Marine Geology 350 (2014) 71–83

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Marine Geology

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Architecture, development and geological control of the Xisha carbonateplatforms, northwestern South China Sea

Shiguo Wu a, Zhen Yang a,b,⁎, Dawei Wang a, Fuliang Lü c, Thomas Lüdmann d, Craig Fulthorpe e, Bin Wang c

a Key Laboratory of Marine Geology and Environment, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, PR Chinab University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, PR Chinac Hangzhou Research Institute of Petroleum Geology, Petrochina, Hangzhou, 310023, PR Chinad Center for Earth Systems Research and Sustainability, University of Hamburg, Hamburg D20146, Germanye Institute of Geophysics, Jackson School of Geosciences, University of Texas, Austin, TX 78758-4445, USA

⁎ Corresponding author at: Key Laboratory of MarinInstitute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences266071, PR China. Tel.: +86 532 82898544.

E-mail address: yangzhen011043@163.com (Z. Yang).

0025-3227/$ – see front matter. Crown Copyright © 2014http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.margeo.2013.12.016

a b s t r a c t

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 4 June 2013Received in revised form 31 December 2013Accepted 31 December 2013Available online 9 January 2014

Communicated by D.J.W. Piper

Keywords:carbonate platformreefeustasytectonic controlpost-riftSouth China Sea

Newly acquired seismic data allow improved understanding of the architecture and evolution of isolated carbon-ate platforms on the continental slope of the northern South China Sea. The Xisha carbonate platforms were ini-tiated on a basement high, the Xisha Uplift, in the early Miocene and have remained active up to the present.Their distribution is limited to pre-existing localized, fault-bounded blocks within the Xisha Uplift so individualplatformswere small in size at the beginning of theMiocene. However, during themiddleMiocene, the platformcarbonate factories flourished across an extensive area with 55,900 km2. The platforms began to backstep in re-sponse to a relative sea-level rise in the late Miocene. Platform-edge reefs, patch reefs, pinnacle reefs, atoll reefsand horseshoe reefs, all developed on various platforms. The distribution of platform carbonates shrank signifi-cantly during Pliocene-Quaternary time to isolated carbonate platforms, represented today by Xuande Atolland Yongle Atoll. Tectonics and eustasy were the two main controls on platform development. Tectonics con-trolled both the initial topography for reef growth and the distribution of platforms, including those that survivedthe drowning event associated with the late Miocene rapid relative sea-level rise. Eustasy controlled high-frequency carbonate sequence development.

Crown Copyright © 2014 Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Carbonate platforms developed widely in tropical and subtropicalsettings, forming thick and extensive biogenic constructions. Carbonateplatforms typically have life spans ofmillions to tens ofmillions of years.Their initiation, growth, and demise are governed by a combination oftectonics, eustasy, oceanography and climatic conditions (Fulthorpeand Schlanger, 1989; Sun and Esteban, 1994; Wilson, 2002; Bachtelet al., 2003). During the Late Cenozoic, extensive tropical carbonate plat-forms and reefs developed in the tectonically complex South China Searegion (Epting, 1989;Wilson, 2002; Sattler et al., 2009). On the southernmargin of the South China Sea (Hutchison et al., 2004; Hutchison andVijayan, 2010), many Tertiary carbonate platforms grew on basementhighs created by faulted blocks during the Eocene to Early Oligocenerift phase (Fulthorpe and Schlanger, 1989; Sales et al., 1997; Wiliams,1997). Carbonate platforms also developed on the northern margin ofthe South China Sea, both on uplifted fault blocks and on volcanic sea-mounts. The northern platforms are younger than those on the southern

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margin (Qiu and Wang, 2001; Wei et al., 2005). Various examples ofIndo-Pacific carbonate platforms have been described, and associatedfacies models presented, e.g., the Miocene Luconia platform (Epting,1980), the Middle Oligocene Berai Limestone (Saller et al., 1992) andthe Miocene Natuna buildup (Rudolph and Lehmann, 1989). However,the stratigraphic architectures of these systems and the geological fac-tors controlling their development are often unclear. Tectonics can bean important factor in the initiation of carbonate platforms, such asthe Eocene to the middle Miocene Tonasa carbonate platform of SouthSulawesi (Pigram et al., 1989; Wilson et al., 1999, 2000; Bosence,2005; Hutchison and Vijayan, 2010). Eustatic fluctuations have beenconsidered to have played an important role in platform developmentand stratigraphic architecture of carbonate platforms likewise e.g. theMaldives (Belopolsky andDroxler, 2003, 2004). In addition, bottomcur-rents can also be a key control on carbonate platform architecture(Betzler et al., 2009; Lüdmann et al., 2012, 2013).

The Xisha Islands (Paracel Islands) are seated on an elevated subma-rine plateau that rises from the lower slope southeast of Hainan Islandand is surrounded by N1000 m deep seafloor (Fig. 1). The Xisha carbon-ate factory is an example of the T-factory of Schlager (2005): shallow-water, biologically controlled deposits dominate.

