PRESENTATION DRAFT

ASCOMYCOTINA

COURSE NO. : 501COURSE TITLE: MYCOLOGY

SUBMITTED TO:Dr. B. VIDYA SAGARASSISTANT PROFESSORDEPARTMENT OF PLANT PATHOLOGY ANGRAU

PREPARED BYT.HARI PRIYARAM/2011- 50M.Sc(Ag) IST YEAR

CONTENTS

S.No. Title Page No.1 Introduction 32 General characteristics 33 a. Somatic characteristics 4

b. Reproduction 5 i. Asexual reproduction 5 ii. Sexual reproduction 5c. Sexual fruiting bodies 7d. Ascus 9e. Release of ascospores 9f. Ascospores 10g. Sterile structures in ascocarp 11h. Centrum 12i. Ascospore germination 13

3 Classification 14a. Class Hemiascomycetes 14b. Class Plectomycetes 19c. Class Pyrenomycetes 24d. Class Dicomycetes 32e. Class Loculoascomycetes 40f. Class Loboulbeniomycetes 46

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ASCOMYCOTINA

Introduction: Higher fungi, largest group (Includes 2720 genera and 28650 species) which

include wide range of diverse organisms such as yeasts, black molds, blue molds, powdery mildews, black mildews, cup fungi, morels, truffles, lichens etc,.

Most of them are terrestrial, some live in fresh or marine water. Majority are saprobes, some are parasites of insects and other animals. Diseases caused by these organisms are chest nut blight (Endothia parasitica),

dutch elm (Ceratocystis ulmi), peach leaf curl (Taphrina deformans), ergot of rye (Claviceps purpurea), powdery mildew of Wheat (Erysiphe graminis), apple scab (Venturia inaequalis), take all (Gaeumannomyces graminis) etc,.

Industrial uses of the organisms of this sub division are Yeast – production of alcohol and baking industry Ergots – alkaloids includes lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), hallucinogenic drug Penicillium notatum, P.chrysogenum – penicillin Aspergillus flavus oryzae – industrial acids Neurospora – genetic analysis ( mycologist Dodge used for the first time), used for haploid and biochemical genetics.

General characteristics: Production of ascus (goat skin), in which ascospores are formed through free

cell formation after karyogamy and meiosis. Usually eight ascospores are present in each ascus but may vary from one to

several thousands. Sexual fruiting bodies called ascocarps or ascomata are formed except in

Hemiascomycetes.

Somatic structures: Septate mycelium with simple pores which allows cytoplasmic continuity,

sometimes pores are blocked by membranes. Woronin bodies are associated with pores which are rounded or elongated or

oval, highly refractive bodies of unknown chemical composition

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Cell wall is made of chitin and other compounds like amino sugars, proteins, mannose, glucose and devoid of cellulose.

All cell organelles are present except chloroplasts Three kinds of mycelium based on nuclei

Homokaryotic mycelium produced by germination of uninucleate haploid ascospore.

Homokaryotic multinucleate produced by mitotic duplication of nucleus or by migration of daughter nuclei.

Heterokaryotic condition produced by mutation of nuclei from homokaryotic mycelium or fusion of genetically distinct mycelium. Nuclei are unpaired and are not daughter cells of same parent.

Modification of vegetative hyphae: Sclerotium – aggregation of modified vegetative hyphae. Rhizomorphs – aggregation of mycelial strands. Stroma – compact mass of vegetative hyphae with or without tissue of

host, outer layer is narrow ectostroma and inner massive endostroma gives rise to sporophores or ascocarps

Nuclear division: Nuclear membrane doesn’t break down prior to separation of sister

chromatids. Spindle pole body (SPB) located outside nuclear envelope which

undergoes replication prior to onset of mitosis. Two daughter SPB form nuclear plaques move microtubules appear

opposite SPB and ultimately stretch across the nucleus from SPB to the other.

Microtubules later form spindle which enclosed within nuclear membrane.

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Reproduction: Reproduce both sexually or asexually.Sexual stage is also known as ascigerous or perfect stage in which sexual spores known as ascospores are formed. This stage helps in classification.Asexual stage is also known as conidial or imperfect stage which produces conidia.

