Archaeological Overview & AssessmentPULLMAN NATIONAL HISTORICAL MONUMENT

Town of Pullman, Chicago, Illinois

National Park ServiceU.S. Department of the Interior

Midwest Archeological Center Lincoln, Nebraska

Dr. Timothy J. Scarlettand

Dr. Steven A. Walton

Technical Report No. 142

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This report has been reviewed against the criteria contained in 43CFR Part 7, Subpart A, Section 7.18 (a) (1) and, upon recommendation of the Midwest Regional Office

and the Midwest Archeological Center, has been classified as

Available

Making the report available meets the criteria of 43CFR Part 7, Subpart A, Section 7.18 (a) (1).

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ARCHAEOLOGICALOVERVIEW&ASSESSMENT

PULLMANNATIONALHISTORICALMonument

TownofPullman,Chicago,Illinois

Dr.TimothyJ.Scarlett

And

Dr.StevenA.Walton

DepartmentofSocialSciences

MichiganTechnologicalUniversity

Houghton,MI49931

Submittedto:

Dr.TimothyMSchilling

MidwestArcheologicalCenter,NationalParkService

100CentennialMallNorth,Room474

Lincoln,NE68508

18December2017

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ManagementSummary

TheArchaeologicalOverviewandAssessment(ArchaeologicalO&A,orsimplyO&A)isaBaselineResearchReportwithintheNationalParkService’sCulturalResourceManagementsystem.Thisreportpresentsbasicresearchresultsintendedtohelpsupportplanningregardingandmanagementofparkculturalresources,aswellassupportinginterpretiveprogramming.TheNationalParkServicedefinesanArchaeologicalO&Aasareportwhich“describesandassessestheknownandpotentialarcheologicalresourcesinaparkarea.Theoverviewreviewsandsummarizesexistingarcheologicaldata;theassessmentevaluatesthedata.Thereportassessespastworkandhelpsdeterminetheneedforanddesignoffuturestudies”(U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior:25).

Asanindustrialfactorysitewithassociatedcommunity,thearchaeologicalresourcesofPullmanNationalMonumentareevaluatedherewithintheoverlappingframeworksofIndustrialArchaeologyandIndustrialHeritage.Thefederallyownedandmanagedpropertywithinthismonumentisasinglebuildingwithinonepartofthefactorycomplex.TheNPSisestablishingcollaborativerelationshipswithotherlandownerswithinthemonument’sboundaries,includingtheStateofIllinois,TheHistoricPullmanFoundation,andmanyprivateresidents.ThisstudyisaccordinglyfocusedonthePalaceCarworksatPullman,essentiallytheportionofthelargerfactorythatincludedthemajorityoftheworksconcernedwithproducingPullman’sfamoussleepercars.WhilethestudypointstohowarchaeologicalresearchandmanagementattheworkscanconnecttothelargercommunitywithintheMonument,thisthemewillbeexpandedintheforthcomingHistoricResourcesStudyandotherpublicationsandprojectreports.

ThisreportincludesashortintroductiontothehistoryofthePullmanPalaceCarCompany,thenturnstoasummaryofthegeologicalandenvironmentalsettingofthemonumentwithfocusontheMonument’spotentialtoyieldsitesorartifactsrelatedtoancientlanduse.SincetheworkprocessisthecoreofanalysisinIndustrialArchaeology,thethirdchapterincludesananalysisoftheestablishmentoftheworksandtownatPullmanwithafocusonthedesignandconstructionofinfrastructureforproductionatthepalacecarshops.Workingfromexistingprimarysources,thedocumentexamineswhatisknownaboutthedesignandevolutionoftheworkprocessatthefactory.UntilresearcherscanundertakemoredetailedanalysesoftheTennecoPaperscollectionornewarchaeologicalfieldwork,thisreportincludesthemostdetailedexaminationofthefactory’sworkprocessanditsinterrelatedactivityareas.

Thereportthenreviewsarchaeologicalresources,includingachapterreviewingpreviousarchaeologicalworkwithinthemonument’sboundariesandtheresearchpotentialofknownarchaeologicalresourceswithinthefactorysite(buildings#1-#8).Thefinalsectionmakesrecommendationsforresearchandmanagementofthemonument’sarchaeological,historical,archival,andarchitecturalresources,leadingtowardtheHistoricResourcesStudythatisthethirdphaseofthecollaborativeinteractionbetweentheNationalParkService’sMWAC,PullmanNationalMonument,andMTU’sIndustrialHeritageandArchaeologyprogram.

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MichiganTechnologicalUniversityandtheNationalParkServiceinitiatedthisworkinNovemberof2016aspartoftheprojectentitled“CooperativeAgreementforWorkwithPullmanNationalMonument”(MichiganTechnologicalUniversityProposal#1609078,TaskAgreement#P17AC00005).TheagreementwasestablishedwithintheCooperativeandJointVentureAgreementoftheGreatLakes-NorthernForestCooperativeEcosystemsStudiesUnit(NPS#P12AC31164,MTUMasterCooperativeAgreement#P12AC31164).ThisagreementwillculminateintheproductionofaHistoricResourcesStudy,tobepublishedonSeptember1st,2019.

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Contents

MANAGEMENTSUMMARY 2

LISTOFFIGURES 6ABBREVIATIONS 8PREFACEANDACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 8

1 INTRODUCTION 12

1.1 ORIGINSOFTHECOMPANYTOWNOFPULLMAN,IL 141.2 THETOWNOFPULLMANANDITSOVERLAPPINGDESIGNATIONS 201.2.1 THEFACTORYCOMPLEX 21

2 THEGEOLOGICALANDENVIRONMENTALSETTING 23

2.1 TOPOGRAPHYANDCLIMATE:HOLOCENELAKELEVELS 242.2 CULTURALCONTEXTS 31

3 ESTABLISHINGPULLMAN,ILLINOIS 33

3.1 BEFOREPULLMAN 333.2 ORIGINSOFTHETOWN(WITHPARTICULARREFERENCETOTHEFACTORY) 343.2.1 PHILOSOPHYOFTHETOWNOFPULLMAN 373.2.2 FACTORYDESIGNANTECEDENTS:THEPULLMANPALACECARCOMPANYWORKSINDETROIT 383.2.3 LAYINGOUTTHETOWNOFPULLMAN 413.2.4 THESANITARYANGLE 433.3 EVOLUTIONOFTHEFACTORYCOMPLEX 443.4 WORKATTHEFACTORYCOMPLEX 453.4.1 MANAGERIALSTRUCTUREANDRELATIONS 463.4.2 WORKPROCESSFROMTESTIMONIALS 483.4.3 WORKPROCESSFROMORDERDOCKETS 533.4.4 WORKPROCESSFROMMAPSANDINVENTORIES 55

4 EVALUATIONOFPREVIOUSARCHEOLOGICALWORK 62

4.1 2000PULLMANWATERTOWEREXCAVATION 624.2 2004FACTORYEXCAVATIONS 624.3 2005-2008PULLMANTOWNEXCAVATIONS 654.4 2016ARCHAEOLOGICALSTUDY 67

5 RESEARCHPOTENTIALOFKNOWNARCHEOLOGICALRESOURCES 68

5.1 AREAINVESTIGATIONS 68

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5.1.1 OFFICEANDCLOCKTOWERBUILDING(BLDG1),NORTHERECTINGSHOP(BLDG2),ANDREARERECTINGSHOPSECTIONSAANDB(BLDG4). 75

5.1.2 SOUTHERECTINGSHOPAND1907STEELCARADDITION(BLDG3),FINISHINGSHOP(BLDG5),WOODMACHINE

SHOP(BLDG6),ENGINEHOUSE(BLDG7),BOILERHOUSE(BLDG8)ANDREARERECTINGSHOPSECTIONSCANDD(BLDG4). 76

5.1.3 OUTDOORAREAS,INCLUDINGTRACKWAYS,TRANSFERTABLES,STAGINGAREAS,LAKEVISTA,ANDOTHEROPENSPACE. 77

5.2 ENVIRONMENTALHOTSPOTCONCERNS 795.3 CONCLUSIONS 80

6 RECOMMENDATIONSFORFUTURERESEARCHANDMANAGEMENT 86

6.1 THEMES 866.2 NETWORKSOFLABOR 886.2.1 BIGDATAABOUTWORKERS 886.2.2 DRAWINGSANDTHETRANSFORMATIONOFARTISANALSKILLANDLABOR 896.2.3 BIOGRAPHICALINVESTIGATIONSOFTHEMAINENGINEERSOFPULLMAN 896.2.4 RACEANDLABOR 906.3 INVENTIONANDINNOVATION 906.3.1 TRANSFERTABLETECHNOLOGY 916.3.2 MATERIALS,EFFICIENCY,WASTE 916.4 LANDSCAPESOFLABOR 926.4.1 MOVEMENTANDEMBODIEDLABOR 936.4.2 SOUNDSCAPESOFINDUSTRYININDUSTRIALARCHAEOLOGY 936.5 ENVIRONMENTALHISTORYOFPULLMAN’SINDUSTRIALANDPOST-INDUSTRIALPHASES 946.6 CONCLUSIONS:FUTURERESEARCH 95

REFERENCESCITED 97

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ListofFiguresFigure1-1:ThefirstPullmanrecliningchairs.FromtheJolietNewsHistoricalEdition,1884(reprintedin

(Anon.1897b:47)...............................................................................................................................13

Figure1-2:ThePullmanmanufacturingandrepairempireatitsheight(fromAnnualReport1929,2)...16

Figure1-3:AnnualEarnings,Dividends,andAssetsforPullmanCo.,1880-1972(AnnualReports)..........17

Figure1-4:TotalNumberofCarsConstructedbyPullman,1871-1940.....................................................18

Figure2-1:Estimatedlakelevelsinfourpublications,plottedto6,000yearsbeforepresentwithLakeMichigan’shistoricalaveragelevelaswellastheelevationofthePullmanfactorysite...................25

Figure2-2:LocationofthePullmanfactoryinrelationtotheevolvinglakeshoreovertime.From14.5KYAuntil3.8KYA,thesitewasunderwaterduringhigh-waterphaseswhiletheabsolutelowwaterlevelisunclear....................................................................................................................................27

Figure2-3:LocationofPullmaninrelationtotwovisualizationsofrelictshorelinesandbeaches,dunes,andotherfeatures.............................................................................................................................29

Figure2-4:BeachridgesanddunesaroundPullmanfactorysite.Detailfrom1939SurfaceGeologyQuadMap(Bretz1939)................................................................................................................................30

Figure3-1:1884SanbornFireInsuranceMapofDetroitshowingthePullmanPalaceCarCompany’sWorksonMonroeStreet(SanbornFireInsuranceCompany1884:60)............................................40

Figure3-2:FinalLaborAccounting,Docket2293,GeneralServiceParlorCarforthePRR,1898(SmithsonianNMAHArchivesCenter,PullmanCollection,box1,folder26,p.30)..........................54

Figure4-1:DePaulUniversitystudentsexcavatinginthefactory’score,perhapsintheEngineHouse.PresumablytakenfromtheroofoftheNorthErectingShop(Building2).PhotocourtesyofScottDemel,NorthernMichiganUniversity................................................................................................63

Figure4-2:Sketchmapofopticaltransitbearingswithdistances,calculatedeitherbytapeorfromtransitreadings.ScottDemelprovidedthissketchmapfromhisportionoftheexcavationrecords.............................................................................................................................................................64

Figure4-3:DiggingalongLawrenceAvenueonthelawnoftheHotelFlorence.ScottDemelprovidedthisphotographofexcavationattheHotelFlorence.InVolume1oftheDePaulUniversityreports(BaxterandHartley2011:21),JaneBaxteridentifiesthisasLawrenceAvenue...............................65

Figure5-1:Gaslinesextractedfrommapsdated1900-1910....................................................................70

Figure5-2:SewerLines,Privies,andToilets,1880-1955...........................................................................71

Figure5-3:Stormdrainagelines,1901-1955.............................................................................................72

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Figure5-4:Planofwatersystemwithhydrants,standpipes,wells,andcisterns,1880-1955...................73

Figure5-5:Planofdriveshaftsystemforfactorycore,c.1880-1905.Thereisnoindicationasyetwheretheconnectingshaftranbetweentheeasternandwesterndriveshaftsthroughthefactorycore.74

Figure5-6:AllIEPA-identifiedhotspotssuperimposedupon1888/1894SanbornMap,showingrelationshipbetweenidentifiedconcernsandbuildingrooms/useareas.........................................81

Figure5-7:AllIEPA-identifiedhotspotssuperimposedupon1911SanbornMap,showingrelationshipbetweenidentifiedconcernsandbuildingrooms/useareas.............................................................82

Figure5-8:AllIEPA-identifiedhotspotssuperimposedupon1938SanbornMap,showingrelationshipbetweenidentifiedconcernsandbuildingrooms/useareas.............................................................83

Figure5-9:AllIEPA-identifiedhotspotssuperimposeduponc.1955BuildingPlans,showingrelationshipbetweenidentifiedconcernsandbuildingrooms/useareas.............................................................84

Figure5-10:TotalUtilitiesSystemsrawplotmapwithIEPA-identifiedenvironmentalhotspotsandconcernsidentifiedfromhistoricmapsandrecords.Thisrawplotshowsthechaoticnatureofutilitiesasdrawn,ratherthanasschematicplotsinFigures5.1-5.5.................................................85

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Abbreviations• CA&StL Chicago,Alton,&St.Louisrailroad CB&Q Chicago,Burlington&Quincyrailroad IC IllinoisCentralrailroad MC MichiganCentralrailroad NHL NationalHistoricLandmark NPS NationalParkService NRHP NationalRegisterofHistoricPlaces NYC NewYorkCentralrailroad PNM PullmanNationalMonument PPCCo PullmanPalaceCarCompany PRR PennsylvaniaRailroad DC&MW DetroitCar&ManufacturingWorks RRCo. Robinson,Russell,andCompany

••••••••••••

PrefaceandAcknowledgementsWewouldliketoextendourthanksforassistanceonthisprojecttonumerouspeopleintheChicagoareaandwellasatMichiganTechnologicalUniversity:

Tobegin,wewishtoextendourmostgratefulthankstotwopersons:TimothySchillingandNathanielParks.TimothySchillinghasbeenourleadcontactattheNationalParkService’sMidwestArcheologyCenteroffice.Dr.Schillinghasbeenpatientwithworkdelaysandresponsivetoallourquestions,throughwithhiscommentsandsuggestions,andareliablycollegialpartner.Asacommunityvolunteer,NathanialParksactedasaprotemarchivistoftheTennecoPapersinthecareoftheStateofIllinoisDepartmentoftheInterioranddedicatedeightintensivehoursonaSaturdaytohelpusunstackandrestackmorethan178boxesofdocuments.Thisallowedustoassessthematerialsidentifiedinthepreliminaryinventoryandbringjustabitofthatamazingcollectionintothisreport.ThiscollectionistrulyagoldmineofinformationaboutthePullmanfactoryoperations,filingthehistoricalholesinsourcematerialattheNewberryLibraryandotherarchivesandwearegratefulforMr.Parks’assistance.Oncethecollectioniseventuallyfullycatalogued,thesepaperswillbeinvaluabletothefuturehistoryofthePullmanfactorycomplex.WehopetheorganizationswilleventuallyrealizetheirvisiontocreateanindustrialheritagearchivefortheLakeCalumetregion.

SeveralprofessionalstafffromtheNationalParkServiceprovidedassistanceandsupportthroughouttheproject.PullmanNationalMonument’sKathleenSchneider,Superintendent,andSueBennett,ChiefofVisitorServicesandCommunityOutreach,bothsupportedoureffortsandwelookforwardtofuturecollaborations.ArchaeologistTimothySchillingservedasourprimarycontactandcollaboratorontheArchaeologicalO&A.Dr.SchillingandthestaffattheNPSMidwestArcheologyCenter(MWAC)wereaconstantsourceofassistanceandsupportduringtheresearch.ManyindividualsinNPSprovidedadministrativeandresearchsupport:DawnBringelson,ArchaeologistandAgreementsTechnical

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Representative;BobBryson,AssociateRegionalDirectorofCulturalResourcesandformerCenterManager,MWAC;TimTownsend,Historian,LincolnHomeNationalHistoricSite;andElizabethDean,AdministrativeSupportAssistant,MWAC.PaulLabovitz,SuperintendentofIndianaDunesNationalLakeshore,servedasactingsuperintendentwhilewegottheprojectstarted.

WethankthePullmanMuseumandthePullmanStateHistoricSiteandIndustrialHeritageArchives.DavidSchultzprovidedaccesstobuildingsandenabledaccesstotheTennecoPaperCollections.Mr.SchultzistheSiteSupervisorforboththePullmanandDouglasTombStateHistoricSites,IllinoisDepartmentofNaturalResources.TheprofessionalstaffintheIllinoisStateHistoricPreservationOfficeprovidedcommentsatvariouspointsduringthisprocess.Wearegratefulfortheirassistance,including:RachelLeibowitz,DeputyStateHistoricPreservationOfficerandDivisionManagerofHistoricPreservation;JoePhillippe,StaffArchaeologist;andRyanPrehn,IllinoisDepartmentofEnvironmentalQuality;Duringtheproject,theseprofessionalsstruggledwiththeStateofIllinoisbudgetaryissuesandthereorganization/relocationoftheiragencytotheIllinoisDepartmentofNaturalResources.AnumberofpeoplehelpedusaccesstheIllinoisInventoryofArchaeologicalSites(atIDNR)andtherelatedIllinoisStateArchaeologicalSurveyrecords(attheUniversityofIllinoisUrbanaChamplainandtheIllinoisStateMuseum):MichaelFarkas,GISandDatabaseCoordinator,IllinoisStateArchaeologicalSurvey;JasonKuhlmanoftheDepartmentofNaturalResources,OfficeofMinesandMinerals;ErichSchroeder,AssociateCuratoroftheTechnologyLearningCenter,andMichaelWiant,interimDirector,bothoftheIllinoisStateMuseum.Weappreciateeveryone’seffortstokeeptheprojectontrackduringdifficulttimesinthestate.

Duringthepreparationofthisdocument,wewerepleasedtohavetheinterestandsupportofmanyPullmancommunityorganizations.WelookforwardtoclosercollaborationswiththeseindividualsandorganizationsduringtheHistoricResourcesStudy.Wemustofferparticularthankstosomeoftheseindividuals,includingMikeShymanskioftheHistoricPullmanFoundation;Dr.LynHughesandDavidPetersenoftheNationalA.PhilipRandolfPullmanPorterMuseum;andPaulPetraitis,historianandPullmanresident,“co-curator”ofthePullmanHistoryFacebookGroup(withAndrewBullen).WearealsogratefultotheHistoricPullmanFoundationandthePullmanCommunityOrganization.

HereatMichiganTech,weoweadebtofgratitudetoDonLafrenierattheGeospatialResearchCoreFacilityandhisgraduateclassinGISforbuildingthePullmanGeospatialInfrastructure,whichhasservedasthebackboneofourmappingforthesite.GerardSpikebergworkedasalabassistant,buildingmuchoftheHGISinfrastructure.WealsothankCooperSheldonforhisworkasaresearchassistantandourEndNotearchivist,aswellasMichaelBleddynnandAliceMargerum,whoeachaccompaniedustothearchivestoexplorewhatwehadtoworkwith,weoweagreatdebtfortheirforbearanceinthefaceofourunknownknownsaswesorapidlydoveintothehugeamountofmaterialpreservedonPullman.

Ouruniversity’sSponsoredProgramsstaffhavebeenessentialinfacilitatingourNPScollaborationsandhandlingtheaccountingprocesses.WeareindebtedtoKimCodere,ManagerofGrantsandContracts.Inaddition,wethanktheeffortsofTracyLaPlante,GrantsAccounting;MaryYeo,ManagerofAuxiliaryAccountingandBankingOperations;BobbieDalquist,ManagerofFinancialInformationSystems,andLeslieTurnquist,BillingCoordinator.

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Severalarchaeologicalcolleaguesassisteduswithresearchsupportand/oradvice.JaneBaxterhassharedallofherpreviousworkatPullman,alongwiththoughtfuladviceandinsight.Weareinherdebt.ChristopherFennelloftheDepartmentofAnthropologyatUIUCassistedwithsitefileresearchbeforewe’dbeengrantedaccesstotheISASservers.

Theprofessionalstaffatseveralarchivesandlibrarieswerehelpfulinourwork,includingGlennHumphreys,SpecialCollectionsLibrarian,LibrarianRoslynMabry,andotherstaffoftheChicagoPublicLibrary.StaffattheChicagoHistoricalSocietyArchiveSmithsonianInstitution,theLibraryofCongress,andHarvardUniversity’sBakerLibraryallprovidedassistance.WethankReneéBlackburnandTylerAllenfortheirresearchassistance.Dr.BlackburnreviewedthePullmanmaterialsintheR.G.Dun&Co./Dun&BradstreetCollectionsintheBakerLibraryoftheHarvardBusinessSchool.Mr.AllenvisitedtheSmithsonianandtheLibraryofCongressonourbehalf.

Severalarchivistsandlibrariansdeservespecialmentionfortheirinvaluablehelp.TheSanbornandRascherimagesthatwegeoreferencedintoourHGISwereprovidedcourtesyoftheMapandGeographyLibrary,SpecialCollections,UniversityLibrary,UniversityofIllinoisatUrbana-Champlain.Severalindividualsweretremendoushelpinthiseffort,includingJennyMarieJohnson,AssociateProfessorofLibraryAdministrationandMapandGeographyLibrarian;KristaL.Gray,ArchivalOperationsReferenceSpecialist,IllinoisHistoryandLincolnCollections;andRimkusKyle,AssistantProfessorandPreservationLibrarian.

SeveralstafffromtheNewberryLibrarywereoftremendoushelpwiththeircollectionsofarchivalmaterial.MarthaBriggs,LloydLewisCuratorofModernManuscriptswasourinitialcontactandtremendoushelpthroughoutoureffort.WealsowishtothankAlisonHinderliter,ArchivesandManuscriptsLibrarianintheModernManuscriptssection;JohnPowell,DigitalImagingServicesManager;PatrickMorris,MapCatalogLibrarian;andJoEllenMcKillopDickie,ReferenceLibrarian.

AttheArtInstituteofChicago,wewereassistedbyseveralpeoplewhohelpedusaccessdocuments,images,andmaps.NathanielParks,TigermanMcCurryArtandArchitectureArchivistoftheRyersonandBurnhamLibraries,advisedusontheresearch.WewerealsoassistedbyAutumnL.Mather,HeadofReaderServices;JoeTallarico,DigitalImagingPhotographer;andStephanieFletcher,E-Resources/ReferenceLibrarian.Althoughourcontactwastoolatetobeincludedinthepresentstudy,LoriH.Boyer,ExhibitionsandCollectionsManagerattheArtInstituteofChicago,providedassistancetrackingdownlooseendsinthecollectionsoftheAIC.

AtMichiganTechnologicalUniversity’sJ.RobertVanPeltandJohnandRuanneOpieLibrary,wethankErinMattas,ResearchSupportLibrarian,andbothStephanieReedandKariBellin-Sloat,AssistantLibrariansontheResourceSharingTeam.Theyhelpeduswithdatabaseaccessandinterlibraryloansthatwere(andcontinuetobe)essentialthehistoricalbackgroundworkthatcontextualizesthearchivalstudywithprimarydocuments.

WeareindebtedtothevolunteerstaffoftheIllinoisStateRailwayMuseum’sPullmanLibraryinUnion,Illinois.Theyspenttimewithusduringwhichweexploredtheircollection.TheyarevolunteersdoingawonderfuljobcaringforthetremendouscollectionofPullmandrawings,photographs,anddocuments

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transferredfromBombardier.ThecatalogedanduncatalogueddocumentsatIRM’sPullmanLibraryhavegreatresearchpotential.WethankTedAnderson,SteveHile,NickKallas,BobWebber,andothersintheirorganizationforboththeirtimeandtheiroverallpreservationefforts.

DanielLiedtke,CuratorofCollectionsattheNationalRailroadMuseuminGreenBay.Conleyopenedthemuseum’sprivateresearchlibrarytousandourgraduatestudents,afacilitywhichwillbeinvaluableinHistoricResourceStudy.Itwastherethat,asaresearchteam,wehadourfirst“upcloseandpersonal”interactionwithanexcellentPullmancarexhibitaboutthecartechnologyaswellasthePullmanPorters.Prof.John‘Jack’BrownfromtheUniversityofVirginiakindlyfieldedquestionsaboutwhetheranybodyhadeverstudiedorwrittenaboutcarerectingshops(heistheauthorofarecentimportantworkontheBaldwinlocomotiveworks)Hesuggestedanumberofavenuesofstudythatwewilltakeupinthenextphaseofthisproject.

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1 IntroductionInansweringademographicquestionnaire,thecitysupervisorrepliedtoaquestion,“Howmanypublicparksbelongtothecity?”bystating“Thewholecityisapark,buthalfadozenopenspacesareelevatedtoparks.”1

Thename“Pullman”wassynonymouswithluxuryrailtravelforoveracenturyinAmericaandaroundtheworld,andeventoday,whenrailtravelisformostadistantmemory,thenamestillconjuresanimageofasleepingcarwithporterstocareforthetravelers.Morehistoricallyawarepeoplemayattachthenametotheidyllicplannedtownbythesamenamethatwastobeaworkers’paradiseintheageofrapidindustrialization;ortothefamousstrikeof1894anditscatalystforthenationalrecognitionofLaborDaylaterthatsameyear;orperhapstothefamousAfrican-AmericanPullmanPortersandtheirhistoricroleinraceandlaborinAmerica.Pullman—theman,thetown,therailcars—areallofthisandmore,andthecreationofthePullmanNationalMonumentin2015recognizedtheirindividualandcollectiveplaceinAmericanhistory.ItisalsoworthbeingexplicitthatthePullmanstoryisoneofthehistoryoftechnology,thehistoryofurbanplanning,thehistoryoflaborandmanagement,thehistoryofmaterialculture,andthehistoryofidentities(notleastofallracebutalso,class,skilled/unskilled,andplace-basedidentitystilltoday).

The1850ssawamodestrevolutioninthedevelopmentofcars:takingtheirinspirationfrombarbers’recliningchairsandtryingtocompeteinluxurywithsteamshiptravel,railcarbuildersturnedregulardaycoachesintorelativelyluxurioussleepingcars.In1858theGalenaRailroadaddedasleeperonitsChicago–Dubuqueline,andinthesameyeartheChicago&Alton(i.e.,St.Louis)linehiredGeorgeMortimerPullmanandtheFieldbrothers,NomanJ.andBenjamin,cabinetmakersofAlbion,NY,torefitoldpassengercarsforlong-distancetravel.For50¢,atravelercouldpaytohavehisorherplushseatconvertedintoamorehorizontalbedforthe6-8hourjourney(Pierce1937a:61)(Figure1-1).Whatwetakeforgrantedtodayonairplanes,trains,coachbusses,andeveninourownlivingroomswasthenewandluxuriousfeatureforincreasinglylongdistancetraintravel,whichtothatpointcouldbebackbreaking,uncomfortable,andquiteliterallynerve-wracking(Porter1987).Pullmaninitiallybuiltthechairshimselfandsoongraduatedtoconstructingentire“palace”carsby1863,whichhethenoperatedforvariousrailroadsintheupperMidwest,startingwiththeChicago,Alton&St.Louisrailroad.Pullmanandhisbrotherandbusinesspartner,AlbertPullman,realizedthatitwastotheirfinancialadvantagetonotsellthecarstovariousrailroads,butrathertooperatethecarsthemselves,payingtherailroadtohaulthecarsfromstationtostation,butthenchargethepassengersdirectlyfortheiruse.By1868thebusinesshadgrownsosuccessfullythatPullmanincorporatedthePullmanPalaceCarCompany,thoughhestillatthistimehadthecarsconstructedinvariousotherfirms’railcarerectingshops.ThePPCCo.tookcontroloftheirownshopsbybuyingacarplantinDetroitin1869andbythemiddleofthenextdecadePullmanbegancontemplatingbuildingawholemanufacturingfacilityfortheobviouslysuccessfulbusinessfromscratch.ThuswasborntheideaoftheTownofPullmanontheprairie(well,reallymarsh,buttheprairiehasalwaysbeenmoreevocativeofAmericanprogress(Smith1994).

1ChicagoPublicLibrary,HistoricPullmanCollection,box8,folder7,“DemographicQuestionnaire”(1885),p.11.

o:a:::cc~a-o ~J::'1"::D ..A.LTO~ R~ ... J:LRO~D ..

The Great Short Line between CHIC.11.GO and ST. LOUIS, CHIC.11.GO and K.11.NS.11S CITY anrl ST. LOUIS and K.11.NS.ll.S CITY.

TJIE ONLY LINE RUNNING PARLOR, SLEEPING and RECLINING CHAIR CARS THROUGH WITHOUT CHA~GE or TR "'."i<,FEH.

Figure1-1:ThefirstPullmanrecliningchairs.FromtheJolietNewsHistoricalEdition,1884(reprintedin(Anon.1897b:47).

Bythe1860s(andevenduringtheCivilWar),thedemandformoreandmoreluxuriousaccommodationsforriding,sleeping,anddiningspreadthroughouttherailindustry.Seeingthepossibilities,in1867Pullmanfoundedhisowncompanyforthisnowboomingbusinessofluxuryrailtravel,thePullmanPalaceCarCompany(PPCCO).Sleepingcarswithspringmattressesappearedbymid-decade,andin1868,Pullmantookoverthreedozenguests—andnotjustanyguests,forPullmanknewtherightpeopletoimpress:railwaymanagers,papereditors,merchantsandbankers—foranexcursioninhisnewestdiningcar,the“Delmonico”.Thecarcost$20,000tobuildattheChicago,Burlington,andQuincyworksinAurora,IL(Pullmanatthistimewasstillsubcontractingtheconstructionofhiscars)andseatedguestsatblackwalnutfour-topdiningtablesalongthewindows,withsixeachinthediningroomsateitherendofthecar,withthekitcheninthemiddle.Thegoalwastoeffectafirst-classhoteldiningroomonrails,andbyallaccounts,itwasacompletesuccess.Thebilloffare—printedinlovingdetailbythepapers—wassumptuous,andthecarsowellengineeredthatapparentlynotadropwasspilledonthe45-milerunat50mph.ThisMichiganCentralputPullmandiningcarsintoservicestraightaway,andby1870theywereonvirtuallyeverymajorlineinthecountry(Anon.1868;Pierce1937a:62).