Previous studies of the Xisha carbonate platforms have been limitedto analysis of shallow boreholes and examination of modern carbonate

reserved.

Fig. 1.A: Tectonic divisions of sedimentary basins in the northern South China Sea. Dashed lines indicate basin boundaries. The rectangle indicates study area. ASRRSZ: Ailaoshan-Red RiverShear Zone; BBWB: Beibuwan Basin; PRMB: Pearl River Mouth Basin; QDNB: Qiongdongnan Basin; YGHB: Yinggehai Basin; ZJNB: Zhongjiannan Basin; XU: Xisha Uplift; GU: GuangleUplift; ZU: Zhongsha Uplift; EVTF: East Vietnam Transform Fault. B: Bathymetric map of the Xisha Islands (Paracel Islands) and adjacent sea areas. The location of the map is shown inFig. 1A. White lines indicate seismic tracks. Locations of wells mentioned in the text are also shown.

72 S. Wu et al. / Marine Geology 350 (2014) 71–83

deposits on the islands (He and Zhang, 1986; Zhao et al., 2011). How-ever, in the course of rapidly advancing deep-water hydrocarbon explo-ration, both commercial and academic seismic surveys have beenconducted in deep-water settings of the northern South China Sea. Inparticular, 2D/3D seismic data have been recently acquired in order toevaluate the potential of reef carbonate reservoirs (Wu et al., 2009;Ma et al., 2010). These data provide new insights into the architecturesand evolution of the northern South China Sea carbonate platforms.

The objectives of this paper are twofold: 1) to illustrate the architec-ture and evolution of the Xisha carbonate platforms; and 2) to under-stand the main factors controlling the development of carbonatefactories in marginal seas. We focus on the impact of early tectonicmovements, eustatic change, and terrigenous input, on the develop-ment of reefs and carbonate platforms in the Xisha region (Fig. 1).

2. Geological setting

The South China Sea is the largest marginal sea off East Asia. It issurrounded by the South China block, Taiwan, the Luzon arc, Palawan,Borneo, and the Indo-China Peninsula and was formed by seafloorspreading from 32 to 17 Ma (Taylor and Hayes, 1983; Tsai et al., 2004).

Main structural elements in the study area are the Xisha Uplift andadjacent depressions (Fig. 1). The Xisha Uplift was subaerially exposedprior to the Miocene, but subsided during the late Oligocene to earlyMiocene period of seafloor spreading (Fig. 1). Crustal thickness in theXisha Uplift varies from 27 km to 6.8 km (Taylor and Hayes, 1983; Xiaet al., 1998; Qiu et al., 2001; Yao et al., 2004). The Xisha Uplift had expe-rienced rifting since the late Cretaceous and its crest in the earlyMiocenewas broken into small, fault-controlled uplifted blocks and intervening

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grabens (Sun et al., 1996). Well Xiyong-1 documents that the acousticbasement on the uplift corresponds to Precambrian gray granite gneissand Mesozoic volcanic rocks (Wang et al., 1979; Qiu et al., 2006).

Tropical carbonate platforms developed extensively on the XishaUplift and today form the Xisha Islands (Paracel Islands), which havebeen intensively studied (Wang et al., 1979; Chen and Hu, 1987;Zhang et al., 1989;Wei et al., 2005;Wu et al., 2009;Ma et al., 2010). Ad-ditional information is provided by two wells (Xiyong-1 and Xichen-1)drilled in Xuande and Yongle atolls during the 1980s (Fig. 1B), includingbiostratigraphy, lithology, and development of the platforms (Sun et al.,1996; Qiu and Wang, 2001; Xu et al., 2002; see also Fig. 2).

3. Data and methods

The seismic data used in this study were collected and processed byPetroChina in 2007. The data comprise 15,000 km of 2-D seismic pro-files and a 1500 km2 high-resolution 3-D seismic volume. All seismicprofiles are located around theXisha Islands (Paracel Islands) and in ad-jacent seas. Spacing of the 2D seismic profiles is 4 × 8 km in the deep-water sag of Qiongdongnan Basin and 32 × 32 km around the XishaIslands (Paracel Islands). Well information from Xiyong-1 and Xichen-1 has been augmented by data from other boreholes in adjacent areasof the northern continental margin, such as wells drilled in theQiongdongnan Basin and the Pearl River Mouth Basin, to constrain themapped stratigraphic sequences. These data provide information on re-gional geology and the nature of the basement, which in turn influencedthe development of reefs and carbonate platforms.

Fig. 2. Stratigraphic column reconstructed from the Xiyong-1well (see Fig. 1B for location) in thMiller et al. (2005). The location of the well is shown in Fig. 1b.

All seismic interpretation was conducted using Geoframe softwarefrom Schlumberger. Carbonate platformswere identified on the seismicprofiles and their distributionmapped. Seismic datawas analyzed to de-termine carbonate platform geometries in order to establish a model ofreef and carbonate platformdevelopment and constrain the factors con-trolling their development.

