconsumption. Here it must already be clarified in the plan-ning stage, whether this meter must be a calibrated meterfor billing purposes. Calibrated meters for billing purposesmust be used if the metered values are to be used as thebasis for invoicing.

Fig. 2/2: Recommended measurements for managing a high-rise building

G

M P P

P

W

I

W

UIPW

cos

Icos

Icos

IP

cos

UIS

cosTHD

G

P

M PConsumersDrives

Leased equipment

Transfer point meter ofmeasuring points operator Wtotalover all 3 phases

Billing meterWtotalover all 3 phases

U, I, Sof all 3 phases Power factorof all 3 phases THD of all 3 phases

U, I, P, Wof all3 phases Power factorof all 3 phases

Iof all 3 phases Power factorof all 3 phases

I, Pof all 3 phases Power factorof all 3 phases

Iof all 3 phases cos of all 3 phases

or

Recommended Measurements

Feed-in

Generator

Distribution

Transformer


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A one-year load curve (Fig. 2/3) starts with the measuredvalue of the first day of the year on 00:15 a.m. and ends

with the value of the last day of the year under considera-tion on 24:00 p.m. The mean values are entered at 15-min-ute intervals, beginning with the full hour. For performancecurves, the average power output of a 15-minute interval isentered over the corresponding period. A graphical repre-sentation as load curve allows for the following typicalanalyses: When was it necessary to purchase considerable quanti-

ties of power? Is there a typical consumption behaviour (e.g. a typical

time/power pattern)? Are there correlations over time with pronounced

changes in the measured power values? How high is the base load?

Please note that with a mixed utilization of a high-risebuilding, an analysis needs to be undertaken of the specificload curves of the different applications. Such analyses canbe offered as services to tenants and building users.

Depending on the resolution of the time axis, even morespecific interpretations, such as consumption behaviour inspecial situations or trends, become feasible.

The evaluation of yearly load curves is suitable for provid-ing an overview regarding Load pattern Continuity over months Electricity peaks at certain points in time over the year Seasonal variations Operating holidays and other special operating situations Minimum performance requirements as load base

The graph of a monthly load curve (Fig. 2/4) may be uti-lized to demonstrate a possibly typical behaviour: Similarities of power purchase Continuity at the weekends Purchased power over night (i.e. power consumption) Base load Bank holidays /bridging days/ weekends and other 'opera-

tions closed' days (Fig. 2/5)

In this way, day-specific differences become obvious,such as Daily demand Daily variations Typical work-shift patterns Demand peaks

Fig. 2/3: Yearly load curve for a measuring point

8,000 kW

7,000 kW

6,000 kW5,000 kW

4,000 kW

3,000 kW

2,000 kW

1,000 kW

1 kW1 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 kW

Fig. 2/4: Monthly load curve for a measuring point

Load curveMaximum 5 % 10 %

6,000 kW

5,000 kW

4,000 kW

3,000 kW

2,000 kW

1,000 kW

1 kWCW 53 CW 1 CW 2 CW 3 CW4

Fig. 2/5: Weekly load curves for a measuring point

6,000 kW

5,000 kW

4,000 kW

3,000 kW

2,000 kW

1,000 kW

1 kWMonday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Fr iday Saturday Sunday


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2.3.1 Load Profile

In terms of the load profile, the load values are shown onthe X-axis and the number of hours in which the respectivevalue was measured are shown on the Y-axis shows Theperformance profile, which is based on the power valuesmeasured every 15 minutes, starts with the base load andends with the maximum purchased power. The load profileallows you to identify power core areas, i.e. the most fre-quently required power values of a plant or system (Fig. 2/7).

The load distribution profile is important for efficiencyanalyses and allows conclusions to be reached as to energyefficiency: Equipment ratings (e.g. transformers) Loss analyses (life cycle costs)

2.3.2 Frequency Distribution

The frequency distribution is a statistical complement ofthe load profile showing cumulated values. For the fre-quency distribution, the number of hours are entered onthe X-axis and the power needed for the respective numberof hours is entered on the Y-axis (Fig. 2/8). Since the num-ber of hours is entered with a rising edge, the frequencydistribution curve starts with the maximum purchasedpower and ends with the base load. The frequency distribu-tion allows conclusions to be drawn as to the continuity ofpower purchase. In particular, deviations from the meancurve progression allow such conclusions to be drawn.

Typical evaluations gained from frequency distributions are: Load peak characteristics Electricity purchase continuity Shift models Base load

The individual 15-minute intervals are entered into thedaily load curve (Fig. 2/6), so that the following points intime can be recognized: Precise representation of the daily demand and moments

of change Breaks Work-shift changes

2.3 Evaluation Profiles

To emphasize correlations, characteristic performancevalues and typical conditions by graphics, the measuredvalues are processed in different evaluation profiles, forexample Load Profile Frequency distribution Evaluation of Maxima

Fig. 2/8: Frequency distribution over one year and mean curve

progression

8,000 kW

7,000 kW

6,000 kW

5,000 kW

4,000 kW

3,000 kW

2,000 kW

1,000 kW

0 h 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 9,0000 kW

Fig. 2/7: Load profile of a measuring point over one year

300 h

250 h

200 h

150 h

100 h

5 h

0 kW 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000

Fig. 2/6: Daily load curve for a measuring point

1

6,000 W

5,000 kWh

4,000 kW

3,000 kWh

2,000 W

1,000 W

1 kWh

arly Shift

12th January 2010

ate Shift


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2


2.4 Characteristic Values

The point of characteristic values is to provide an overviewand enable comparisons to be made. Typical characteristicsare analysed as month-/year-related summation, maximum,mean, and/or minimum values. They can act as a leveragefor energy management, since they illustrate the spread oftime-dependent power demands. Characteristic measuredquantities are: Work (important for the kilowatt-hour rate) Power peak value (important for the demand charge) Usage period (important for prices) Full load hours Simultaneity factor Unit-specific power values, e.g. work-shift values, item-

based values, time-specific work values Maximum, mean and minimum values of current, volt-

age, power factor, power, and work etc.