Asexual reproductionConidia are the chief reproductive organs produced with in conidiogenous cell, borne on simple or branched hypha called conidiophore.Conidia may be in various shapes and sizes, septate or aseptate and of various colours, may be produced singly or in chains.Sometimes conidia are produced in specialised structures called conidiomata. These may be of various types like synnemata, sporodochia, pycnidia and acervulusMost of these imperfect stages come under Deuteromycotina.Asexual reproduction may occur by budding (blastospores), fragmentation and chlamydospores.

Pycnidium Acervulus Sporodochium Synnemata

Budding Fragmentation Chlamydospore

Sexual reproduction:Ascospores are the sexual spores, these are present in ascus. These asus may be naked or present inside fruiting bodies called ascoarp.Development and structure of fruiting body, structure of asci helps in classifying these fungi.

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Separation of plasmogamy and karyogamy in space and time occurs except in hemiascomyetes, due to this dikaryon is formed.

The dikaryon formed divides repeatedly by mitotis and the structure with mass of male and female nuclei is called ascogonium. From these ascogenous hyphae develops and undergo successive conjugate division forming binucleate or dikaryotic hyphal segments near the tips of ascogenous hyphae. Dikaryotic cell bends forms hook like structure. Within hook cell two nuclei divide to form daughter nuclei and are separated by septa that divide into three cells. Of these three cells tip and base cells are uninucleate, the middle cell is known as crook cell which has two nuclei. In crook cell karyogamy occurs in between these two nuclei and forms a single diploid nucleus, and the crook cell is termed as ascus mother cell. Meiosis occurs to form four haploid nuclei and these nuclei undergo mitosis and forms eight haploid nuclei. Ascus mother cell transforms into ascus, compartmentalisation of an ascus cytoplasm by double membrane into nucleate portions. Sac like double membrane invaginates and surrounds around the haploid nuclei, this may be originated from endoplasmic reticulum. Spore wall is secreted between two single unit membranes, inner layer becomes plasmalemma and outer layer transforms to investing membrane. The cytoplasm in remaining in the ascus is termed as epiplasm and it gives nutrition to the developing ascospores.

Plasmogamy: Union of protoplastsGametangial copulation: In yeasts, somatic cells act as gametangia fuse and form a unicellular zygote and are converted directly into asci, termed as HOLOGAMY.Gametangial contact: Union of morphologically differentiated male and female gametangia. Male gametangium is known as antheridium and female gametangium is termed as ascogonium. Antheridium is multinucleate and more or less clavate shaped, ascogonium is globular or cylindrical, may be single or many celled and are commonly coiled. Ascogonium produces hair

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like appendage or outgrowth which acts as receptive organ known as “trichogyne”. This trichogyne is lacking in Eurotium and Talaromyces. Gametes reduced to undifferentiated protoplasts. Male nucleus passes through from antheridium to ascogonium through pore or trichogyne at the point of contact. In some species antheridia are non functional or not formed, in such species nuclear pairing takes place by the ascogonial nuclei.Spermatization: Male cells may be spherical or rod shaped which are produced from short erect structures called “spermatiophores” ( spermatio – little seed, phore – bearer). These are carried by insects, air or water to receptive organs or somatic hyphae and empty their contents in them. In discomycetes and pyrenomycetes microconidia or conidia acts as spermatia.Somatogamy: Recognizable sex organs are absent. Fusion occurs between two undifferentiated somatic cells of same or different hyphae and this process is called somatogamy. Male nucleus from male cell migrates into female cell to form dikaryon.

GAMETANGIAL CONTACT SOMATOGAMY

SPERMATIZATION GAMETANGIAL COPULATION

Ascocarps:In Gymnoascus, asci are covered by loosely arranged hyphae.

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Generally asci are enclosed in thick protective coat except in Hemiascomycetes, this coat may be made of prosenchymatous or pseudoparenchymatous tissue.Totality of structures surrounding by ascocarp are called “centrum”, these structures help in taxonomy.

Cleistothecium (kleisto – closed, theca – case): Globular and closed completely without opening.