The tectonic subsidence history in Xishawaters was calculated usingthe software ‘Recovering and Simulation System of Thermal History’ de-veloped at the Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy ofSciences (Dong et al., 2008). To analyze the subsidence history of eachstructural unit in the Xisha region, we selected pseudo-wells represen-tative of each structural unit and determined their tectonic subsidencehistories. We extracted common depth point gathers on seven strati-graphic reflectors: T20, T30, T40, T50, T60, T70 and Tg on selected seismicprofiles on Fig. 1B and then calculated the tectonic subsidence at eachpseudo-well, generating tectonic subsidence curves and distinguishingcurves of different structural units. Estimation of paleo-water depthswas inferred from nearby wells referenced to the Well data in the areaof deepwater basin and depositional facies interpreted from the seismicdata. Sedimentation rates were calculated using 2Dmove software, andGeoframe software was used for time-depth conversion.

4. Stratigraphic framework across the Xisha carbonate platforms

Eight sedimentary sequences are interpreted within the Xisha car-bonate platforms based on seismic profiles in combination with theXiyong 1 well (Meng, 1989; Zhang et al., 1989). Five seismic reflectors

e Xisha Islands (Paracel Islands), northern South China Sea. Global sea-level curve is from

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can be interpreted in Neogene section (T20, T30, T40, T50, T60; Fig. 2).In addition, seismic reflections reveal three additional reflectors (T70,T80 and Tg) in the lower section (Figs. 2, 3; Wu et al., 2009; Ma et al.,2011; Wang et al., 2013).

4.1. Eocene sequence

Sequence H is bounded below by reflector Tg and above by T80 andcommonly shows basin-fill onlap in grabens. The sequence occurs inmarginal depressions of the Xisha Uplift (Fig. 3). Reflections are ofmedium continuity and medium amplitude. Sequence H is inferred tocomprise lacustrine facies (Zhu et al., 2010). However, there is no welldata to confirm its lithology. It represents the oldest sedimentary unitdeposited upon acoustic basement.

4.2. Early Oligocene sequence

Sequence G usually onlaps onto the upper surfaces of footwall blocksof the metamorphic basement and seamounts in the Xisha uplift.The top of this sequence is marked by a medium-amplitude reflectionpicked as reflector T70. Its lower boundary is reflector T80, which coin-cides with the base of the Oligocene, based on stratigraphic constraintsat the northern margin of the platform (Fig. 3). The sequence is of vari-able thickness over the Xisha Uplift. It reaches a maximum thickness ofN1 km at thewesternmargin of the area and is absent beneath themid-dle of the Xisha Uplift (Figs. 3, 4).

4.3. Late Oligocene sequence

Late Oligocene sequence F is generally thick in the west and thin orabsent beneath the middle of the Xisha Uplift. Reflections divergein the block-bounded grabens, with no indication of progradation(Fig. 3). The lower boundary of the sequence is reflector T70. Its top ismarked by a high-amplitude, continuous reflection picked as regionalbreak-up unconformity T60, which represents the Oligocene–Mioceneboundary at ~23.8 Ma (Pang et al., 2009; Wu et al., 2009).

Fig. 3. A: Seismic profile across Zhongjian Trough and the western Xisha Uplift south of YongleMiocene carbonate fore-slope facies, carbonate debris flow facies, lagoonal facies and carbonat

4.4. Early Miocene Sequence

Sequence E consists of mixed siliciclastic and carbonate debris,mainly occurring on the western Xisha Uplift. The sequence is lessthan 200 m thick beneath the center of the Xisha Uplift. Platform-edge reefs and pinnacle reefs occurred at the western margins ofindividual platforms. Isolated carbonate platforms began to developalong with the formation of deep-water environments in the XishaUplift. The uppermost reflector (T50) is of medium-amplitude andrepresents the boundary between the early and middle Miocene. Thishorizon is clearly defined upon the western margins of the earlyMiocene carbonate platforms but indistinct in the middle of the plat-forms (Fig. 3).

4.5. Middle Miocene sequence

Sequence D consists of middle Miocene strata characterized by a se-ries of high-amplitude, mounded reflections and distinct progradationof the flat-topped carbonate margins (Figs. 3, 4). The variable thicknessof this sequence is the result of localized development of reefs and plat-forms (Figs. 3, 4, 5). Its base and top of the sequence are marked by re-flector T50 and reflector T40, respectively (Figs. 3, 4, 5). Carbonatebuildups and reefs are established on theperiphery and of the carbonatesystem.

4.6. Late Miocene sequence

Late Miocene sequence C consists of carbonate reefs and adjacentcarbonate debris-flow deposits (Figs. 3, 6, 7). The main difference rela-tive to the middle Miocene sequence is that sequence C reefs and car-bonate platforms only developed at structural highs, such as paleo-volcanoes in the middle of the Xisha uplift (Fig. 3). The sequence isbounded below by reflector T40 and above by T30. The basal reflectoris incised by large channels (Fig. 7).