ThisreportconcentratesonthefeaturesofthemanufacturingandproductionfacilityatthecoreoftheTownofPullman,asubjectwhichhasnotbeenexploredatanysignificantdepthinthepublishedliterature,andonlysuperficiallyevenbytheHistoricAmericanEngineeringRecord(HistoricAmericanEngineeringRecord1976).NumerousstudieshavedelvedintothelifeofGeorgePullman,2intothe

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2Surprisinglythereisonlyonebook-lengthscholarlybiographyofPullman:(Leyendecker1992)

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town,3andespeciallythecarshebuilt.4ItisalsoimportanttomentionthatmuchinformationonthePullmancarsmaybefoundinapairofgerminalreferenceworksonrailwayrollingstockingeneral(White1988,1993).Thisstudyexaminesprimaryevidenceintheformofdocumentsandphotographs,alongwithasurveyofpastarchaeologicalworkwithinandaroundPullmanNationalMonument,toenableplannersanddesignerstoanticipatethearchaeologicalresourcesthatmaybepresentunderandabovegroundatthefactorysite.Thedocumentalsoidentifiesresearchthemesthatwillallowculturalresourcemanagerstomakerecommendationsonassessingthesignificanceofburiedfeaturesandartifactsanddesigningrecordationstrategieswhenarchaeologicalmaterialsaretobedisturbed.

1.1 OriginsoftheCompanyTownofPullman,ILBythelater1860s,Pullman’sbusinesshadgrownsteadilyandheneededmorecars,suggestingclearlytohimthatheneededtohavehisownproductionfacilities.In1870heboughtacar-buildingshopinDetroit,MI,butwithinadecade,itscapacitywastoolimitedfortheexpansionthatPullmancouldseecoming,forevenin1880,the600menemployedattheDetroitshopscouldonlyproduce114carsperyear(BuderandKulash1967).AlthoughpeopleinDetroitexpectedthoseshopstoexpand,expansionintotheChicagoareawasanobviouschoice,withthecityexpandingrapidlyaftertheGreatFireof187andalreadythewell-establishedhuboftheMidwesterntrainnetwork(Gutter1872;Young2005).ThequestionwasinwhatmannerPullmanmightbuildthenewshops,giventheoptionsavailable.Simplebusinesssensesuggestedthathebuildamoderatewayoutsideoftownforthepurposeofeconomy.ButsuchconsiderationswerenotatalltheonlyconcernforPullman.SuitablelandandrailconnectionswouldhavebeenavailablecloserintothecityofChicagothanwaseventuallychosen,thoughPullmanrealizedthatanysizablepurchasesoflandthatcouldbeconnectedtohimwouldsetoffwavesofspeculation,therebydrivingupthecostofadjacentlandhewishedtoobtainatthetimeorinthenearfuture.Intheend,hequietlypurchasedmuchofthelandthroughathirdpartytoheadoffthatrampanspeculation,thoughitdidmaterializeassoonasthenewsofPullman’sgrandschemebecamepublic.

TheTownofPullmanstandsasanimportantexemplarinthenearly2,500companytownexperimentsiAmericainthelaternineteenthandearlytwentiethcentury.ComingontheheelsofthegreatChicagofireof1872andthebothnecessaryandboundlessopportunitiesinrebuildingthecity,Pullmanconceivedofanewstartonacleanslateoftheopenlandtothesouthofthecity.WhileplannedcommunitiescenteredonafactoryhavealonghistoryinAmerica(Garner1992),onlyafewrisetobeintrulyindustrialplannedcommunities(Doughty1986;Tone1997).ThatPullmanstandsbothasoneoftheearliestwherethetownspecificallywasbuiltexnihilotoservethefactoryandonlytheonefactory,

3(BuderandKulash1967)andsee(Buder1967;Lillibridge1953;Reiff1997)andespecially(Baxter2012;Morgan1954)

4(Barger1988;Maiken1992;Morel1983;Welsh,etal.2015).Intheselimitedcitations,weareomittingnumerousbooksandarticlespublishedbythePullmanCompanyitself.Whileinformative,theyservemoreaspromotionalmaterialthananalyticalworks;see(ReiffandHirsch1989)Thereisalsoanextensiveliteratureinthetrainaficionadocommunitydetailingindividualcarsortherollingstockofindividualrailroads(fromthecontinentalsuchasthePRR,NYC,orMilwaukeeRoadtothepurelylocal),andeventhepaintschemesofPullmancars(Dubin1997),thatneednotbeconsideredhere.

2

t

n

g

15

andatownwherethecompanycontrolledallthehousingandamenities.5Pullmanisalsonotableforthedesignconsistencyandarchitecturalplanningthatwentintothetown,aswellastheintegratedutilities—especiallysanitationandwater—thatconnectedfactoryandtown.Otherexperimentsofcompanytowns,whetherutopianornot,typicallyhadanexistingtownintowhichadominantfactory(e.g.,Roebling,NJ)orfactories(e.g.,Lowell,MA)wereinserted.Thecounterexample,thoughnotoftendiscussedinthesamecategoryasatheurbanorperi-urban6citymightbeminingtowns,butastheyareextractiveindustries,parallelswiththemanufacturingatPullmanwouldbelimitedatbest,evenifthesocio-politicsofcompanytownsinbothindustriesmightbearcomparison.

ItshouldnotbeunderestimatedhowdeeplytheGreatRailroadStrikeof1877seemstohaveshakenPullman’sconfidenceinthepossibilityofahappymarriagebetweenlabor,capital,andindustry(PullmanIncorporated1970;BuderandKulash1967:33-40).AlongwithotherprominentbusinessmenlikeCyrusMcCormack,MarshallField,andPhillipArmour,PullmanhimselfbecameamemberofthedailycommitteeoftheChicagoCitizen’sAlliance,originallyintendedasamutualfireprotectionaidsociety,whichbythe1870soffereditsservicestothepolicetomakecitizen’sarrestsofanydissenters,rabblerousers,andespeciallyred-flagwaivingagitators(Pierce1937a:61).Itbecameimperativetohimtodevelopanindustrialcommunitythatwouldmitigateagainsttheforcesofunrestinhisworkers.Attheheartofitwasthefactory,thoughatthisdatetheelementsofwelfarecapitalism(i.e.,industrialpaternalism)thatwouldshapethetownseemstohavehadlittleimpactonthedevelopmentofthemanufacturingcomplexitself.

5Inthiscase,thatwasneverstrictlytrue(Allen1966;Crawford1995;DiniusandVergara2011;N.White2012).

6I.e.,Industrial“satellitecities”(Taylor1915).

16

ThePPCCOhadaninitialcapitalizationof$1,000,000(over$14Btoday).By1870,withheadquartersinDetroit,Pullmanhadcapitalassetsof$8M,carsrunningover15,000milesoftrack,and3,000menatworkbuildingcarsatarapidrate;between1883and1893,thecapitalofthecompanyincreasedby250%,dividendspaying6-8%,andgrowthat18%overtheyearpreviousin1890.Similarly,thegrowthofpassenger-milesexplodedbetween1885andtheendofthecentury(Pierce1937b:112-115,113-158).SpecialtydiversificationwasPullman’smainsuccess:therewerethesleepingcars,ofcourse,butthenalsogender-segregatedtoiletfacilities,smokingcars,drawing-roomcars,buffet-carsallofcourseequippedwithelectriclightandsteamheating.Bythe1920s,Pullmanhadachievedatrulyglobalempire,withcarsinserviceacrossnorthandsouthAmerica,Europe,Russia,andJapan.Ithad11manufacturingfacilitiesand6repairshopsintheU.S.,aswellcarplantsinFranceandoneinBrazil(Figure1-2).Thecompanywasstrikinglyprofitablefromtheverybeginning,returningasteadilyincreasingdividendeveninpooryears,andthecompanyassetsgrewsteadilyuntiltheDepression.(Figure1-3).Between1867and1884,thePullmanPalaceCarCompanypaidout71dividendstoitsshareholders,rangingfromjustunder$30,000toover$1.26millionperyear,totalinginallforthose18yearsacumulativetotaldividendofjustover$10million,representinganannualreturnofbetween3%and19%invariousyears,withanaveragerateofover11%.7

7

Figure1-2:ThePullmanmanufacturingandrepairempireatitsheight(fromAnnualReport1929,2)

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

“MemorandumShowingCashDividendsPaidfromNov.15,1867toNov.15,1884,Inclusive,”(ChicagoHistoricalSociety,PullmanMillerCollection,box5,folder1.)

17

Atthesametime,itwasmanufacturingthousandsofcarsayear,roughlyintheproportionof1sleeperforevery20passengercars,forevery300-800freightcars(Figure1-4);thisshouldbecontrastedwiththeiroperationsdivision,whichoperatedthousandsofsleepersontherailsinthefirsthalfofthetwentiethcentury,butonlyafewhundredparlorcarsandahandfulofdiningorothercars(Figure1-5).Andtoputthisallintoperspectives,Pullman-operatedcarswereonlyeveraverysmallfractionofallthepassengercarsofanytypeinoperationonAmericanrailsduringthelifetimeoftheiroperation(Figure1-6).Inotherwords,Pullmanrealizedthatinmanufacturing,itwasturningoutthethousandsoffreightcarsthatwasfastestandmostprofitable,asbuildingpassengercars,andespeciallyopulentsleepers,wasslowandexpensive.Butontheotherhand,he(andthemanagersafterhisdeathin1897,ofcourse)alsorealizedthatitwasoperatingthesleeperswheretheprofitsweretobehad.

Figure1-3:AnnualEarnings,Dividends,andAssetsforPullmanCo.,1880-1972(AnnualReports)

ij $100

~

$80

$60

$40

$20

so 1~65

-$20 t

- Total Earnings

- Dividends Paid

-Total Assets

1872

All daa cieiwd from Pullman Annual Rf'po,ts

1893 1900

~ 8,000 ~~ - ~ 0 -

~ 1l g- 6,000 § z

4,000 1900

Pullman Co. Financials, 1875-1950

Corporate reorganization Apr. 30, 1927 changes basis of Income

1907 1914 1921

1907 1914 1921

Depression

1928 1935

1942

WWII

1942

$400

5350 :0

$300

$250

S200

~ $150 51 .:. $100

$50

so 1949 1956 1963

-$50

-5100

1949

Figure1-4:TotalNumberofCarsConstructedbyPullman,1871-1940

25,000

20,000

15,000

10,000

5,000

0

Total Number of Cars Constructed by Pullman Group Pullman=for company use; Other=for all other RRs and individuals

Source: Newberry Library, Pullman Papers 04/01/02 (box 5, fol. 64)

• Other, Freight

• Other, Misc.

• Other, Sleeping

• Pullman, all types

-- 11~11111 lill I II I Ll1 II 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930

Figure1-5:RelativeRatioofCarsConstructedbyPullmanGroup

..... "'

800

700

600

w 500

? ~ 400 +-' :::,

fr 300 :::, 0

200

100

0

1870

Realtive Ratio of Cars Constructed by Pullman Group Pullman=for company use; Other=for all other RRs and individuals

Source: Newberry Library, Pullman Papers 04/01/02 (box 5, fol. 64)

- Pullman, all types

- Other, Sleeping

- Other, Misc. / 10

- Other, Freight/ 100

1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940

18

19

Figure1-6:PassengerCarsonAmericanRails,1880-1960

70,000

60,000

50,000

40,000

30,000

20,000

10,000

0

Passenger Cars on American Rails, 1880-1960 (White 1978, tables B.2 ans B.4)

• Pullman Passenger Cars

• Other Passenger Cars

1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960

Figure1-7:TypesofPullman-OwnedCars,1900-1950

12,000

10,000

8,000

6,000

4,000

2,000

0

Types of Pullman-Owned Cars, 1900-1950 (White 1978, Table B.4)

• Misc.

• Private

• Dining

• Parlor

• Sleeping

1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950

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1.2 TheTownofPullmananditsoverlappingdesignationsThefactorycomplexattheheartoftheTownofPullman,IL,issubjecttomultipleoverlappinghistoricaldesignationsatthecity,state,andfederallevel.AlloftheseoverlappingagencieshavevaryingandlimiteddegreesofjurisdictionortypesofinvolvementinPullman(Figure1-8).

ThetownofPullmanisawhollyincorporatedsubdivisionoftheCityofChicagosince1889,extendingfrom103rdSt.onthenorthto115thSt.onthesouth,andexistingbetweenCottageGroveAvenue(andtheIllinoisCentralrailroadrightofway)onthewesttoInterstate-94andLakeCalumetontheeast.

ResidentsofPullmanhavebeenfiercepromotersoftheircommunity’sheritage.In1960,agroupformedthePullmanCivicOrganizationtoadvocateforthecommunityandtheireffortsinspiredalongseriesofrecognitions.AnumberofheritageagencieshavelistedthePullmanhistoricsite,declaringitssignificance.FollowingasurveybytheHistoricAmericanBuildingSurveyin1967(HistoricAmericanEngineeringRecord1976),theStateofIllinoisdesignatedthetownasaStateHistoricDistrictin1968andthetownwasplacedontheNationalRegisterofHistoricPlacesin1969.

Attheendof1970,theSecretaryoftheInteriornamedPullmanaNationalHistoricLandmarkDistrict,whichitthenexpandedin1972.TheNHLprogramisadministeredbytheNationalParkServiceasastand-aloneprogram.Thatsameyear,theCityofChicagodesignatedSouthPullmanresidentialareaasaLandmarkDistrict,addingNorthPullman’sresidentialareain1993.Thislistingrecognizesthesuiteoffeaturesinadistrict—buildings,otherstructures,andlandscapeelements—thattogetheradduptoahistoricallysignificantareaworthpreservationandrecognition.StructureswithinaNHLmaybeprivatelyorpublicallyowned,andalthoughtheremustbeapreponderanceofso-called“contributing”buildingstomaketheNHLdesignationviable,thedistrictmaycontain“non-contributing”structuressolongastheyhavenottoostronglymarredoralteredthequalitiesforwhichthedistrictisbeingrecognized.

^

Cot

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Gro

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Market SquareHistoric Pullman

Visitor Center

Hotel Florence

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103rd St

111th St

115th St

Stables

Arcade Park

Historic Pullman Center

Pullman Park

Greenstone Church

Pullman Wheelworks

Pullman Fire Station

A. Phillip Randolph Pullman Porter Museum

Bielenberg Historic Pullman House Foundation

Rear Erecting

Shops

North Factory Wing

Administration Building Pullman State

Historic Site

Calumet River

Pullman National MonumentBoundary

National Park ServiceU.S. Department of the Interior

600 0 600 1,200Feet

OFFICE: Lands Resources Program CenterREGION: Midwest RegionPARK: Pullman National MonumentALPHA: PULLTOTAL ACREAGE: +/- 203.48MAP NUMBER: 590/125,485DATE: February 2015

ChicagoChicagoPullmanPullmanNationalNational

MonumentMonument

ILLINOISILLINOIS

Lake Lake

Michigan

Michigan

Calumet Calumet RiverRiver

Vicinity Map

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tern

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Historic Buildings or Landmarks!

!!

!

! ! ! ! !!!

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Residential

^ U.S. Fee

Pullman National Historic Landmark District! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

National Monument Boundary

Figure1-8:OverlappingboundariesofPullmanhistoricaldistricts(courtesyPNM)

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

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NHLscanbesinglestructuresordistricts,andhavebeenestablishedtorecognizesiteswherenationallyhistoricsignificanteventsoccurred,prominentpersonslived,orthatmoreabstractlycharacterizeawayoflifeoriconicidealsimportanttoournationalidentity.NHLscanalsorecognizeexceptionalexamplesofdesign,construction,orarchaeologicalsignificance.InthecaseofPullmanNHL,thesitewasnotedforitsrelationtoindustrialism,urbanplanning,civilrights,andthehistoricallypivotalstrikeof1894.

Mostrecently,PresidentBarakObamadesignatedPullmanNationalMonumentonFebruary19,2015,givingtheNationalParkServiceanactivepreservationandeducationroleinthecommunity,thoughitshouldbenotedthattheNPSownsonlytheAdministrationBuilding(the“clocktower”)atthecoreoftheremainingfactorycomplex.TheStateofIllinoisretainedownershipoftherestofthefactorysiteandtheHotelFlorenceimmediatelytothesouth,whiletherestofthetownremainsprivatelyowned.TheNPSandtheStateofIllinoisworktoreachagreementonthemanagementoftheirrespectiveportionsofthefactoryproperty.PrivatepropertieswithintherestoftheMonumentarenotregulatedbyNPSlaw,policy,orrules.

TheMonumentwasgiventhefollowingmissionstatementinhisproclamation:

PullmanNationalMonumentfulfillsthefollowingpurposesforthebenefitofpresentandfuturegenerations:topreservethehistoricresources;tointerprettheindustrialhistoryandlaborstrugglesandachievementsassociatedwiththePullmanCompany,includingtheriseofandtheroleoftheBrotherhoodofSleepingCarPorters;andtointerpretthehistoryofurbanplanninganddesignofwhichtheplannedcompanytownofPullmanisanationallysignificantexample.(Obama2015)

Theproclamationwentontohighlighthowthetownwasan“evocativetestamenttotheevolutionofAmericanindustry,theriseofunionsandthelabormovement,thelastingstrengthofgoodurbandesign,andtheremarkablejourneyofthePullmanporterstowardthecivilrightsmovementofthe20thcentury.”Assuch,theMonumentnowhasamultifacetedinterpretationmandate,andtheNPS,theStateofIllinois,localmuseumsandpreservationsgroups,andtheresidentsofPullmanwillworktomakethatareality.

1.2.1 TheFactoryComplexAstheNationalParkServicetookpossessionoftheAdministrationBuildingatPullman(Building#1),theyinitiatedaconversationwithMichiganTechnologicalUniversity.ThatyieldedthiscollaborativeefforttoupdatewhatwasknownofthehistoryofthebuildingandtheentirecoreofthePalaceCarfactorycomplex,therestofwhichisownedandmanagedbytheStateofIllinois.TheHistoricAmericanBuildingSurveyhaddocumentedtheAdministrationBuildingandErectingShopsin1967(HistoricAmericanBuildingsSurvey1967).WhenateamfromtheHistoricAmericanEngineeringRecordarrivednineyearslater(HAERIL-5),theycaptured15photos,sevendrawings,and183pagesofdataaboutthearea’shistoricalandcurrentconditions.Whileotherpublicationshaveoutlinedthehistoryofbuildings,theywerederivedfromthesesourcesandsupplementedbyresearchinotherresources,suchasnewspaperarticles,andpublishedacademichistories.Thissurveycomplementsandextendsthosestudiesduetotheaddedbenefitof50additionalyearsofcatalogingofcollections,butalsothelossoforiginalarchitecturalfabricinthefactory.Whileallofthearchiveswevisitedhadupdatedfindingaids

22

andcataloginformationoverthosedecades,theessentialcoredocumentsinwhichpeoplerecordeddetailsaboutmanufacturingwerestillnotfoundinanyarchive.

ThischangedintheSpringof2017aftertheChicagoAreaArchivistsheldaservicedayactivitytoacreatebox-levelinventoryandconditionreportsofthe150boxesintheTennecoCompanyCollectionpapersinthecareofthePullmanStateHistoricSite.Thiscollectionincludesmanyoftheoriginalcompanydocumentsaboutmanufacturing.Workingfromthatcatalog,wewereabletospendasingledaylookingthroughthesurvivingrecordsofPullmanCompany’smanufacturingunit.Thesepapers,whichwilleventuallybeavailabletoresearchersandthepublicthroughtheIndustrialHeritageArchivesofChicago’sCalumetRegion,helpedtoextendouranalysisofworkatthefactory.OurexaminationoftheTennecopaperswasrushedandnowherenearcomplete,sowestillcouldnotfindseveralkeydocumenttypes.Asanexample,theNewberryLibraryholdsaremarkablecollectionofoversizedandboundvolumesofmapsandblueprintsdocumentingchangeovertimeattheCalumetShops.Whilesimilarvolumesexistedforthemanufacturingcore,includingtheerectingshops,theblacksmithshop,thewoodmachineshop,etc.,thesehavestillnotbeenfound.

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2 TheGeologicalandEnvironmentalSetting

PeopleexploitedtheresourcesofLakeCalumetandthePullmanareaformillennia.TheChicagoLakePlainhaddistinctiveriparianandaquaticenvironments,withextensivemarshlandlongknowntohaveveryhighnetprimaryproductivityandedibleproductivitythatpeopleutilizedthroughouttime(Craig1988).GiventhetransformationofthelandscapeatthePullmanfactorysitedetailedinthisreport,itishighlyimprobablethatanyundisturbedculturalresourcesremainsealedunderneaththe1880landfillingonNPSorStateofIllinoispropertywithinorsurroundingthesleepingcarshops.Wesummarizethegeologicalandenvironmentalhistorybelow,however,alongwithnotesontheculturalphasesoflandusebecauseancientpeoplesusedthislandextensivelyalthoughnohumansettlementsareknowntobelocatedwithinthetownboundaries.

Consideringthelargercontextofthetown’slandscapeuponthelakeplain,however,MonumentstaffshouldnotethatpeopleusedthenearbyTollestonRidgeasatravelroutethousandsofyearsandLakeCalumetwouldhaveofferedmanyusefulandattractiveresources.NearbylandformsaroundLakeCalumetmayhaveattractedpeople,suchasthesmallerbeachridgeswithgravelandsanddepositsthatwerestillvisibleasrecentlyasthe1930sjustnorthandsouthofthefactorysite.ThischapterprovidesabackgroundtointerprettheMonument’sgeologicalhistorytovisitors,explaindifferentperiodsoflanduse,andtopointtowardlong-termlandscapehistoryofthesite.

In1988,JosephCraigundertookaliteraturereviewofsitesrecordedbytheIllinoisArchaeologicalSurveyinthenearbyCookCountyForestPreserveDistrictlands.Hissubsequentsettlementpatternanalysisindicatedthatalluvialbottomlandlocationswithoutdenseforestcoverwerethemostutilizedenvironmentonthelakeplain,followedbytheduneandbeachridgefeatureswithsavannaforest.Thesesitesaregenerallyclosetousefulmarshlandbutarehigheranddrier.Conversely,theuplandprairieenvironmentsseemtohavebeenleastattractivetoresidentsofthelakeplain,andpeopleusedlocationsinthatzoneforbriefstayscollectingspecialresources.ThepeopleoftheArchaic(10,000BP-2,000BP)concentratedonexploitingproductivemarshlandhabitats,preferringtolocateonbeachridgesclearofforest.Woodlandsites(2,000BP-400BP)showedmoregeneralizeduseofdifferentgeographiczones.TheMississippian-erasettlers(900CE-1400CE)favoredtheriverandstreamvalleysforsettlementinordertoexploitthebottomlandsmoreintensively(Craig1988).Thesegeneralfindingshavehelduptosubsequentwork(LovisandO'Gorman2006;Lurie2009;Markman1991).

WedonotyetknowthevegetativehistoryorsoiltypesinPullman.BoththelandformsandsoilsofthePullmanareawereshapedbythescouringforceofglaciersandthechanginglevelsofwaterinthelakestheyproduced.Astheglaciersadvancedandretreatedandlakelevelsfluctuatedfromhightolowlevels,Pullmanwasalternatelyinundatedandexposedforvaryinglengthsoftimeastheseprocessescreatedthelandformsandmajorsedimentlayerssummarizedbelow.Ineachcase,asthewaterrecededtoalowerlevel,soilswouldgeneratefromtheclayeymaterialasitmixedwithaeoliansedimentandthatmovedbysurfacerunoff(Calsyn,etal.2012:13,16-18).Tobeclear,thepatternsrelatedbelowareverygeneralizedandthesitewillhavespentlongperiodsunderwater,asseasonalmarsh,andasforestedbottomlandshelteredbetweenrelictdunestotheeastandwest.Wetlandenvironmentslikethisalsoshiftedfromwet-to-dryseasonally,annually,andoverthedecades.

24

MostoftheCityofChicago,includingtheLakeCalumetarea,isonLakePlaintopographythatinitiallyformedunderglacialLakeChicago.Layersofgrayishbrownorgrayclayeysiltsettledoutfromthelakewater,formingwhatbecameabroadandnearlylevelsurfacethatslopedgentlytowardLakeMichigan.ThesedimentsaroundLakeCalumetaredescribedaslacustrinesiltyclay(Thompson1989)or“quiet-waterlakesedimentsdominatedbywellbeddedsiltthatislocallylaminatedandcontainsthinbedsofclay.Also,locallensesofsandandgravelarenotuncommon”(Sinars1999:2-7).Thecolorderivesprimarilyfromtheoxidationstateofironcompounds,andinlow-lyingandmarshyareaswherewaterfillsporespaceswithinthesoilallyear.Thelackofoxygeninthesesaturatedsedimentsreducestheironintheclayandgivesthesedimentagrayishcharacter.Wheresoilsarebetterdrainedandoxygencirculates,theclayeysedimenttendstobebrown.Thelowreliefonthelakeplaininfluencesrunoffandwaterinfiltration,particularlyinareaswhereclayeysoilcollects,suchasindepressionsorflatareas(Calsyn,etal.2012:16-18).ArchaeologicalstudiesinPullmanhavegenerallyfoundthat20cm-60cmofanthropogenictopsoilsoverlayclayeylakedeposits,oftendescribedasgrayincolor(Martinez,2016;Baxter,2011a-c).SedimentboringsconductedforarchitecturalassessmentintheOfficebuildingrevealedabout3feetofrubbleandfill,buttheseboringsdidnotdistinguishmodernrubbleandfill,historicfill,orburiedpaleosol(KnightandPfingsten2001).

QuestionsofwaterflowandoxygenationinthepaleosolsandsedimentdepositsareimportantbecausethemoderntopsoilthroughoutPullmanpurportedlysitsaboveasmuchas1.5m/5ftoffilldredgedfromLakeCalumetinthe1880s.Thisisconsiderablymorefillthananythingfoundbythearchaeologicalstudiesaboveorthecoresamplestakeninthefactorycomplex.Thefillwastoraisetheelevationofthemarshygroundandwasintendedtoimprovedrainage,butbecausetheclayeyloamformedboththegroundandthedredgedfill,thenewfilldidnotfacilitatewaterflowandthetownrequiredextensivelyengineeredsubsurfacedrains.Thereliefoftheoriginallandcannotbeknownatthistimebecauseoftheextensivelandfillingandmodification,buttheoriginaltopographycouldbesystematicallyreconstructedthroughsedimentcoresandmonitoringofconstructiontrenchesthroughoutthemonument.Thiswouldaidmanagerstopredictpotentialzonesfortypesofpre-industriallanduse.

ThelandscapeformationofPullman’sfactorysitewasshapedbytheclayeysediment,whichmanypeopleoftenexplainbypointingtothebrickworksuseofthedredgedmaterialanddiscussionsoflandfilling.Thefactorylayoutwasalsoinfluencedbythelocationsofsandspits,dunes,anderodedrelictbeaches,sincetheraillineswereroutedoverthosegraveldeposits.ThesedimentscontinuetoshapethelivesofpeopleintheLakeCalumetareabecauseofthewaytheclayscreatechemicalconditionsthatenhanceorretardthetransportofindustrialwasteintheareaaftermorethanacenturyoflandfilling,shorelinereclamation,andlagoondesign(Colton,1988:212).

2.1 Topographyandclimate:HoloceneLakeLevels

SincetheendofthePleistocene,lakelevelshavevariedintheglaciallakesfromlowsatabout55metersASLtohighsnearly195metersASL.Figure#2-1showsestimationoflakelevelsoverthelastsixmillennia,aspresentedinfourdifferentpublishedstudiesfrom1969to2004.Asmorestudieshavebeencompletedandtechniquesofestimationadvanced,scientistshaveimprovedtheresolutionoftheirreconstructions.Whilelakelevelsfluctuated,resultingincomplextransgressions(landbuilding)

Modern Pulses Algoma Nipissing II Nipissing I

183

182 -== 181 -C: 180 0 - 179 ca > 178 Q)

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-500 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000

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25

andregressions(landerosion),andwhileerosionanddepositionratesinanylocationwereverysensitivetolocalconditions,therearesomegeneralizationsthatcanbemadeabouttheprocessesactinguponthesouthshoreofGlacialLakeChicagoandAncestralLakeMichigan:8

Figure2-1:Estimatedlakelevelsinfourpublications,plottedto6,000yearsbeforepresentwithLakeMichigan’shistoricalaveragelevelaswellastheelevationofthePullmanfactorysite.

1. Whenlakelevelschangedfrequently,thewatersofthelakehadlesstimetoerodeexistingdeposits.Lakewavesandcurrentsthusformedsmallernewbeachstructureslikeridgesorerosionlines.Asaresult,longshoreflowsalsocarriedmuchlesssedimentloadduringtheseperiods.

2. Whenthelakelevelsstabilizedforalongerperiod,thisallowedconsistenterosiontoformpronounced“cutandfill”patternsthatmadeterracesinolderridgedepositswhileallowingtheaggradationofnewbeachlandformslikedunesandspits.

3. Thelittoralcurrentgenerallypushederodedsedimentsouthwardalongbothsidesofthelakeinthisregion.Thesouthwardflowalongthelake’seasterncoastturnedwesterlyatthelake’ssouthernshore,pushingsedimentalong.ThesecurrentseventuallymetintheareaaroundStonyIsland,justnorthofwhatwouldbecomePullman.

8ThesegeneralizationsareextractedfrompublicationsdescribingAncestralLakeMichiganandGlacialLakeChicago,includingwaterlevelchanges,patternsofsedimentationovertime,andrelictbeachlocations.RecentstudiesofformationsonLakeMichiganandspecificallyalongthesouthernshoreinclude:(Baedke,etal.2004;BaedkeandThompson2000;Booth,etal.2007;ChrzastowskiandThompson1992;Fisher1999;Thompson,etal.2011)Forgeneralreference,(Schwartz2005)explainsthetechnicalvocabularyofcostalgeomorphologyandrelatedsedimentology.

26

4. Duringstableperiods,theenhancederosionliberatedmoresedimentintothelittoralflow.Thissedimentformedspitsandlobesalongwithbeach.Whenpushedupontothesouthernshore,thesedimentformedbermsandcrestsonthebackshore,alongwithdunesparalleltothelake.