Perithecium (peri – around): Flask shaped fruiting body, opening by ostiole or pore.

Apothecium (apo – store house): Cup or saucer shaped fruiting body bearing an exposed hymenium and is open ascocarp.

Ascostroma (asco – sac, stroma – mattress) or Pseudothecium: Asci in a cavity (locule) within stroma. Stroma itself forms the wall of ascocarp in such species.

Hysterothecium (hystero – womb): Elongated, boat shaped ascocarps, each with a longitudinal slit.Vegetative protective tissue derived from surrounding mycelium, secondary protective tissue formed under stimulus from ascogonium.

Cleistothecium Perithecium Apothecium

Ascostromata Hysterothecium Thyriothecium

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Ascus:o Typically elongated, cylindrical or club shaped though globose asci are

common and considered to be primitive.o May be stalked or sessile, asci are naked or at various levels in the

ascocarps or arranged in a paliside like manner, forming a hymenial layer as in perithecium and apothecium.

o Both unitunicate and bitunicate asci are made of two layers namely outer ectoascus or ectotunica and inner endoascus or endotunica.

o Prototunicate: Thin delicate wall and release their spores by either breaking apart or deliquescing.

o Unitunicate: Ectotunica and endotunica adhere together. Release of ascospores may be by pore at apex, slit, operculum or tear for liberation of spores.

o Bitunicate: Ectotunica ruptures during dehiscence and enables the elastic inner wall to expand to form a cylindrical sac. Ascospores are successively discharged through an elastic pore in the expanded sac. This behaviour is described as Jack –in- a box.

o Before discharge of spores, pore is plugged with substance that stains blue with iodine and is different from wall material. These features constitute “apical apparatus”. It can be stained with writing ink, congo red and janus green.

o Presence or absence of operculum is an important feature in classification 1. Prototunicate 2. Bitunicate (Fissitunicate)3. Ostropalean4. Lecanoralean5. Annelate 6. Hypodermataceous7. Pseudooperculate8. Operculate9. Verrucarioid

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bitunicate ascus

Release of ascospores:Release of ascospores occurs in various types

1. Fissitunicate2. Rostrate3. Semifissitunicate4. Pseudofissitunicate5. Bilabiate6. Poricidal7. Operculate8. Explosiveo In cleistothecium – Wall of cleistothecium is forced open, ejecting the entire

ascus to a distance of several centimetres. Water uptake is possible responsible for the increase in turgor which causes explosive release. The soluble sugars increase the osmotic concentration of ascus sap, which results in increase of water uptake by ascus.

o In perithecium – In unitunicate asci, they remain attached to the base and reach the ostiole by elongation. In bitunicate asci, only endotunica protrudes from ostiole and discharges ascospores. If the perithecium has long neck, asci gets detached from base and released successively from ostiole.

o In apothecium – Phototrophic asci in a deeply cupulate apothecium curve towards light, forming a cloud of spores and the phenomenon is called as “puffing”.

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Ascospores: Spores produced as a result of meiosis and enclosed with in a specialised

cover. These are produced by a process of free cell formation which involves the

plasmalemma differently from conidiogenesis. These may possesses different shapes

1. Round - Hypocrea2. Oval - Ascobolus3. Reniform - Microascus4. Spindle shape - Cochliobolus 5. Sickle shaped - Eutypa6. Needle like - Gaeumannomyces7. Saturn or hat shaped - Emericella8. Helmet like – Henensula9. Cylindrical – Elephocordyceps10. Star shaped – Emericella11. Lemon shaped – Neurospora

Outer surface may be smooth, warty, spiny or have characteristic longitudinal ribs, pits, appendages or have gelatinous sheaths.

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Ascospores are unicellular but two to many celled walls are thicker and stronger than those of vegetative cells.

Ascospore is made of three layers, outer episporium, inner endosporium and middle dense layer contains melanin and therefore responsible for black colour of spores, the only layer that appears to be ruptured upon germination.

Based on arrangement of ascospores asci are following types. Uniseriate, when arranged in single row; biseriate , when arranged in two rows; and also in parallel fasicles.