4.7. Pliocene sequence

Pliocene sequence B is represented by a series ofmedium-amplitude,parallel, continuous reflections and small-scale, high-amplitude,

Atoll (see Fig. 1B for location); B: Interpretation showing eight seismic sequences. Middlee reefs and sands are all present.

Fig. 4. A. Seismic profile showing seismic characteristics of Miocene carbonate platforms in the northern Xisha Uplift (see Fig. 1B for location). B. Interpretation. Platformmargin reefs de-veloped near the northern edge of the profile. The carbonate platform-edge reefs are characterized byhigh amplitude reflectors and amoundexternal form. Reefs also backstep southwardtowards the structural highs.

Fig. 5. A: Uninterpreted seismic profile across Zhongjian Trough and the western Xisha Uplift (see Fig. 1B for location). B: Interpretation showing margin migration and drowning ofcarbonate platforms in response to rapid relative sea-level change. Patch reefs developed during the middle Miocene.

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Fig. 6. Seismic characteristics of Miocene reefs on the Xisha Uplift. A: Pinnacle reef. B: Horseshoe reefs. See Fig. 1B for locations of profiles.

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discontinuous reflections (Figs. 3, 7). The former are characteristic ofmarine deposits and the latter represent carbonate buildups, whichmainly developed in the middle of the Xisha Uplift (Fig. 7). Its lowerand upper boundary is delineated by reflector T30 and T20, respectively.

Fig. 7.A: Seismic profile across the northernXishaUplift (see Fig. 1B for location). B: Interpretatideposits on the slope.

4.8. Quaternary sequence

Quaternary sequence A is similar to Pliocene sequence B. It consistsof hemipelagic deposits, except for isolated carbonate platforms. The

on showing drowned carbonate platformexposed at the seafloor and carbonate debrisflow

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seismic facies comprise medium-amplitude, parallel, continuous reflec-tions (Fig. 3).

5. Architecture of the carbonate platforms

5.1. Architecture of the Xisha carbonate platforms across the Xisha Uplift

Carbonate platforms first appeared during the early Miocene onfault-bounded blocks that had developed from the Eocene to the Oligo-cene within the NE-striking Xisha Uplift continental fragment. Most ofthe platforms were drowned in the late Miocene (Fig. 4) and then cov-ered by Miocene–Pleistocene marine deposits characterized by mid- tolow-amplitude, parallel, discontinuous reflections (Figs. 3, 5, 7). How-ever, carbonate platforms continued to develop locally in the areacovered by the modern Xisha Uplift from the middle Miocene to theQuaternary. The platforms decreased in size culminating in the atollsseen today (Fig. 8).

Fig. 8. Sedimentary facies and distribution of carbonate platform on the Xisha Uplift. A: Earlie55,900 km2 andwere separated by a narrow Zhongjian Trough. B: Late middleMiocene carbonaforms were limited in the central Xisha Uplift. Large mass transport deposits and deep-water cplatforms grew to form the Xisha Islands (Paracel Islands) and Zhongjian Islands.

Reefs are common on the edges of the carbonate platforms. Theygrow on top of basement high formed by normal faults (Fig. 7). Faultingwas pervasive at the edges of the Xisha Uplift during the Oligocene andinto earlyMiocene, associated with breakup of the southwestern regionof the South China Sea (Li et al., 2013). Fault-related uplift resulted inerosion of siliciclastic sediments that restricted reef development untilfaulting ceased, although a few faults may have been coeval with earlyMiocene carbonate platform growth around the Xisha Uplift. By themiddle Miocene, platform tops are not affected by faulting and appearas smooth and convex upward surfaces (Fig. 7).

5.2. Reef development on Xisha carbonate platforms

Late Cenozoic reefs are well-developed on the Xisha Uplift. Fivetypes of carbonate reefs have been identified based on high-resolutionseismic data: platform-edge reefs, patch reefs, pinnacle reefs, atollreefs and horseshoe reefs (Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7). Platform-edge reefs typically

st middle Miocene carbonate platforms were widely distributed. The platforms coveredte platforms decreased in size and backstepped eastward. C: LateMiocene carbonate plat-hannel systems occurred around the platform margins. D: Pliocene-Quaternary carbonate

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fringe carbonate platforms. These reefs are usually large in size and dis-play high-amplitude, continuous, mounded reflections at their tops andlow-amplitude internal reflections (Fig. 4). Patch reefs are foundmainlyat themargins of small depressions and occur during the early develop-ment of carbonate platforms in the western part of the study area. Suchreefs are characterized by high-amplitude, continuous, mounded reflec-tions at their tops, chaotic internal reflections, and low-amplitude re-flections at their bases. Some small patch reefs are indicated only byhigh-amplitude reflection hyperbolae in the seismic image (Ma et al.,2011). Patch reefs mainly grew upon flat-topped structural highsthroughout the Xisha Uplift and could develop into horseshoe reefs.Under these conditions, horseshoe reefs grew to large sizes, withnumerous solitary reefs agglomerating to form large reef communities(Fig. 6B). Horseshoe reefs are identified on seismic profiles by high-amplitude, mounded reflections at their tops, chaotic internal reflec-tions, and high-amplitude, discontinuous reflections at their bases(Fig. 6B). Pinnacle reefs develop during a steady relative sea-levelrise. This reef type is characterized by vertical aggradation of high-amplitude mounded reflectors. The evolution of pinnacle reefs can besubdivided into three stages (Fig. 5). Atoll reefs developed upon struc-tural highs where carbonate production could keep pacewith the risingsea-level. Atoll reefs occurring in the Xisha Uplift are represented byhigh-amplitude, parallel, continuous reflections at their tops, becausethey were subaerially exposed (Fig. 7).