5. WhilewecanindicatetimeswhenthePullmansitewastotallyinundatedoralwaysabovethelakelevel,thetownsitewasoftenfloodedseasonally.Asaresult,archaeologistsmustunderstandthesitetohavevariedfromseasonalwetlandmarshtopulsesofinundatedanddrylandfromtheNipissingthroughthemodernperiod.

6. Ancientpeopletendedtomovethroughandresideontheareasofprairie-coveredhighground,suchasrelictbermsandbeachdunesandfaces,whichbecameroutesofmovementthroughoftenotherwisemarshyterrain.Theselocationsgenerallydidnotfloodandenjoyedfewerpests.DocumentedArchaicsitesclusteraboveThornCreekandtheLittleCalumetRiver,southofLakeCalumet.BermsanddunesalsoextendednorthofLakeCalumet,sothatthefactorysitesitsbetweentheHighTollestonridgetothewestandasmallerridgetotheeast(c.f.Figure2-4).

Figure2-2includesaseriesofmapsillustratinghowthelandscapeformedandevolvedaroundthePullmanfactorysiteoverthepast14,000years.Figure2-2a-2-2cshowsthesite’slocationduringhighwaterlevelsintheGlenwoodPhases(14.5-12.2KYA),CalumetPhase(11.8-11.2KYA),andtheNisippingPhases(4.7-3.3KYA).Thesiteisalsoshowninrelationtothreeolderandpersistentlandscapefeatures:BlueIsland,StonyIsland,andThortonReef.Duringthestableperiodsofhighwaterinthesephases,beacherosioncarriedsedimentsouthwardandwestwardtowardglacialLakeChicago’soutflowsthroughtheDesPlainsandSagChannels.BlueIslandwasabovewaterineachoftheseperiods.Asitinterruptedthelittoralflow,theislandtrappedsedimentmovingfromboththeNorthandtheEast,joiningwithForestIsland.Twootherbedrockoutcropsintheareaalsoinfluencedsedimenttransport,StonyIslandandThortonReef.ThortonreefwasashoalduringtheGlenwoodandCalumetphases,suchthatasandspitconnectedtothereefandstabilizedtocreatealagoonduringthistime.BytheNipissingphases,thereefhadbecomeabedrockfeatureondryland.

Betweentheseperiodsofhighwater,therewerelowperiodswhenthesitewasdryland,includingtheChippewaPhasethatlastedmorethan4,000years,andtheshorterTwoCreeks,Algonquin,andIntra-GlenwoodPhases.Anypaleosolsthatformedduringthoseperiodsoflowwaterweretheninundatedanderoded,alongwithanyrelatedarchaeologicalsites,asthelakeroseagainfortheNipissingIandIIphases.

ThewavesofNipissingIandIIformedtheHighTollestonshoreline(Schoon2006).AsindicatedinFigure2-2c,thePullmanfactorysiteisverynearthishighridge,uponwhichthecityeventuallybuiltSouthMichiganAvenue,whichpassesapproximately900m/0.5mifromthefactorysite.Inaddition,anotherstretchoftheTollestonshorelineformedasthewest-flowingcurrentformedalongspitofsedimentparalleltotherelictshoreoftheCalumetspit.Thenewspitformedanotherlagoon,trappingwaterbetweenthetwospitsandbeaches.

Figure2-2d-2-2fshowshowStonyIslandbegantoinfluencetheflowoflittoralsedimentaswaterlevelsdroppedtowardcurrentlevels.DuringtheAlgomaPhase(Figure2-2d),aspitofsandconnectedStonyIslandwiththemuchlargerBlueIsland,entirelycuttingoffthesoutherlylongshorecurrentthathad

27

comedownalongthelake’swesternshore.Longsandspitsthenformednorthofthearea,asthewaterflowedtotheeastaroundStoneyIsland.

Meanwhile,tothesouthofmodernPullman,thewestwardflowingcurrentonthelake’ssouthshorehadgrownthelongTollestonSpitandenclosedtheCalumetLagoon,connectingittotheSagChanneloutlet.ButtheAlgomaPhaseendedastheglacialicetothenorthretreatedenoughtoopenaloweroutlet.ThelakethendrainedtoalevelbelowtheSagandDesPlainschannels.Waternolongerexited

Figure2-2:LocationofthePullmanfactoryinrelationtotheevolvinglakeshoreovertime.From14.5KYAuntil3.8KYA,thesitewasunderwaterduringhigh-waterphaseswhiletheabsolutelowwaterlevelisunclear.

A

1 Ancestral Lake Michigan Glenwood Phases, 14.5-12.2 KYA 195M/640FtASL _ ,,, __ ._ ..... ,, 0rn.,..-cn_ .. ,.,,_,,.c,n:z-

N

Stony

""-:"·~ Blue FactOIY

""~ \ ,

Stony lsl;md

Ancestral Lake Michigan 1 Calumet Phase, 11 .8-11.2 KYA 189 M / 620 Ft ASL

0, • ....;,, ..... ,:,0 .. - .... ,_(1 ... _ )

N

"a

D

Chicago

"""" I

E

F

Ancestral Lake Michigan Algoma Phase, 3.8-2.5 KYA 181 M / 594 Ft ASL

Ancestral Lake Michigan Modern Phase, 2.2-1.5 KYA 179.5 M / 589 Ft ASL

1 N

1 N

_ Relict Calumet Spit

Ancestral Lake Michigan 1 Modern Phase, 1.5 KYA 179.5 M / 589 Ft ASL :::::;:=-o::::r..::;:•....,_,,_,,

N

_ Relict Calumet Spit

28

fromthelakeintotheMississippiriversystem,theoutflowdrainagestoppedaffectingcurrents,andsedimentationratesaroundtheareaofPullmanbegantoincrease.

Byabout2,000yearsago,inthelake’sModernPhase,thesedimenthadfilledoverthePullmanfactorysite(Figure2-2e)andStonyIslandbecamepartofthemainland.TheCalumetlagoonhadalsofilledintothesoutheastandformedthechannelfortheLittleCalumetRiver.About1,500yearsago(Figure2-2f),alongspitbuiltdownfromthenorthtotrapwaterintheLakeCalumetbasinwhilealsopushingtheriverwestbehindthecurrentbeachcrest,formingtheGrandCalumetRiverchannel.Thefollowing1,000yearssawtheformationofLakeCalumetandEarlyWolfLakeasthewaterfrontalmostalignedwiththemodernshore.

ThefinalmapsinFigure2-2h-2-2ishowthecurrentmajorlandforms,withlandmarkslikeBlueIsland,StonyIsland,andtheThortonReef,LakeCalumet’shistoricandcurrentoutline,alongwiththestateborder.Inaddition,Figure2-3indicatesthesamefeaturesbutshowsthelocationofthePullmansiteinrelationtotheboundarybetweentheNorthandSouthLacustrinePlains(ChrzastowskiandThompson1992).Northofthat

line,thesedimentthatformedspitsandlandcameinthesouthwardlittoralflowfromthewesternshoreofthelake.Southoftheline,thelakeflowbroughtthesedimentfromtheeastalongthelake’ssouthernshore.

Figure2-2(cont.):Thelakeshoretodaywithmajorfeaturesandflowboundaries,alongwiththesiteofthePullmanfactory.

I 10

G

I 10

,-------

H

............

Blue Island

,, __ _

Ancestral Lake Michigan Modern Phase, 500 YA 178 M / 584 Ft ASL 1

N

Relict Calumet Spit

Ancestral Lake Michigan Modern Phase, Current 176.5 M / 579 Ft ASL 1

Illinois ~--------,--Indiana

-

N

Relict Tolleston Spit

Relict Calumet Spit

29

Figures2-3and2-4plotthelocationofthePullmansiteinrelationtothelandscapefeaturesknowntobepreferredterrainforpeopleduringthepast12,000years.NotetheregressionoftheshorelinenorthofStonyIslandandthelongshorecurrenterodedexistingbeachesbetweenmodernChicagoandthatpoint,whilethecurrentformednewdunesandbeachestothesouth.ThesiteisveryclosetotheTollestonShorelineandLakeCalumet.Ofparticularnote,forthelast2,000years,thesitehasbeenlessthanakilometerfromtheHighTollerstonshoreline;betweenthreemajorhigh-groundlandscapefeatures(BlueIsland,ThortonReef,andStonyIsland);andthePullmanlandincludedothershorelines,beachridges,andrelictdunefeatures,severalofwhichwereusedasrailgradesbetweendifferentfactoryareas(Bretz1939).OnceinthewaterinLakeCalumet,thefactoryareaisashortpaddlefromtheLittleCalumetandGrandCalumetriversandLakeMichigan.

Figure2-3:LocationofPullmaninrelationtotwovisualizationsofrelictshorelinesandbeaches,dunes,andotherfeatures.

Toleston Beach in Red, other ridges and locations in green. All locatons approximated from several published maps Timothy James Scarlett 8-30-2917

Pullman Location with Relict Beach Locations and Landforms

0 5 10 Miles

I I I

I I I

0 5 10 15 KM

Pullman Location with Relict Beach Locations and Landforms Toleston Beach in Red, other ridges and locations in green. Drawing pots Figures 11 and 9 from study by

ee~ 'Oe\~

N

LAKE MICHIGAN

30

, __ ,.,.,.- .......

imic ii11i tciY,u11dary iJl:Lwcc1 1 deposi ts

c

Ru l1 nd ario~·J)~t";~~~-: ·~~·~;;ot1it& det~r- ---:-~ minod in 1890-flB, b11 L now la rg1;1 ly l~!:111 or co11 1plclel~· c:~~~t oyorl or ob- ~

8( 11', C. ,1/, fi-11, lJ. • . G,:ol . ,',·1m:1J11 Gr.of. ,1/ln•, ~

CM«,,•JoU-:"··"J.1'"/ , ·-. Glncinl :;triuc , o rien ted in d irection

t~~1/1~ 9

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.x Snncl orta,·clpi t 1

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t ~

BY J H A RLEN BRETZ

Seal _____].__

-~-=""=======""'~iii=====i~~ ==========o=o;ooFct:t Contour iute:rval 5 f'e et

Figure2-4:BeachridgesanddunesaroundPullmanfactorysite.Detailfrom1939SurfaceGeologyQuadMap(Bretz1939).

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2.2 CulturalContextsSettlershaveusedTheLakeCalumetPlainsandpotentiallythePullmanregionsincepeoplecolonizedtheareainthePaleoindianera,12,000yearsago.Itisunlikelythatpre-1880culturalresourcesremainwithinthefactoryfootprintandsurroundingarea,primarilyconsideringtheconstructionofthesitedetailedinthisreport.Aswehaveindicated,itisveryunlikelythatintactarchaeologicalremainswillbediscoveredfromanyofthepre-Pullmanperiods.Forsakeofreference,weincludeasimplifiedsummaryofculturalperiodsrelevanttothePullmansite(Walthall1991;Yerkes1988):

Period TimePeriod Pullmansiteprimarilyinundatedordry

Paleoindian 12,000–10,000BP Inundated14KYA-12.2KYAand11.8KYA-11.1KYA.

Shortintraphasedryperiods

Archaic,Early 10,000–8,000BP Chippewaphasedry

Archaic,Middle 8,000–5,000BP InundatedNisipping4.7KYA-3.3KYA

DryfromAlgomaphasetopresent

LateArchaic/Transitional 5,000–2,000BP

Woodland,Middle 2,000–1,500BP

Woodland,Late 1,500–400BP

Mississippian 900BCE–1400CE

LateMississippian 1400-1540CE

FrenchColonial 1634-1717CE,1717-1765CE,1765-1803CE

American 1803CE–present

Ingeneral,archaeologistshavenotdonemanysubstantialCulturalResourcesManagement-drivenexcavationsofproto-orprehistoricsettlementswithinChicago’smodernboundaries(Graff2013:18).TheresearchinpreparingthisdocumentallowsustoprojectsomehypothesesabouthumanuseofthePullmanregionovertime.WeexpectthathumansoccasionallyusedthePullmanareaforgatheringresourcesduringthepast5,000yearsandthatanysitesintheareawillbefoundtoconsistoftemporaryresourcegatheringcamps.Duringhumanuse,theterrainwouldoftenhavebeenawetlandbetweentheswalesofthewell-traveledHighTollestonridgeandthesmallerrelictbeachesthatrunparalleltotheLakeCalumetshore.Althougharchaeologistsdon’treallyunderstandtheancienthumanuseofspaceinthisregion,RebeccaGraffreportedthatcivilengineerandprolificavocationalarchaeologistJamesMarshallnotedanextantmoundlocatedat79thStreetandLakeMichigan,likelybuiltduringtheLate

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Woodland(Graff2013:18-19).Thatsiteisapproximately6milesor10kilometersfromPullman.PeoplelivingnearthatsitewouldhaveashortcanoetripsouthwardtoharvestresourcesfromLakeCalumet,whilepeopletravelingoverlandalongtheTollestonridgemightcamptoharvestresourcesfromthearea.

Inportionsofthecommunityandfactorysitesthatexperiencedlessdisturbancefrompost-1880fillingandtwentieth-centurydevelopment,archaeologicalfeaturesmaystillsurvive,encapsulatedbetweenthe1880sfillandtheolderpaleosolsthatunderliethem.Intheircollaborations,itwillbeimportantforNPSandtheStateofIllinoistoworkwiththecommunity’sprivatepropertyownerstotrytolearnmoreabouttheregion’spaleoecologyandhumanactivities.Anyconstructionprojectwithinthemonumentthatrequiresdiggingcanbecomeavoluntaryopportunitytomapthepaleosolsandassessthedepthoflandfilling,forexample,todeterminethemeasurementofgroundslopeofancientsurfaces,mapdrainagepatterns,andtoextractsamplestodeterminethevariationofplantcommunitiesovertimeindifferentareas.Onepotentialareaforfieldresearch,forexample,wouldbethenowemptyrailgradethatranalongsidethefoundrybuildingsandthefreightcarshops.Thatprivatelyheldlandiscurrentlygreenspaceandmayhostburiedfeaturesalongthenow-buriedrelictbeachridge.TheNPScouldalsopartnerwithcommunityheritageorganizationstoseeifanyantiquarianresearchwasdoneduringtheperiod1880-1920,combingthroughthepapersofknownantiquariansthatstudiedtheancienthistoryofChicagoandcontactingdescendantsofpeoplethatlivedinthetownwhomayhavecollectedthingsfoundwhilediggingaroundtheneighborhood.WhilenorecordsorcorrespondenceaboutthisisfoundinthevariousarchivesofGeorgePullman’spapersorcompanyrecords,theremaybelettersorotherrecordsintheantiquarians’archivesoffamilypapers.AmorecompleteunderstandingoftheevolvinglandscapewillallowcommunityheritagegroupstotellthecompletestoryofhumanlanduseatPullman,andintheauthors’opinion,isthenaturalstartingplaceforarobustenvironmentalhistorythatmakesPullmanNationalMonumentawesternanchorpointforthedevelopingCalumetNationalHeritageArea.

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3 EstablishingPullman,IllinoisDuringthemid-nineteenthcentury,theareaaroundPullmanwasgenerallyanuninhabitedmarshyflatlandbetweentheIllinoisCentralrailroadandLakeCalumet.Therewerescatteredfarmsteadstothenorthandconsiderablesettlementstothesouthandwest,butthe200acresthatbecamePullmanwerenotpreviouslyoccupied.

3.1 BeforePullmanThere’sacertainmythologythatPullmanwasbuilt,isolated,inthemiddleoftheprairie,andtoacertainextentthisistrue.Thelandthatbecamethetownwasmarginalagriculturallandinthemid-nineteenthcentury,withasmatteringofsmallfarmsacrossthelargelyflatlandscape.AnumberofsmallsettlementspredatedPullman’spurchaseofthelandandconstructionofthefactoryandtown.ThetownofRoseland(originallyHighPrairie)wasathrivingsettlementlessthanamiletothewestsince1849(Rowlands1987),andKensingtondevelopedasabustlingjunctionontheIllinoisCentralandMichiganCentraljustsouthofwhatwouldbecomePullman(Figures3-1and3-2).Inthe1870sthewholeareawasfillinginwithfarmingsettlementsandPullmanhadtoresorttosomesubterfugeofaghostlandpurchasesthroughCol.JamesBowen,Calumet&ChicagoCanalandDockCo.president(peoplethoughthewasbuyinglandforthecanal),toavoidbeingblockedbytherampantspeculationthatwouldeasilyhaveoccurred,hadrealestateinterestsknownwhathewasplanning(Lewis2008:53).AllthisallowedtheTownofPullmantopretenditwasisolatedinitsownidyllicbubblewithbufferfarmlandstothenorthandsouth(whichalsoservedasPullman-ownedmarketgardensforthetownandforsaletoChicagoaswell)andrecreationgroundsontheshoresofthepicturesquelaketotheeast.

Figure3-1:RegionofLakeCalumetin1871(Warner,etal.1871:pl17)

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Figure3-2:RegionofLakeCalumetin1879withtheeventualtownofPullmanshaded(Edwards1879:pl12)

Inreality,itwasameretwelvemilessouthoftheLoop,abouteightfromtheenclaveofHydePark,andwithitsownrailstoponalinedirectlyintothecityfromtheveryfirstday.ItisnotablethatGeorgePullmanandtheotherexecutivesdidnotbuildtheirownstatelyhomesinPullman,butratherinthecityitself,findingthecommuteeasyenoughthattheycouldreturnhomeintheevenings(BuderandKulash1967:29-31).9Thus,thetownwaswellconnectedtothegoods,materials,andlaborofthebustlingmetropolisofChicago,whosepopulationhadjustcrestedhalfamillionasPullmanbrokeground,evenwhileitsmoderateisolationinsulatedit,andmoreimportantlyinGeorgePullman’seyes,itsworkersfromdirectcorruptionfromthecity.

3.2 OriginsoftheTown(withparticularreferencetothefactory)Pullmanwasatoncewhollyseparatefrom,yettiedtoChicago’s‘SecondCity’—thatis,thecityasrebornfromtheashesofthegreatChicagoFireof1871.10In1870apopulationof300,000fitcomfortablywithina35-squaremilefootprint.Only300peopledied,butthefiredisplaced90,000,andthecitygotbacktoworkrebuilding.By1880Chicagohad500,000peopleandmorethanamillionby1890,atwhichtimethecityspreadoutover185squaremiles(Papke1999:1).WhilethecoreofChicagorosephoenix-likefromtheashes,Pullmanwatchedthestrugglesbetweencapitalandlaborwithawaryeyeashebuilthissleepercarservice.

9GeorgePullmandidmaintainaroomintheHotelFlorenceforeveningswhenhewasworkingorentertaininglate(GlessnerHouseMuseum2012).

10Thetermisfrom(Mayer,etal.1969:ch.3,“TheSecondCity,1871–1893).

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WhenGeorgePullmandecidedtoconsolidatehisrailcarproductionbusinessinanewfactoryandtownandmovehismainworkstoChicago,hesoughtoutanareaofflat,openlandthathadgoodrailandwaterconnectionsforhisrawmaterialsandfinishedproducts.Butperhapsmoreimportantly,hewantedanareasufficientlyoutsidethecorruptinginfluenceofurbanlifesothathecouldbuildamodeltownwithworkerswhosharedhisvisionofAmericanlifeandindustry,freeoftheradicalismthathadcrippledthecountryduringtheGreatRailwayStrikeof1877.

TechnicallythelandheboughtwaswithinthemunicipalityofHydePark,thoughpeoplehadnotbuiltupthesouthernorwesternendsofthatcommunitybeforePullmanwasestablished.Thistonysuburbonthesouthedgeofthecitywasdescribedin1874asthemostperfectrusinurbe(“thecountrysideinthecity”),secondonlytoEvanston,andtheepitomeofafirst-classhotel,residences,drives,and“afirst-classsociety”(Chamberlin1874[rpt.1974]:352).Tobringworkersintosuchanarearequiredacommitmenttocontrollingtheirmovements(BuderandKulash1967:41-42),andhispurchaseofmanyhundredsofacres,morethanhewouldeverneedforhousingandthefactoryservedthatpurposewell.Ofcourse,thatlandalsoservedasimportantagriculturallandforfoodstuffsforthetown(aswellasmorespaceinwhichtogenerateaprofitasboomingChicagowasalwayshungryformoreproduceclosetothecity)andhelpedpreservetheauraofisolation,evenastheyweresoldoffpiecemealoverthenextdecades.

InatestofPullman’sisolationistphilosophythatallowedhimtoretaincontroloverthecharacterofthetownandtoacertaindegreethebehaviorofitsresidents,whenthestreetcarcametotown,Pullmandeclinedtoconnecttoit.In1893anelectricstreetrailwayranfromaloopinsouthRoselandwestofPullman,upMichiganAve.to93rd,theneasttoCalumetHarborandupCottageGroveAve.to75th,whereitinterconnectedwithothercablecarandomnibuslinesintothecity.Althoughthetown’spopulationwouldhavebeenanobviousdrawforthestreetcarcompany,somehowtheTownofPullmanwasnoticeablynotconnectedtothistransitsystem(Mayer,etal.1969:137).GeorgePullmanoriginallybought4,000acresbutonlyused600forhisfactoryandtown,suggestingthathemighthaveboughtextralandforexpansion;alternatelyitcouldsuggestthathewantedabufferaroundhismodelfactorytowntoinsulateitfromtheproblemsofthecityandearnprofitfromworkers’lives.EvenifthetownofPullmantriedtobehaveasitwasanisolatedutopia,italsohadthebenefitofbeingabletodrawonallthedistributionnetworksfromChicagothatalloweditthatcomfort.So,forexample,theydidnothavetodealwiththeproblemsofwholesalersorslaughteryards,astheyhadthewholeoftheChicagoStockyardslessthan5milesaway.Theysimplyreferredanycrimeorinjury,questionsconcerningBoardsofHealthandinspections,orevencemeteriestoHydeParkorChicago.

Inreality,theareawasnotreallyvirginprairiein1880whenPullmansetoutthisvision.Justtothewest,thevillageofRoseland(originallycalledHighPrairiebefore1873)ranforamilealongtheridgebetweenwhatbecame103rdand111thSt.,centeredonMichiganAve.IthadbeensettledbyDutchfarmersasearlyas1849.11By1852theMichiganCentralRRhadapassengerstopcalledsimply“Calumet”

11Unlessotherwisenoted,forthissection,seethearticlesbyJaniceL.Reiff,on“Pullman,”“WestPullman,”“Kensington,”and“Roseland,”inTheChicagoHistoricalSociety,EncyclopediaofChicago,onlineathttp://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/;accessed26June2017.

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(rechristened“Kensington”in1872)atitsjunctionwiththeIllinoisCentralandsettlersarrivedevenmorereadilyintothearea.By1880,Kensingtonhadabout400residents(1,000by1889),aclose-knitgroupofGerman,Irish,Scandinavian,andnorthernerswhoservicedtherailroads,andboardinghousesanddozensofnotorioussaloons,givingtheareathenicknameof“Bumtown”(Stachmus,etal.1984:v-xvii).JamesH.Bowen,presidentoftheCalumetandChicagoCanalandDockCompany,12sold4,000acresoflandtoPullmanforhisworksandtownin1880.Kensingtonservedasthenucleusofconstructionforsuppliesandworkersasthefactoryandtowntookshapeandoverthenextdecadethetwotownsdevelopedacertainsymbiosis.AndassoonasPullman’splanforhistownbecameknown,otherlandspeculatorstriedtocapitalizeontheproject.AFrenchdeveloperfromCincinnatiboughtlandsouthofRoselandandThomasScanlanplattedthevillageofGanoin1883,marketingittoPullmanworkerswhowantedtoowntheirownhomesandbefreeofthecorporatecontroloflifeandhouseinPullman.

By1892thefactoryandcommunitywereestablishedbetweentheIllinoisCentralRRandLakeCalumet,buttheyhadalsorunameanderingspurfromtheKensingtonAve.interchangeuptotheeast-westpotionoftheChicagoandWesternRRthatranjustabove95thSt.,whichinturngaveeasyaccesstotherailterminiatSouthChicagoharboraswellaslineseast(Manslein1892;Mayer,etal.1969:125;Reisenegger1895).Atthispoint,Pullmanstillsatrelativelyisolatedfromneighboringvillages,withopenlandtothenorthto95thSt.andonlyCottageGroveasathoroughfaretoSouthChicago.TheinsulatedcommunitiesofRiverdaleandBlueIslandsatafewmilestothesouthandsouthwest,respectively,butthelandsfurthersouthandcurvingeastaroundLakeCalumetwereentirelyundeveloped,andthoughtherewascontinualhousingdevelopmentintheareaknownasRoseland,alongS.MichiganAve.from95thsouthtoabout130thSt,itwasallwestoftheIllinoisCentral;andthetwotractsimmediatelywestofPullmaninthisarearemainedempty(thereisonecuriousstripofresidentialdevelopmentthatconnected105thStfromCottageGroveovertoS.MichiganAve.).

Workersbrokegroundon24April1880for600acresoffactoryandtown,twomileslongbyhalfamilewide,andthefirstresidentmovedinonJanuary1ofthenextyear.TheerectingshopswereupandrunningbyMarch,andbythespringthetownhoused600residents(PacygaandSkerrett1986:429).Bythesummerof1885,theyhadbuiltbricktenementhousesfor1,450familiesandanother60framehouses,andthecitysuperintendentbraggedinfillingoutaquestionnaireforthecitythatnoneofPullman’shouseswereovercrowdedbecausetheywereownedbythecompanyandsuchthingswereattendedto,andwithregardtoanymunicipalregulationsaboutoveroccupancy,“Noneareneeded.”Thetownhadgrownto8,603people,abouthalfnativeborn,theotherhalfEuropean,including764childrenundertheageof5,1,742aged5-15,andonly10“[Nailez?]inthehotel”(answeringaquestion

13ofhowmanyNegroesormulattoesintown)andno“Asiatics.” Pullmanhadmanagedtobuytheland

12Backin1865,BowenwastheRepublicanStateCentralCommitteeChairmanwhometGeorgePullmanwhileplanningPresidentLincoln’sfuneraltraintoSpringfieldandwhoincidentallywhohadsuggestedthenamechangeofHighPrairietoRoselandandCalumettoKensington,inbothcasesto“classupthejoint”.

13ChicagoPublicLibrary,HistoricPullmanCollection,box8,folder7,“DemographicQuestionnaire”(1885),p.1.

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for$75–2,000peracre,andwithinayearthevalueoflandintheareahadjumpedto$1,000–3,000peracre(Pierce1937b:210).Thecitysuperintendentreportedthatwhenconstructionbegan,thelandslopedgentlyfromNWtoSE,rangingfrom8-25ftabovethelevelofLakeMichigan.14Littlecuttingandfillingwasneeded.Theyfoundthewholeareaunderlainbyabout15ftofblueclay,andinthefewareastheyhadtofill,some5ftofclaywasdredgedfromLakeCalumettoservethispurpose.Theywerepleasedthatallthebasementsinthetown(“madeofthebestcement”)were“dryenoughtoresideorsleepin.”

AChicagoministernotedthatPullmanwasnotreallyabout“railcarsandwheels”,but“standsrelatedtothequestionofhowcitiesshouldbebuiltandingeneralhowmanshouldlive.”(Mayer,etal.1969:188)AFrenchvisitordescribedPullmanasatownwhosepurposewas“tomouldnotonlyabodyofemployees,butawholepopulationofworkmenandtheirfamiliestowaysoflivingwhichwouldraisetheirmoral,intellectual,andsociallevel.”(Mayer,etal.1969:188).OneBritishnewspaper,whenreportingofthe1888nationalpoliticalconventionsbeingheldinChicagoandSt.Paul,pausedtotellitsreadersofthewondersofPullman:

ThereisasuburbofChicago,notincludedinthecityjurisdiction,whichmaybecalledatownsuigeneris.ItisnamedPullman,fromtheinventorofthePullmancar,andcars(freightcarsorluggagevans,thatistosay)areturnedoutfromitsworkshopsattherateofoneforeverfifteenminutesoftheworkinghours.Itistheonlytowninexistencebuiltfromtheverybeginningonscientificandsanitaryprinciples.Beforeabrickorstonewas laid,perfectsystemofdrainageandwatersupplywereprovided.Thestreetsandopenspaceswerethenlaidoutonaclearandwell-consideredplan.About4,500workmenareemployedbythePullmanCompany,whokeepthestreetsandpublicplacesinorder,andmaintainschoolsforover1,300children.Thepopulationis10,000,andthetowndoesnotincludeapublichouse,oranyplacewhereliquorcanbebought.Thereareseveralclergymen,twoorthreepolicemen,fourdoctors,andonelawyer.(Anon.1888)

ChicagoPublicLibrary,HistoricPullmanCollection,box8,folder7,“DemographicQuestionnaire”(1885),pp.13,2-3.

3.2.1 PhilosophyoftheTownofPullmanGeorgePullmanwasnotapureutopianistnormotivatedprimarilybyphilanthropy;everyelementofhistownwasdesignedtoturnaprofit.Profitsneednotbeexorbitant,butbusiness“sense”demandedthattherebesomeprofit,whichwasultimatelytherootofthe1894strike.Butby1888hisplanhadcometofruitionandtheworldnoticed.Thecitywasarelativelylateforayintothecreationofautopiancommunity,thoughbythistimealongthelinesofwhathadcometobeknownas“practicalphilosophy.”EarlyutopianandutopiansocialistexperimentshadbeentriedatplaceslikeNewLanarkinScotland,BrightonintheUK,andtheOneidaColonies(VTthenNY)andLowell,MA,intheU.S.Manyofthesehadindustrialcomponents,thougheachhaditsowncharacteristics:LowellwasfundamentallyanindustrialtownsetatacataractontheMerrimacRiver,butwasbuiltbynumerouscompaniesandthuslackedanycoherentvision,whiletheOneidaColonieswereexperimentsinsocialandspiritualorganizationthatonlylaterturnedtoindustrialproduction(e.g.,Oneidasilverware)tosustainthemselves.Pullman,ontheotherhand,isoftenconsideredtohavebeenthefirstpurposed-builtindustrialutopianexperiment.