Number of ascospores per ascus also varies generally number is eight. In some cases, numbers increases with in ascus by process of budding and are termed as blastospores.

Sterile structures in ascocarp: These structures are monokaryotic, since these are not products of

plasmogamy. All kinds of hyphae or other tissues between asci are termed as

“hamathecium”. These structures are usually of carpocentral origin.

1. Inter ascal pseudoparenchyma – carpocentral tissues unchanged or compressed between developing asci.

2. Paraphyses (para – beside, physis – growth): upward growing, basally attached hyphal elements and lie among asci. May be clavate or filiform, usually unbranched and fuse to form epithecium over asci.

3. Periphyses (peri – around): Short hair like growth near ostiole and also present in pycnia and pycnidia.

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4. Pseudoparaphyses: Originate above the level of asci, grows downwards get attached to base of cavity, often broader regularly septate, branched and anastomising

5. Paraphysoids: Interascal or preascal tissue that stretch and resemble pseudoparaphysis, often only remotely septate, very narrow and anastomise.

Centrum:Totality of structures enclosed by the ascocarp wall.Classification based on centrum: The pseudoparenchymatous mass of cells filling the young cleistocarpous or perithecial ascoma is destroyed as the asci grow and fill the centre of the mature ascocarp

Phyllactinia type

The pseudoparenchymatous mass is destroyed as paraphyses grow upward from the base and inward palisade layer. The pressere exerted by the paraphyses is probably responsible for creating a central cavity and growth of these on upper part toward the apex of the ascocarp creates an ostiole. Asci which are either club shaped or cylindrical now grow among the paraphyses. The paraphyses may be persisitant or deliquescent Xylaria typeInitial pseudoparenchymatous mass is partially or completely destroyed as the asci grow and extend into it. The asci are either evanescent at maturity or persist and expel their spores forcibly Diaporthe type Apical paraphyses originating from the perithecial apex just below the periphyses grow downwards in the perithecium to form a palisade layer. These finally disintegrate as the asci grow among them Nectria type

Ascospore germination:

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The irreversible chain of events that transform the self contained spore to its vegetative form is termed as germination.

Morphological changes: include swelling of spore, nuclear division and sometimes vacuole is formed.

Physiological changes: synthesis of macromolecules like DNA, RNA, proteins, carbohydrates and lipids, excretion of metabolites, enzymes or viamins, an increase in dry weight or volume, absorption of water and activation of enzyme secretions.

Germination of ascospores takes place by production of one or more germ tubes that develop into septate mycelium.

Spherical growth occurs by splitting of thin outer layer of three layered ascospore wall.

The thick melanised layer of two remaining wall layers is partially perforated by a narrow germ fissure which runs along the length of spore.

This fissure gaps open to expose inner wall which encloses spore protoplast. A slightly inflated germ tube emerges due to polarised growth which subsequently tapers at the tip and grows apically to produce a hyphal filament.

CLASSIFICATIONModern mycologists give more importance to the type of ascocarp centra, type of ascus, arrangement of asci, nature and presence and absence of ascal pores, presence and absence of various types of sterile threads; for classification of Ascomycotina.According to Ainsworth (1961)Ascomycotina is divided into 6 classes

1. Hemiascomycetes2. Plectomycetes

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3. Pyrenomycetes 4. Discomycetes5. Loculoascomycetes6. Laboulbeniomyctes

Keys to Classes of Ascomycotina

Asci arising naked; ascocarps and ascogenous hyphae lacking; thallus mycelial or yeast like HemiascomycetesAsci evanescent, scattered at various levels within the nonostiolate ascocarp which is typically a cleistothecium, ascospores aseptate Plectomycetes Exoparasites of arthropods or marine red algae; thallus reduced; ascocarp a perithecium Laboulbeniomycetes Ascocarp typically a perithecium which is usually ostiolate (If nonostiolate, asci are not evanescent); asci inoperculate with an apical pore or slit Pyrenomycetes Ascocarp an apothecium or a modified apothecium; frequently macrocarpic, epigean or hypogean; asci inoperculate or operculate Discomycetes Asci bitunicate; ascocarp as ascostroma Loculoascomycetes

Class Hemiascomycetes

Absence of ascocarp; asci are naked and lack sterile cells. A typical multispored ascus which is a direct enlargement of a conjugate cell, or is an enlarged uninucleate, diploid cell of a free living thallus.