6. Development of the Xisha carbonate platforms

The evolution of the Xisha carbonate platforms can be divided intofour stages: 1). Early Miocene initiation with small carbonate platformsoccurred only on local basement highs in the eastern Xisha Uplift, whilelarge shelf-margin carbonate platforms occurred on the western of theXisha Uplift, which was then connected to the Vietnamese continentalshelf; 2).MiddleMiocene large-scale carbonate platform growth associ-ated with basinward prograding sequences; 3). LateMiocene carbonateplatforms and reef drowning induced by rapid subsidence; 4). Quater-nary isolated carbonate platform build-up on local topographic highsconcomitant with relative sea-level changes.

6.1. Carbonate platform initiation (early Miocene)

Our seismic data indicates that during the early Miocene transgres-sion, the Xisha carbonate platforms were typically restricted to thewest and southwest of the Xisha Uplift, a topographic high coincidingwith the modern Xisha Islands (Paracel Islands) (Fig. 8D). At that time,the XishaUplift exhibits a shallow sea, perhaps partly subaerial, boundedby hemipelagic troughs, in the Qiongdongnan and Zhongjiannan Basins(Figs. 8, 9A); terrigenous clastic sediments were also transported to theGuangle Uplift and some of them reached these troughs from the Indo-china peninsula. However, formation of the hemipelagic Quang NgaiGraben along the offshore Vietnam Fault prevented terrigenous sedi-ments from reaching the Xisha Uplift (Fyhn et al., 2013). Conditionstherefore had become favorable for carbonate platform development inthe early Miocene. As a result, a total of 30,000 km2 of carbonate plat-forms (Triton Carbonate Platform) grew on the Mesozoic granites andpre-Paleogene sediments of the rifting blocks, where a neritic environ-ment prevailed. This early Miocene platform was confirmed by the dril-ling well 120-CS-1X (Fyhn et al., 2013).

During this stage, reefs started to form with a limited extent on topof the carbonate platforms, dominated by fringing reefs along marginsand/or patch reefs in the tectonically stable area west of the region oc-cupied by the present-day Xisha Islands (Paracel Islands). The bases ofearly Miocene carbonate platforms are bounded by high-amplitudecontinuous reflections, indicating a strong impedance contrast. Withinplatforms, high-amplitude reflections alternate with low-amplitude re-flections, probably reflecting environmental cyclicity during platformgrowth. Moderate amplitude and relatively continuous reflections

around the platforms are interpreted as foreslope carbonate facies.The carbonate platforms and reefs grew both horizontally and verticallyand their tops comprise mounded high-amplitude reflections. Well-developed sediment gravity flow deposits and sediment drifts withlow-amplitude, continuous reflections occur adjacent to the platforms(Fig. 7).

6.2. Development of large carbonate platforms (middle Miocene)

In the middle Miocene, carbonate platforms occupied a large part ofthe Xisha Uplift (Fig. 8B). Progradation produced large carbonate plat-forms separated by the Zhongjian Trough (Fig. 8B). The sedimentary fa-cies included reef flat, carbonate foreslope and possible lagoon (Fig. 8B).These facies conform to idealized facies belts for a rimmed shelf plat-form (Wilson, 1975; Read, 1987; Wright and Burchette, 1996).

Foreslope carbonate facies usually occurred at steep platform mar-gins, within the inner Zhongjian Trough and surround platformmargins.In the middle Miocene, the width of the trough varied: and it wasb10 km wide at its gateway to the northwest and increased to 50 kmat its southeastern end (Fig. 8B). The foreslope carbonate depositswere probably fed by the carbonate platforms and reefal detritus. Onseismic profiles, the associated facies are characterized by middle- tohigh-amplitude, continuous reflections,with a prograding reflection pat-tern evident on some profiles. Two deep-water channel systems formedadjacent to the Xisha Uplift, one flowing NW and the other SE (Fig. 8B).

During the early stages of platform development (early and middleMiocene), small lagoons formedwithin the Xisha platforms. On seismicprofiles, the lagoonal deposits are characterized by moderate- and low-amplitude, parallel reflections that indicate a stable sedimentary envi-ronment. Because lagoons provide a stable and siliciclastic-free sedi-mentary environment, patch reefs were able to grow in some lagoons(Ma et al., 2011; Figs. 5, 8B).