Note: Characteristic values directly indicated can constitutethe basis for further analyses which may be utilized tocharacterise buildings (energy per usable area, powerdemand related to the cooling demand, ambience-specificdependency on extreme values, etc.) For more detailedinformation about characteristic values, data analyses andinterpretations, please refer to M. Wei, Datenauswertungund Energiemanagement, 2010 (ISBN 978-3-89578-347-0).

2.3.3 Evaluation of Maxima

For a graphical representation of maxima (Fig. 2/9), thehighest measured values including the time stamp areentered in a descending order. Two reference lines arefrequently drawn to mark a peak load reduction by 5 % or10 % respectively. A Maxima view clearly shows in howmany 15-minute intervals a load management systemshould have intervened and which power reductions wouldhave had to be applied in order not exceed a defined peakvalue.

Variants of the Maxima view map a daytime-specific distri-bution of load peaks, or show monthly maxima to enablethe identification of leverages for load management im-provements or an altered plant management.

Fig. 2/9: Maxima view as a ranking of peak load values

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 203,300 kW

3,904 kW3,856 kW3,848 kW3,848 kW3,832 kW3,824 kW

Date/Time

12.1.10 9:0012.1.10 10:30

13.1.10 8:3013.1.10 8:30

12.1.10 11:0012.1.10 9:15

3,792 kW3,792 kW3,784 kW3,784 kW3,776 kW3,776 kW

Date/Time Peak cutting

Difference between highest

3,709 kW

11.1.10 10:4511.1.10 10:45

11.1.10 8:1511.1.10 8:1513.1.10 8:1513.1.10 8:15

3,816 kW3,816 kW3,808 kW3,800 kW3,792 kW3,792 kW

Date/Time

12.1.10 8:4512.1.10 8:4512.1.10 9:00

12.1.10 11:4511.1.10 10:4511.1.10 10:45

3,400 kW

3,500 kW

3,600 kW

3,700 kW

3,800 kW

3,900 kW

4,000 kW


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2.5 The Price of Electricity

The price of electricity is composed of the kilowatt-hourshare, the demand charge, taxes and duties:

The kilowatt-hour share is owed to the power supplier forthe amount of electrical energy supplied. The kilowatt-hourshare of the electricity price is the product of work con-sumed [kWh] and the kilowatt-hour rate [Cent/kWh].

The demand charge is owed to the distribution systemoperator for providing the infrastructure. It is the product ofthe highest 15-minute-interval purchased power [kW], orthe average of n 15-minute-interval purchased powervalues [kW] (n is an agreed number of maximum values)and the demand charge [/kW].

Taxes and duties are to be paid to the national governmentor local authorities. These taxes include the value-addedtax, the eco tax, a duty on renewable energies and, ifapplicable, one for combined heat and power generation.

The concession fee is raised for the usage of public landand paid to the local authorities. Taxes and duties arecalculated as a percentage of the kilowatt-hour rate andthe demand charge.

Internally, the price of electricity is normally calculatedfrom the kWh-rate and the demand charge only. Taxes andduties are not considered.. The price of electricity (in perkWh) is usually updated on a monthly basis. The averageelectricity price (AEP) is calculated from the sum of kWh-share and demand share divided by the quantity of elec-tricity supplied:

(kWh-share [] + demand share [])AEP [Cent/kWh] = quantity of electricity [kWh]

Development of the electricity price as a function of theusage period can be graphically represented. The different

Fig. 2/10: Example of an "optimization window" for the average price of electricity

Lower Consumption10 %

21,160,000 kWh7,086 kW

3,178,000 15.02

PresentAEP

23,511,492 kWh7,086 kW

3,436,500 14.62

Lower Power Peak10 %

23,511,492 kWh6,400 kW

3,351,500 14.25CtkWh

CtkWh

CtkWh

Usage period in h

CtkWh

CtkWh

13.52

12.83

PriceNegotations

Reduced kWh-rate

10% to 9.9 Ct/kWhLower demand charges

10% to 108 /kW

AEPinCt/kWh

15.5

15.0

14.5

14.0

13.5

13.0

12.52,800 2,900 3,000 3,100 3,200 3,300 3,400 3,500 3,600 3,700 3,800


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"optimization window" but a mean electricity price perkilowatt-hour consumed. Depending on the supply situa-

tion at the power supplier's and grid operator's, the varia-tion of consumption and power peak can result in differentstarting positions for price negotiations. Of course, othercharacteristic parameters, distributions and evaluationsmay also have an influence here.