In either case plasmogamy and karyogamy occurs in the same cell. The wall of asci are generally thin and release of ascospores by bursting or deliquescing.

The thallus is made of a poorly developed mycelium or is represented by separate cells or pseudomycelium.

Most of the species are saprophytes; some have symbiotic relation with insects and other arthropods.

Taphrinales and Protomycetales form yeast like growth in laboratory colonies and form mycelium when it reaches the host.

Classification

Mycologist Class Order Family Examples Fitzpatrick (1930) & Bessey

Phycomycetes

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Gaumann (1926) & Kramer (1950)

Hemiascomycetes Taphrinales Protomycetaceae Taphrinaceae

Protomyces Taphrina

Endomycetales Ascoideaceae SpermophthoraceaeSaccharomycetaceaeEndomycetaceae

Charles L. Kramer (1973) & Martin (1961)

Hemiascomycetes Protomycetales Protomycetaceae ProtomycesTaphrinales Taphrinaceae TaphrinaEndomycetales Ascoideaceae

SpermophthoraceaeSaccharomycetaceaeEndomycetaceae

Ascoidea AshbyaSaccharomyces Endomyces

Alexopolus (1979)

Archiascomycetes Taphrinales Protomycetaceae Taphrinaceae

Protomyces Taphrina

Schizosaccharomycetales

Schizosaccharomycetaceae

Schizosaccaromyces

Saccharomycetales Saccharomycetaceae NadsoniaceaeSaccharomycodaceaeEremotheciaceaeMetschnikowiaceaeCephaloascaceaeDipodascaceaeLipomycetaceae

SaccharomycesNadsoniaSaccharomycodesAshbya MetschnikowiaAmbriosiozyma Stephanoascus Lipomyces

Wikispecies Taphrinomycetes Taphrinales Protomycetaceae Taphrinaceae

ProtomycesTaphrina

Saccharomycetes Saccharomycatales Ascoideaceae Candidaceae Cephaloascaceae Dipodascacae Endomycetaceae Eremotheciaceae Lipomycetaceae Metschnikowiaceae Pichiaceae Saccharomycetaceae Saccharomycodaceae Saccharomycopsidceae

Order Taphrinales

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Taphrina deformans Protomyces macrosporus Order Schizosaccaromycetales

Schizosaccharomyces pombeOrder Saccharomycetales

Saccharomyces Nadsonia Ashbya

Metschinkowia Ambrosiozyma Stephanoascus Lipomyces

Key characteristics of each order and family

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Protomycetales: causes galls and lesions, accompanied by excessive colour changesPresence of synascusTaphrinales: asci are arranged in palisade layerEndomycetales: yeast fungi Spermophthoraceae: needle or spindle shaped ascospores Ascoideaceae: abundant mycelium and multispored, club shaped asci on hyphal tips or arising from gametangia Endomycetaceae: production of definite number of ascospores in each ascus Saccharomycetaceae: asci develop directly from zygote Comparision between Endomycetales, Protomyceales and Taphrinales

Endomycetales Taphrinales Protomycetales Ascus do not form synascus

Ascus do not form synascus

Forms synascus

Unicellular thallus; pseudomycelium

Parasites causing malformations, leaf curls, witches broom, puckering of leaves, plum pockets, blister like leaf lesions

Forms galls and lesions

Saprobic in nature Formation of subcuticular or subepidermal layer of binucleate ascogenous cells from mycelium

Produces thick walled intercellular chlamydospores

Sexual reproduction – fusion of 2 equal / unequal / ascospores form diploid zygote and ascophore with ascus is formed.