Four stages of middle Miocene carbonate platform development canbe interpreted (Fig. 9). The first platform margin developed in theHuaguang depression as transgression progressed from Xisha Troughto Qiongdingnan Basin and reached the Huaguang depression fromthe north. This progressive flooding in the Xisha Uplift created favorableconditions for the development of reefs and granule banks on the topsof rifted blocks (Fig. 2). The second stage of platform shifted southwardto themargin of the Xisha Uplift (Fig. 8B). The third and fourth stages ofcarbonate platformswere developed on central Xisha Uplift (Fig. 8C, D).

6.3. Drowned carbonate platforms (Late Miocene)

At the end of this middle Miocene growth phase, a rapid rise of rel-ative sea-level in the lateMiocene led to reef drowning (Fig. 2). The plat-forms began to backstep towards local basement highs and only a fewisolated carbonate buildups persisted (Fig. 8C). The areal extent of indi-vidual platforms decreased and they migrated eastward to the areaaround Xuande Atoll (Fig. 8D).Well data shows that lagoons also devel-oped on top of the Xuande Atoll during this stage (Zhang et al., 1989),but are difficult to identify on seismic profiles because of the large seis-mic grid spacing in this area.

6.4. Isolated carbonate platforms (Pliocene to present)

The platforms on the western Xisha Uplift have drowned since thePliocene due to both rapid relative sea-level rise and increasingsiliciclastic input (Xu et al., 2002; Clift and Sun, 2006; Fyhn et al.,2013). The only well-developed isolated platforms remaining in thecentral part of the Xisha Uplift were those built on structural highsfringed by barrier reefs (Fig. 8D). These structures transformed intolarge scale atoll reefs, some of which have survived into the present,such as Yongle Atoll and Xuande Atoll (Fig. 1B).

Fig. 9. Schematicmodel of Xisha carbonate platformdevelopment. A. Initiation of isolatedplatformsduring the earlyMiocene. Rising relative sea-level established carbonate production onthe submerged structural highs on the flanks of the uplift during the earlyMiocene. Carbonate sequences display parallel continuous reflections and onlap the basement. B. Retrogradationof carbonate platforms during earliestmiddleMiocene on thewesternXisha carbonate platform. Carbonate production failed to keep pacewith acceleration in the rate of relative sea-levelrise in slope environments. Carbonate platforms retreated toward topography highs and the area of carbonate platform growth shrank. C. Construction of large of carbonate platformsduringmiddle Miocene. Carbonate platforms aggradedwhile the rate of carbonate production kept pacewith the rate of relative sea-level rise and also prograded because the rate of car-bonate production exceeded the rate of creation of accommodation space. D. LateMiocene platformdrowning. Carbonate production could not keep pacewith the rate of relative sea-levelin the late Miocene and most platforms were drowned. Only those developing on active uplifts survived and have continued their growth until the present, forming large atoll reefs.

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7. Geological controls on post-rift carbonate platform development

Five principal controls on the architecture and development ofcarbonate platforms have been proposed (Epting, 1980, 1989; Wilson,

2002; Bachtel et al., 2003; Belopolsky andDroxler, 2003). These include:(i) the rate of skeletal carbonate production, (ii) tectonics, (iii) sea-levelfluctuations, (iv) variation on input of terrigenous clastic material, and(v) paleo-oceanographic conditions. Beginning in the early Miocene,

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high rates of production characteristic of skeletal carbonates in subtrop-ical and tropical seas led to development of isolated carbonate platformson rifted basement blocks bordered by abyssal plains and deep channelsin adjacent grabens across the Xisha Uplift (Xu et al., 2002). The steepreefal platform margins owe their origins to basement structural con-trols (Erlich et al., 1990; Wilson, 2002). Bottom currents may alsohave influenced platform development. But, there are insufficient datato reconstruct the complex Miocene current pathways and paleo-oceanography. Therefore, we focus on tectonic subsidence, sea-levelchange and variations on terrigenous input.

7.1. Post-rift tectonic controls on carbonate platform development

7.1.1. Tertiary subsidence historyThe breakup unconformity in the Xisha Uplift and adjacent

Qiongdongnan Basin is thought to be of early Miocene age (21 Ma,Sun et al., 2009). Regional unconformity T60 marks the beginning ofthe post-rift stage at ~23.8 Ma, corresponding to the slope formationand thermal subsidence in the Pearl River Mouth Basin (Clift and Lin,

Fig. 10. A: Cenozoic tectonic subsidence curves for the three main depressions (Huaguang, Chamentation rates in the three depressions. See Fig. 1B for locations of depressions.