14

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AnobituaryforPullmanexplainedtherunofthetown’shistoryto1897:

WhentheTownofPullmanwasfounded,itsfamewasspreadtoallquartersoftheearth.Itwasdescribedeverywhere as amagnificent piece of work in practical philanthropy. That the schemewas not entirelysatisfactorytothoseforwhosebenefititwasdesigned,thatmurmursaroseagainsttheregulationsenforcedtoinsurecareandcleanliness,andthatseverecriticismwasfinallyhurledagainsttheentireplan,shouldnotdetractfromtheacknowledgmentofthehighmotivewhichinfluencedMr.Pullmanwhenheconceivedit.ThedeplorablestrikeatthePullmanWorksin1894cloudedhisrelationswiththeworkmenandcausedmuchbitterness of feeling against himwhich timeonly can efface, but in all probability, thiswas intensified athousand-fold by the work of outside labor agitators who seized the opportunity to make themselvesprominent.(Anon.1897a)

Thecitygenerallydevelopedsmoothly,buttheresistancetothecorporatepaternalismwasintensefromthebeginning.WhenthequestionofannexationtotheCityofChicagocameupin1889,amere8yearsafterthetowntookinitsfirstinhabitants,theresidentsvotedoverwhelminglytojoinChicagoovertheobjectionsofPullmanhimselfaswellasthemanagersofthePullmanLandAssociation(PacygaandSkerrett1986:392).TheVillageofPullmanwasformallyannexedintotheCityofChicagoin1890,alongwithalloftheformertownshipofHydePark,becomingWard34(PullmanlaterbecamepartofWard33in1910andWard9in1912;(Styx1988:26).

3.2.2 FactoryDesignAntecedents:ThePullmanPalaceCarCompanyWorksinDetroitThePullmancompanyhadbeeninoperationfor23yearswhenthedesignerslaidoutthenewfactorysouthofChicago.EstablishedrailcarshopsbuiltGeorgePullman’sfirstsleepercarsoncontract.In1870,thePullmanPalaceCarCompanyboughttheDetroitCar&ManufacturingWorks(DC&MW)tomanagetheirownmanufacturingfacility.Bypurchasingexistingshops,GeorgePullmandidnotneedtodesignaproductionfacilityorprocesshimself,sincehetookcontrolofbothafacilityand(presumably)mostoftheexistingworkers.TheDC&MWwasoriginallyRobinson,Russell,andCompany(RRCo),whosupposedlyestablishedthefirstcarworkswestofAlbanywhentheyrepurposedasmallpre-existingshoponGratiotAvenue.DC&MWthenbuiltshopsonCroghanStreetin1856(nowMonroeAve).Sometimeafterthat,thecompanymovedtheirfacilitiesto“thefootofBeaubienStreet”andeventuallyontoMonroeAvenue,neartheDetroit,GrandHaven,&Milwaukeetracks.ThismayhavebeenaconsolidationintotheexistingBeaubienSt/MonroeAvefacility.RRComergedwithagroupofotherrailcarproducersin1868tocreatetheDC&MW.ThePullmanPalaceCarCompanythenpurchasedtheseconsolidatedMonroeStreetshopsinthewinterof1870-1871,whiletheDetroitCarCompanybuiltanextensive,butshort-livedworksatAdairStreetin1872.Burton,Stocking,andMillerexplainedthatPullmanwantedtoexpandtheworksonMonroeAvebyreplacingtheresidentialblockonMacombStreet,butthecity’sCommonCouncilrefusedtheplan,whichpushedGeorgePullmantodevelophisplansforbuildinginIllinois(Burton,etal.1922:537).

ThePPCCoemployeesoperatedanexistingfactorywithestablishedandfunctioningworkprocess,whichhadbeenoperatingfornearly15years.Verylittleisknownabouttheseshops,butthreeimportantdocumentsprovideinformationaboutthearchitectureandworkflowoftheseshops.TheSanbornFireInsuranceCompanypublishedmapsoftheworksin1884(Figure3-1)and1897(Figure3-2),roughlycontemporarywiththeRascherCompanymapsoftheshopsinPullman,Illinois.Inaddition,

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an1889bird’s-eyeviewdepictedtheworks(Figure3-3).WhilenoneoftheseimagescapturestheworkswhentheyweretheexclusivemanufacturingfacilitybeforethedesignandconstructionofthePullmanshops,theyprovidecluesregardingthegeneralstructureofthefacility.

By1884,theDetroitworksareverysimilartothedesignofthePullmanshops.Thecompactfacilityoccupiesalargeurbanblockwithtwolongrowsofbuildingssharingcommonwalls.Fromanaestheticperspective,thedesignsharessomeinterestingcommonalitieswiththatofPullmaninChicago.Thefrontrowofbuildingsincludesatallcentralofficebuilding,threestorieshigh,boundedonbothsidesbytall,butsingle-storywoodworkingshops.The1884mapdoesnotidentifyanyofthesespacesas“erectingshops”andinsteadas“woodworking,”“generalwoodwork,”andthenvariationsoncarpentering,varnishing,woodwork,generalfinishingwork,andpaintingwhichseemtobeequivalenttoChicago’sErectingShops.

Therearesomespecializedshops,includingCabinetWorkandGlazing1stfloorwithUpholstering2nd;PlaningandSawingMillwithgeneralwoodworkonthe2ndfloor;aMachineShopforwoodwork;DryingKilns;Pipe-BendingShop;TinandPlumbingShop;andasteam-hammerequippedForgeShopforiron.ThewoodworkmachineshopadjoinedtheForgeShop.Thefactoryhasadustandshavingscollectionsystem,whichblowsintoavaultnotmappedontheproperty;thisfeaturewasreplicatedatChicagowiththedustandshavingsfromthewoodshopbeingevacuateddirectlytothe12boilersfortheCorlissengine(BuderandKulash1967:54).Thetworowsofbuildingsarejoinedbya“transfertrack”thatseemssimilartotheChicagowork’stransfertablesystem,butinterestinglythissystemconnectsdirectlytoasinglesidingontheDetroit,GrandHaven,andMilwaukeeline(theGrandTruckRRby1897).Thisyardlacksanysidingyardorroundhousefacility,suggestingthatcompletedcarswereimmediatelyremovedfromtheworksastheylefttheshops,transportedeitherdirectlytocustomersortoaremotestorageyard.

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Figure3-1:1884SanbornFireInsuranceMapofDetroitshowingthePullmanPalaceCarCompany’sWorksonMonroeStreet(SanbornFireInsuranceCompany1884:60).

Figure3-2:1897SanbornFireInsuranceCompanymapofthePullmanPalaceCarCompany’sworksonMonroeStreet(SanbornFireInsuranceCompany1897:38).

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Figure3-3:DetailoftheCalvertLithographingCompany’sBirdseyeview—showingaboutthreemilessquare—ofthecentralportionofthecityofDetroit,Michigan(ca.1889).Birdseyedrawingisnottoscale(Anon.1889a).

3.2.3 LayingouttheTownofPullmanGeorgePullmanretainedtheservicesofthearchitectSpencerSolonBemanafterbeingimpressedwithworkhehaddoneonanotherproject,andinvitedhimtoChicagotodesignthenewfactoryandtown.ThatPullmanwouldhireBeman,whoasfarasweknow,hadnoexperiencewhatsoeverdesigningfactories,remainsabitofmystery,thoughitshouldalsogiveuspausetorealizethatin1880itdidnottakeaspecializedengineertolayoutarailroaderectingshop.Toonlyslightlyoverstatethecase,almostanyarchitectorengineerwhocouldraiseaone-to-threestorybuildinginbrickandthensuccessfullyroofitoverwithaclear-spantruss(whichinthatageofrailroadconstructionwasawidespreadskill)mightconceivablyhavebeenhired,anditmaybeassimpleasthefactthatPullmanwaspleasedwithBeman’saestheticsthathefelthimqualified(Woods1999).

BemanarrivedinChicagointhespringof1880andwenttoworkimmediatelylayingoutthetowninconjunctionwithlandscapearchitectNathanF.Barrett,railwayengineerMaxHjorstberg(apparentlytemporarilyhiredawayfromtheCB&QRailroad),andBenzetteWilliams,asanitaryengineerwell-knownforsolvingthedrainageproblemsofmanycitiesinlatenineteenth-centuryAmericaandwhoalsowentontoinstallthesanitationsystemsinothercompanytownslikeMorganParkforU.S.Steel(Alanen2007;Jackson1892).Itisclearfromdescriptionsofthebuildingthattheywereallflyingbytheseat-of-the-pantsattimes,eventhougheachwasrelativelyskilledintheirowntrade.AsisclearfromthereminiscencesofIrvingK.Pond(1857-1939),ajuniordesignerhiredinMarch1880toassistwithdevelopingplansforthetown,thedesignteamgrewonlyafterthesitehadbeendecideduponandcontinuedinasomewhatadhocfashion:

LateinMarch1880,whenIwasforthesecondshortperiodwithMajor[WilliamLeBaron]Jenney,acallcamefromthearchitectof thetownofPullmanas latertheplacewasnamed, foradraftsmanwhowasalsoadesigner,toaidinthepreparationofbuildingplansandelevations.Mr.SolonSpencerBeman,apromisingyoungNewYorkArchitectwithanexcellentbackgroundandgoodoffices,notablythatofRichardM.Upjohn,hadcometoChicagobutafewweekspreviouslytoprosecutethePullmanwork.Hehadbeenassistedbythe

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cardraftsmanbutneededhelpofamorearchitecturalsort…[PullmanarchitecturaltracerWillJ.Dodd]hadinmind toprocure the services ofmy roommate, ClarenceArey, ofMichigan ’7815,whowould come toJenney,ashadI,tohaveaplacefromwhichtoleap!Areyjustprocuredwhatprovedtobeapermanentjobwith another architect inwas not available. Iwas theonly foot looseperson inMr. Jenney’s office [andalthough] Iwell knewmy limitations and sought the advice ofMr. Jennywhowas enthusiastic over theprospect.(Pond,etal.2009:82-83)

Pondthoughtthejobwouldbeashortonelastingafewweeks,butintheend,heworkedforsixyearsontheproject.Thefactoryandtownwentupconjointly,aslandpreparationandmaterialswouldallow,buterectingthebuildingwaslessstraight-forwardthatexpected:

Theelevationsfor[theAPWC]buildingfromMr.Beman’sonhandwellalongwhenIenteredtheofficeandIwasputonthatjob.Afteraweekortwoitwasdiscernedthatwewerereadyfortheroofdrawingsandtherewasnostructuralengineeringdraftsmanavailable.ImodestlysuggestedthatImightdesigntherooftrussesontheside.Thesuggestionwasgladlyentertained;thejobwassuccessfulwhenIbecametheheaddesignerofthestructuralengineeringforcewhichwassoonestablished;maintainingthatpositionandalsothatofhadarchitecturaldraftsmen,whichofficeMr.Bemanseeminglytookforgrantedwhat’sminefromtheveryfirst.(Pond,etal.2009:84-85)

ThatPond,arelativelyunskilledstructuralengineerdesignedthetrussesintheAPCWCo.Buildingmayhelpexplainwhysomeofthetrussformsinthesurvivingnortherectingshop(Bldg.2)demonstraterelativelyunusualfeatures.Buteventhatlevelofimprovisationatthebeginningwasnothingcomparedtohowthefree-for-allofdesign-buildevolvedoverthenext12-15months:

Duringthesummer[of1880],assoonasthesitecouldbedrainedandbuildingsmadehabitablewemovedour offices from the city to a temporary structure near the Illinois Central tracks, amile or so north ofKensington,andthenmyarchitecturaleducationreallybegan.ThebuildingofaWorld’sFairnowadays isabouttheonlythingcomparabletowhatwasgoingoninPullman,especiallyintheyears1880and1881.Althoughourforcewasaugmentedfromtimetotime[,]thework,seemingly,waseveronejumpaheadoftheArchitect.Plansforallthebuildingswerefinishedsoonerorlaterbutinoneortwoinstances,notuntilafterthebuildinghadbeencompletedandoccupied,andperhaps,measured.Ilaidoutanddetailedfullsizetrusses and other items of construction on the broad floor of the shop or church or theater or otherstructure—generallyfromsketchesworkeduptheoffice.AsheaddraughtsmanIwasindemandalloverthe“lot”.Thecarpenterswouldbecallingfromhere,thebricklayersandstonemasons,there!ManyatimethepropositionputtomewasbeyondmyknowledgeandexperienceandthenIbluffedfortime—Ihadahurryupcall fromanotherquarterandIwouldseethemintheafternoonornextmorning!ButwhenIdidseethem,asyoumaybesure Ialwaysdid, Ihad itatmytonguesend[i.e., theanswerwas“onthetipofhistongue”aswewouldsay]oronmyfingertipsthecorrectsolutionoftheproblem.Thisprocesscostmemanyasleeplessnight,butitwasworthitnotonlyfortheknowledgeIacquiredbutfortherespectIgainedanyeyesofmyfellowworkers(Pond,etal.2009:85-86).

Thissortofsituationcharacterizedtheprojectfromthebeginning,itwouldseem,forwhenGeorgePullmanhadretainedtheservicesofS.S.BemanandN.F.Barretttodesignthebuildingsandlandscape,respectively,forPullman,theirinitialdiscussionswereapparentlysoremarkablygrandthatthemen

15PondwasClassof1879

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tookthemas“magnificentideas”thatwerebut“thechimera[s]ofafeveredbrain.”WhenPullmanthenshowedupinNewYorksometimelater,askingtoseetheplans,Beman,

pleadedapreviousengagementandasked if thenextmorningwouldanswer justaswell,how,whenhefoundthathewasexpectedtodelivertheplans,heworkedstraightthroughthenightmakinganoutlineoftheideaswhichhehadthoughtweremerelydeliriousdreams;andhow,whenthesketchwaspresentedthenextmorning, itwas foundtobe faithfuldelineationsof the 'dreams', requiringbuta fewchanges.Aftertheseweremade, theplanswereapprovedandMessrs.BemanandBarrettwerecommissionedtoworkthemoutindetail,notonlyonpaper,butontheshoreofLakeCalumet(McLean1919:225).

Ultimately,theteamofBemanandPondforthebuildingenvelopes,theinternallayoutofBissellandexternallandscapingofBarrett,nottomentionthetrackorganizationofMaxHjorstberg,broughttofruitionamanufacturingcomplexthatwouldturnoutthousandsofcarsoverthenext80years.Andindeed,thefastandsimultaneousbuildoutmeantthatallthecorebuildingswerestandardizedinsizeandmaterials,leadingtobotheconomizationinconstructioncostsinthebeginning,butalsoagreatinterchangeabilityandflexibilityinusingtheshopsduringtheirfirstphasedofuse(i.e.1880-1907),whentheyhadtobemodifiedtoconstructthenewall-steeldesignsthencomingintouse(Bradley2011;Pond1934:7).ItisalsoworthnotingthatPullmanrealizedmoreeconomiesbybuyingmaterialsinbulk,buyingthemintheirrawstateandmanufacturinghisownbuildingmaterials—as,forexample,buyinghisowngreenlumber,air-dryingit,andthenbuildingawoodandsashshoponsite(whichthencontinuedontobuildcaseworkandwindowsforthepalacecars)toconstructallthecasementwindowsforthetown’sbuildings(Buder1967:52)—aswellasusinghisownemployeesformostoftheconstructioncrewinthatfirstyear,beforeshiftingthembacktocarbuilding.

3.2.4 TheSanitaryAngleOnefeatureofthemodeltownofPullmanwaslargelylostinthepost-1894debatesaboutindustrialpaternalism,workerrightsandautonomy,andcorporateprofiteeringonthebacksofthelaboringclasses:thetownwasbuilttobeamodelofthenew“SanitaryCity”movement,andinthatquest,itlargelysucceeded.Theoverallstoryofthenineteenth-centuryrevolutioninsanitaryengineeringincitiesiswell-known(J.A.Peterson1979;SchultzandMcShane1978;Tarr1979),anditisrecognizedthatthelast30yearsofthecenturysawIllinoisinparticular(andespeciallywithitscomplexyetflathydrologyinChicago)becomeamodelleaderinsolvingthesanitationproblem(Davenport1973).

BenzetteWilliams,formerlysupt.ofsewageforChicagotookonthechallengeofdrainingthewesternshoreofLakeCalumetandputtinginwater,sewer,andgasmainsforthecitygrid.Itwasinfactthisstrongdevotiontocreatingthesanitarycitythatinitiallycapturedtheattentionoftheworldmedia.Thesecondhalfofthenineteenthcenturysawanumberofmajorcitiesstartingtorebuildtheirinfrastructure,beginningwithLondoninthe1840s(Goldman1997;Hamlin1992).Othercitiesfollowedsuit,butitwasonlyinsuchluckycircumstancesasPullman,buildingonatabularasa(or,perversely,inthecaseofacatastrophicfirelikethatinChicagoin1871)thatallnewsepticandwatersystemscouldbeeasilyinstalledanew.Oneisstruckbythe1885demographicsurvey,whichaskedaboutfoulwaterways,stagnantponds,refuseandrodentproblems,andalltheotherillsofcitylife(allthesesortsofquestionswerepre-printedontheform),andthesuperintendentconsistentlywasabletoreport

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“noneofthese”,“notaproblem”,“nopollution,”nothingthatproduceddiseaseintheworkmen,orthatanyillsoccurred“veryrarely,solittlethatnorecordiskeptofit”(thatinresponsetoinspectorscondemningmeatorfishforsale),andinresponsetonuisancemanufactories:“nonewhatsoever.”

Pullmanusednowellwaterorriverwater(itwasnotedin1885thattheCalumetRiver,twomilestothesouth,was“notbecominganycleaner”),butratherrana30-inironmainouttoLakeMichigan,withpumpsatHydeParktoprovideallthecity’sdrinkingandfiresuppressionwater.16Thetownhadparallelsewagesystems,oneforwasteandaseparateoneforstormwaterrunoff.PullmanevenhadBenezetteWilliamsdesignanelaborate“sewagefarm”twomilestothesouthwhereallthetown’swastewaspumpedtobeusedasfertilizeronthecompanyfarmland(HistoricAmericanEngineeringRecord1976:53-61).Infact,theyearbeforehisdeath,PullmanwasawardedaplaqueatthePragueInternationalHygienicandPharmaceuticalExpositionforhavingthemostperfecttownintheworld(Stachmus,etal.1984:xvii).17

ChicagoPublicLibrary,HistoricPullmanCollection,box8,folder7,“DemographicQuestionnaire”(1885),pp.6-7.

17TheparticularearlypublishedreportonthesanitationofPullmanhasnotyetbeenobtained:(Anon.1885).

3.3 EvolutionoftheFactoryComplexTheadministrationbuildingandtheoriginalerectingshops—thatis,theoriginalwest/frontrangeoftheclocktoweranditsattachednorthandsoutherectingshop,andthentheeast/rearrangeconsistingof,fromsouthtonorth,therearerectingshop,theblacksmithshops,thefinishingshop,thewoodmachineshop,theenginehouseandboilerroom—wereapparentlylaidoutandbuiltwithinayearandwereupandrunningbyApril1881(Lindsey1942:39-40).Pondrelatedthat,thefirstpermanentbuildingtobeerectedwas“theAllenPaperCarWheelCompany(APCWCo.),”slightlyfurthernorthofthemainbuildings,“whichforalongtimemadeallthewheelsforthePullmansleepers”(Pond,etal.2009:85).Ineithercase,thecomplexwentupveryquicklywithlaborfromPullman’sownshopsdrivingitforwardandmaterialsflowinginfromChicagoandbeyond.18

TheHABSreport(1967,2)creditsS.S.Bemanwiththequasi-Romanesqueexteriorofthebuildings,whiletheinteriorlayoutwasapparentlydonebyT.A.BissellofthePullmanCompanyitself.BissellwasatthetimethegeneralmanagerofPullman’sDetroitshops.Withinayear,however,hehadresignedtotakeoverthemanagementoftheBarney&SmithManufacturingCo.carshopsinDayton,OH,whichhehadpurchasedaninterestin,possiblyusinghisfeesforhavinglaidoutPullman.McLean(1919)reportedthatitwasrumoredthathewasofferedthegeneralmanagerpositionatthenewshops,butdeclined.WithinadecadeBisselldefectedtotheWagnerPalaceCarCo.(whichwasitselflateracquiredby

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18ItislikelythatPullmanbenefittedfromthetimingofhisendeavorinChicago.TheGreatFireof1871hadnecessitatedthegrowthofamassivebuilding-materialsindustryinChicagoaswellasaregionally-widenetworkofmaterialsuppliers(forlumber,lime,etc.).Thus,bythetimethatPullmanbrokegroundforhisfactoryandtownin1880,therewasareadysupply,andperhapsoversupplyofmaterialsonhandthatcouldeasilysupplementthematerialsthathemadehimself,notablythebricks,whichweremadefromlocally-reclaimedclayfromLakeCalumet.

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Pullman)andwasreplacedatBarneyandSmithbyH.D.Spaulding,a25-yearveteranofcarbuilding(Anon.1881:666;McLean1919:231).

WhiletheIDNRhadgeneratedandnowthePullmanMuseummaintainsindexesthatincludeconstructiondatesonPullman’sbuildings,theexactevolutionandorderofconstructionofthefactorybuildingsisunknownbecause,before1889,theTownofPullmanwaspartofthelargeroutskirtsofHydeParkandnobuildingpermitswererequired(oratleastnonewerefiled).EvenaftertheincorporationoftheareaintotheCityofChicagoin1889,nobuildingpermitsforconstruction,demolition,ormodificationwereeverapparentlyfiledwiththeCity(HistoricAmericanBuildingsSurvey1967:3).Whileweknowthatthepapercarwheelshopswerethefirstupandrunningin1881,earlyphotosofthefactorycomplexseemtoindicatethatmostofthebuildingswereconstructedsimultaneously:atleastthefrontrankofthemainofficebuildingwithitsnorthandsoutherectingshopwingsandthenthesecondrankofwhatisnowknownastherearerectingshopnorthtotheCorlissenginebuildingandwatertower,alltherailspursandthetransfertables,andpossiblysomefurtherancillarybuildingsinthenorthwesterncornerofthefactoryarea.Pond’s(1934;2009)recollectionsalsoseemtosuggestthatthearchitecture,infrastructure,andrailsystemwithinthefactorycomplexwerebeingbuiltsimultaneouslyaroundeachother,sometimeswithoutacleardistinctionbetweenwhichdepartmentwasresponsibleforeachelement.Rather,thedesignersandlaborersmovedfromonebuildingtoanotherandbetweenfactoryandtownsitesasworkprogressed.

3.4 WorkattheFactoryComplexThedailyrhythmofworkandlifeinPullman’sfactoryisnotyetclear,yetunderstandingtheorganizationandevolutionofworkatthefactoryisessentialtothisassessment.Veryfewsurvivinghistoricaldocumentsprovidefirst-personaccountsofdailywork,andtodatewehaveidentifiednodiariesororalhistoriesfromtheearlyperiod.Someworkhasbeendonestudyingtheworkersasagroupandtheiroverallcharacteristics(HirschandReiff1982;Peterson1992),thoughnottheirdailyactivitiesintheplantperse.Similarly,thereareanumberofmodernstudiesaboutworkerandshoporganizationingeneral(Biggs1996;Bradley2011;Brown2001;DiniusandVergara2011),butintheabsenceofspecificrecordsfromthePullmanworksthemselves,theirfocushasnothelpeduswiththisparticularmanufacturingcomplexanymorethandecipheringtheinsurancemapsovertime.ThereremainsonlyatinyhandfulofsecondarysourcesthatgetatsmallaspectsofworkwithinthePullmanfactory,andnonethatinvestigatethecarconstructionprocessinanydetail.19

19Suchaccountswouldhavetobebuiltupfromperiodprimarysourceslikerailwayjournalsandshopmagazines(Anon.1896;HomeMorton1913;Oudet1905;Pattinson1922;Rusche1929).Eventhen,detailsmightnotreflectPullmanperfectlyasitmaywellbethecasethatthosekindsofshops,orthosespecificshops,didnotfitcontemporaryindustrialtrends.Forexample,thereisnoevidencethattheyhadanyassemblylineproduction(onewouldhaveexpectedtoseesomespatialrearrangementtofacilitateamoreunidirectionalflowthroughoutthepropertyonthelaterSanbornmapsifthishadbeenthecase),suggestingdiscreteworkstationscontinuedtobesufficientlyefficientforthemthroughouttheperiod.Inpersonalcommunication,UniversityofVirginiahistorianandauthorJackBrown(2001),confirmedthatintherailroadliterature,secondaryinformationonerectingshopsforfacilitiesotherthanlocomotiveshopsarenon-existent.

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ThePullmanPalaceCarCompany’scorporaterecordsaredividedamongagroupofarchivesandfacilities,mostnotablytheNewberryLibrary,thePullmanLibraryattheIllinoisRailwayMuseum,theSouthSuburbanGenealogicalandHistoricalSocietyLibrary,andtheStateofIllinois’sTennecoCollections.SmallercollectionsareheldattheChicagoHistoricalSociety,theChicagoPublicLibrary,andtheNationalArchives.Ofthesevariousinstitutions,primaryrecordsthatincludeddetailsofproductionofcarsaremostlyheldaspartoftheTennecoCollection,whichisnotyetavailablefordetailedresearch.ResourcesareavailabletostudymaintenancesystemsattheCalumetWorksandothersitesaroundthecountry,aswellastheworkinglivesofporters,maids,andotheroperationsstaff.Primaryvoicesaboutproductioncouldnotyetberevealedfromdocumentaryrecords.

Wehaveassembledbelowdifferentwaysofexaminingtheworkprocessatthefactoryfromexistingrecords,includingdocumentaryrecordtypes,photographsandmaps,andtestimonials.Theseprovideaframeworkwithinwhichmanagerscanevaluatethesignificanceofthephysicalevidenceofdailylife,foundinthearchaeologicalremainsofthebuildingsandintactfeaturesburiedaroundthem.

Wehaveminimizedtheimportanceofthe1894PullmanStrikeinthisreport.ThatstrikewasaboutPullman’srefusaltolowerrentsontownhousingwhenworkerswerefacedwithareductioninwagesduetoageneraldownturninordersfollowingthePanicof1893.ThePanicitselfwascausedbyrailroadoverbuildingandspeculationofcontinuedexpansion,whichthenresultedinthecollapseofanumberofbanksandtheretrenchmentbymostrailroadsinthecountry,leadingtoacollapseinordersforrollingstock.Asthedocketsshowbelow,sincemostoftheskilledworkerswerepaidbythehoursspentoneachorder(e.g.,anupholsterermightputin2hoursonjobno.2352,6hoursonjobno.2311,and1houronanotherjobonagivenday),whentheordersdropped,therewassimplynoworkforthemtodo.Onecanunderstand,then,whyPullman’sworkers’wagescollapsed;evenwhileonecriticizedGeorgePullman’srefusaltolowerrentsinordertopreservehis6%annualreturnonallsectorsofhisbusiness.20

3.4.1 ManagerialStructureandRelationsTheshiftingrelationshipsbetweenworkersandmanagersisakeyproblemtounderstandingtheevolutionoftheworkprocessatPullman.AfullmanagementhistoryneedstobewrittenusingtheinformationindocumentsintheTennecocollection,whichwhenavailable,canbeusefullycomparedwithadministrativerecordsattheNewberryandotherarchives.WhileGeorgePullmancanbedescribedeitherasa“paternalisticcapitalist”ora“welfarecapitalist,”hismanagementstrategywasbestcategorizedasverytypicalofthelatenineteenth-centuryapproachknownas“SystematicManagement.”AsthecompanyevolvedafterPullman’sdeath,underbothRobertToddLincolnandJohnS.Runnells,thecompany’smangersadoptedsomeelementsofScientificManagement(developedbyFrederickW.Taylor,amongothers,fromabout1909onwards;forthestatementofthecompanyaboutitsadoption,see(HusbandandRunnells1916))aswellasmanyoftheprogressivepoliciesof

20Forthecompany’sstatementsontheStrike,seeAnon.1894;Ashley1895;forlabor’spositionseeCarwardine1894;Stead1894;forthegovernment’sposition,seeNimmo1894;UnitedStatesStrikeCommission1894.Thesecondaryliteratureonthe1894Strikeislarge,butforagoodoverview,seeHirsch2003;Lindsey1939,1942;Papke1999;Salvatore,etal.1999;Stein2001.

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welfarecapitalism.Inthatsameera,philosophiesofcorporategovernancewereshiftingtowardtheviewthatlarge,publicly-heldindustrialenterprisesservedapublictrustbeyondtheshareholder’sinterest(Heald1970:28-30).

GeorgePullman’sbrashanduncompromisingstylewasnotorious,buthisbusinessoperationshavemadehim(andhisexperimentaltown)aclassiccasestudyinHumanResourcesManagement(cf.Kaufman2010:38-43).ButwedonotunderstandPullman’sengagementwithsystematicmanagement,amovementthataroseashewasbuildingthenewworksonLakeCalumet.Bothlargeindustriesandrailroadshadgrownplantsandoperationsthatwerelargerandmorecomplexthaneverbefore,andoftengeographicallyfragmented.Thisscalemadeworkflowsimpossibletooverseeorcontrol,productioncostsandinventorybecameincreasinglydifficulttotrack,troublegrewinmaterialsacquisitionandtracking,andlaborbecamehardertomanage.Beforetherewereacademicresponsesororganizedmovements,aswithScientificManagement,managerscreatedadhocsolutionsforsystematizingmanagement.Managersexperimentedwithwaystotrackproductioncosts,establishhierarchicalsupervisionthroughmiddlemanagers,centralizeaccountingandqualitycontrol,andshifttowardincentivewagesystems(Litterer1963;Nelson1974:480-481).Systematicmanagementalsobroughtattentiontothe“humanelement”ofproduction,primarilyinconcernsforworkers’motivationsthroughincentivepaysystemandqualityoflifeissues(Kaufman2008:66-71).Pullman’scompanyincludedthesetraitsandstruggleswithworkerautonomyandtheirimpressionsofcapriciousandpettymiddlemanagerscontributedtolaborstrikes.