Asci / spore sacs arranged in a palisade layer and subglobose ascospore often buds to form yeast like colonies

Life cycle of Taphrina deformansDisease caused: Peach leaf curlOccurrence: Sub himalayan region; U.P., H.P.Symptoms: Thickening of diseased tissue takes place due to hypertrophy and hyperplasia of host cells and when large portion of entire leaf blade are involved, curling occurs. In addition to cytokinins, there is increase in Indole acetic acid (IAA) and tryptophan.Source of infection: Ascospores in ascus, after release from asci, they start budding and produce small ovoid blastospores.Primary infection: The blastospores after reaching host produce germ tube that penetrates into its host through the unfolding leaf buds and forms intercellular mycelium. Before penetration the single haploid nucleus of blastspore divides to establish a dikaryon.

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Development in host tissue: The hyphae grows intercellularly and penetrate various tissues of host, eventually aggregate below the leaf cuticle and break up into binucleate ascogenous cell (chlamydospore).karyogamy takes place in elongated ascogenous cell and followed immediately by mitosis of diploid nucleus. One daughter nucleus migrates into apical portion and other remains at the base. A septum forms in ascogenous cell resulting in formation of diploid basal stalk and upper ascus mother cell, containing one nucleus each. The ascus mother cell continues to elongate and ruptures leaf cuticle. The nucleus and cytoplasm of stalk cell disintegrate, emptying the cell. Diploid nuclei of ascus divides by meiosis and mitosis forms eight nuclei and ascospores. Ascospores may bud with in ascus and forms numerous blastospores. Asci form a palisade like layer above the epidermis and their presence gives leaf a waxy bloom.Dispersal: With bursting of ascal tip, the ascospores are forcibly released into air and repeat the cycle.

Class Plectomycetes

Globose evanescent asci in closed fruiting body, cleistothecium Asci – 8 spored, sessile, thin walled, lack a performed opening, and release the ascospores passively with in ascoma, escaping when wall of the ascoma breaks or decays.

Ascospores – unicellular without germ pores or germ slits. Peridium of cleistothecium – one to several layers thick. Mostly saprobic, few are parasitic on plants Some of them are used commercially in the manufacture of organic acids;

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Aspegillus – citric acid and gluconic acid; Penicillium – penicillinClassification Mycologist Order Family Examples Ainsworth (1971) Gymnoascales Dendrosphaeraceae

Gymnoascaceae Onygenaceae

Dendrosphaera ArthrodermaOnygena

Eurotiales CephalothecaceaePseudoeurotiaceaeEurotiaceae

Cephalotheca PleuroascusEurotium

Ascosphaerales Ascosphaeraceae Ascosphaera Elaphomycetales Elaphomycetaceae ElaphomycesMicroascales Microascaceae Microascus Ophiostomales Ophiostomataceae Ceratocystis

Alexopolus (1979) Ascosphaerales Ascosphaeraceae Ascosphaera Onygenales Onygenaceae

ArthrodermataceaeMyxotrichaceaeGymnoascaceae

Onygena ArthrodermaMyxotrichumGymnoascus

Eurotiales Trichocomaceae Pseudoeurotiaceae

Eurotium Cryptendoxyla

Wikispecies Class Eurotiomycetes

S.Cl.Chaetothyriomycetidae

Eurotiales Elaphomycetaceae Eurotiaceae

Ascosphaerales Ascosphaeraceae Erasmaceae

Onygenales Agellomycetaceae Arthrodermataceae Gymnoascaceae Onygenaceae

Pyrenuales Monoblastiaceae Pyrenulaceae Requienellaceae Trypethellaceae

Verrucariales Adelococcaceae Verrucariaceae

Order Ascosphaerales

Ascosphera chalk brood Order Onygenales

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Onygena

Arthroderma Myxotrichum GymnoascusOrder Eurotiales

Emericella Talaromyces Monascus CryptendoxylaAsexual stages

Aspergillus Penicillium PaecilomycesKey characteristics of each orders and families Gymnoascales: loosely woven hyphae around asci, non ostiolate ascocarp, lack definite peridial wall with appendages. Dendrosphaeraceae: 25 cm highly branched stalks Gymnoascaceae: gymnothecium, commonly called “skin plant”, as they cause tineas. Eg: anamorphs Trichophyton, Microsporium Onygenaceae: stalked, appendages absentEurotiales: Thick sclerotoid peridium Cephalothecaeae: Conspicuous lines of dehiscence on peridium Eurotiaceae: true cleistothecia