2001; Pang et al., 2009). Rates of deposition in the main depressionsof the Xisha Uplift generally decrease during post-rift phase. Sedimenta-tion rates are lowest in the late early Miocene (Fig. 10B), and slowly inthe middle Miocene because of the input of carbonate debris generatedby contemporaneous pervasive carbonate platform (Fig. 8A, B), and theterrestrial sediment input also contributed to this rise (Clift. et al., 2006).After 5.0 Ma (T30), most tectonic activity ceased and the depositionalfacies were dominated by bathyal sediments. All of the depressions ex-perienced relatively stable depositional rates. However, there was slowrise in sedimentation rates after 2.2 Ma (Fig. 10B), probably linked tonorthern hemisphere glaciation and increasing climatic instability(Clift et al., 2002).

Total subsidence of the Xisha Uplift was less than 2.5 km since theearly Miocene, whereas the adjacent Qiongdongnan Basin has subsidedmore than 5 km during the Cenozoic. The other depressions also expe-rienced high subsidence rates during the rifted stage and post-rifting(Fig. 10A). The average value of tectonic subsidence was about 4 km,and the maximum value reached to 6.5 km in the Changchang Depres-sion (Fig. 10A).

ngchang Depressions and Zhongjiannan Basin) in the vicinity of the Xisha Uplift. B: Sedi-

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The post-rifting stage subsidence rates varied during the post-riftstage. The average values of tectonic subsidence rates between 15.5and 10.5 Ma were low (Fig. 10A). These low rates led to slow progressof relative sea-level rise and favored widespread development of car-bonate platforms over the Xisha Uplift during the middle Miocene.

Almost all subsidence curves reveal an acceleration of regional sub-sidence during 10.5–5.5 Ma, which caused the carbonate platforms togradually wither between 10.5 Ma and 5.5 Ma (Fig. 8B, C). This rapidsubsidence phenomenon also appeared in Qiongdongnan Basin (Xieet al., 2006). Subsidence rates rise after about ~2 Ma (Fig. 10A), whichresulted the further recession of carbonate platforms and now only afew isolated carbonate platform survived on the Xisha Uplift (Fig. 8A).In addition, high siliciclastic sediment supply into the region resultedin the formation of thick continental shelf–slope systems in theQiongdongnan Basin and Zhongjiannan Basin (Hoang et al., 2010).This may have occurred because the Red River strike–slip fault changedits displacement from right to left lateral, potentially triggering masstransport deposits (Fyhn et al., 2009; Wang et al., 2013).

7.1.2. Tectonics control on carbonate platformsFault-bounded blocks formed during the rifting stage and controlled

the initial establishment of the carbonate platforms. Numerous authorshave discussed the predominant role of topography to carbonate plat-form initiation in various tectonic settings (Longman, 1985; Fulthorpeand Schlanger, 1989; Purdy and Bertram, 1993; Wilson et al., 2000).For example, the late Eocene to Miocene Gunung Putih carbonate com-plexwas influenced by differential subsidence that controlled the distri-bution of carbonate platforms and favored the development of smallbuildups on structural highs (Cucci and Clark, 1993). The Liuhua car-bonate system on theMiocenewas also originated on the Shenhu Uplift(Sattler et al., 2009). Post-rift isolated carbonate platforms on the XishaUplift grew on the rift shoulders of the faulted blocks during the earlyMiocene. Most uplifted fault blocks in the Xisha Uplift were exposedat this time and platforms, therefore, only developed around their mar-gins where reached by transgression (Fig. 9A).

We propose that tectonics controlled late Cenozoic developmentand drowning of platforms in the South China Sea. The East VietnamTransform Fault can bemapped seismically along thewestern boundaryof the Xisha Uplift. It forms the early Miocene bathyal Quang NgaiTrough which was the southernmost extension of the elongatedYingehai Basin. The trough accepted Paleogene syn-rift deposits andearly Miocene hemipelagic siliciclastics. The East Vietnam TransformFault also delineates a coast-parallel Neogene depocenter and seemsto have been a control on the siliciclastic depositional system alongthis part of themargin (Fyhn et al., 2013). The XishaUpliftwas borderedby the Quang Ngai trough, Qiongdongnan central deepwater channeland Zhongjian Basin, which trapped siliciclastics. The uplift was there-fore able to develop shallow-water carbonate platforms and developreefs. The drowning event is considered to be a response to rapid tec-tonic subsidence during the late Miocene (from 10.5 Ma to 5.5 Ma).

7.2. Eustatic control of carbonate platform development

The development of Oligo-Miocene carbonate systems in SoutheastAsia has beenmainly studied from seismic or outcrop data, with specialemphasis on 3rd-order depositional sequences (Epting, 1989; Cucci andClark, 1993; Sun and Esteban, 1994; Wilson et al., 1999, 2000; Wilsonand Evans, 2002). Higher-frequency eustatic cyclicity also strongly in-fluences the carbonate deposits during the early Miocene and Pliocene,but such high-frequency eustatic fluctuations cannot be correlated pre-cisely to seismic sequences (Bachtel et al., 2003; Belopolsky andDroxler,2004).