AfterPullman’sdeath,thepresidentsthatfollowedhimwouldcontinueadoptingsystematicmanagementideas.In1916,System:theMagazineofBusinessprintedaseriesofessaysthatJosephHusbandhadeditedfromnarrationsandwritingsbyPullmanPalaceCarCompanypresidentJohn.S.Runnells.TheseessaysexplainedhowthePullmancompanyhadtransformedthemanagementofproductionduringthetransitionfromwoodentosteelcarproduction.Overaperiodofmonths,amemberofthemanagerialstaff(perhapsEugeneMorris)workedwithCarlG.Barth,oneofFrederickW.Taylor’sassistants,andrecommendedchangestoincreaseefficiency.ThereportsrecommendedselectivelyadoptingsomeelementsofScientificManagementthattheleadersfeltwereappropriateforacompanyofPullman’ssizeandwouldworkintheirtraditionalSystematicManagementpractices.Runnellsreferredtothenewapproachasa“commonsensesystem”whichhealsocalled“ThePullmanSystemofManagement.”Thecompanyrolledoutnewsystemsindifferentdepartmentsaroundtheplantandin1913begantointroduceageneralshiftawayfromgang-systemorganizationtoapieceworkcheckingsystem.Previously,foremenwouldassignajobtoagangofworkers,whowouldthendivideuptheworkthemselves.Nowthecompanywastrackingproductionbypersonandbymachine,andclaimedtobeadjustingworker’ssalariesupforhighlyproductivelabor—andpresumablydownforthereverse(Chandler1979).

AmongthenewsystemsthatPullmanadoptedovertheperiodfrom1907to1916,therepairshopswererevolutionizedbyinstitutingadecision-makingprocessthatputdraftsmeninchargeofwhen,if,andhowtorepairbrokenmachinery.Thebrassfoundryinstitutedatimestampedpaperworksystemfortrackingworkordersthatallowedclerksinaccounting,stores,andthirtyotherdepartmentstocompile

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detailsaboutefficiencyandcostasorderforms,colorcodedtickets,cards,andtagsweregatheredbytheStoresdepartment.Thisallowedmanagerstotabulatetotalmaterialcostsandtotallaborcostsalongwiththestandardpriceforitemsbeingmanufactured.Managerscentralizedtoolsintocollectivetoolroomsandfromwhichworkerscouldcheckoutequipmentandrequestsharpeningorreplacementsofbrokentools,andwheremanagerscouldtracktooluse.Finally,thecompanyinstitutedmethodsof“ProgressiveCarBuilding”wheretheolderectionshopswerereorganized.Theworkprocesswasreorganized,abandoningtheolder“ground-up”styleofmanufactureinstaticbaystowhichallmaterialswerebrought.InsteadtheFreightCarshopswereredesignedtoincludeamovingproductionlinewithspecializedworkstationsforindividualtasks.(Chandler1979).

ThemanagementsystemincreasinglyembracedWelfareCapitalismasanalternativetoGeorgePullman’soriginalvisionofabucoliccommunitythatwouldrepeltheevilsofindustrialcapitalism.By1916,managementwasprovidingprotectiveeyewear,gloves,andothersafetyequipmentandclothing,alongwithmedicalcare.Aslateas1923,thecompany’sWelfareDepartmentprovidedforworkersafety,comprehensivemedicalcare,lockerroomsandcafeterias(oratleastlunchrooms),toiletsandrestrooms.Theseprogramsaffectedthemovementsofworkersandtheirlivedexperiencesinthefactory.Wedonotyetknowthefateofthelatter-daysocialwelfareprograms,butwiththesteadydeclineofpassengerrailbythe1950s,thecompanymovedawayfromthesestrategiesandadoptedothermanagementphilosophies.

3.4.2 WorkProcessfromTestimonialsPullman’sfactorywasdesigneddecadesbeforetheconceptsofmassproductionoroftheassemblyline,yettheproductiontherewasanimportantexampleofthegrowthofcraftpracticesintowhatwewouldrecognizeasfull“industrial”production.Pullmanemployedscoresofhighly-paidmastercraftsmentocreatehisluxuryPalaceCars,buthisstaffalsodeployedjigs,fixtures,somestandardizationandformsinordertoachievesomeeconomiesofscaleinthisprocess.Butthecarindustry,atleastforsleepers,parlorcars,anddiningcarscouldneverbeafullmassproductionsystem.Eachorder—whetheritbeforonecarortwodozen—wasitsownuniquething:thecarlength,compartmentalization,layout,amenities,andvirtuallyeverydetailcouldbespecifiedbytheorderingrailroad.FarfromthedaysofHenryFord’sHobson’schoiceof“Anycoloraslongasit’sblack”(evenifmostPullmancarswerepaintedinPullmanstandardgreen),customershadvirtuallycompleteflexibilityabovethecartrucks,andotherthanthattheyhadtobe4ft8½intomatchstandardgauge,onlythecustomer’spocketbookslimitedthechoicesavailable.

Asaproductionprocessthatlong-predatesthemovingassemblylineandfullFordistproduction,thePullmanprocesswasacombinationofbatchproductionandstationwork.Theoriginalerectingshopsconsistedoften-baysineachofthenorthandsouthwings.HABS(1967:3-4)proposedthefollowingasageneraldescriptionoftheprocess,whichwehaveherebrokenintosmallerpartsinsertedsomecorrectionsandcommentaryaboutterminologyandofferalternateinterpretations:

Afreightorpassengercarwasstartedononeofthetrackswiththeassemblyofitswheelsandundercarriage.

49

Infact,theseweretemporarytrucksystems(Figure3-1);thecarwasonlyputontoitsrunningtrucksonceitwasnearingcompletionandthenbrakesandanyotherundercarriageapparatuswereinstalled.Notsurprisingly,themechanicalsystemsevolvedovertime,butitstillappearsthatcomponentsforthingslikepowerinthecars(generators)or,later,airconditioning(compressors)wereboughttotheframeasthecarwasbuiltuponit.

This frame would then be rolled along the track and at consecutive locations have various operationsperformedonit.

Figure3-1:Temporarywood-blockedtrucks(TennecoPapers,box585406)

Itismorelikelythatanumberofoperations—infactalargemajorityofthem—cametothecarinoneposition.Intheoriginalshops,atleasttwocarscouldsitononetracksegmentinsidethebuilding,somovingonearoundanotherwouldbeinconvenient.Therearephotographsofsmalldeliveryvehicleswithasmallwagontrainbehindthemdeliveringawidevarietyofpartsuponthem,suggestingthatit

wasdeliveringtomultiplestationswherecarsofvarioussortswouldhavebeeninvariousstagesofproduction.Butjustasordersdidcomeinforsinglecarsthatwouldentailfullyindividualizedconstructiondetails,theyalsocameinfromonerailroadforasmallbatchofcars(2sleepersor4parlorcarsor12baggagecars,forexample),eachbayorperhapssetsofadjacentbayscouldwellhavebeenworkingonthesamedesign,resultinginefficiencyasworkerswithdifferentskillsetsmovedamongthesetofcars.HABS(1967)continued:

Whenthecarhadprogressedtheentirelengthofthetrackinonebay,itwouldberolledoutdoorsattheeastendoftheshopontothetracksembeddedintothepavement.Runningalongsidethispavementandatrightanglestoitwasaslightlydepressedroadwaywithaseriesofrailsrunningitslength.Alongthistransverserailsystemranseveral"trolleys"orlonglowflatcarswithapairofrailsfastenedtothetopsurface.Theserailswereatthesamelevelasthoseoftheshopfloorandeastpavement.Thepartiallycompletedcarwouldberolledontothetrolley(whichwasalignedwiththepavementrails)andthetrolleywouldthenbemovedwith

50

itscargotoasecondbay.Thecarwouldbepushedoffthetrolleyandintotheshopwherethesecondseriesofoperationswouldbegin.

TheyareheredescribingthetwosetsoftransfertablesthatweresettotheeastofeachoftheerectingshopsthatallowedthecarstoremainorientedE-WbutthenshiftedN-Stoanybayforanyoperationthatmightbeneeded.Transfertableswereasomewhatrevolutionarydevelopmentinmovingrollingstockwithinafactorycomplex,asitgreatlycompressedthespacenecessaryforextratrackforshiftingcarsandminimizedtheproblemofhavingonecarstrandedbehindoneormanyothercarsthathadtobemovedtogetitout.WhilePullmanwasnottheearliestexampleofalineartransfertable,ascomparedtothemorefamiliarshuntsystemorroundhouse–turntablemethodofshiftingcarsfromonetracktoanother,itispossiblythefirstrailfactorycomplexbuiltwiththemasthekeytocarmobilityontheproperty.

Whentheentirelengthofthesecondtrackhadbeencovered,thecarwouldagainberolledoutsideandontothetrolleyandmovedtoathirdtrack.Thisprocesswascontinueduntilthecarhadbeenfinishedandthelastpieceofbrasstrimandlacquerhadbeenapplied.

Whileweagreethatitwaseasyandconvenienttomovethecarstomultiplelocations,theHABSdescriptionimpliesthatonlyoneorasmallnumberofprocessesoccurredoneachtrackandateachstation,andalsothateachcarwouldvisiteverybayoftheerectingshops.Thisistoomuchlikeamovingassemblyline,andtheHABSreportprovidesnocontemporaryevidencetobackupthatclaim.Fromexaminationofthelayoutofthebuildings,thedescriptionsofeachbuilding’scontentsandtask,andthephotographicevidenceofcarsunderconstructionthatwehave,itseemsmuchmorelikelythateachcarwasassembledfromthegroundupinoneplaceuntilitwasstructurallyandmechanicallycomplete,thenitwasshiftedtothepaintingshopforoverallpainting,andthen(back?)toonemorebaywhereitwasputonitsroadtrucks,fittedoutwithfurniture,cabinetwork,carpeting,andfinaldetailing,includingalldetailpainting.Anumberofphotos,forexample,showindividualpaintershand-paintingthecarandrailroadnamesonthecarwhileotherworkersfinishouttheinterior.

Evidencefromsurvivingfireinsurancemapsrathersuggeststhatallthestepsfortheconstructionofacarlikelyhappenedinwhicheverbaytheframestartedinuntilthecarhadtobemovedforaprocessthatcouldnottakeplacethere.So,forexample,acarmightstartinposition2ofbay3,wheretheframewasconstructed,whetherinwoodintheearlydecadesorlaterinsteel.Inthewoodencarera,wehavethestatementofthetownsuperintendent’swife,whonotedthatinthebuildingoffreightcars,

Lumberenters thesouthendof theseshops fromthe lumberyardsand iscut toproper lengths,planed,mortised,boredandfashionedforuse.Ineveryonwardstepofitsprogress,anditnevermovesbackward,itreceivedadditionalshapingandtreatmenttillitreachestheerectingrooms,wherethecarbuilderstakeitandbuilditintocarsuponthetrackswhichhavealreadybeensetinplace(Doty1974:72).

Further,theworkwasstagedsothatalltheerectingbaysmight“flip”inrelativelysymmetricalbatches,whenpossible,whichwasoftenthecasewhenfreightcarswereinproduction(recallthattheratiooffreighttopassengertosleeperproductioninthefirsthalfcenturyofPullmanwasroughly,butconsistently,about1:10:100).Doty(1974,73)explainedthatinbuilding40freightcarsaday,

51

they are erected in trains on parallel tracks, alongwhich all thematerials,with the trucks, are carefullydistributedthedaybeforeforthegangsofbuilders[:]182,000poundsofcastironwheels…,64,000poundsofcaraxles,118,000poundsofcastironotherthanwheels,115,000poundsofwroughtiron,[and500-900]bolts[ineachcar].

Andtheerectingshopwassetupsothat80carscouldfitontheparalleltracksatatime,“sothatwhilefortyarebuildingto-dayonpartofthetracks,laborersaredistributinglumberandironforfortymorealongthevacanttracks,thismaterialtobebuiltintocarsonthefollowingday.”

Inothercases,weknowthatthesteelframeswereweldedandrivetedtogetheronthegroundoutside(Figure3-2),andtheroofassembledindependentlyanddroppedintoplace,aswellasthenthesteelvestibulesbuiltontotheends,allbeforethecarwasliftedontoitstrucks.Laterphotosofsteelframesforthealuminum-cladcarsinmid-centuryindicate,forexample,thattheymightbepiecedtogetherinthebaysandflippedforweldingandrivetingaswasconvenientbeforebeingsetontemporarytrucksforthebuildoutoftheframe.

Certainly,therewerestepsintheconstructionwheremovingthecartoanotherstationwasdesirable,ifnotinfactnecessary,suchasthesandblastingandpaintingoftheallsteelframes(Husband1917,126-127;thoughsee(Limbrock1953).Buttheverynextstepsofinstallinginsulationinthewallandfloorcavitiesandthenturnedovertothesteamfitters,plumbers,andelectricians,theseweremorelikelytohavebeenconceivedofastheyareinhouse-building—wherethetradesmencometothejob,nottheotherwayaround—asthecarsweretohavebeenmovedtothesteamshop,theplumbingshop,andtheelectricalshop…forwhichthereisnoevidenceoftheindependentexistenceofintheerectingshopsonperiodfireinsurancemaps.Husband(1917,128)allbutconfirmsthiswhenhenotesthat,“Assoonasthesegangsofworkmenhavefinished,otherworkersfitintoplacetheinteriorpanelplates,partitions,lockers,andseatframes,andthecarinstantlyassumesanewandalmostcompletedaspect,”withoutmentioningthatitmovedtoanyotherstation.Similarly:“Thecarisnowcompletedwiththeexceptionofthefittings.Agangofmenhangcurtainsinthedoorsandwindows;theupholstererscontributethecarpets,cushions,mattresses,andblankets;thevariouslittlefixturesareadded,andthecarisfinished.”Evenbeforethefinalfittingout,healsoprovidesanimageoftheworkshopwherepartitionswereassembledontables(Figure3-3),wellawayfromthecarsandapparentlyonupperfloorsofshopsthatthecarscouldnevervisit,againindicatingthatatleastintheeraoftheall-steelcar,partswenttotheassemblybaysratherthancarsmovingfrombaytobay.

52

Figure3-3:Assemblinginteriorcarpartitionsinanupper-floorshop(Husband1917,106)

Figure3-2:Assemblingasteelframe,outside,offthetrucks(Husband1917,126)

53

AfteratouringthefactoryandinterviewingGeorgePullmanin1890,FrencheconomistPaulDeRousierslaterextolled:

Theplanningoftheseworkshopsisremarkable,andeverydetailseemstohavebeenconsidered.,tociteonepointthebuildingsinwhichfreightcarsarebuiltourseriesofvastshedsasbroadasthecarsarelong.,oppositeeachcaralargebayopensontheironwayofacarassoonasitisfinished,runsalongtherailsandleavestheshop.Allthetimberthatformsthecariscutleryrequired,sizeandit'sgotreadyforfittingtogetherinaspecialdepartment.Whenitisbroughtalongthesamerailstotheshedswherethecarisbuilt.Tinylittlelocomotivesarerunningalongthelineswhicharebuiltinthespacesbetweenthevariousworkshops….Everythingisdoneinorderandwithprecision;onefeelsthateacheffortiscalculatedtoyielditsmaximumeffect...Onefeelsthatsomebrainofsuperiorintelligence,backedbyalongtechnicalexperience,hasthoughtouteverypossibledetail.Besidesthefitting-shopsthatdeliverthefinishedcar,therearemanypreparatoryshops.Themostimportantarethetimber-shops,forwoodistherawmaterialmostusedinthemakingofeverykindofcar;thencomesthemetal-works,wheelandboltshops,forges,steel-works,etc.,andthenthosewhicharemoreespeciallyforpassenger-cars,suchasthehair-clothfactory,etc.,etc.Itiseasytounderstandthewonderfulmaterialcomplexityofsuchanenterprise.Itneedsanumberofdifferentkindsoffactorieswhichmustberunforthecommonend.Fromthepurelyindustrialpointofview,itisaninterestingsampleofthegreatAmericanmanufactories(BuderandKulash1967:58;Rousiers1933:264-265)

21Inthiscase,SmithsonianInstitution,NationalMuseumofAmericanHistoryArchivesCenter,DubinPullmanPalaceCarCompanyMaterialscollection(Acc.181),“RecordofCompletionofCars,1887-1893".”

3.4.3 WorkProcessfromOrderDocketsAlthoughwehaveyettofindthesurvivingarchivalcollectionswithexplicitevidenceofhowacarwastrackedfromordertocompletionanddeliveryduringitsconstruction,reconstructionofthelevelofdetailavailablecanalsobefoundinsurvivingorderdocketswherethefinalaccountingofthecoststothecustomerwererecorded.Wehopetodiscoverafuturecollectionthatincludesdocumentslikeinventorycontrolslipsandworkertime-tallycards.Weknowthatworkersintheearlyandmiddleperiodswerenotpaidaflatratefor,say8or10hoursofworkaday,butratherrecordedtheirhoursspentoneachlotandsummedthemupineachpayperiod,andsoon.Yetwecanuseexistingdocumentsforinsightintothemanagementoftheworkprocess.

Whenanordercameintothecompany,itwasassignedalotnumberwhichallowsustotrackacarofthattypethroughproductionandstillidentifyittoday.So,forexample,Lot1390wastakenMay12,1887fromC.P.Huntingtonforoneprivatecarofplantype515.Thedetailswereinscribedina“listbook”21andadeliverydatewasset,inthiscaselistbookG140(manyofthesesurviveattheIllinoisRailwayMuseuminUnion,IL)and26Jan.1888.Thelogbooknotedanyspecificdetailssuchasnumberofidenticalcarsinthelot,whichcouldrangefromonetodozens,anyidentifyingcarnumbersornamesforthecustomer(Huntingtonnamedhisprivatecar“Onronta”),itsdestinationandroutingraillinestogetitthere(hereWeehawken,NJ,andviatheMichiganCentralandWestShoreRR),andacostestimate.Therangeofcostsisparticularlystriking,withprivatecarsclearlybeingbuiltattheveryhighestofstandards(Huntington’swasestimatedtocost$13,450.80,about$350,000today)while

... so

7316 91,

92 46 L!il l.

458 ?G Pain t.ers .

3 00 P at.t'orc.

209 45 lfood Ma.chin .. .

133 86 Conposition.

0 52 56 Cabi n e t.

Z6 7 73 !.aiquotcy.

1.8 0 40 Cu.n,i ng.

430 41 Ca.r Builders.

104. 4 1 Trit:!l.:lcra .

383 14 Inside F'inishe:ro .

61 4Z Tinners .

108 25 Stea.t1 F'it.-ters .

261 00 U'pholaterere .

26 52 Braas F iniahcro ,

56 10 Elt1ct..ricians .

51 24 Glass .

8 35 Va.rd.

7 07 'Jra.n,ing.

I Z3ta1 04 Oonera. l Labor.

~

-1-'"6~ Propn. 01· ocn . Shop

I 12696i 67

2 00 Switching.

5 8 Running & Testing .

2 0 0 Linct.stror::i Bra.kn Roy

~ Anti Teloocoping De

~

54

othersordersreflectlargeordersofveryinexpensivefreightcars(forexample,theCB&Qrailroadordered400stockcarsinJanuary1888foranestimatedtotalofonly$430.22[percar,itispresumed]).

Investigatingalotnumberdocketrevealsagreatdealofhowthecompanyaccountedforeachcar’sfeatures,aswellassomesuggestionsofthedivisionoflaborandworkflowinconstructingacar.Asacasestudy,considerlot2293,anorderforsixgeneralserviceparlorcarsforthePRR,builtoverfourmonthsatthestartof1898.22Astandardplan1278A-1car,thepriceofthecarwasbrokendownby“trucks”,body,extraequipment,andsundries.Eachofthosecategorieswereinturnitemizedinexactingdetail(alsoaveragedpercarinthelotifitwasformultipleunits):trucksinthisdocketconsistedofatotalof6123bdFtofoakcosting$162.27,awholeseriesofcastings(bolsterchaffingblocks,bolsterchafingplates,bolsterspringcaps,bolsterspringseats,Equalizerspringcapsandseats,sidebearings,transomplatesandsoonrightdowntothe18lbs.ofwasherscosting58¢.Totalforcastingsaveraging$63.95percar);forgings(nearly4dozentypesitemizedforalmost$260percar);andsoon.Thedocketsrantomanydozensofpagesandendwithasummaryofalllabor(Figure3-4)andapprovalsignatures.

Someitemsareitemizedbyquantity,others,notablythelargerpartsandconstructionmaterials,byweight,sointhePRR’scars,theyaccountedforaxelsweighing3180lbspercarforatotalweightof19,080lbs.costing$314.82andalsoforthe“¾Q”ofsandpaperworth7¢.

. ..

DAY PIFCF . O. L.

554 '78 142 14 554 '78

2762 b 8 1,37 64 2 752 5 8

1250 12 2s1 z4 1·;bo '72

803 lt\ 04 25 803 16

3915 Z6 31Z 2Z 3915 !36

2146 3 7 171 71 2110 ::;7

1082 40 86 61 1082 40

1!34 66 2447 77 260 :m Cb82 43

2 47 6C4 00 62 65 626 47

116 41 :J183 40 229 88 2298 81

368 57

24 08 625 4.'l 68 46 649 6::l

% ti4 1477 88 91 20 1571 12

45 99 11::;: 12 4 60 159 11

336 Gl

, 65 299 80 36 80 30746

60 12 2 16 50 12

199223

2zs14_so

6741693

Ex:ponoo . ~

76180 00

12 00

alty. 12 00

v ice. _ 600 00

Thisincrediblelevelofdetailmayletfutureresearchersreconstructsomeworkprocesses,asforexamplethebreakdownofthefinishingonthesePRRcars:210lbsof“PennaTruckColor”,1½lbsofwhitelead,6lbofputty,12gallonsofredroofpaint,3gallonsofwheelpaint,1½galofturpentine,and7½galof“Murphy’sTruckVarnish.”Similarly,thelumberusedinthecarsisaccountedforinfulldetail,brokenoutbyspeciesandtype(structural,moldings,paneling,veneers),everysinglecastingandforgingisitemized,oftenwithsizeandfinishdetails,asareallbolts,nails,screws,glue,pins,rods,andeveryotherpartofthewhole.Oneinterestingfeaturenotedinanumberofdocketswasthatthepurchaserhadtheoptionofprovidingtheirowninteriordetailssuchascurtainsorlamps,aswellasturningin

22Ibid.,box1,folder26.

Figure3-2:FinalLaborAccounting,Docket2293,GeneralServiceParlorCarforthePRR,1898(SmithsonianNMAHArchivesCenter,PullmanCollection,box1,folder26,p.30)

55

scrapmaterials(brass,barstock,etc.)tobeusedorrecycledasacreditagainstthematerialsaccountdrawnupbyPullman.

Somelaborcostsareitemizedaspiecework(blacksmith’slaborfortheforgingsbilledat$13.90,thoughwithnoindicationoftimespent,showingthatPullmanaccountedmuchlaborinternallyonapieceworksystem),whilemostdocketsincludeasummarybreakdownforthelot:

Amt.[hrs?]6.393.00

TypeMillIronMachine

Day

Piece[$]38.34

18.00

G.L.[$]9.58

5.40

[totals][$]38.34

18.003.78 Paint 22.70 1.13 22.70

22.53 Truck 46.36 88.80 20.27 135.166.06 Gen.Labor 36.3823

41.761340.83

[subtotals][notspecified,butoverallhours?]

250.588045.02

174.311515.14

Prop[ortion]ofGen.ShopExpense[TOTAL]

1045.85[$]9090.87

FromthiskindofevidenceandothermaterialsthathaveonlybeencursorilyinventoriedintheTennecoPapersandotherarchives,itshouldbepossibletoreconstructthemanufacturingorganizationandworkflowwithsomeprecision.Sitingthoseactivitiesonthegroundwillalsobeeasyinageneralwayusingthefireinsurancemaps,thoughthedetailedinteriorarrangementofeachfloorofthebuildingsstillremainsachallenge,duetonoseparatefloorplanshavingyetcometolightandthelimitednumberofphotosoftheinterioroftheshopsingeneral.

3.4.4 WorkProcessfromMapsandInventoriesInthefollowingsequenceofmaps,weinterpretchangestotheworkprocessasdeterminedbyevidencefromtheknownmapsandplansofthetheseeightofthefactory’sbuildings.Figures3-4through3-7showmomentsintimeselectedtoexpresstheevidencevisibleinthemapsandhistoricdocuments24.Generallyspeaking,themapssometimesdescribedthefunctionofabuildingorafloor,butrarelymoredetailthanthis.WhiledetailedmapsoftheCalumetShopsarepartofthePullmanpapersheldattheNewberryLibrary,thatarchivedoesnotholdrecordsfromthemanufacturingdivisionwhichwouldhaveincludedblueprintsanddrawingsofthefactorycore.WhilemanyofthemanufacturingdivisionpapersareincludedintheTennecoCollection,asfarasweknow,thatcollectiondoesnotincludeboundsetsof

23Notethatthegenerallaborinthethirdcolumnsumsdowntothisentry.24ThedocumentsusedtocreatethesemapsincludetheRascherCompanyandSanbornCompanyFireInsuranceMaps(1888/1892,1911,and1938),theAmericanAppraisalCompanymapandinventory(1924),theUnitedStatesWarDepartment’sc.1955buildingplans,aseriesoftopographicmaps(1929,1953,1960,1965,1991,1997)andaerialphotographs(1952,1959,1962,1963)fromtheUnitedStatesGeologicalSurvey,andanaerialphotographfromtheIllinoisStateGeologicalSurvey(1938).

56

drawingsorblueprintsforthemanufacturingdivision.Finally,thebuildingsarenumberedhereusingthe1955numberdesignations.Onthismap,thatmeansthattheNorthandSouthErectingShopsnumbersarereversed,asbecamepracticeatthefirmaftertheexpansionofthesouthernshopstoaccommodatesteelcarmanufacture.Inaddition,sincetheFoundryandIronMachineShopwerelocatedofftheIDNRandNPSproperties,thatbuildingisnotincludedinthesefigures.

Figure3-4showstheoperationatduringtheearlyperiodofoperation.Theofficebuildingisinuseasanofficeonthesecondfloor,whilesomeofthefirst-floorspacehasbeendedicatedtostorage.Allthreeoftheerectingshops(Buildings2,3,and4)havesimilarlayoutsforsimilarworkflowforwoodcarproduction,asexplainedabove.Building4includesaseriesofstorageareasalongthecoveredpassagethatseparatestheeasternandwesternportionoftheRearandNewErectingShops.Thesestorageandactivityareasincludegasfitting,marbleworks,paintsandoils(storage?),andsteamfitting.Thisbuildingalsoincludestheonlyprivyidentifiedontheearlymap.Identifiedasaprivy,thismayhavebeenbuiltandusedforaperiodbeforethesewerswereinstalled.The1901“deepsewer”planmapshowedplumbingconnectedtothisprivylocation.TheFinishingShophasvarnishingandpaintingonthethirdfloor,whichisconnectedbybridgestotheWoodMachineShop(Building6)sothatmillworkcanbebroughtdirectlyintobuilding5forfinishing.Thewoodmachineshoppresumablyhasthreefloorsforwoodworkingmachineryturningoutelementsthatcanbedeliveredtotheerectingandfinishingshops.Finally,theBoilerandEnginehousesformtheshowroomforPullman’sgrandCorlissEngineandpowerthesubsurfacedriveshaftsthroughoutthefactory.

By1925,Building3hasbeenconvertedtoproducesteelcarsandwoodcarsarenowprimarilyworkeduponintherepairshops(Figure3-5).Themainofficeisstillmanagerialspace,butalsoincludesdramaticallyexpandeddraftingfacilitiesandstoragespacefordrawings.Building2hadbeenconvertedintoamachineshopwithpatternstorage,butthecompanyhasconvertedspaceinthisbuildingtoadministrativefunctionslikeaccountingandpurchasing.Theexpandedsteelpassengercarshop(Building3)isfilledwithjigs,templates,anddiesforpressingandformingmetalpartsforcarsandthenspot-weldingthemtogether.Building4hadbecomethesteelcarerectingshop,equippedwithsimilartoolsasBuilding3.IntheFinishingShop,nowthebodyandroofpiecesarefittocarframesalthoughsomemetalspressingandforminghappenedherealso.Thesecondandthirdfloorarestilldedicatedtoworkingandfinishingwoodelements.ThefirstflooroftheWoodMachineShopisbeingusedforpatternstorage,butthe2ndand3rdfloorsarestillwoodworkingareas.Thesewoodworkingshopsalsoshutdownby1938aslessandlesswordelementsareusedincars.Sincethepowersystemhadbeenreplacedbyelectricityin1907,initiallytopowerthewelders,thesteamenginesthroughoutthefactoryarescrappedoutthereafterin1911.TheBoilerHousewasadaptedtowarehouseironwithadditionalwoodworkingonthe2ndand3rdfloor.

57

PULLMAN CORE INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS, ca. 1886

BOILERHOUSE

ENGINE HOUSE

WOOD MACHINE SHOP ERECTING SHOP

ERECTING SHOP ERECTING SHOPOFFICES

FINISHING SHOP

SCALE: 1 INCH = 100 FEET

0 ft 100 ft 200 ft 300 ft 400 ftNORTH

TRANSFER PIT 1

TRANSFER PIT 2

Figure3-4:Mapoffactoryprocessesca.1886

11 11.

: :

8

6 4 • :

7 5 : :

I

: 2 1 3

: '

••••• ~--~ 1: OFFICES (3 floors)• Storage and Ware Room 1st, Executive Offices 2nd, Ceiling and Glass

Painting & Headlining 3rd.• Elevator.

2: ERECTING SHOP (1-1/2 floors)• Shop for assembling 40- to 65-foot long Palace Sleeper cars, perhaps two

per track in each bay, totaling up to 80 cars at one time.• 40 cars built per day, while lumber and supplies distributed to open spots

for the next day’s 40. According to Doty (1974: 73), “118,000 lbs of cast iron other than wheels, 115,000 lbs of wrought iron, [and 500-900] bolts” went into each car

• Driveshaft from Corliss engine ran in trench below floor.• 25 HP steam engine in northwestern corner by 1892.

3: ERECTING SHOP (1-1/2 floors)• Shop for assembling 40- to 65-foot long Palace Sleeper cars, as above.• Driveshaft from Corliss engine ran in trench below floor.

4: ERECTING SHOP (1-1/2 floors)• Shop for assembling 40- to 60-foot long Cars• Work tasks, storage, and activity areas include gas fitting, marble works,

paints and oils, steam fitting. • Privy located in southern and northern ends of building.

5: FINISHING SHOP (3 floors)• Varnishing and painting on third floor.• Elevator by 1886.

6: WOOD MACHINE SHOP (3 floors)• 500 HP engine on 1st floor, 1886 and 1892.