2.6 Smart Grid

The term "Smart Grid" describes the intelligent interplay ofpower generation, storage, distribution and consumptionas an energy- and cost-efficient overall system (Fig. 2/11): The consumer is part of the smart grid and operates an

interface to it.

options for optimization as a result of kWh-rate and de-mand charge variations as well as specific time limits can

thus be illustrated. In the graphics this will finally generatean "optimization window" (Fig. 2/10), which is defined bythe following key points: Current AEP Possible energy savings while maintaining the maximum

power purchase Possible saving of purchased power while keeping to the

same amount of energy consumption Possible revised kilowatt-hour rate Possible revised demand charge

In the graphics, the assumption is a price reduction ofkWh-rate and demand charge of 10 % each. In the threetabs above the "optimization window" of Fig. 2/10 kWh-rateand demand charge are fixed prices. Please not that it is notthe absolute cost of electricity that can be read from the

Fig. 2/11: Energy management and communication between all parties involved and across all energy networks are the essential

prerequisite for a Smart Grid

Biomass power station

CHP

PV system

Energymanagement

system

Energy exchange

Billing

Weather service

Influenceable

loads

Communicationsunit

Distributed loads

Remote meter reading

Fuel cell

Wind power

station

Concentrator

Distributedmini-CHPs and

PV systems

Power control system

Communication Network


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concept stage, the associated measuring and controlsystems for building automation are to be provided andshould comprise the following functional layers: Acquisition of status and measurements; processing level

for data acquisition Operator control and monitoring with visualization,

archiving, reports, control of switchgear, status monitor-ing / measuring points

The following reasons are strong arguments in favour of atechnical operation management system: Quick and simple online overview of the states of the

power flow/consumption in the building (Fig. 2/12) Validity check of the recorded values, avoidance of read-

ing errors Optimization of the purchasing contracts adjusted to the

individual consumption shares More precise specification and more economical power

consumption from exact knowledge of the demandprofile

Transparency of costs in the energy sector Benchmarking

Though the power supplier does supply the electricity, henevertheless expects a demand forecast one week inadvance at 15-minute intervals. Cost allocation is per-formed on the basis of the energy schedule ordered bythe consumer, multiplied by the negotiated kilowatt-hourrate.

The distribution system operator provides the connectionto the supply grid and expects a statement about thepower output ordered, which he must "keep in stock"accordingly. Cost allocation is performed on the basis ofthe negotiated demand charge multiplied by the highest15-minute power value within the period under consider-ation (month or year).

The metering operator measures the energy quantity

delivered and makes the data available to the consumer.He is paid for his services with a flat rate.

2.7 Operational Management

Technical operation management for a building uses theenergy management system as a basis for its own plan-ning. With the focus on power supply, efficient monitoringof operations and energy consumption using status dis-plays and signalling equipment must be planned in linewith the envisaged building usage. Even at the building

Fig. 2/12: Operational view on electric power distribution (white dots may optionally be used)

M

Plant diagram Status Messages Measured values

TransformerTapping (primary)

Supply

Feeders

Cables

Supply

Feeders

Consumingdevices

Overlo

ad

Overtem

perature

ON

/OF

ON

/OFF

Trip

ped/'Fu

setripp

ed'sig

nal

cos

Po

wer

Cu

rrenth

arm

onic

s

N

eutral

condu

ctor

/ground

Cu

rrent

Vo

ltage

Trip

ped/'Fu

setripp

ed'sig

nal

Ope

ratin

gcyclelis

t

Voltage

Current

Current

Current


23/96

Chapter 3Planning Task when Erectinga Skyscraper

3.1 Preliminary Planning 24

3.2 Preliminary Planningof the Energy Management System 25

3.3 Boundary Data for the Design Example 26

3.4 Determination of the Power Demand 27

3.5 Use of Photovoltaic Systems 34


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24 Totally Integrated Power Planning Task when Erecting a Skyscraper

Supply and operational safety through redundancy,selectivity, short-circuit strength, overvoltage protection,

fault current carrying capacity and a high degree ofavailability of the equipment Supply quality, system perturbations and electromagnetic

computability Minimization of the adverse environmental effects during

creation and operation Flexibility to power changes through simple adaptation

options Ease of maintenance through the use of uniform compo-

nents Optimization with regard to voltage drop and transmis-

sion capability Ambient conditions such as installation altitude, humid-

ity, ambient temperature, required fire protection andspatial boundary conditions

In accordance with these points, the following dimension-ing criteria must be taken into account when planning thepower supply: Determination of the network load (connection value) Simultaneity factors Utilization factors Specific area load for estimated

power factor Power system configuration taking into account

Structure of the supply area and purpose

Number, size and position of the load centres Transformer arrangement options and the associatedlow-voltage main distribution system (transmissionlosses, voltage drop)

Routing

Low-voltage (mostly distributed) or medium-voltage(mostly central) emergency power supply

Rating and selection of

Electrical equipment

Switchgear

Distribution transformers

Conductor cross sections (for cable and busbar trunking

systems) System protection

The greatest potential for the optimization of the powersupply of a building is already clear during the planning

phase. At this stage, the course is set for additional costsand cost increases which may incur during the erection andsubsequent use of the building. Compared to conventionalplanning, integrated planning continually improves thecost-benefit ratio. When tackling complex tasks, integratedplanning takes the synergies of coordinated, intelligent,integrated systems and products from a single supplier intoaccount and implements them in cost-effective solutions.Interfacing and elaborate harmonization of different sys-tems and products of different manufacturers becomesobsolete.