The northern margin of the South China Sea has experienced anoverall rise in relative sea-level since the Miocene, driven by regionalsubsidence although with superimposed high-frequency fluctuations(Fig. 2). This interpretation is supported by our seismic data, as well as

the vertical and lateral distribution of the carbonate platforms in theXisha Islands (Paracel Islands), whose depositional trends appear tohave been strongly controlled by long-term changes in relative sea-level. Higher frequency sedimentary sequences may also have beencontrolled by changes in global sea-level of shorter duration. However,additional data are required to test this hypothesis.

The principal types of reefs and carbonate platform facies in theXisha Uplift are highly sensitive to sea-level fluctuations. Falling relativesea-level led to subaerial exposure and development of karstified anddenuded topography, whereas subsequent rising relative sea-level ledto a resumption of the carbonate factory. However, a rapid rise may re-sult in local drowning. In ourmodel, paleo-water depths varied fromne-ritic to bathyal. The influence of eustatic fluctuation on the developmentof the Xisha carbonate platforms involves the following sequence ofevents (Fig. 10). 1) Rising relative sea-level established carbonate pro-duction on submerged structural highs in the earlyMiocene under trop-ical climatic conditions, carbonate sequences display parallel continuousreflections and downlap onto the basement (Fig. 9A); 2) Carbonate pro-duction failed to keep pace with an acceleration in the rate of relativesea-level rise in the late middle Miocene. Carbonate platforms retreatedtoward topography highs and the area covered by carbonate platformsshrank significantly (Fig. 9B). 3) As the rate of relative sea-level rise de-creased, the rate of carbonate production exceeded the rate of produc-tion of accommodation space, resulting in a lateral progradationalexpansion of the carbonate platforms (Fig. 9C); 4). Carbonate produc-tion could not keep pace with the rising relative sea-level in the lateMiocene and most platforms were drowned. Only those developing onactive uplifts survived and have continued their growth until the pres-ent, forming large atoll reefs (Fig. 9D).

7.3. Impact of terrigenous input on carbonate platform drowning

Input of terrigenous clastics inhibits carbonate production, especiallyreef growth.However, on the XishaUplift well Xiyong-1 drilled a total of1250 m of shallow-water carbonate deposits indicating that the inputof terrigenous clastics had little impact on the development of theXisha carbonate platforms (Fig. 2). The Xisha Uplift was far away fromsiliciclastic sediment sources and has been separated from themby deep-water troughs since the early Miocene (Fig. 8). Therefore, ter-rigenous clastics were unable to input to Xisha carbonate platforms.Hemipelagic deposition occurred in the Southern Yinggehai Basin,Qiongdongnan Basin and Zhongjiannan Basin (Wu et al., 2009; Fyhnet al., 2013). Few terrigenous clastics were deposited on the Xisha Uplift.Siliciclastic input from the Indo-China Peninsula decreased in themiddleMiocene, further improving conditions for reef and carbonate platformdevelopment in the Xisha region (Fig. 8A, B).

8. Conclusions

Cenozoic carbonate platforms are widespread in the Xisha Uplift, acontinental fragment rifted from southern China which underlies themodern Paracel Islands. Several small, carbonate platforms arose duringthe early Miocene on fault-bounded uplifted blocks within the XishaUplift. The platforms have high-amplitude reflections at their tops andlow-amplitude internal reflections. More extensive carbonate platformsdeveloped in the middle Miocene, but most were drowned during thelate Miocene. Locally, isolated carbonate platforms in the central XishaUplift continued to develop up to the present. These large atolls arecommon throughout the Paracel Islands and adjacent areas.

Tectonics strongly influenced the development of the Xisha carbon-ate platforms. The platforms were initiated on basement highs whichthereby controlled the distribution of early Miocene platforms. Themid-dle Miocene subsidence rate between 15.5 and 10.5 Ma was low andtherefore favorable for reef and carbonate platform expansion. The sed-imentation rate in the adjacent depressions, such as Changchang andHuaguang Depressions and Zhongjiannan Basin, showed an abrupt

82 S. Wu et al. / Marine Geology 350 (2014) 71–83

increase between 15.5 and 10.5 Ma. Rapid subsidence in the late Mio-cene led to drowning of most of the Xisha carbonate platforms, but iso-lated platforms continued to grow in areas undergoing localized upliftor reduced subsidence rates.

The Xisha Uplift contains a record of the establishment, growth, anddevelopment of multiple carbonate platforms. Relative sea-levelchange, driven primarily by tectonism, was the main control on plat-form evolution. Most of the platforms in the Xisha Uplift were drownedin the late Miocene, but isolated platforms continued to grow in areasundergoing localized uplift or reduced subsidence rate.

Acknowledgments

The authors express their gratitude to PetroChina for their permis-sion to release the seismic data. This research was supported by theFundamental Research Program of the Ministry of Sciences and Tech-nology, China (No. 2009CB219406), the Knowledge Innovation Projectof the Chinese Academy of Sciences (No. KZCX3-SW-229), and theNational Scientific Foundation of China (91228208; 40930845). Thepaper benefited from helpful reviews by co-Editor in Chief David J.W.Piper, and two anonymous reviewers, whose constructive commentsgreatly improved this manuscript.

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