SMOKESTACK• Brick, 185 feet tall.

7: ENGINE HOUSE (2-1/2 floors)• Held Corliss steam engine, 2,500 horsepower.• Steam engine powered machinery factory-wide.

8: BOILER HOUSE (3 floors)• Held 12 steam boilers and 2 steam pumps.• Coal storage along north wall (1st floor).• Lumber storage on 2nd floor, “Coal R. Filling R.” on 3rd.

58

PULLMAN CORE INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS, ca. 1925

STORAGE &WOOD-

WORKING

PATTERNSTORAGE

WOOD MACHINE SHOPSTEEL CAR ERECTING SHOP

TRUCK SHOP

STEEL PASSENGER CAR SHOP

MAINOFFICE

FINISHINGSHOP

SCALE: 1 INCH = 100 FEET

0 ft 100 ft 200 ft 300 ft 400 ftNORTH

TRANSFER PIT 1

TRANSFER PIT 2

Figure3-5:Mapoffactoryprocesses1925

1111 1111

8 6 4

7 5 : : :

2 1

3

+ ••••• -~-711 iurn

1: MAIN OFFICE (3 floors)• Office space underwent major renovations in 1921, including the Purchas-

ing and Accounting Departments (1st floor); Superintendent’s, General Me-chanical Engineer’s, and Production Manager’s offices (2nd floor).

• Engineering Department had offices throughout the building. Drafting rooms, blueprinting rooms, Photostat room, and drawing vaults were on the 2nd and 3rd floor as well in the clock tower’s two floors.

• Elevator (1911, but not shown 1938).• In 1924, more than 56,000 engineering drawings stored on 2nd floor. Kept

in furnishings like a nine-drawer pine-wood blueprint file 26” x 36” x 35” high and Art Metal Steel files of many sizes.

2: TRUCK SHOP (1-1/2 floors)• 1911 Machine Shop in Section C (1911) converted by 1938 to lumber stor-

age 1st floor with a pattern shop on the second floor of Sections B and C.• By 1924, the Purchasing, Accounting, and Auditing Departments occupy

two floors and the balcony in Section A and a telephone exchange was installed there by 1938.

• Ladies Dining and Rest Room in Section A run by Welfare Department• Small steam engine removed by 1911.

3: STEEL PASSENGER CAR SHOP (1-1/2 floors)• Wide enough to build the 80-foot long, heavy steel cars.• All four sections included dozens of dies for slotting, punching, notching,

blanking, forming, and piercing sheet and stock steel. Sections A and B also included a cast iron hood forming mandrel and sash rest capping tools, along with a portable spot welding outfit.

• Besides standard passenger cars, New York subway cars were made in this building.

• Roof and Bottom Fitting occurred in Sections C and D, so the work areas included jigs for assembling, drilling, molding, and forming steel car ele-ments such as the deck and lower deck, end frame, car line, door header, top hood, side post, scoop panel, and cap. Most of the dies in Section D were specific to sheet metal work.

• Section A also included a dining area/break room run by the Welfare Dept. • Templates stored in Section B.

4: STEEL CAR ERECTING SHOP (1-1/2 floors)• Steel car assembly, with Body Fitters in Sections A and C and Roof Fitters

in Section D. • Fitters worked with an array of assembling jigs and dies, including for side

frame and side post, sash rest, vestibule corner post, hood, and lower deck

flanging jigs. Dies for pressing, forming, blanking, notching, piercing, slot-ting, punching, and flattening metal for Pullman Standard parts and parts for other cars.

• Fireproof transformer room by 1938.

5: FINISHING SHOP (3 floors)• Iron working (1st floor) in 1911, included both Body and Roof Fitters in Sec-

tions B and C by 1924.• The first floor included a wide array of welding, flanging, and forming jigs for

top and corner hoods, side door frames, trap door frames, window frames, and car steps.

• Varnishing and painting on 2nd and 3rd floors, including a Paasche Air Brush Company spray outfit, 8’ wide and 6’6” deep, in Section A.

• Additional woodworking (2nd floor).• Elevator, no sprinkler system in 1911.

6: WOOD MACHINE SHOP (3 floors)• Machines included Greenlee Bros. & Co. powered self-feed rip-saw, a Lon-

don Berry & Orton 22” swing special column face lathe, and a J. A. Fay & Egan Co #3 horizontal double spindle radial chair borer.

• Storage 1st Floor, wood working 2nd and 3rd in 1911. Dining room added on 3rd floor by 1924.

• 1924 inventory shows workers using the second floor for storage of hard-wood templates for band and trim saws, boring machines, shapers, and carvers, and also including wood carving molds made of plaster of Paris.

• By 1938, office space defined on 1st floor and painting on 3rd.• Supplemental steam engine removed by 1911.

7: PATTERN STORAGE (FORMER ENGINE HOUSE)• Electric power replaced steam power in 1907; Corliss engine scrapped in

1911.• Elevator added by 1932.

8: STATIONARY STORAGE AND WOODWORKING (FORMER BOILERHOUSE) (3 floors)• 1911 Iron Warehouse on the 1st floor was replaced by Stationary Storage

by 1924; Woodworking 2nd and 3rd during this period.• Machines in use and storage include a Chas. E Francis Co. 42” x 96” heavy

duty open side hydraulic veneer press.• By 1932, Basement and 1st floor used for Steel Storage and 2nd floor used

for Pattern Storage.

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PULLMAN CORE INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS, ca. 1955

BOILERHOUSE

ENGINE HOUSE

WOOD MACHINE SHOP ERECTING SHOP

ERECTING SHOP

ERECTING SHOP

OFFICES

PAINT &VARNISH

SHOP

SCALE: 1 INCH = 100 FEET

0 ft 100 ft 200 ft 300 ft 400 ftNORTH

TRANSFER PIT 1

TRANSFER PIT 2

Figure3-6:Mapoffactoryprocesses1955

I

8

6 4

7 5

r--------------------------7 I I L __________________________

I

2 1 I 3

••••• .....

1: OFFICES(3floors)• Allexecutiveofficespaceandstoragevaults.

2: ERECTING SHOP• SectionsBandCincluded2stories,dedicatedtodraftingspace,offices,

andvaults.• SectionCwas1story,includingoffices,toilets,andavault.

3: ERECTING SHOP(1-1/2floors)• U.S.ArmyOrdnancesub-assemblyworktookplacehereduringWorldWarII.• Weldingfacilitiesfor120operatorspershift.• Trackconveyorsystemforproductionline.• Powerdistributionsubstationattached,steamheating,compressedair,toi-

letsandlockerrooms.• Three2-tonoverheadcranesandjibcranes,twoturntables.

4: MACHINE SHOP(1-1/2floors)• U.S.ArmyOrdnanceProductiontookplacehereduringWorldWarII.

• Fourshopfloorswithseparatedarkroomandx-rayroominSectionD.• Toilets,steamheat,sprinklers,powerthroughout.

5: UNUSED (FORMER FINISHING SHOP) (3floors)• Freightelevator.• By1945sprinklersthroughout.

6: STORAGE SPACE (FORMER WOOD MACHINE SHOP)(3floors)• Accessibletotransfertableandrailcarscanenterbuilding.• Electriclightingandpower,sprinklersthroughout.

7: LABORATORY AND OFFICE (FORMER ENGINE HOUSE)(2-1/2floors)• Firstfloorincludesseparatelaboratoryandofficerooms.• Steamheatandsprinklersthroughout.

8: UNUSED (FORMER BOILER HOUSE) (3floors)• 2ndand3rdfloorconnectedbybridgetoBuilding#9.• Toiletsandsprinklersthroughout.

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PULLMAN CORE INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS, ca. 2017

BOILERHOUSE

ENGINE HOUSE

WOOD MACHINE SHOP ERECTING SHOP

ERECTING SHOP

ERECTING SHOP

FORMEROFFICES

PAINT &VARNISH

SHOP

SCALE: 1 INCH = 100 FEET

0 ft 100 ft 200 ft 300 ft 400 ftNORTH

TRANSFER PIT 1

TRANSFER PIT 2

Figure3-7:Mapoffactoryprocesses2017

I

2 1

+ ·········-

1: PULLMAN NATIONAL MONUMENT (FORMER OFFICES)• 3floorsandclocktowerownedfeesimplebyNationalParkServicein2016.• Burnedduetoarsonin1998,rebuiltbyIHPAin1999-2005.

2: ERECTING SHOP• 2002-2003roofremovedonSectionAofbuilding,replacedby2004.• IHPApurchasedthebuildingin1991.

3: ERECTING SHOP• IHPApurchasedthebuildingin1991.• Burnedanddemolishedin1998.• Foundationsandfloorsremainintact.• Subfloorfeaturesassociatedwithplumbingandutilitiesverylikely.

4: ERECTING SHOP• SectionDofthebuildingwastorndownbetween1952and1959.• IHPApurchasedthebuildingin1991.• Fireguttedthebuildingin1998andSectionCwassubsequentlytorndown.• SectionAandB’swallsandtrussesremain;theroofisgone.

5: FINISHING SHOP• Demolishedbetween1952and1959.• Foundationandgroundfloorsurfacemayremainintact.• Subfloorfeaturesassociatedwithplumbingandutilitiesverylikely.

6: WOOD MACHINE SHOP• Demolishedbetween1952and1959.• Foundationandgroundfloorsurfacemayremainintact.• Subfloorfeaturesassociatedwithplumbingandutilitiesverylikely.

7: ENGINE HOUSE• Demolishedbetween1952and1959• Railsidinglaidovertopafterdemolition.• Foundationremainsintact,buriedunderrubbleimportedfromoffsite.

8: BOILER HOUSE• Demolishedbetweenc.1953and1959.• Railsidinglaidovertopafterdemolition.• Foundationremainsintact,buriedunderrubbleimportedfromoffsite.

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SometimeaftertheWarDepartmentcompleteditsinventory,severalbuildingsweretorndown,includingBuildings5,6,7,and8,allofwhichhadbeenremovedby1959(Figure3-7).Inaddition,SectionDofBuilding4hadalsobeenremovedbythistime.TheStateofIllinois’sHistoricPreservationAgency(nowtheIllinoisDepartmentofNaturalResources)purchasedthepropertyin1991withaneyetowardheritageuseofPullman’sresources.Adisastrousarsonfirein1998burnedbuildings1,3,and4andmighthavedamagedtheroofinSectionAofbuilding2.Building3wasdemolishedafterthefire,alongwithSectionCofbuilding4.SectionsAandBofBuilding4wereleftstandinginruin,whilebuildings1andpartof2wererepairedbetween1999and2005.

Around1955,theWarDepartmentdrewasetofbuildingplansasitpreparedtotransfertheplantbacktocivilianindustrialuse(Figure3-6).Bothbuildings1and2wereusedasofficeanddraftingspaceduringtheKoreanConflictera.Buildings3and4producedordinanceduringtheWorldWarIIandalsoperhapsalsoduringtheKoreanConflict.Buildings5and8wereunusedatthetime,whilebuilding6wasdedicatedstoragespace.Building7wasalsolargelyempty,butincludedseparatelaboratoryandofficespaces.

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4 EvaluationofPreviousArcheologicalWorkAseriesofarchaeologicalresearchprojectshavebeencompletedwithintheboundariesofPullmanNationalMonument.Ofthoseprojects,onesetofexcavationsoccurredonthegroundsofthefactorycoreconsideredinthisstudy,oneinvestigatedthenearbyPullmanWaterTower,andfivehaveexamineddifferentresidentialandcommercialpropertiesinthetown.Inthissection,webrieflyreviewtheseprojectsandrelatethemtotheresourcesunderconsiderationinthefactorycore.

4.1 2000PullmanWaterTowerExcavationIn2000,DanO’RourkeandKevinMcGowanreportedonaprojectundertakenbytheDepartmentofAnthropologyattheUniversityofIllinoisatChicago,ThePublicServiceArchaeologyProgramoftheUniversityofIllinoisatUrbana-Champlain,andtheUniversityofChicagoundertookaPhaseIsurveyoftheremainsofPullman’sfamouswatertower.AnexpansionoftheUniversityofChicagoPress’swarehousewasimpactingthepropertyandcommunityobjectionledtoanarchaeologicaldocumentationproject.Theprojectstaffexaminedapproximately70x100mofexcavatedareathatincludedthefoundationofthewatertowerandthreelargedebrispilesfromdemolition.Thewatertower’sfoundationwasbuiltoflimestoneblock,wasbuttressed,andmeasured35.5moneachside.Staffdocumentedthreeofthefourfoundationwallsandaportionofthefourth,sincealargesectionofthesouthwallhadbeendemolishedduringtheexpansionproject.Documentationincludedmeasureddrawingsofthefoundationsinteriorsurface,locatingpipesofvariousdiameters,variationsinbuildingmaterial,andthedepthoffill.ThecrewidentifiedanddocumentedasurfacefoundationnorthoftheWatertowerthattheyidentifiedasanearbyboilerhousepost-datingthePullman-era.StaffalsomonitoredtheremovaloffillfromthewatertowerfoundationtoexposethePhoenixcolumnbasesandthesewervault.Afterdocumentationofthevault,thesitewasbackfilledwithcleansand.Thefollowupanalysisincludedeffortstomatchthepipesandfeatureswithhistoricmaps,includingthe1888Rascherand1901Dotymaps,alongwiththeCityofChicago’scurrentsewermaps.ThestudyincludedareviewofS.S.Bemenandthewatertower,includinghowthetowerworkedwiththetown’sfiresuppression,drinkingwater,andsewagesystem.Inaddition,thereportrecommendedthatadditionalexcavationforconstructionbeallowedtogoforward,butthatanarchaeologistshouldmonitorthatworktomapanddocumentthelocationsandsizeofsewerandwaterpipesastheywereuncovered.Itisunclearifanyadditionalreportswerepreparedfromsubsequentwork.

4.2 2004FactoryExcavationsIn2004,ScottDemelandWilliamMiddletonranaDePaulUniversity-sponsoredexcavationinPullman,includingsomeextensivetestingatthefactorysitewithsomeadditionaltestsonthegroundsoftheHotelFlorence.Drs.DemelandMiddletonwerebothtemporaryfacultyatDePaulUniversityandtheybothdepartedtheuniversitybeforeanexcavationreportwascomplete.In2007and2008,Dr.JaneBaxterandDr.JohnBurtonstudiedthecollectionofartifactsfromthisexcavationcampaignasDePaulinitiatedtheprocessoftransferringthecollectionbacktothelandownerandpermit-issuer,theStateofIllinois.Aspartofthatprocess,JaneBaxterwroteareportsummarizingwhatshecouldaboutthecollectionofartifactsintheabsenceofanyexcavationpaperwork.Thatreport(Baxter2011b)concluded

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thatthemajorityoftheartifactsrecoveredhadbeendepositedfollowingthedemolitionofthefactorybuildingsinthemid-twentiethcentury.Butshealsoobservedthatthemajorityofthemetalartifactswere“fragmentsofhandtools,industrialmachinery,andarchitecturalandbuildingelements”(Baxter2008a:5).

Figure4-1:DePaulUniversitystudentsexcavatinginthefactory’score,perhapsintheEngineHouse.PresumablytakenfromtheroofoftheNorthErectingShop(Building2).PhotocourtesyofScottDemel,NorthernMichiganUniversity.

Inthesummerof2016,Dr.Demelexchangedaseriesofemailswithusinwhichheexplainedthathestillintendedtofinishareportoftheexcavation.Dr.Middletonreturnedemailinquiriesthathenolongerhadanydatafromtheexcavationandhadnothingelsetocontribute.Dr.DemeldescribedthecontentsofhisresearchfilesfromPullman:

Ihavesketchmaps,andadraftofa13pagepreliminaryreportofthe2004investigationsthatIwrotein2005.Ialsohavemynotesonfeaturesandtestunits.ThesketchmapwithdistancesandangleshasnotbeenaddedtoaPullmanmapyetshowingwherewedugexactly.Icansketchsomethingouttogiveyouabetterideaof

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wherewewere.[…].Itookbasictransitdatathatshouldbeuseful.Alsopresentinthefilesarethefollowing:Maps,notes,transitdataNotesonaerialphotos,bricklocationsanddrawings,studentbrickresearchwrite-upUnitprofilesArtifactcatalogspreadsheetandformsPhotolog,CDwithphotos?StudentnotebooksHotelFlorenceshovelprobesurveyformsSmallbagofartifactsusedinexhibitattheFieldMuseum

Fromthoseresources,Dr.Demelsharedthefollowingimageswithus.Figure4-1showsopenexcavationunitsinthefactorybuildings.ThetestpitsappeartohavebeenplacedIntheCorlissEngineHousebuilding(Building7).Thenextimageisasketchmap,dated2005,ofbearingsanddistancescalculatedfromopticaltransitreadings(Figure4-2).Thephotoandthesketchplanseemtomatch,ifthephotographerislookingfromhighupin,orontopof,theNorthErectingShop(Building2)andthetwoexcavationunitsinthephotoarethenlikelyU1andU2inthedrawing.ThecrewapparentlyalsodidsomeexcavationsonthepropertysurroundingtheHotelFlorence,borderingonSt.LawrenceStreet,depictedinFigure4.3

Figure4-2:Sketchmapofopticaltransitbearingswithdistances,calculatedeitherbytapeorfrom

Withoutaninterpretivereport,researchdesign,ortheoriginalexcavationpaperwork,itisnotpossibletoevaluatethisexcavation.Wecanmakesomeimportantobservationsfromjustthismaterialathand,however.Aslateas2004,therewerewellpreservedsegmentsofbuildingfloorunderthetopsoilinthatareaofthePullmanfactory.Further,therewereareasinthegroundaroundthefloorwherethecrew

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identifiedfeaturesfilledwithstratifiedsedimentsandsoils.WehavenotyettakenthemeasurementsfromthesketchanddrawntheminourGIS,butitseemsthatthestudentteamsexcavatedatleasteighttestunitswithinthefactory.Itappearsthattheteamwastryingtodefineastructurewallwhilealsoexcavatingbelowopeningsintheconcretefloorsurface.Thebreaksinthefloormaycorrelatewithpitsunderneaththesteamengine.

TheStateofIllinoisandtheNPSshouldputemphasisoneitheracquiringafinalreportorretrievingtheoriginalrecordsandartifactsfromDr.Demel.Theexcavationwasconsiderableandanyfuturerecordingofthefloorsandwallfoundationsinthisbuildingmustalsore-documenttheseexcavationstoestablishthedepthsandextentofthe2004digging.Thiswillhelptoidentifyanyremainingfeatureslikelytohaveintactstratigraphyfrompre-demolitionperiodsforBuildings7and8,aswellasthroughoutthefactorycore.

Figure4-3:DiggingalongLawrenceAvenueonthelawnoftheHotelFlorence.ScottDemelprovidedthisphotographofexcavationattheHotelFlorence.InVolume1oftheDePaulUniversityreports(BaxterandHartley2011:21),JaneBaxteridentifiesthisasLawrenceAvenue.

4.3 2005-2008PullmanTownExcavationsIn2002,DePaulUniversityandTheFieldMuseuminitiatedthePrograminUrbanHistoricalArchaeologyatthePullmanStateHistoricSite(Agbe-Davies2008;Baxter2008b).The2004excavationsatthefactoryandtheHotelFlorencewerethefirstseasonoffieldworkatPullmanassociatedwiththeproject.Workcontinuedin2005withastudyoftheturnaroundarea(BaxterandHartley2011)andinsidetheCarriageHouse(Baxter2011b);thenagainin2008withaninvestigationatthePullmanArcade(Baxter2011c),

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andtheEcholsandSextonHouseSites(Baxter2011b).JaneBaxterhasalsopublishedandco-publishedabouttheroleofarchaeologyandheritageinPullman(Baxter2012;BaxterandBullen2011)

Thesestudieshavemadeasubstantivecontributiontothearchaeologicalstudiesofindustrialandurbancommunities,inboththequestionsaskedandthecollaborativepostureoftheproject(PalmerandOrange2016).Giventhefactoryfocusofthisreport,wewillnotreviewthedetailsofthearchaeologicalworkhere,sincethesurveydesigns,excavationstrategies,andartifactanalysesareallcontainedintheindividualreports.MostrelevanttothecurrentstudyisthatJaneBaxterandhercolleaguesputforwardtheirorientationtowardarchaeologicalpractice:

1. Researchshouldbecommunity-basedthroughcollaborativepartnershipssothatprojectsareresponsivetolocalinterestsandneeds.Thisisparticularlyimportantinacommunitythatservedas“researchsubjects”forgenerations.Thisallowsarchaeologiststoassistlocalagenciesastheydoworkandtrainstudents.

2. Whilefieldresearchoccursonsites,theresearchfocusshouldbemulti-sitedandlandscapeoriented.

3. TheHistoricalArchaeologyofIndustrialCommunitiesisorientedasasocialarchaeologyoflabor,ratherthanIndustrialArchaeologyinthe“old-school”sense.

4. Focusshouldbeonthelivedexperienceofpeopleinthepast,informedbytoolsthatconsiderrace,class,ethnicity,gender,andageinpeople’slives.

Thedetailsoftheirarchaeologicalstudiesdonotneedextensivediscussionhere,butamongthemostsignificantisthatBaxterandhercolleaguesdemonstratedthatPullmanresidents’patternsoflandusearedifferentfromthoseofotherindustrialcommunitiesstudiedbyarchaeologists.Theuseofyardspace,inbothfrontandbackyards,wasnotforfunctionalactivitiesduringthePullmanera.Afterthehomesbegintopassintoprivatehands,thenyardspacebecomesfunctional,butevenafterthatchange,theyardsarenotusedforhouseholdproduction.Baxterandhercolleaguesalsogenerallyreportedencounteringsubsoilat20-30cmbelowthesurfaceoftheground,indicatingverylittlefill(Baxter2011a,2011b,2011c;BaxterandHartley2011).

Theyalsoidentifiedanintegratedthematicframeworktoguidetheirinvestigations,withliteraturereviews.Thesethemesaresummarizedhere:

1. TransformationsofIndustryandSocietyintheGuildedAge.2. PlannedCommunitiesandUtopias3. LaborandCollectiveAction4. CommunityHistory,includingImmigration,Gender,andEthnicity5. WorkingClasshistoryandheritage

ThesethemesareallapplicabletoarchaeologicalworkinthefactoryatPullmanNationalMonument.InSection6,wewilldiscussthethemesidentifiedbyBaxteretal.inrelationtothePullmanNationalMonument’smission,therelevantNPSThematicStudies,andbestpracticesinIndustrialArchaeologyandHeritage.

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4.4 2016ArchaeologicalStudyIn2016,MidwestArchaeologicalResearchServices,Inc.,undertookaPhaseIIinvestigationofthesiteofthePullmanArtspaceLoftsdevelopment.M.CatherineBirdreportedonthesurveyof18,500squarefeeton11137-11149SouthLangleySt.(11-Ck-1226).ThisstudywasintendedtoseeifintactdepositsfromtheperiodofsignificancewouldbenegativelyimpactedbytheplannedArtSpaceredevelopmentorifanyprehistoriclandusewasevident.Afterareviewofhistoricmapsanddocuments,theexcavationofsixshoveltestprobes,andthreeexcavationunits,aswellasatransectacrossthebackyardusingablunt-endsoilprobe,thearchaeologistsconcludedthatthehistoricbuildingsweredemolishedandthatrubblewasdumpedtotherearofthelotalongtherailtracks.Theexcavationsfromthefrontofthebuildingsrevealedthatthebulkofartifactsweredepositedpost-prohibition,rangingindatefrom1935-1964,withafewpiecesofmaterialassociatedwiththedemolitionofthebuildings.Baseduponthefindingthatallartifactswereassociatedwiththe“HistoricEuro-AmericanPullmanresidentialoccupation”periodpost-1907,thedefinedperiodofsignificanceforPullman,thereportrecommendedthatnofurtherworkwasrequiredandtheprojectshouldbeclearedforconstruction(Bird2016).

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5 ResearchPotentialofKnownArcheologicalResources

5.1 AreaInvestigationsThisfollowingsectionislimitedinscopetothefactorybuildingsnowownedbytheStateofIllinoisandtheNationalParkService.RecommendationsaboutotherindustrialareasintheTownofPullmanoroffactoryremainsonprivatelandmaybefoundin§6RecommendationsforFutureResearch,butthefocusofthisdocumentisthe8-buildingcoreofthefactory.ThisdocumentincludesdiscussionoftheadjoinedNPS-ownedandStateofIllinois-ownedpropertiesbecausethewisemanagementofthesehistoricresourceswillbebestaccomplishedthroughcollaborativeeffort.Thehistorical,architectural,andarchaeologicalresourcesextendfromtheNPSpropertyontoStateofIllinoispropertyandallarepartofinterconnectedsystems.Weareprovidingadviceontheentireblockofthefactorysiteinthehopethatcollaborativedecisionmakingwillproduceaunifiedapproachtotheseculturalresources.25

Themapanalysisin§3.4.4WorkProcessfromMapsandInventoriesillustratedtheroughevolutionofactivitiesinthevariousbuildingsinthefactory’score,whenpossiblesubdividedbyfloorand/orsection.Inordertoevaluatethepotentialforarchaeologicaldepositsoverthefactorylandscape,wehaveextractedinformationaboutknownsubsurfaceutilityinstallationsatvariouspointsintime.Figures5-1to5-5showthefootprintofvariousutilitiessystemsthroughoutthecomplex.Thesedrawingsareclarifiedillustrationsderivedfromtracingsofblueprintsandplanmapsinvariousarchives.Assuch,theyshouldbeunderstoodtobeinterpretiveplans.Thesourcedrawingswereofwidelyvariedscalesandqualityandtheplottedlocationsofpipeswerenotalwayspreciseoraccurate.Forinstance,standpipelocationsintheSteelErectingShopandtheWoodMachineShopoftenappearedinslightlydifferentlocationswithinthosebuildingsindifferentmaps.Thefinaldrawingsrepresentthebestestimationofthenumberandlocationofsuchfeatures.

Wehavenotyetfoundplanmapsorblueprintsforseveralexpectedsystems,includingcompressedairlinesandthevacuumsystemforremovingsawdustfromwood-workingareas.DanO’Rourkereportedreferencestothereuseofutilitytrenchesandaccesspointsfornewutilities(O'Rourke2000),suggestingthatinfrastructuresystemsmaybe“nested”inexistingfeaturesinsomeareas.WhenthedriveshaftswereremovedaftertheCorlisssteamenginewasscrapped,thetrenchesinwhichtheshaftshadrunwerepurportedlyreusedtorunotherutilities.Wehavenotattemptedtodeterminewhich,ifany,ofthepipesystemsarestillinactiveuseasdrainsorsewersorareconnectedtothecitywatersupply.

Thesepipesandtrenchfeaturesarethearchaeologicalmanifestationofutilitiesplanning,installation,andevolution.Theyreflectideasabouttechnicalprocessanddesign,workerhealthandsafety,andriskmanagementandresponseplanningandthereforehavepotentialtoyieldimportantinformationaboutthehistoryofthesetopics.Sitemanagersshouldseektomapthesefeaturesandsystemsusingnon-intrusiveremotesensingtechnologiesanddocumentingelementsfoundintactduringessential

25ItistheintentionofthisreporttosupportthecollaborativeagreementsignedbetweentheNationalParkService,theStateofIllinoisDepartmentofNaturalResources,andPullmanNationalMonument.Theresearchteamplayednoroleastheagreementwasestablished,butwewillcontinueeffortstosupporttheadoptionofbest-practicesfromindustrialheritageandarchaeology.

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undergroundworkanywhereinthefactorycomplex.Whilethestandingarchitecturefromonepartofthefactorymayhavebeenremoved,thegroundfloorsurfaceandthesubsurfacedepositsmaystillhavearchaeologicalintegrity.Asanexample,thedeepsewersinstalledduringinitialconstructionandtheseparatedrainagesystemforsurfacerunoffarepartofthekeyinfrastructurethatmadethetown’shygieneengineeringfamous.Othertrencheswereinstalledatvarioustimesinthefactory’shistory,andfillinthosetrenchfeaturescouldcontainartifactsthatwillhelpdatevariousphasesofutilitiesinstallation.Becauseconstructionworkersoftendiscardtrashintopitsandtrenchestheyareabouttofill,artifactsinthetrenchesmayalsorevealinformationaboutdailyandmundaneworkplacebehaviors,includingthosethatwereseenasundesirablebycompanymanagers.Whenthesefeaturesmustbedisturbedforsitemanagement,suchasenvironmentalremediationorinstallationofnewutilities,workshouldbemonitoredanddocumentedtorecordkeyhistoricalinformationthatmaybepresent.ThisdocumentationwillthenmitigateadverseeffectstothesefeatureswhichareotherwiseeligiblefortheNationalRegisterofHistoricPlacesunderCriterionD.Inthisinstance,theinformationcontainedbytheseremainsissignificant,whilethephysicalobjectsorfeaturesarenot.

Theamountofhistoricdiggingfortheinstallationandmaintenanceofutilitiesbetweenthebuildingsreinforcesthelowprobabilityofintact,pre-Pullmanerafeaturesinlowerstratigraphiclevels.Sincethedrainsandsewersweredugintothesubsoilbelowtheinitiallandfillinginordertofacilitatedrainage,thetrenchesalsolikelydisturbedanyburiedsites.TheonlyareaofthefactorygroundswithminimaldisturbancesofthistypeisinthesmallsectionofgroundbetweenthefrontfactorybuildingsandLakeVista.Theexcavationoftheengine’scoolingpondlikelycompromisedanypre-Pullmanfeaturesaswell.

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Figure5-1:Gaslinesextractedfrommapsdated1900-1910.

Plan Drawing of Gas Lines and Fixtures, Pullman Factory Site,

" 6

7

- 11

SCALE: 1 INCH = 100 FEET

0 ft 100 ft 200 ft 300ft 400ft Drawing by Daniel Schneider based on tracings by Timothy Scarlett; 29 August, 2017

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Figure5-2:SewerLines,Privies,andToilets,1880-1955.

Plan Drawing of Sanitary Sewer Lines and Bathrooms, Pullman Factory Site, South Cottage Grove Ave, IL

8

6 5

7

2

--- Sanitary Sewer (1950s) Bathroom (1950s) Manhole Cover (195 0s)

--- Sanitary Sewer (1901) Privy (1892)

SCALE: 1 INCH= 100 FEET

100ft 200 ft 300ft 400 ft

3

Drawing by Daniel Schneider based on tracings by Timothy Scarlett; 29 August, 2017

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Figure5-3:Stormdrainagelines,1901-1955.