3.1 Preliminary Planning

Because of the numerous options for utilizing, arrangingand styling the rooms and floors of a high-rise building,there are always specific requirements for the planning ofthe electric power distribution. When compiling the bound-ary conditions, the following must be taken into accountduring the preliminary planning of the high-rise building: Type, utilization and shape of the parts of the building

(differentiation of the supply areas) Regulations and requirements of the building authorities

(e.g. in Germany the Model High-Rise Directive MHRD) The technical building equipment required for operation Requirements of the distribution system operator, such as

the technical supply conditions Power demand application, tariffs, connection costs Possibilities of distributed power generation, own utiliza-

tion, energy storage and system feed-in Determination of the building-related connection values

depending on the supply area loads that correspond tothe buildings type of use

Determination of the load centres in order to specify thetransformer arrangement and the associated low-voltagemain distribution system

When planning a high-rise building the optimal solution is

always sought , which should be checked with regard tousefulness and cost-effectiveness taking the followingconditions into account: Compliance with the regulations for erecting electrical

systems (IEC 60364 and IEC 61936 resp. VDE 0100 andVDE 0101), stipulated guidelines and regulations (e.g.safety of persons in the accident prevention rule BGV A3),as well as project-related regulations for special systems.

Clarity of the network topology Cost-effectiveness through the medium.voltage distribu-

tion through to the load centres and optimized rating ofthe planned equipment according to operating currentand fault current carrying capacity

3 Planning Task when Erectinga Skyscraper


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3

25Totally Integrated Power Planning Task when Erecting a Skyscraper

3.2 Preliminary Planning of theEnergy Management System

An energy management system (EnMS) is used for thesystematic acquisition of the energy flows and facilitatesinvestment decisions to improve the use of energy. Appro-priate planning of the measuring and evaluation equip-ment creates the prerequisites for this. Proof of the contin-ual improvement of the output-related energy utilizationcan also be provided and the legal requirements taken intoaccount. Important goals of the improvement measurescan be: Cost reduction Sustainable management Environmental protection Time and resource optimization Improvement of image and social

acceptance Legislative and tax relief

To achieve these goals, the holistic approach of the EnMSfrom the planning, through the construction, use and

renovation to the dismantling must be taken into account.In accordance with the schematic diagram in Chapter 2,Fig. 2/2, appropriate measurements should be incorporatedin the preliminary planning. According to M. Wei "Daten-auswertung von Energiemanagementsystemen" (ISBN978-3-89578-347-0) (Data Evaluation of Energy Manage-ment Systems), the measurements and displays describedin form the basis for an energy management system.

Load management and energy schedule

The power and energy demand is greatly influenced by thevaried applications in the high-rise building and the numer-ous variables. The prerequisites for a load management andthe creation of energy schedules based on this should beestablished during the planning. The load management canbe used to limit the maximum power consumption to asettable value, in order to maintain the agreements madewith a distribution system operator.

Measurements Displays Information

VoltagesPhase phase UL1-L2, UL1-L3, UL2-L3 Characteristic values Identification of unbalanced loads

Phase neutral UL1-N, UL2-N, UL3-N Detection of earth faults

Currents

Phases IL1, IL2, IL3 Characteristic values Identification of unbalanced loads

Neutral INNeutral conductor currents indicateunbalanced load and/or harmonics

Load curvesResource-consumption behaviour as with thepower display

Power factor

Total-cos cos Characteristic values Display for compensation demand

cos of the phases cos L1, cos L2, cos L3 Load curvesIdentification of problems with thecompensation

Power

Active power P Characterist ic values Value comparisons

Reactive power Q Load curves Time dependency of the load profile

Apparent power S Frequency distributions Description of the usage behaviour

Energy

Consumed energy W,Demand Characteristic values Consumption values over 15 min

Generated energy W,Supply Generation values over 15 min

Load curves Energy value overview

Quantity check

Total values Cost centre allocations

Power quality

Total harmonicdistortion, voltage

THDU Characterist ic value Necessity of harmonic filters

Load curveProblem identification, as, for example, criticalload

Tab. 3/1: Preliminary planning of measurements and displays


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3


room and window areas as well as to reduce the wind loadand turbulence at great heights (Fig. 3/1).

The vertical distribution of the building use with the associ-ated areas is specified in Tab. 3/2. This distribution is shownschematically in Fig. 3/2, whereby the various types of liftsrequired for a high-rise building are displayed in colour.Instead of considering each single floor, which would benecessary to assign the technical equipment and lifts orescalators in detail, the technical equipment areas and thewalls refer to the floor area. 10 % are subtracted from thefloor area for staircases, walls and corridors and 10 % fortechnical equipment areas and lifts for the effective area oneach floor.

Consumers that can be specifically switched on and offshould already be identified during the initial planning

phases. In addition, the networking of the energy distribu-tion, automation and IT should be planned for the loadmanagement so that the operational processes in thevarious parts of the high-rise building can be clearly dis-played. Otherwise, the planned maximum power demandmust be selected much too high, especially with mixedusage.

As the electricity price is made up of a kilowatt-hour rateand a demand charge, load and forecast managementshould be taken into account when planning the associatemeasuring and evaluation equipment so that a demand-op-timized energy schedule can always be created. In thefuture, supply contracts and mandatory compliance withschedules will play an increasingly important role in thecost optimization. When completing such contracts, thecustomers will have to specify their electricity demands inquarter of an hour intervals for one week in advance. Basedon these values, the electricity trader purchases the elec-tricity and demands an agreed price. If the actual demandis less than the forecast demand, this will not be credited.The agreed price will therefore be paid for a greater amountof electricity than that actually used. If more electricity isrequired than forecast, this results in additional costs whichare based on the price for ancillary services at the time ofdemand.