Plan Drawing of Storm Drainage Lines, Pullman Factory Site, Cottage Grove Ave, Chicago, IL

8

6

Storm Drainage (1950s) Manhole Cover (1950s)

Storm Drainage {1924)

SCALE: 1 INCH = 100 FEET

•••••I ir 0 f t 100 ft 200 f t 300ft 400ft

Drawing by Daniel Schneider based on tracings by Timothy Scarlett; 29 August, 2017

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Figure5-4:Planofwatersystemwithhydrants,standpipes,wells,andcisterns,1880-1955.

Plan Drawing of Water System, Pullman Factory Site, South Cottage Grove Ave, Chicago, IL

. / I I

-•• • • ••

6 . 7 . . ..

.. I I

-2 .

-• • .

I 1938 Water System Hydrant

1911 Water System • Standpipe

1892 Water System

SCALE: 1 INCH = 100 FEET ••••• I

I

. . ... .

• ••

Cistern (1911)

(Z> Well(1911)

0 ft 100 ft 200 f t 300ft

I

I

• . ..

400ft Drawing by Daniel Schneider on by Timothy Scarlett; 29 August, 2017

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Figure5-5:Planofdriveshaftsystemforfactorycore,c.1880-1905.Thereisnoindicationasyetwheretheconnectingshaftranbetweentheeasternandwesterndriveshaftsthroughthefactorycore.

Plan Drawing of Line Shafts for Power Transmission, Pullman Factory Site, South Cottage Grove Ave, Chicago, IL

8 6 5 4

7

2 1

3

Line Shafts for Power Transmission (19 06)

SCALE: 1 INCH= 100 FEET

• • • • • ••••• 0 ft 100 ft 200 ft 300 ft 400ft Drawing by Daniel Schneider based on tracings by Timothy Scarlett; 29 2017

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Thefactorycoreincludesstandingbuildings,buildingsinruin,andbuildingswhichremainonlyasthegroundfloorandfoundations.Ourrecommendationsareprimarilydirectedatcapturingdetailsabouthowspacewasusedovertimebetweenandwithinthefactorybuildingsinanattempttogainmoreresolutionforactivityareasandworkprocesschangesovertime.Whilethefactorybuildingsandthelandscapearedocumentedinmanyphotographsandarchivaldocuments,thosehistoricrecordsfocusonparticularmomentsintime,arecomposedtopresentaparticularscene,andarenotsystematicorcomprehensive.Sincethearchivalsourceslackanyrecordsofkeyperiods,archaeologicalrecordingwillprovideveryimportantdataon“asbuilt”and“asused”/”aslived”aspectsoffactoryworkovertime.

AllofthebuildingsshouldbemappedwithanEDMortotalstationandthenrecordedusingLiDARorphotogrammetricdocumentationthatallowsforhigh-resolutionphotorealistic3Drenderings,includingremainingfloors,foundations,andwalls/roofs.Buildingsfloorsshouldbescannedwithremotesensinginstruments,atleastusingground-penetratingradar(GPR).Ifpossible,remainingfloorsshouldalsobeassayedforchemicalresiduesusingportableX-RayFluorescence(pXRF).Theremotesensingandpointcloudmodelingworkwillestablishcompletesurfacemapsandsubsurfaceprojectionsofundergroundfeaturesforallbuildings,whilethepXRFsurveywillrevealanyresidualchemicaltracesthatcouldindicatespecializeduseofspacewithinindividualrooms.Thephotorealistic3Dpointcloudscanbeusedforseveralpurposes,includingdocumentingthecurrentstateofthebrickwork;lookingforpatternsofwearonfloorsthatcanbeattributedtoworkflow,machinelocations,andanypatternedmovementofpeopleandthingsinworkspaces;examiningwalls,structuralelements,andceilingsfortracesofanchorsorsupportsformachinery,catwalks,orotherinfrastructure;andfinallyforfuturedeformationstudytoassessthelongtermstabilityoftheremainingbuildingsandstandingruins.Whileallofthisinformation,particularlythedigitalscans,canalsofindapplicationsforinterpretationandpubliceducation,theprimarypurposeistorecordthehistoricalandscientificinformationtoensureeffectivedecisionmakinginmanagementplanning.

ThemonumentneedsaGeographicInformationSystemdatalibrarywhichcanbecomeapermanentarchiveforboththescientificandhistoricaldata.Thishistoricalgeospatialdatastructure(HGIS)willneedtobedesignedtoincludegeospatialinformationthatrangesfromgeoreferencedhistoricmapsandthedatascansmentionedabove,tohistoricalphotographs,spreadsheetsofhistoricandenvironmentaldata,andtextdocuments.CollectingthesedataandbuildinganHGISneednotbecompletedallatonetimefortheentirefactory.Prioritycanbegiventoareasofthefactoryremainsthatwillbedamagedthroughessentialtasks,suchasremediationofenvironmentalhazards,installationofutilities,andpreparationofgroundsandfacilitiesforvisitoraccess.ThemapsofutilitypipesandrelatedfeaturesthatweregatheredforthisstudyprovideforthefirstmajorgroundtruthingexercisefortheremotesensingdataintheGIS,startingwiththefactoryflooroftheconcretefactoryaddition(Building3,seebelow).

5.1.1 OfficeandClockTowerBuilding(Bldg1),NorthErectingShop(Bldg2),andRearErectingShopSectionsAandB(Bldg4).

Sincethe1998fire,themainofficebuildinghasbeengutted,andthroughthere-erectionoftheclocktower,moderatelyalteredbytheadditionofawood-frame.Atthesametime,aconsiderableamountof

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interestingarchaeologicaldetailremainsinthebrickwallsatalllevels,patternsthatcanbeusedtoexaminethepastconfigurationsofthebuilding,aswellasthefloor.Themainofficewassubstantiallyremodeledin1921,andperhapsinsubsequentyearsaswell,allofwhichleftindicationsonthebrickwallsthatsurvivedthefireandrestoration.OfparticularlyinterestarethetwoE-Winteriorwallsrunningthewidthofthebuildingthatframethecentralwell.Theyhavenumerousblindarchesbuiltintothefabricwhichappearinsomecasestobeload-distributingarches(thisisparticularlythecaseunderthetoweritself),andinothercasesblindarchesfromformerwallpenetrationsthatmayhintattheuseoftheinteriorcentralwell.Thefloorhasbeendisturbedinplacesduringthepost-firerestorationandongoingassessment,butsectionsstillappeartohavereinforcedfootingsandinsitudegradedwoodflooring.BycontrasttheNorthErectingShop(Building2)islargelyintact,althoughafterthefirethefirstbaywasreinforcedwithasteelframe.Thefloorsandinteriorwallsofboththesebuildingsmaycontainusefulinformationaboutthepastworkprocessinsurfacedetailsandsubsurfacefeatures.

Building4isinruinsandisunsafeforentryatthepresenttime.Thebuildinghasthesamepotentialsasthosejustmentioned.Inaddition,therearetwofeaturesofparticularnotethatmayincludesubsurfaceelementsrequiringinvestigation.Thefirstoftheseisafireproofelectricaltransformerroomthatwasbuiltinthe1930s.Theotherisoneoftheearliestprivylocationsidentifiedonthemap.Thatprivysitsoveridentifiedsewerplumbingthatappearsona1901plan,soitwasprobablybuiltaspartoftheoriginal1880-1configuration.Itmayhaveoriginallybeenavaultedprivylaterhookeduptothesewer,butthiscouldbeconfirmedthroughexcavation.Accordingtothe1894map,thatprivyistheonlytoiletinthispartoftheeight-buildingfactorycomplex.

StaffshouldhavecarewhenaccessingorusingthetrenchalongtheEasternwallofallthesebuildings,lookingforremnantsofearlierpowertransmission(lineshaft,pneumatic,andelectrical)systems.Inaddition,effortshouldbemadetoidentifywherethemaindriveshaftconnectedtothepowertrainforthefrontandrearshops.

Whenthebuildingshaveintact(orpartly-intact)floorsurfacesorwalls,asisthecaseinBuilding2(theNorthErectingShop),thesesurfacesshouldalsobeconsideredforphotogrammetricorLiDARrecording.Thiswouldallowfortherecordationofbothsurficialmarkingsandunevenwearpatternsonthefloorandmodificationstothewalls,includinganchorpointsforequipmentandchangestothebrickworkovertimeduetoaddingandremovingmezzanineorcatwalkstructures,cranes,orequipment.WhilethefloorinBuilding2seemstohavecluestopastuse,assessmentisdifficultbecausethespaceiscrowdedwithstoredmaterialandaccumulatedsoilsandvegetation.Wewouldrecommendthatasthingsaremovedaroundinthecourseofotheractivities,suchasconstruction,staffcleanandrecordfloorsurfacefeaturesopportunisticallyandstitchthosescanstogetheraspossible.

5.1.2 SouthErectingShopand1907SteelCaraddition(Bldg3),FinishingShop(Bldg5),WoodMachineShop(Bldg6),EngineHouse(Bldg7),BoilerHouse(Bldg8)andRearErectingShopSectionsCandD(Bldg4).

Thesebuildingshaveallbeendemolished.Whilethestandingarchitecturehasbeenremoved,theoriginalfloorsurfacesappeartobeatleastpartlyintactundertheshallowtopsoilandpilesofrubble.

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Someofthefloorsurfaces,suchasinBuilding3,havelargepatchesofsignificantdegradationfromexposureandvehicletraffic.Thepreservationofotherfloorsismuchbetter,particularlythoseoftherearshops.Someofthisfloorwashighlyvisiblein2004,asseenintheScottDremel’sDePaulUniversityfieldschoolphotos.Aswiththebuildingsabove,thesefloorsurfacesshouldbecleanedandrecorded,usingEDM,LiDAR,orphotogrammetry,alongwithelementalandremotesensingsurveysforthesamereasonsidentifiedabove.Inthesebuildings,floorfeaturemapsordetaileddigitalelevationmodelsshouldbeimportedintoaGISforcomparisonwithhistoricmapstotrytoidentifymachinefootings,wornpathsofworkermovement,plumbingandutilityaccessandchanges,andothercluesthatwouldenablemoredetailedreconstructionsofactivityareasandtheevolvingworkprocesswithinthedifferentbuildings.Whencombinedwithhistoricphotographs,theseinvestigationswillallowfor3Dvisualizationsofthespaceforbothresearchandinterpretationefforts.

The1907expansionoftheSouthErectingShopintotheSteelCarShop(Building3)allowedforatransformationofworkatPullmananditiscriticalthattheremainsbethoroughlydocumented.Thiswasanearlyadoptionofconcreteforindustrialarchitecture.Mapsshowthegeneralarrangementofsomeelementsoftheorganizationofmetalpartfabricationandtheinternalorganizationofworkspace,butmuchmoredetailisneeded.Closeexaminationofthefloorwillshowthedetailsofhowthe1880buildingwasexpandedin1907andhowtheuseofspacechangedovertime.

WhileDr.Dremellhasnotyetproducedareportofthe2004fieldworkinthefactory,andwehavenothadaccesstooriginalexcavationnotes,JaneBaxter’s2008summaryreportincludedareviewoftheartifacts.Shereportedthatwhilemostofthediagnosticartifactsrecovereddatedtothebuilding’sdemolition,someoftheartifactsincludedpossibletoolfragments(Baxter2008b),whichwouldbeverysignificantiftheywererecoveredinstratigraphicallymeaningfulcontexts.ItseemsthatmuchofthearchaeologywasaimedattheEngineandBoilerhouses,whichmadesense,butmoreworkneedstobecompletedtodetermineifstratifiedremainsexistindifferentbuildings.

Inadditiontofloorsurfaces,thesebuildingareasmaybesubjectedtoexcavationforessentialmanagementpurposessuchasremediationofenvironmentalcontaminants,installationofmodernutilityservices,andotheractivities.Inthesesituationswhereexcavationisunavoidable,managersshouldusetheexcavationasanopportunitytorecordinformationaboutsiteformationprocesses,includingearthmoving,construction,changinguseovertime,demolition,andpost-demolitionlandscapeuse.Thisisnottosaythatpilesofdemolitionrubblearesignificantandrequiredocumentation,butuntilthesubsurfacedepositshavebeenconclusivelyshowntobepost-demolitionrubble,managersshouldproceedwithcaution.

5.1.3 Outdoorareas,includingtrackways,transfertables,stagingareas,LakeVista,andotheropenspace.

Anumberofopenareasandtransportationfeaturesexistwithinthecityblockthatincludesthefactorybuildings.TheseareasincludetheformersiteofLakeVistaandtheareaofgreenspacetothewestoffactoryBuildings1-3;TransferPit1betweenthetworowsofbuildings;TransferPit2tothewestofBuildings4-8;thetrackageandwalkingpathssouthofthebuildings;andthetrackageandwalkingpathsnorthoftheshops(c.f.Figures3-4to3-7).Theseareasofthesitehavesimilarpotentialforresearch.

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BuriedwalkingpathsandtheextentofLakeVistacouldbemappedaspartofthehistoriclandscapeandthechangingpatternsofmovementinthefactoryblock.TheTransferPitsareaninnovativetechnologythatshouldbestudiedinmoredetailtoexaminethe“asbuilt”and“asused”phasesofthesefeatures.Alsonotethatwedonotknowowthemechanicaldriveshaftsofbuildings1-3wereconnectedtothemaindrivetrain,nordoweknowhowutilitiesorpowerwereroutedunderthetransferpitthatranbetweenthebuildings.Thefillwithintheselargefeatures,suchasLakeVistaandtheTransferTablepit,willbefromlaterperiodsatPullman.Whiledisturbancestothefillshouldbemonitored,themonitoringcanoccurduringexcavationwork.Inthissense,theWaterTowerprojectisagoodexampleofhowtheseactivitiescanbeconducted,withtheexceptionthatarchaeologistsshouldhelpdesignplansandthenmonitorthediggingprocessbecausecertaintypesoffeaturesshouldbeanticipatedinspecificlocationsandexaminedclosely.

Weprovidespecificexamplesofthekindsofevidencehere,althoughthislistisnotintendedtobecomprehensive:

1. Sealedorencapsulatedfeatureswillbefoundaround(andwithin)thebuildings.Thesefeatureswilldatetoinitialconstruction,episodesoffillandre-excavation,andfinalabandonment.Examplefeaturesincludecoveredorfilled-and-covereddriveshafttrenches,cisterns,waterintakeandfiresuppressionpipes,andbuilder’strenchesalongfoundations.Someofthesefeatureswillbefilledwithartifactsandecofactsfromtheinitialconstructionofthefactorycomplexin1880,whileotherswillbefilledwithpost-WWIIsedimentsandartifactsoutsidetheperiodofsignificancefortheMonument.Featuresliketheseprovideanopportunitytorecoversoilandsedimentsamplesforpalynological,geochemical,archaeomalacological,paleoentomologicalandothersamplesthatwillprovidegrittyanddetailedpicturesofthefactory’sphysicalenvironmentovertime.Thesecanprovideuniqueevidenceofthetemperature,humidity,acidity,salinity,airquality,andotherdetailsofmicroclimateinandaroundworkplacesovertime,providingdetailsforenvironmentalandlandscapehistory,aswellasinformationaboutthenitty-grittylivedexperienceofworkinginPullman’sshops,thingsthatnobodywrotedown.

2. Thismicroclimaticandpaleoenvironmentaldatamustbeconnectedtotheoveralllandscapehistoryofthesite,documentingthelandfillingthatprecededconstruction,subsequentcut-and-fillordepositionalevents,transformationofspacesorreuseofthem,suchasrunningnewtrackspursoverbuildingruins,andthepost-demolitionenvironment.Thesestudiescanlinktothoseofthetown’slandscapeovertime,givingaholisticviewofthelandscapeandenvironment.

3. Anysealedfeatures,suchasthosethatstudentsseemtohaveexcavatedintheEngineHousein2004,shouldbeconsideredhighlysensitive.Theyarelikelytocontaininformationaboutworkinactivityareas.IntheEngineHouse,forexample,perhapsthosefeatureswerefilledwhentheCorlissenginewasinstalledorwhenitwasscrapped.Bothofthesetimeperiodsareofinteresttoindustrialarchaeologists,astheyweretimesofpunctuatedchangeinthefactory’soperations.Thismaterialisalsosignificantbecausehistoricdocumentsdonotcapturethelevelofdetailbeyondgeneraldescriptionsofmajoractivitiesdoneinspecificfloorsofdifferentbuildings.

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4. Giventhestoryofthefranticpaceofthebuild-outofthefactoryandcommunity,excavatorsshouldpaycloseattentiontoanystratigraphicdepositthatappearstobeassociatedwithconstruction.GivenPond’sdescriptionofhowthebuildingswereassembled,withdesignersandbuilderssketchingoutdetailstogetheronbuildingfloorsandfoundations,itiseasytoimagineburiedartifactsthatincludepencilorchalksketchesfromthosedeliberativemomentsandtheremainsofworkers’meals.Artifactssuchasthesewouldbeinvaluablerecordsoftheprocessofcollectivecreativityamongacommunityof“makers,”beingaphysicalmanifestationofthesocialnegotiationofdesign.Particularlysincethemasonsandartisanscontributionsareotherwisemuteinthehistoricrecord,theseobjectswouldbeofgreatimportancetobothresearchandinterpretationattheMonument.

5.2 EnvironmentalHotspotConcernsTheNationalParkServicehasexpressedconcernaboutthreepotentialhotspotsofenvironmentalcontaminationidentifiedbytheIllinoisEnvironmentalProtectionAgency.Weoverlaytheselocationsontoourscaleddrawingstoseeifanyobservedfeaturescouldexplainthehotspotpattern.Figures5-6,5-7,5-8and5-9plottheareasofconcernasdottedredrectangles.Theserectanglesappearontopofthe1888/1894,1911,1938fireinsurancemapsandthe“stitched”ca.1955planmaps.Ineachcase,thereseemsnoobviouscorrelationbetweenthehotspotsandknownpastlanduses.

Thefirsthotspotisaconcreteboxcontaininganelectricaltransformer,sittingjustoutsideofthefrontdoortoBuilding1.Thistransformerboxdoesnotappearonanyofthemaps,particularlynotthetwomapsthatshowothertransformers:the1938Sanbornandtheca.1955WarDepartmentplandrawings.Thissuggeststhattheconcretetransformerhousingwasbuiltsometimeafter1955.

ThesecondidentifiedhotspotisahydrocarbonplumeundertheconcretefloorofBuilding3,thesteelcarshops.Giventhelocationofthishotspot,thereisnothingonthemapstosuggestwhyhydrocarbonswouldsaturatesedimentinthatlocation.Wehavenotreviewedtheanalysis,sowehavenounderstandingoftheconcentrationoftheplume,buttheresidueisnotnecessarilyconnectedtosteelcarmanufacture.

Thefinalhotspotwasindicatedbyavisibleventingpipeemergingfromtheground.TheNPSisconcernedthatitmightbeventinganundergroundtankofsometype.Themapsshownoindicationofatankeverbeinginthatarea,noranyactivitythatwouldrequireone.Itispossiblethatthepipewasinstalledpost-1959afterthebuildingwasrazed.Itisalsopossiblethatthepipeisactuallypartofthefiresuppressionsprinklerpiping,abandonedgaslines,orpneumaticpipesrunningthroughtheshop.Thepipesystemischaotic,asshowninFigure5-10,whichplotsalltherawdataoverlayuponthe1938map.Considerabledataaremissing,however,sothesemapsshouldnotbereadascomprehensive.

Ourreviewdidsuggestsomeotherareaforconsideration,includingfeaturesfromthe1880s(aburiedmassoflead,above-groundvarnishandpaintstorage,andapaintingactivityarea)andtwo1950sfeatures(X-rayanddarkroomfacilitiesdestroyedbyfire).Withtheexceptionoftheleaddeposit,theotheruseswereareallabovegroundactivitiesonfloorsthathavenowbeenexposedtoweatherforatleast30or70years.Theleaddepositwaspurportedlypouredintoamajorcrackinthefoundationofan

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engine.HistoricdocumentsmayrefertothefoundationsoftheCorlissEngineonthispropertyoritmayhavebeenthesmallerengineintheFreightShopwhichalsoprovidedpowertothedriveshaftsystem(Viall1915).Theformerismorelikelythanthelatter.

5.3 ConclusionsHotspotremediationisagoodillustrationofdecisionmakingregardingtheseresources.Managersmustremediatecontaminationthatposesathreattopublichealth.Theremediationwilllikelyhaveanadverseeffectontheresources,butinthecaseofthefoundationsandburiedpipes,theadverseeffectcanbemitigatedwithhistoricresearchandscientificrecordingofthefeaturesexposedduringremediation.Therecordationcanoccurbeforeorduringremediationwork,dependinguponthetypeofwork.Insituationsliketheventpipe,aculturalresourcesprofessionalcanmonitorthingsasexcavationoccurstouncoverthetank.Duringexcavation,themonitorcanrecordallinformationabouttheburiedfeature,itsintegrityandperiodofconstructionorabandonment,itscontents,andothernoteworthyinformation,alongwithrecoveringanyartifactsorsamplesneededforprocessing.Whileitisalwaysbesttopreserveinsituasmuchofthehistoricandarchaeologicalfabricaspossible,thesignificantinformationaboututilitypipes,cisterns,andpowersystemscanberecoveredandrecordedthroughexcavationandanalysis.

TheNationalParkServiceandtheStateofIllinoisshoulddoalltheycantoconservetheremainingbuildingfoundationsandruinsintact,availableforresearch,andvisibletothepublic—solongaspublichealthandsafetyarenotcompromised.AllofthebuildingsandfoundationsinthisareaaresignificanttothemissionofPullmanNationalMonument.Allthebuildingswerebuiltintheinitialconstructionofthefactoryin1880-1,exceptforthe1907concreteaddition.The1907additionwasbuiltupononeoftheoriginal1880serectingshops.Thischangeshowsthetransformationofthecompanyasitshiftedfromwoodentosteelcarmanufacture,achangewithtransformativeripplesthatspreadthroughouttherestofPullman’semployees,fromthefoundrytotheportersworkingthroughoutthenetwork.Ifremediationrequiresthatthisentirefoundationberemovedinordertoaccesscontaminatedsoilsunderneath,thislossmustbemitigatedthoughthroughrecordationofthebuilding’sremainsandtheassociatedsubsurfacefeatureslikethosedescribedabove.

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Figure5-6:AllIEPA-identifiedhotspotssuperimposedupon1888/1894SanbornMap,showingrelationshipbetweenidentifiedconcernsandbuildingrooms/useareas.

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Figure5-7:AllIEPA-identifiedhotspotssuperimposedupon1911SanbornMap,showingrelationshipbetweenidentifiedconcernsandbuildingrooms/useareas.

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Figure5-8:AllIEPA-identifiedhotspotssuperimposedupon1938SanbornMap,showingrelationshipbetweenidentifiedconcernsandbuildingrooms/useareas.

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Figure5-9:AllIEPA-identifiedhotspotssuperimposeduponc.1955BuildingPlans,showingrelationshipbetweenidentifiedconcernsandbuildingrooms/useareas.

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Figure5-10:TotalUtilitiesSystemsrawplotmapwithIEPA-identifiedenvironmentalhotspotsandconcernsidentifiedfromhistoricmapsandrecords.Thisrawplotshowsthechaoticnatureofutilitiesasdrawn,ratherthanasschematicplotsinFigures5.1-5.5.

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6 RecommendationsforFutureResearchandManagementPullmanNationalMonumentbenefitsfromvariedandrichheritageresources,includingaverywiderangeofprimaryandsecondarydocumentsnumberinginthehundredsofthousandsofpagesspreadthroughnumerousarchives,hundredsofhistoricalphotographs,atremendousarrayofartifactsandmaterialcultureobjectsrelatedtothePullmancompanyandcommunities,diverseoralhistories,andactivecommunityorganizations.Althoughlittleremainsoftheextendedfactorycomplexesorthecommercialandacademicarchitecture,thecoreofthepassengercarmanufacturingbuildingsareownedbythestateandfederalgovernments.Theneighborhoodlandscapesandmanyresidentialstructuresstillhaveagreatdealofintegrity.Usingallthismaterial,themanagersatPullmanNationalMonumentwillbeabletoestablishexemplarypracticesinthemanagementofindustrialheritage,includingthecoordinationandfacilitationoffutureresearch,interpretation,andmanagementplanning.

AsMichiganTech’sresearchteamtransitionstothetaskofpreparingtheHistoricResourcesStudyforPullmanNationalMonument,itisappropriateforustoconsiderhowtheexistingfactoryremainscancontributetofutureresearchgoalsbeyondthoseaddressedinChapter5,andtotheextentpossible,howscholarsandinterpreterscanconnectthefactorywiththecommunity,landscape,andmetropolitan,national,andinternationalcontexts.ThisconsiderationisinformedbythreekeyNationalParkServicedocuments:RevisionoftheNationalParkService'sThematicFramework(U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior1996),LaborHistoryThemeStudy(Arnesen,etal.2003),andLaborArchaeologyThemeStudy(Siebert2014).ThesesourcesframethegroundbreakingworkofJaneBaxterandhercolleaguesintheDePaulPrograminUrbanHistoricalArchaeologyandPullman(Agbe-Davies2008;Baxter2008a,2012;BaxterandBullen2011),whodefinedathoughtfulsetofgoalsandobjectivesforcommunityarchaeologyinthisChicagoneighborhood.WeexpandeduponDePaul’sgoalsinordertolookatthefactorysiteinourWhitePaper:DesigningBestPracticeforIndustrialArchaeologyandIndustrialHeritageatPullmanNationalMonument(Scarlett2017).Finally,inconsideringthesignificanceofacademicdiscussionsthatcanshapefutureworkinPullmanNationalMonument,weusetheunpublishedTripReportsandourpersonaldiscussionnotesfromtheOrganizationofAmericanHistoriansRoundTableheldatPullmanNationalMonumentinMayof2017.ThemeetingincludedhistoriansMarciaChatelain,EricArnesen,JaniceReiff,andDavarianBaldwin,aswellasseveralNationalParkServicestaffandotherguests.

ThisdiscussionexaminesseveralkeyareasoffutureresearchintolifeatPullman.ThesethemesareconnectedtotheNationalParkService’srevisedThematicFrameworkandThemeStudiesinordertoshowhowresearchcanbeusedtoinformstaffdecisionstoprioritizeissuesinmanagementandinterpretation.Thesestudiescanalldrawupondocumentaryandphotographicevidenceinregionalarchives,archaeologicalinvestigations,materialculturestudies,andoralhistoriesinordertoestablishrobustcasestudiesindifferentthematicareas.

6.1 ThemesAllofthequestionsandtopicsinthischapterconnectthestoriesofPullmantotheNationalParkServiceThematicFrameworks(U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior1996),including:

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1. PeoplingPlaces(especiallyFamilyandtheLifeCycle;Migration)2. CreatingSocialInstitutionsandMovements(ClubsandOrganizations,ReformMovements;

ReligiousInstitutionsandRecreationalActivities)3. ExpressingCulturalValues(particularlyEducationalandIntellectualcurrents;architecture,

landscapearchitecture,andUrbanDesign)4. DevelopingtheAmericanEconomy(DistributionandConsumption;Transportationand

communication;WorkersandWorkerCulture;LaborOrganizationandProtest)5. ExpandingScienceandTechnology(ExperimentationandInvention;technologicalapplications)6. ChangingRoleoftheUnitedStatesintheWorldCommunity(Commerce;immigrationand

emigration).

Anylarge-scalestudyofPullman’semployeesandthecommunitywillgenerallyincludetopicsthatalignwiththemesidentifiedintheLaborHistoryThematicStudy,includingWorkingandMoving,LivingandDying,PlayingandPraying,TeachingandLearning,OrganizingandStruggling(Arnesen,etal.:4-18),aswellasthosehighlightedbytheLaborArchaeologyThemeStudy:LaborProcesses;LaborandIdentity;Labor,Class,andConflict;andCommunitiesandCollectives(Siebert:11-37).

TheDePaulPrograminUrbanHistoricalArchaeologyandPullmancombinedthesedifferentthreadsintoasetoffivethemesfortheircommunity-engagedprojects.ThesethemesareusefulasplacesfromwhichtoexplorethefutureofworkatPullmanNationalMonument,PullmanStateHistoricSite,andinthecommunityofPullman:

1. TransformationsofIndustryandSocietyintheGildedAge2. PlannedCommunitiesandUtopias3. LaborandCollectiveAction4. CommunityHistory(includingImmigration,Gender,andEthnicity)5. WorkingClassHistoryandHeritage

PullmanisaworthyplacetoaskmanyhistoricalquestionsaboutindustrialgrowthandchangeduringAmerica’sGildedAgeinandbeyondthecountry’s“ShockCity.”WhilemuchhasbeenwrittenaboutGeorgePullman,theoriginsoftheSleeperCar,andtheplannedfactoryandcommunity,weneedmoredetailedandsystematicunderstandingsofhowthecommunityofworkersatthePullmancompanycomparedwiththoseofothermajormanufactoriesinChicago.NordowereallyunderstandthePullmanCompany’sgrowthasaninternationalbusiness,butthesearenotquestionsforthisstudy.Wewillnotfocusuponthesequestions,sincethisstudyconcentratesonthefactoryandlooksoutwardtothetown,city,nation,andtheworld.Thefutureresearchneedsidentifiedherearethosewhichmostclearlyandeffectivelygrowfromthefactorysiteitself,butconnectincompellingwaystotherecords,materials,andresourcesthatcantelllargerstoriesaboutPullman,thenation,andtheworld.

FollowingtheexampleofJaneBaxterandhercolleagues,theseexamplesalsogenerallyfocusonthe“livedexperiences”ofpeopleinthepast,wherebusinessortechnologicalhistoryareunderstoodthroughthelivesofpeople.Yettheseresearchprojectsneednotbe“archaeological”inanarrowlydefinedsense,sinceindustrialandhistoricalarchaeologyalsodrawupondocumentary,architectural,

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materialculture,oralhistory/ethnographic,experimental,andecologicalevidence.Futureresearchshouldalsobecollaborative,startingwiththeHistoricResourcesStudy,wherethestrongcommunityorganizationsinPullmancanidentifylocalinterestsandneeds.Academicresearchandmanagementdecisionsshouldnotbedivorcedfromcommunityobjectivesandresearchintohowcollaborativeresearchisbeststructuredshouldbeapartofthisprocess.