If the supply contract contains a schedule clause, a forecastmanagement should monitor the schedule. If the demandis greater than forecast, consumers are switched off andwith demand lower than forecast, consumers are switchedon. Consumers must be defined that can be specificallyswitched on and off for this purpose.

3.3 Boundary Data for theDesign Example

It is not possible to define a standard high-rise building.

Ambient/environmental conditions, official regulations,building use, operator wishes and specifications for equip-ment, schedule and costs require building-specific plan-ning. For this reason, the following specifications havebeen selected as an example for a super tall skyscraper.

The super tall skyscraper is to be planned for mixed use andwith a total of 80 floors. It is to have 75 floors aboveground level and five below. With a floor height of four orfive metres, this will result in an overall height of over300 metres above ground level. The building narrowstowards the top for architectural reasons, user-friendly

Floor FunctionArea per

floor in m2Total area

in m2

F 72 to 74

Technical equipment

rooms 70 25 5,250

F 57 to 71 Hotel 70 25 26,250

F 6 to 56 Offices 90 40 183,600

F 5Event centre / medicalcentre

130 80 6,000/4,400

GF to F 4 Foyer, shops 130 80 52,000

BM -1Technical equipmentrooms, warehouse /computer centre

150 150 16,500/6,000

BM -5 to -2 Parking decks 150 150 90,000

Tab. 3/2: Vertical allocation of the high-rise building model

Fig. 3/1: Plan view for the spatial arrangement of the various

usage levels

Basements: Data centre, Technical equipment rooms,Car park levels 150 m x 150 m

Shopping, medical, event centre130 m x 80 m

Offices 90 m x 40 m

Hotel 70 m x 25 m

Utilitieshub

Utilitieshub


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3.4 Determination of thePower Demand

The planner is already expected to provide advice on thetotal power demand during the Phase 1 for planning thepower supply of a building, where basic data is established.An estimate based on the effective area under considera-tion of the workmanship is sufficient. The planner's designexperience and information on the customer's ideas withregard to the workmanship are required to obtain realisticdata. These can then be used immediately as boundaryconditions for an initial cost estimate.

In the Phase 2 of the preliminary planning, a planningconcept should be created with rough dimensioning of theimportant systems. Different variants should be consideredwith regard to cost-effectiveness, environmental compati-bility and sustainability.

3.4.1 Estimate of Power Demand

Characterisation according to room structure, comfort andair conditioning can be used for a rough estimate of thepower demand. At the same time, further factors play animportant role in the estimate such as the expense of thetechnical installations and the integration in a buildingmanagement system. Whereby, it is not always the casethat a sophisticated technical solution is combined with ahigh-quality building management system.

The experience that we have gathered in numerous pro-jects forms the basis for the initial, simplified calculation.A value of approx. 60 to 150 W/m in relation to the effec-tive area of the building is used to estimate the powerdemand (power to be supplied) of a high-rise building.Because of the wide range, it must be estimated for theplanning of the building whether the figure will be closerto 60 W/m or 150 W/m. For this purpose, we provide anestimation procedure with various calibration factors in thefollowing as a simple help. A similar procedure is also usedin EN 15232. Efficiency factors are used in this procedurethat quantify the classification of the technical building

characteristics and the use of systems for the buildingautomation (BA) and the technical building management(TBM).

Fig. 3/2: Schematic side view of the super skyscraper; the various

usage areas and types of lift in the building are shown in

colour (see legend)

Escalator in shopping centre

Passenger lift (stops at all selected storeys)

Firefighters lift (stops at all storeys)

Freight lift (stops at all storeys)

High-speed lift (stops only at the yellow-marked storeys)

Technical equipment rooms

Hotel floors

Office floors

Medical centre

Event centreShopping centreData centreUnderground car park


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3


As the super tall skyscraper in the example is to be consid-ered with special local conditions, the placement factorkplc= 0.5 is set.

Room structure calibration factor kstruct

Smaller rooms are easier to ventilate and the lighting isdistributed better in the room through reflection on thewalls and ceiling. This calibration factor can also take theintended room height into account. Our estimations thatare displayed in Fig. 3/4 as a curve also take into accountthat small rooms and areas frequently have direct ventila-tion and not air conditioning. Larger rooms and halls gener-ally have a largercalibration factor kstruct. At this point, wewould again like to emphasise that the experience andproject knowledge of the planner and the agreement withthe client are decisive when determining the factors. Youcan also talk about your specific projects with the Siemenspromoters for TIP.

These factors (Tab. 3/3) are calibrated later for our estima-tion procedure on a value range between 0 and 1 and for a

characterisation of BA/TBM and the technical buildingcharacteristics. Numerous addition factors influence thepower demand and we want to use some for our simplecalculation model. We will restrict ourselves to six charac-terisation features that are applied equally: Building placement Room structure Level of comfort Air conditioning option Technical characteristics BA/TBM

Of course you can also use your own factors as additionalboundary conditions. The planner and the client shouldalways agree on these factors to ensure the traceability ofthe calculation. Six calibration factors corresponding to thesix characterisation features identify the power demand ofthe building in the model. Calibration factor kplcfor the building placement Calibration factor kstructfor the room structure Calibration factor kcomffor the level of comfort Calibration factor kclimfor the air conditioning options Calibration factor ktechfor the technical characteristics Calibration factor kBA/TBMfor the BA/TBM

As we do not want to apply any further weighting to thefactors, the mean value of the calibration factors can bedefined as the total value:

(kplc+ kstruct+ kcomf+ kclim+ ktech+ kBA/TBM)ktot = 6

To determine the specific power demand, we will start withthe lowest expected value (here: 60 W/m) and determine afactor ktotfrom our estimations of the six subfactors. Thisfactor is used to weight the difference (90 W/m) to theupper expected factor 150 W/m and added to the basicvalue of 60 W/m. First of all a characterisation of theindividual calibration factors and the specification of thevalues are required for the estimation (Fig. 3/3).

Placement of the building calibration factor kplc

The location of the building has a fundamental influence onthe planning of the power supply. The following questionscan also be used to obtain an estimation: Do special conditions with regard to adjacent buildings

have to be considered? Which traffic routes and connections can be used? What type of power supply is possible?

And to what degree? Are there legal boundary conditions that have to be taken

into consideration?

Class D (C) C (B) B (A) A (A+)

Offices 1.10 1 0.93 0.87

Auditoriums 1.06 1 0.94 0.89

Educational facilities (schools) 1.07 1 0.93 0.86

Hospitals 1.05 1 0.98 0.96

Hotels 1.07 1 0.95 0.90

Restaurants 1.04 1 0.96 0.92

Buildings for wholesale and retail 1.08 1 0.95 0.91

A distinction is not made for other types (such as sport facilities, warehouses,industrial facilities, etc.) so that factor = 1 (scaled = 0.5) is selected for all classes.

Tab. 3/3: Efficiency factors (electric) for the building automation

according to EN 15232 for different non-residential

buildings

Fig. 3/3: Influence of the calibration factors on the specific power

kplc

Specific powerin W/m2

60

140130120110

908070

150

100

0.0 1.0 0.0 1.0 0.0 1.0 0.0 1.0 0.0 1.0 0.0 1.0

Calibration factors

0.0 1.0

kstruct kcomf kclim ktech kBA/TBM

ktot


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We have displayed the calibration factors in a curve for thedata described therein for the specific power installed inoffices, hotel rooms, kitchens, computer centres, theatres,department stores, multi-storey car parks, etc. for thevarious demand classes from "very high" to "very low".Computer rooms that are better planned without windows,generally require more expensive air conditioning con-stant temperature and humidity although there is littleeffect from solar radiation. It should also be noted that theair conditioning depends on the room structure and thecomfort requirements. For the example of a super tallskyscraper with mixed use, we assume a factor of kclim=0.4 because this takes into account the good use of naturalcooling options and also the increased expense for the airconditioning of the computer centre (Fig. 3/5). The super-imposition of lots of individual curves has shown that onlytypes of use with a high demand for cooling, such ascomputer centres and kitchens, display a slightly differentcurve shape.

Technical characteristics calibration factor ktech

Even when the functionality of the technical buildingequipment has been defined, the difference in the techni-cal versions is significant. High-speed lifts required higherstarting currents than slower lifts, fans with EC motors(electronically controlled) save power and modern lightfittings reduce the power demand, and the efficiency ofmany electrical consumers differ greatly from version toversion. A general classification for the energy efficiencyaccording to standard EN 15232 is listed in Tab. 3/4.

The use of a large number of floors for small hotel roomsand offices results in a favourable factor kstructof 0.3 inrelation to the floor area for the model of the super tallskyscraper.

Comfort and safety equipment calibration factor kcomf

It is difficult to make general statements about comfort asit is largely dependent on how the building is used.Whereas good lighting, an audio system and a monitoringsystem are considered as standard in a shopping centre,these characteristics may be considered as comfort featuresin office areas. On the other hand, blinds play no role inshop windows, but are important in hotels and offices.High-speed lifts for large loads require more power, as wellas special stagecraft technology and technically sophisti-cated, medical diagnostic equipment. Control and monitor-ing systems make buildings safe and user-friendly. We willtherefore select a factor kcomf= 0.5 for our model.

Air conditioning calibration factor kclim

With regard to the air conditioning of a building, naturalventilation, the efficiency of the cooling equipment and thepossibilities of reducing the solar radiation without impair-ing the light conditions in the rooms must be taken intoaccount. In Germany, the Association of German Engineers(VDI) have considered the building-specific power demandsof the air ventilation and cooling in guideline VDI 3807-4.

Fig. 3/4: Schematic dependency of the estimation of the power

demand of the building structure using the simple factor

kstruct the bars with the effective floor areas serve as

reference values for the high-rise building

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1 Smaller, single rooms, hotel rooms, window-ventilated2 Larger offices, window-ventilated3 Retail shops, doctors practices, open-plan offices,

air conditioning, standard equipment4 Open-plan offices, department stores, , with upscale equipment

1100 2,000 m2

2500 4,000 m2

32,000 8,000 m2

4> 6,000 m2

kstruct

Fig. 3/5: Schematic dependency of the estimation of the power

demand of the building air conditioning using the simple

factor kclim

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1kclim

very verylow low average high high

Power demand for air conditioning

Mean calibration factors kclimfor data centres and kitchens

Mean calibration factors kclimfor usage types such asoffices, department stores, hotel rooms, theatres, etc.