6.2 NetworksofLaborThestoryoflaboratPullmanisacriticalelementofmanyinterpretivethemesfortheNationalParkServiceandisoneofthebasicmissionsofPullmanNationalMonument.ThenetworksofworkandlaborarecriticaltounderstandingPullman,bothatthefactorysiteandatthemanynetworkedplaceswherePullmancarsoperatedonrailaroundtheworld:Wheredoworkerscomefrom(bothfactoryandporters,aswellasotherworkersinthePullmannetwork)?Howaretheyeducatedintheirworkskills?HowlongdotheystayinPullman’semploy?Didworkersshiftfrommanufacturetomaintenanceandviceversa?Howmuchprofessional,economic,andsocialmobilitydotheyhave?Whataccessdidtheyhavetoeducationandrecreation?Whatwereratesofinjuryordiseaseandhowdidhealthcompareindifferentcommunities?TowhatextentdorelationshipsestablishedatPullman’sshopscontinueinlaborelsewhere?Howdidworkersorganizethemselves?WhichworkerslivedinPullmanvs.otherneighborhoodsandcommunitiesinSouthChicago?Didportersclusterinspecificlocationsthroughtherailnetwork?HowoftendidPortersmovebetweenroutesofservice?TowhatextentdidfamilyconnectionsshapetheopportunitieswithinPullman,formaids,porters,carpentersandsteelworkers?

Theresearchfocusmustbeonnetworksthatstretchbeyondsiteboundaries,despitethelimitingfocusonthisparticularstudy,connectingthemakersofcarswiththeoperatorsandthemaintainersoftherollingstockaroundthecountryandinotherChicagoneighborhoods.Aseriesofcasestudiesshouldusehistoricalandarchaeologicalanalysestodeterminepatternsofcommonexperienceaswellasindividualstoriesaimedtorepresentthediversityofpeople’sbackgroundsandexperienceswithrace,gender,class,religion,skilllevels,andsoon.ThesestudiesmustbelinkedwithotherarchaeologicalstudiesofChicagoneighborhoods,suchasthoseundertakenbyDePaulUniversity’sUrbanHistoricalArchaeologycollaborationwiththeFieldMuseum,whichranprojectsinBronzeville(Agbe-Davies2008,2010a,2010b)aswellasstudiesofMayfield,Edgewater,Chinatown,andCampDouglass,aConfederatePrisonerofWarcamp(Gregory2015).RebeccaGraffhasalsorunaresearchprograminnearbyJacksonPark(Graff2011,2013)whichbecameessentialtotheNEH-fundedprojectDigitalChicago.

6.2.1 BigDataaboutWorkersHowcanbigdatabeusedtoexamineindustrialworkersininnovativegeospatialways?Pullman’srichrecordsofemployeecardsandledgersofworkerpay,duties,health,andservicecanbeusedtoestablishanHistoricGeographicInformationSystemdatabase(HGIS)thatwouldallowfordetailedanalysesofworkers’lives.ScholarslikeSusanHirschandJaniceReiffhavealreadybeenworkinginthisarea.EricArnesenandhiscoauthorsalsoidentifiedmovementasakeythemeinunderstandinghowpeopleinteractwithplaces,eachother,andtheircommunitiesinlaborhistory(Arnesen,etal.2003).Alarge-scalecollaborationamongmanyofthearchivesandheritagesitescouldproduceanHGISthatprovidesavaluableresearchtoolfornetwork-widestudieswhilealsoallowingforinnovativedigital

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interpretivematerialsandcollaborativecommunityprojects(Bodenhamer2007;Lafreniere2015;Ridge2013).PullmanNationalMonumentcouldhosttheHGISasaleadcollaborator,whileoperatingabrick-and-mortararchiveinpartnershipwiththePullmanStateHistoricSiteandIndustrialHeritageArchives.Thiswouldunitethedigitalandhistoricalarchivesforresearchandinterpretation.

6.2.2 DrawingsandtheTransformationofArtisanalSkillandLaborDrawingsplayedakeyroleinthetransformationofautonomyinthevisualcultureofworkasartisansweretransformedintodisciplinedworkersforindustrialcapitalismwhilecreatingnewformsofskilledlaborinAmericanindustry(Brown2000;Lubar1995).InArchitecture,BemenandPond’sdrawingsbecametoolsofcommunicationaboutdesignandconstruction,butwerepartofthesocialprocessofcreativityinthebuildingofthefactoryandtown.WithinthePullmancompany,hundredsofthousandsofdrawingsofcarsfurtherextendedadministrativecontroloverproduction.Asdrawingsandblueprintbecameincreasinglydetailed,authorityshiftedintheprocessofdesignandmanufactureandincreasinglyremovedartisanaljudgementfromwork,similartohowjigsandguidesoperateonmachintoolsandaffectedthetransitiontosteelcarmanufacture.Asmanagementandlaborchangedinthelatnineteenthcentury,drawingsbecameoneofmanywaysthatmanagementsoughttodocument,track,andcontrolworkprocessesanddecisionmakingamongtheemployees.ThedrawingsrelatetojobcardandothertrackingpaperworkthatrosewiththePullmancompany’sadoptionofelementsofSystematiandScientificManagement.FromtheworkofdraftsmanPond,Pullmansawtheriseofanewgroupofmanagerialprofessionalsthatshapedtheworkprocessfromaroomfilledwithdraftingtablesanddrawingequipment.FutureresearchshouldexaminethisprocessatPullmanandrelateittotheevolvingmanagementpracticesusedtoregulatetheshopfloors.

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6.2.3 BiographicalInvestigationsofthemainengineersofPullmanThenetworkofindividualsresponsibleforthedesignandconstructionofthetownandfactoryofPullmanhavelongbeenknown,yettheirworkatPullmanhasnotbeencontextualizedwithintheiroverallcareers.TowhatextentwerePullman’sshopstraininggroundsforprofessionalsatdifferenttimes?WhendidPullmandrawinoutsideexpertsvs.promotingthecompany’sownstaff?TowhatextentdidtheirassociationswithoneanotherandwithPullmancontinuetobeimportantovertheircareers?Studiesoftheseindividualscantrackthemthroughtheirrespectiveprofessions’literaturebecauseeachwasalsoresponsibleforothermajorprojectsinthelatenineteenthcentury.Assuch,theicollaborationsatPullmanshouldbesituatedwithineachoftheircareersasfullyasarchivalresourcesandsecondaryliteraturemayallow.StudiesshouldexaminethelivesofNathanF.Barrett,T.A.Bissell,MaxHjorstberg,IrvingK.Pond,andBenzetteWilliams.

Thisshouldnotbereadasadvocacyfor“top-down”or“bigman”stylehistoricstudies.TheHGISwillprovideampleresourcesfornewstudiesofotherworkersatthecompany,includingthosewholeftscantdocumentaryevidenceoftheirlives.Thesestudieswillbeessentialtounderstandhow/ifthecommunityofworkersatPullmanformed,changed,andinfluencedtrajectoriesinworkplacesaroundtheregion(Knowles2013;Meyer2006).Theleadengineers’storiescanbetoldalongsidethoseofcarpentersandupholstererswhowerelesswellknown.Towhatextentdidpeoplebuildnetworksat

r

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Pullmanthattheyexportedtoworkplaceselsewhere,asdirectors/managers,thosewithtrades,orlaborers?

6.2.4 RaceandlaborOneofthelargestareasofresearchistheneedtocompareandcontrasttheroleofraceinPullman’snetworksoflabor.ScholarshaveproducedconsiderableresearchontheAmericanRailwayUnionandthePullmanStrikeaswellastheBrotherhoodofSleepingCarPorters,theirstrugglesagainstthecompany,andeffortstoadvancecivilrights.Thesetwoareasofscholarshiphavenotbeencorrelatedorintegrated,andtheyareusuallytoldasseparatestoriesofstruggle.RaceandRacismarecentraltounderstandinglaboratthecompany,andasemphasizedintheOAHdiscussion,tellingthispartofthestorywillbedifficultwithoutcreatingfalseequivalencyortreatingthestrugglesasentirelyseparate.TheHGISwillprovideanewtooltoexaminethesestories,allowingforthegeospatialaswellasgeochronologicalanalysisofworkersandtheircommunitiesintheproduction,maintenance,andoperationsdivisions.RaceandracismmustbecomeacentralaxistothestoriesofPullman,atthefactoryandthroughoutthenetwork.

Inadditiontoraceandthenetworksoflabor,theHGISwillenabledetailedstudyofthePullmancommunityanditstransformation.PullmanNationalMonumentneedstoknowhowtheneighborhoodsinandaroundPullmanchangedovertime.Howdidpropertyvalues,economiccycles,andenvironmentaldegradationrelatetochangingracialanddemographicpatternsinthetown?HowdidracisminfluencedeindustrializationinthecommunityofPullmanvs.thenetworkofotheremployeesinthecompany’soperationsandmaintenancedivisions?

Finally,thepalacecarwasitselfamechanismforgrowingconsumerismintheUnitedStates.TheOAHreturnedrepeatedlyintheirdiscussionstothefactthatthePullmancompanybuiltamarketbaseduponupper-classservicethatsoldideasofclass,refinement,gentility,andpostbellumplantationnostalgiaamongwhitetravelersthroughoutthecountry.Aretheregeospatialpatternsoftheseracializedexperiencesasrailtravelmovedpeopleamongdifferentgeographicregions?WhatpatternsexistinsocialmobilityamongthePortersandmaidsvs.thefactoryworkersovertime?Whataboutspatialmobility?Canalarge-scalestudyrevealtheinfluenceofthePullmancompanyintheGreatMigrationandflowsofpeopleandideasbetweenplaces?Aretherepatternsofrecruitment,training,andworkassignmentsthatpatternalongotherlines,suchasfamilyorsocialnetworks?

6.3 InventionandInnovationPullmanisacenteroftechnologicalinnovation,althoughtheinventionsarenotalwaystechnologiesinthenarrowsenseofthatword.Pullman’sinnovationmentionedabovewasinserviceandmarketing,nottheinventionofnovelmachinesorworkprocess.Factoryinnovationsincludedoperationsatscaleandtheresultingmanagementstrategies,organizationaltechniques,andmotivationaltoolsdevelopedwithinWelfareCapitalism.Asmentionedinthisreport,thesanitationandhygienesystemswereinnovative,forexample,butformorethansimplyengineeringdistinctsewerandstormwaterdrainage—theentirecommunityplanwasnotedasanachievement(forbetterorworse).Wehavebegunaninventoryofinnovationsanddevelopments,butthismustbeexpandedtotheentirefactorysite,theentirenationwideoperationsnetwork,andtheentirehistoryofthePullmanCompany.The

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Monumentshouldbeabletoshowproductionflowdiagramsthatincludebothevolvingfeaturesystemandrelatedactivityareasthroughoutthefactoryandtownandexplainhowthoseflowswereregulatedandcontrolled.Thisshouldthenarticulatewiththemaintenanceandoperationdivisions.Withmoreresearchinthearchaeologicalremainsandthehistoricdocuments,itwillbepossibletomaptaskscapesattheCalumetShopsforexample,orcompleteMobilityorAccessGraphsfortheFoundryandthePalaceCarWorks.ThesestudieswillallowforthickdescriptionsofdailylifefordifferentworkersintheHGIS,followingtheirtasksandgoalsastheymoveaboutthelandscapeofthefactory,town,cars,andotherlocations.

ThisresearchwillconnectthethemesofDevelopingtheAmericanEconomyandExpandingScienceandTechnology,althoughPullmanresearchwillextendthesethemesintobusinessandmanagementpracticeandworkplaceculture.SystemsoperationandmanagementarealsokeyforthenationalandinternationalnetworkofclientswithPullmancars.Evenatthefactory,thereareseveralexamplesofhowresearchatPullmanNationalMonumentcancontributetostudiesofInnovationandInvention,includingthosethatareusefulexplorationsofthetransformationofindustryduringtheGildedAge.

6.3.1 TransfertabletechnologyOneofthemostnotabletechnologiesatPullmanwastheuseoftransfertablestomoverailcarsinvariousstatesofconstructionbetweentherailsidingsandtheerectingshops,paintingbays,andfinaldetailingstationsbeforetheyweresentouttotheirpurchaser.AlthoughPullmanwasnottheearliestrailwayerectingshoptouseatransfertable,MaxHjorstberg,theCB&QrailwayengineerwholaidoutthetrackageatPullman,wasarelativelyearlyadopterin1880.Thehistoryofrailwaytransfertablehasyettobewritten,thoughitwouldappearthattheyexistedinembryonicformfromthe1860sonwards,26butinterestinandbroaduseofthistechnologywasnotdevelopeduntilthemid-tolatter1880s.In1889forexample,theNewYorkCentralreplacedthetolltransfertablewithanew,lighterelectrifiedone,replacingtheoldsteam-drivenone.AstheNewYorkTimesnoted,“thistransfertableisanimportantadjuncttotheyard,andbyitsusepassengercarsareshiftedfromonetracktoanotherwithouttheuseoflocomotives,exceptallthemfromthetable”(Anon.1889b).Infact,itwasonlybytheendofthedecadethatrailwaypublicationsstartedtakingparticularnoticeabouttransfertables,howtheywerebeingusedandhowtheywereconstructed,especiallynewelectrifiedones(Crofutt1889).OnepairinFitchburg,MA,forexample,weredescribedas“twoofthemostcompleteandingenioustransfertablesinthecountry,onedrivenbywireropeandtheotherbyelectricity”(Crofutt1889),eventhoughthisseemstobewhatPullmaninstalledinhisfactoryIn1881.Thisinnovationreinforcestheusefulnessofunderstandingmovementsofindividuals,materials,andenergywhenconsideringthechangesinlaborprocessesandembodiedworkduringthisperiod.

26Forexample,theMorrisandEssexRailroadCompanyhadbuiltarepairshipinNewYorkCityin1864whichincludedoneoftheearliestformsoftransfertable(Anon.1864),andpatentsweregrantedfor“ImprovementsinTransferTables”in1874(no.146,685)and1876(no.171,726).

6.3.2 Materials,Efficiency,WasteAnotherofthethemesofthelatenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturyistheideaofefficiencyinfactoryproduction,asinfactinallwalksofsociety(Alexander2008).Thiswidespreadinterestapplied

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notonlytotheefficiencyofworkersandpower,butalsotomaterials.HenryFordandhisproductionmanagers,inonewell-knownexample,soughttoutilizeeveryscrapofwastefromhisproductionlinetosomehowbenefittheoverallbottomline.Thus,amongnumerousefficiencymeasuresinhisautomobileplantsinDetroit,so,too,developedawholesub-industryofmanufacturingcharcoalbriquettesfromthescrapwoodathisKingsford,MI,plant(McCarthy2006).StuckwithwhattodowithliterallytonsofscrapwoodfromModelTlumberproductionattheplant,hismanagerscameupwiththeideatomarketthenotionofgrillingwhilepicnickingonaroadtripasanintegralpartofautomobileculture.Theysoldcharcoalasawaytoprofitonthewoodwastefromthefactory.

InthecaseofPullman,thecompanyprecededFord’sfamouseffortsbydecades.ThedraftsmanIrvingPondrecalledinhismemoirsthat,“Inthebuildingofthefinelyfinishedcarsaconsiderableamountoffragmentaryhardwood,Cherry,OakandMahoganywasleftover.Itdevolveduponthearchitecturaldepartmenttoemploythismaterialinthedesignofwainscotings,furniture,etc.inhotel,church,andresidences”(Pond,etal.2009:87).Inanothercase,Pullmanengineerspatentedtheideaofgrindingtheslagfromtheirownfoundrytomakethebasematerialforadurablepaint,leadingtothe“standardPullmangreen”ofmanyearlyPullmancars(Perkins1887;Sahlin1891).AfinalexampleisGeorgePullman’swellknownplantopipethetown’ssewagetocompanyfarmfieldswhereitcouldbeusedasfertilizertogrowfoodtosellbacktothecommunity.Thecompanyexpectedaprofitfromtheremovalofthesewage,thesaleoffertilizer,andthesaleofthevegetables.ThecontributionofGeorgePullmanandthePullmancompanytothistrendofwasteandefficiencymustberesearchedandunderstoodintermsofthedevelopmentofGildedAgeindustry.

6.4 LandscapesofLaborLandscapeisanimportantareaofarchaeologicalresearch.Industrialarchaeologistshavelongbeenconcernedwiththephysicalarrangementoftechnicalsequencesandproductionprocessesinspacewithinafactoryandhowinteractingindustrialfacilitieswereconnectedthroughnetworksoftransportationinfrastructure.WhilethisreporthasfocusedonthecentralbuildingsofPullman’sPalaceCarfactory,laterforpassengercarmanufacture,themapswehavegatheredwillallowustoorganizetheentirefactorylandscape.Inaddition,PullmanNationalMonumentstaffmustconsiderthedauntinglandscapeoftheentirerailnetworkconnectingthelinesonwhichPullmancarsoperated,thesupportingstructureslikelaundriesandrepairshopsthatenabledservice,andthecommunitiestheyconnected.

PhenomenologicalorSensorialapproachestolandscapeandlaboratPullmanwillrelyupondetailedstudiesofpastenvironments,includingmicroclimatestudiesmentionedinChapter5.Beingabletoreconstructaspectsoftemperature,humidity,airquality,odors,vibrations,andlightlevelswillalladdsignificantlytoourunderstandingofthe“aslived”workexperiencesofpeopleatPullman.SincepubichealthandenvironmentweresoimportanttothePullmanexperiment,includingwater,sanitation,andairandlightintheresidences,itwillbeimportanttoextendtheseanalysestotheworkplacesthroughoutthefactoryaswell.RecentlypublishedstudieslikeDubayandFuldner’sstudyofairqualityusingsoottrappedinbirdplumagegivesdirectevidenceforthehealthfulnessofairovertimeinsouthChicagoneighborhoods(DuBayandFuldner2017),andenvironmentalarchaeologyatPullmancould

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contributemoredetailtosimilareffortstounderstandthequalitiesofPullman’sindustrialandresidentiallandscapes.

6.4.1 MovementandEmbodiedLaborMovementisincreasinglyimportantwaytounderstandhumanactivities.Inindustrialarchaeology,laborhasalwaysbeenunderstoodasembodiedinskillsandknowledgerelatedtotooluseandproductionsequences(Gordon1997).Thisembodimentextendstothelandscapeofworkaspeopleexperiencethephysicalworldthroughtheirsensesduringwork,makingupberthswhilemovingbetweenroomsinacar;movingbetweensleeping,lounge,anddiningcars;movingfromthefactorytoolroomtotheerectingshoporfromthewoodmachineshoptothebathroomintheerectingshop.Wehaveelsewherediscussedthesignificanceoftaskscapes,mobilitygraphs,andaccessgraphsinunderstandingthemovementofpeoplewithinthefactoryspacesandbetweenthefactoryandcommunity(Scarlett2017).AshistoricalrecordsaboutworkdutiesandresidencelocationareaddedtotheHGIS,thedatabasewillenablestudiesthatfollowpeoplefromtheirresidencesalonglikelycommutestoworkandintospecificactivityareaswithinthefactory,forexample,asimportantwaystounderstandtheflowofpeopleinspaceandtime.Thesestudiesofmovementtieworkplaceandresidentialspace,butalsothemultiplenetworkedlocationsthroughoutthenationwidePullmansystem,asituationideallysuitedfora“multi-sited”approachinindustrialarchaeology(Ryzewski2012)

6.4.2 SoundscapesofIndustryinIndustrialArchaeologyOftenabsentfrominterpretationsofindustryarethesoundsandsmellsassociatedwiththelong-goneworkprocessesintheshopsunderinvestigation.Whilequiteanumberofscholarshaveconsideredsoundscapesofthepast(CowgillandHewitt2007;Kelman2010;Picker2003),onlyafewhaveseriouslyconsideredtheindustrialsettingindetail(Benjamin2014,2016;M.M.Smith2012).However,aprimarysourcefrom1917describedhowthesoundscapesofthePullmanshopsfundamentallychangedwhentheall-steelcarwasintroducedin1908:

Thesongsoftheband-sawandtheplanerwerestilledandintheirsteadrosethemetallicclamorofsteamhammerandturretlathe,andtheendlessstaccatoreverberationofanarmyofriveters.Ponderousmachinestobend,twist,orcutabarorsheetofsteelfilledthevastworkrooms.Anarmyofsteelworkers,Titansofthepastreborntofulfillamoderndestiny,fannedtheflamesintheirfurnacesandreleasedtheleashofsandblast,airhose,andgasflame(Husband1917:124).

The factory soundscape, with its vibrations, whines, and humming, affected people profoundly and the livedexperienceofthismustbeunderstoodatPullman.WouldthesimplebrickcommonwallbetweentheOfficeBuildingandtheSteelCarShopshavemuffledthestaccatoburstsofrivetingandthepneumaticblastsofair?Orwouldthemainofficeshavebeenfilledwithanincessantbuzzofbackgroundsound?Howdoesthissoundscapecontrastwiththeformal,embodiedprestigeandwell-appointedsettingsoftheoffice’sexecutivefunctions?Howdidrace,gender,andageinfluenceaperson’sdailysoundscapeinPullman?Howmanyblocksdidoneneedtogofromthefactorybeforeonecouldhearabirdsong inthegardened landscape?Didpeoplenoticethequietwhensomethingwaswrong?TheHGIScanenhancestudiesofsoundscapesaswell,sincehistoricreferencestosoundfromnewspapersanddiariescanbegeotaggedandincludedinstudiesofwhatpeoplemighthaveheardastheymovedthroughspaceandtime.The3Dpointcloudorphotogrammetricmodelsofthefactorybuildings(discussedinChapter5)canbeimported into software within which one can model sound volume and reverberate throughout the complex,

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extrapolatingfromlistsofknownmachineryandequipmentandtheirauditorycharacteristicsknowninIndustrialHygieneandgovernmentrecords.

6.5 EnvironmentalHistoryofPullman’sIndustrialandPost-IndustrialPhasesPullmanNationalMonumentshouldfacilitateresearchintotheenvironmentalhistoryofindustry.GiventhedesignaspirationsofPullmanasahealthyandbucolicindustrialcommunity,anditssubsequenttransformationsintothepost-industrialera,theMonumentisanaturalplacetoconsiderdetailedstoriesoftheecologicalandsocialcostsofindustrialwealthproduction.LedbyscholarslikeDonaldHardestyandFredericQuivik,industrialarchaeologistsincreasinglyexploretheeffectsofindustrialactivitiesontheirenvironments,includingconsiderationsofhowresiduesofwasteteachaboutthehistoryoftechnologicalprocesses(Hardesty2001;Quivik2000,2001,2003,2007;P.J.White2003).Activeresearchandexperimentationalsoincludeselementsofremediationandreuseofindustriallandscapes,consideringthepotentialroleof“rewilding”or“renaturation”vs.theaestheticsofruinandthebeautyfoundinIndustrienatur(Gerndt1999;Quivik2016;Tempel2012).

PullmanandtheLakeCalumetareahaverichresourcesforenvironmentalhistory.In1985,theIllinoisDepartmentofEnergyandNaturalResourcesformedtheHazardousWasteResearchandInformationCenter(HWRIC).ThestaffoftheHWRICprovidedresearchandtechnicalassistancetolandownersandindustry,collectedandcuratedenvironmentaldata,andprovidedlaboratoryanalyses.Thecenterfocusedonpollutionandrecycling,attemptingtoshapethewastestreamsofIllinoisresidents.FromtheformationoftheHWRIC,staffcompletedanumberofreports,includingIndustrialWastesintheCalumetArea,1869-1970:AHistoricalGeography(CraigE.Colten1985),createdincollaborationwiththeIllinoisStateMuseum.Effortsincludeddevelopingastatewideinventoryofland-baseddisposalsites(Brutcher,etal.1986)andaHazardousSubstanceDatabasefortheLakeCalumetarea(CraigE.ColtenandSamsel1992)createdcollaborativelywiththeIllinoisStateGeologicalSurvey.Asaresultofthisinventoryeffort,CraigE.ColtenpublishedaseriesofarticlesabouttheLakeCalumetregionthatexploredindustrialarchaeology,geography,policyanalysis,andenvironmentalhistory(CraigE.Colten1985,1986,1988,1991,1994,1998a,1998b).Asanotherconsequenceofstudieslikethese,theUnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgencyrecentlyaddedaclusterofsitesonLakeCalumet’seasternshoretothe“Superfund”list(Hood2010).

TheLakeCalumetregionhasbeenfeaturedinanarrayofstudiesonthehistoryandlegaciesofindustriallifeintheenvironment.UsingtheHGISandenvironmentalarchaeology,thesecouldbeextendedintotheracialandeconomicanalysisofthecommunities.EnvironmentaldataisreadilyincludedforanalysesinHGIS(Baeten2016).Researchshouldextendthisbackgroundtoconsidertheinterplaybetweentheenvironment,hygiene,occupationalsafety,andhealthandwellnessinPullmanandthesurroundingcommunities,allofwhichintersectssocialpowersystemswithinCapitalism,structuredbyrace,gender,andothersociologicalfactors(Cowie2011).

ThepostindustrialcleanupoftheLakeCalumetregionisacasestudyinenvironmentalremediation,culturalrenewal,andeconomicrevitalization.Since1998,theCalumetHeritagePartnership(CHP)hasincludedvolunteersfromIllinoisandIndianaworkingforthecreationoftheCalumetHeritageAreawithintheNationalParkSystemanddrawingattentiontotheneedsofthepost-industrialregion.The

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organizationrepresentsenvironmental,culturalandhistoricalorganizations;libraries;educationalinstitutions;andmunicipalagencies.TheCHPpromotesindustrialhistoryalongsideenvironmentalremediation,includingacollaborationwiththeFieldMuseumwhereparticipantsgatheroralhistoriesfromtheregion’scommunities.PullmanNationalMonument,withitshistoricconnectionbetweenthefactory,community,andthelake,wouldbeanaturalleaderandawesternanchorpointwithinthisarea.

ArchaeologicalresearchatPullmanNationalMonumentcanpushthefieldtoabroadconsiderationofhowindustrialarchaeologyandindustrialheritagecancontributetothearchaeologicalanalysisoftheAnthropocene(Lane2015;Rockman2012).ThesestudiescanbuildtowardunderstandingPullmanasananthropogenicbiome(Ellis2015),examininghowthecommunityhasbeenorcanbecomesustainableandjust,whereculturalandnaturalheritagearenolongertreatedseparately(Harrison2015).PullmancanbecomeacenterofwhatDonHardestycalled“Global-ChangeArchaeology”(Hardesty2007),contributingtohistoricalecology,sustainabilitystudies,andinformingfutureurbananddevelopmentplanning,ratherthanleavingarchaeologytoserveasametaphorforecologicalthinkingaboutChicago(Washington2005).

6.6 Conclusions:FutureResearchThisstudylaysthegroundworkforthemanagementofarchaeologicalresourcesonthegroundsofthefactorycomplexatPullmanNationalMonument.Wesummarizedthesite’santiquityandthenexaminedwhatwasknownaboutthehistoryofthecompany.Giventheperspectiveofindustrialarchaeology,wespentconsiderabletimeexaminingexistingdetailsoftheworkprocesswithinthesleepingandpassengercarfactory.BecausetheprimaryrecordsofPullman’smanufacturingdivisionareeithermissingorunstudiedaspartoftheTennecocollection,weconcludethatthearchaeologicalremainswithinthefactoryareofevengreatersignificance.Whilethedocumentaryrecordsheldatotherarchivesgivedetailedresolutiontoworkareasandprocessesatotherpartsofthefactory,suchastheremarkablecollectionofmapsandblueprintsoftheCalumetShopsheldattheNewberryLibrary,theexistingrecordsofthepassengercarmanufacturingshopsonlygiveageneralsenseofwhatpeopleweredoingwithindifferentbuildings.Anydisturbancesofthosebuildingsandremains,eventhoseinruin,requiredetailedmonitoringandrecording.

TheMonumenthasalreadyhostedinterestingarchaeologicalstudies,whichissurprisingforitssmallsize.Followingfromthosestudies,weexaminedthepotentialofknownandlikelyarchaeologicalfeaturesatthefactorysite.ThestudyconcludedbypointingtosomeproductiveareasoffutureresearchusingPullmanmaterials,researchthatwillenablebettermanagementoftheMonument’sresources,advanceindustrialarchaeologyandarchaeologicalstudiesofindustrialcommunities,andprovidemoreandnovelinformationforinterpretation.GiventhepublicinterestinarchaeologicalresearchatPullman,wehaveeveryreasontoexpectthatanyfutureinvestigationwouldgenerateagreatdealofinterestinstudiesofPullmanhistory.

Ofparticularnote,manyofourrecommendationsindicatetheneedforsubstantialinvestmentina“virtualPullman”HGIS,collaborativelybuiltwithlocalheritageorganizationsandlocalandregionalarchives.Somuchofthedigitalrawmaterialforthisexists,includingarchitectural,newspaper,municipalrecords,censusanddirectorydata,photographs,correspondencesandoralhistories,and

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maps.TheseallsimplyneedtobedrawnintoarobustHGISframeworkdesignedtosupportinnovativeresearchandpublic-facinguserinterfaces,andenhancedwithafocusedefforttoaddgeocodedrecordsfromPullman’semployeerecords.ThisHGIScouldalsoenablesophisticatedvisualizationsofthehistoriclandscape,perhapsincludingenhancedrealityinterfaces.

Weurgethatfutureresearchprojectsbecollaborativewithcommunityorganizations,particularlyasstudiesliketheHistoricResourcesStudywillincludemuchmoreprivatelyownedlandandresources.Thismeansthatthisdocumentshouldnotstandassomekindofdefininglimitonsignificanttopicsoffutureresearch,sincecommunityinterestswillprovidenewperspectivesonquestionsthatcountandstoriesthatmatterinPullman.FuturestudiesmayexaminethesocialconstructionofcreativityamongMakers,Maintainers,andOperatorsinPullman,thepost-industrialrevitalizationandtheuseofheritageinmodernresident’splacemakingactivities,orperhapstheroleofPullmanasasourceofsocialsolidarityamongdifferentdescentcommunities.

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