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Building management calibration factor kBA/TBM

In the same way as for the technical characteristics, stand-ard EN 15232 (Tab. 3/6) can be used for the building man-agement.

However, note that energy efficiency class D fromEN 15232 plays no role for the planning of BA/TBM systemsof new buildings. The advantage of our procedure withscaled calibration factors is displayed here. Characterisationfeatures can be adapted to the latest technology throughthe scaling and the classification always defined throughthe own current experience.

We will therefore omit class D and select a new class A+,which in addition to the properties of class A, is character-ised by remote monitoring, remote diagnostics and remotecontrol as well as analysis tools for BA/TBM, as part ofSmart Grid. For the four new classes C, B, A and A+, we willthen take over the appropriate calibration factors accordingto Tab. 3/5. Averaged across the various types of use in thebuilding, we will select a high efficiency together with largeexpense for control, management and automation througha further-developed BA system. The factor kBA/TBM= 0.3 willthe be assumed for our high-rise building model.

This results in

(kplc+ kstruct+ kcomf+ kclim+ ktech+ kBA/TBM)

ktot = = 0,383 6

and therefore a specific power demand of

Pspec= 60 W/m + (90 W/m 0.383) = 94.5 W/m.

A total area of 390,000 m is calculated from Tab. 3/2. Thetotal area of the building is multiplied by a factor of 0.8 foran approximation of the effective area.

Effective area = 390,000 m 0.8 = 312,000 m

The product from effective area and specific power demand

results in an estimated power demand of 29.5 MW for theentire building.

The efficiency factors of EN 15232 from Tab. 3/3 are trans-formed in Tab. 3/5 to the desired calibration area between

0 and 1.

A distinction is not made for other types (such as sportfacilities, warehouses, industrial facilities, etc.) so thatfactor of 0.5 is selected for all classes.

For the high-rise building model, we assume large technicalexpenses averaged over the areas of the building, corre-sponding to class B and therefore high efficiency, so thatwe select ktech= 0.3.

Class Energy efficiency

A

Highly energy-efficient devices and systems (low-friction ACdrives,EC fans, LEDs, transistor converters, etc.)

Regular maintenance, possibly with remote monitoring

Extensive communication and control options

BImproved efficiency devices and systems

Extensive communication and control options

C

Standard devices and systems that represent the currentstate of technology during operation

No communication options, only mechanical adjustmentpossible

D

Simple devices and systems that only satisfy the requiredfunctionality

Only On/Off switch

Tab. 3/4: Classification of the technical characteristics of a building

with regard to energy efficiency according to EN 15232

Efficiency class D C B A

Offices 1.0 0.57 0.26 0

Auditoriums 1.0 0.65 0.29 0

Educational facilities (schools) 1.0 0.67 0.33 0

Hospitals 1.0 0.44 0.22 0

Hotels 1.0 0.59 0.29 0

Restaurants 1.0 0.67 0.33 0

Buildings for wholesale and retail 1.0 0.53 0.24 0

Tab. 3/5: Calibration factors for the technical equipment of

buildings and BA/TBM corresponding to the efficiency

factors (electric) according to EN 15232 for different non-

residential building types


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Ground floorEffective area = 0.8 floor area = 8,320 m

Average power demand (shopping centre / bank) = 50 W/m

(additional larger room height)Power demand for ground floor = 416 kW

Upper floor 1, 2, 3, 4:Effective area = 0.8 floor area = 8,320 m

Average power demand(shopping centre) = 40 W/m

Power demand for each floor = approx. 333 kW

Upper floor 5:Area distribution: 6,000 m event centre /4,400 m medical centre

Effective event centre area = 0.8 6,000 m = 4,800 mEffective medical centre area = 0.8 4,400 m2= 3,520 m

Average power demand(event centre) = 40 W/mAverage power demand(medical centre) = 100 W/m

Power demand share for event centre = 192 kW

Power demand share for medical centre = 352 kW

Upper floors 6 to 56:Effective area = 0.8 floor area = 2,880 m

Average power demand (offices) = 50 W/m

Power demand for each floor = 144 kW

Upper floors 57 to 71:Effective area = 0.8 floor area = 1,440 m

Average power demand (hotel) = 50 W/m


3.4.2 Estimated Determination of thePower Demand

Through the precise consideration of the type of buildinguse, the building equipment and the associated networktopology, the power demand can be estimated as describedin the Siemens TIP planning manuals.

With the distribution of the use and areas from Tab. 3/2 andTab. 3/7 this results in the following for the individual floorareas:

Basements 5 to 2:Effective area = 0.8 floor area = 18,000 m

Average power demand (multi-storey car park) = 8 W/m


Basement 1:Area distribution: 6,000 m computer centre / 16,500 mtechnical equipment areaEffective computer centre area = 0.8 6,000 m = 4,800 mEffective technical equipment area = 0.9 16,500 m =14,850 m

Average power demand (computer centre) = 1,500 W/m

Power demand share for computer centre = 7,200 kW

Class Energy efficiency and building management

A

Corresponds to highly energy-efficient BA systems andTGM.

acquisition

B

Corresponds to further developed BA systems and somespecial TBM functions.

acquisition

C

Corresponds to standard BA systems

radiators

D

Corresponds to BA systems that are not energy efficient.Buildings with such systems have to be modernized. Newbuildings must not be built with such systems

Tab. 3/6: Efficiency classification for executing the function of

building automation and technical building management

systems according to EN 15232


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Technical equipment areas

An average power demand of 10 W/m2is assumed uni-formly for the technical equipment rooms on the individualfloors, which is multiplied by the total technical equipmentarea and used to determine the power demand. A lowerventilation and air conditioning power demand is takeninto account for these areas.

The technical equipment areas for each floor from Tab. 3/8add up to 56,400 m for the whole building resulting in:

Power demand for the technical equipment areas of thebuilding = 56,400 m 10 W/m = approx. 560 kW

From the sum of the total power demand for the effectiveareas from Tab. 3/8 for the technical equipment areas andfor the air conditioning of the building areas above ground,this results in a total power demand of approx. 29.9 MW.

Refrigeration/ventilation

An average power demand of 50 W/m can be assumed forcooling and ventilation of the effective area above ground.The air conditioning requirement for the computer centrehas already been included in the average power demand,as this is a major criterion for the energy efficiency of acomputer centre.

For the effective area above ground of 217,800 m, thepower demand for ventilation and refrigeration is10.89 MW.

Distribution of the power demand of the computer

centre

For a computer centre with an efficient infrastructure, 75 %of the required electricity is used for the supply of the ICTequipment (ICT = information and communication technol-

ogy; i.e. servers, routers, switches, data storage, etc.) and25 % for the supply of the infrastructure (air conditioningunits, ventilation, uninterruptible power supply, lighting,monitoring, etc.). The PUE factor (PUE = Power UsageEfficiency) known in the IT sector mirrors the relationshipbetween the total power demand and the power demandfor the ICT equipment (here 5,400 kW). With the assump-tions made earlier, this results in a PUE value of 1.33. Thisresults in a power demand of 1,800 kW for the cooling andventilation of the server rooms in the computer centre.

Building use

Average powerdemand 1)

in W/m

Simultaneity-factor g 2)

Average buildingcost per

walled-in area

in /m3

Average cost forpower current in

a walled-in area 2)

in /m3

Bank 40 70 0.6 300 500 25 50

Event centre 40 120 0.8 300 600 20 50

Office 30 50 0.6 250 400 17 40

Shopping centre 30 60 0.6 150 300 12 35

Hotel 30 60 0.6 200 450 10 35

Department store 30 60 0.8 200 350 20 45

Medical centre 80 120 0.6 300 600 18 50

Multi-storey car park 3 10 0.6 100 200 7 15

Data centre 500 2,000 1 300 500 40 801)The values specified here are guidelines for demand estimation and cannot substitute precise power demand analysis.2)The simultaneity factor g is a guideline for preliminary planning and must be adapted for individual projects.

Tab. 3/7: Average power demand of buildings according to their type of use


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mined project specifically and is only an estimation of theconnected applications here: In this example, the computercentre in the high-rise building requires a large share of theSPS for the UPS systems. The following must be taken intoaccount for the SPS: Emergency lighting (approx. 3 to 10 % of the illuminance

of the normal lighting, depending on the safety classifica-tion of the valid safety regulations; the following isrequired in the workplace regulation in Germany:E = 0.1 En[En= rated illuminance]; however at least 15 lux)

Supply of the fire control centre / smoke vents / sprinklersystem / smoke extraction system

Evacuation lifts, lifts for the fire brigade Maintenance or controlled shutdown of processes (this is

usually an extra requirement from the user in order toreduce downtimes; there are no general statutory regula-tions for interruptions in the work process)

Control and protection systems that must be maintainedin an emergency

Supply of life-supporting systems (e.g. in a clinic: gener-

ally an additional power supply, APS, is required here thatcan ensure an uninterruptible power supply in accord-ance with IEC 60364-7-710 (VDE 0100-710) throughbattery backup)

UPS systems are generally used to maintain operation in acomputer centre and the ICT equipment of various applica-tions. They take over the power supply of critical consum-ers with switching interruptions and start-up mode. Airconditioning and ventilation equipment may belong to thecritical consumers in the computer centre if heat problemsoccur in the server racks when these components fail forjust a few seconds.

3.4.3 Distribution According to Supply Types

The required transformer output and the shares of thesafety power supply and the UPS are now determined forthe values for the total power demand found in section3.4.1 and 3.4.2.

The application-specific outputs are multiplied by thesimultaneity factors from the data from Tab. 3/7 and addedup for the total required power.

Total power demand =

= (4 144 kW) 0.6 (multi-storey car park)

+ 416 kW 0.6 (bank / shopping centre)

+ 4 333 kW 0.8 (department store)

+ 192 kW 0.8 (event centre)

+ 352 kW 0.6 (medical centre)

+ 7,200 kW 1.0 (computer centre)

+ 51 144 kW 0.6 (offices)

+ 15 70 kW 0.6 (hotel)

+ 560 kW 0.3 (technical equipment)

+ 10.89 MW 0.7 = (refrigeration, ventilation)

= 22.05 MW

If cos is specified as 0.9 and the transformer degree ofutilization as 80%, a total transformer output = 22.05 MW /(0.9 0.8) = 30.6 MVA is required.

The dimensioning of the safety power supply (SPS) de-pends mainly on the building utilization and on average isapprox. 20 to 30 % of the power required for the normalpower supply (NPS). However, this value must be deter-

Floor UseTotal area

per floor in m2Effective areaper floor in m2

Technical areaper floor in m2

P in W/m2 PUsein kW

BM -5 to -2 Parking decks 22,500 18,000 2,250 8 576

BM

application model for high-rise buildings

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