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Ascosphaerales: reduced cleistothecia – spore cystElaphomycetales: deers are sensitive to smell for its fruiting bodies, truffle like, hypogeous, acts as ectomycorrhizae with pines, parasitized by Cordyceps.Microascales: perithecial ascocarp, ostiolate or non ostiolate.Ophiostomatales: perithecium with long ostiole beak

Comparision between Eurotiales and ErysiphalesEurotiales Erysiphales Ascoma – small globose, lack ostioles and paraphyses

Powdery mildew fungi with Phyllactinia type centrum

Peridium – pseudoparechyma or thick and sclerotoid and lacks appandages

Ascocarps – globose, non ostiolate, open irregularly with appandages

Ascogonial apparatus – coiled Asci – one to many spored, pyriform to clavate, unitunicate

Asci – 8 spored and thin walled Ascospore – unicellular, ellipsoidAscospores – unicellular, globose, ellipsoid, bivalvate, hyaline/ dark, highly ornamented and lack germ pore or slits

Asexual stages – Oidium, Oidiopsis, Ovulariopsis

Saprobic- decaying plant material and food stuffs

Biotrophs

Asexual stages – Penicillium, Aspergillus Although intercellular host protoplast does not have direct contact with haustoria because of invagination of plasma membrane of host

Industrial purpose – penicillin, aflatoxins Pseudoascogonium, pseudoantheridium are formed

Comparision between Oidium, Oidiopsis and OvulariopsisOidium Oidiopsis Ovulariopsis

Mycelium is ectophytic, hyaline.

Mycelium is endophytic. Mycelium is partly ectophytic and partly endophytic.

Conidia aredeveloped from a flask shaped mother cell ( spore mother cell) formed on a short conidiophore .

Conidiophores may be branched orunbranched, erect, septate, hyaline and emerge through stomata.

The conidiophores are hyaline, septate, unbranched, and bear a single conidium. In some species, the conidiophores are spiral in shape.

Conidia are barrel shaped with flat ends and are produced in chains and are also referred to as meristem arthrospores as

Conidia are produced singly and cylindrical in shape. Conidia are of two types blunt tip andpointed tip

Conidia are rhomboid in shape.

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these are formed by fragmentation of hyphae.Eg:Erysiphe,Podosphaera, Uncinula, Sphaerotheca and Microsphaera

Leveillula Phyllactinia subspiralis.

Oidium Oidiopsis

Ovulariopsis

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Aspergillus Penicillium Conidiophore arises from foot cell Conidial apparatus arises from somatic

hyphaeConidiophore – long, erect Conidial apparatus – stipe – phialide –

ramus – metulaeForms a terminal swollen vesicle on which bottle shaped structure – sterigmata / phialides / conidiogenous cell

Conidia produced bottle shaped phialides

Produce conidia at their tips in chains Conidia in chains by connectivesConidia – develops within specialised cells termed the phialide as phialoconidia Conidia ontogeny is holoblastic Holoblastic, circuscissile rupture of this

outer wall

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Class Pyrenomycetes

Ascocarps entirely surrounded by peridial wall Asci – unitunicate, arranged on hymenium layer, persistant, rarely evanescent Ascospore – typically globose or flask shaped perithecia and are provided with an opening, the ostiole, which is lined by hyphae like periphyses

Mostly saprobes, some are plant pathogens like Claviceps, Nectria

ClassificationMycologist Order Family Examples Ainsworth (1971) Erysiphales Erysiphaceae Erysiphe

Melioles Meliolaceae Meliola Sphaeriales Chaetomiaceae

XylariaceaeDiatrypaceaePhyllochoraceae ConiochaetaceaeSodariaceaePolystigmataceae

ChaetomiumRosellinia Diatrype Phyllochora ConiochaetaNeurospora Glomerella

Clavicipitales Clavicipitaceae Claviceps

Diaporthales Diaporthaceae Gnomoniaceae Melanosporaceae

DiaportheGnomonia Melanospora

Hypocreales HypocreaceaeHypomycetaceae

Hypocrea Hypomyces

Coronophorales Coronophoraceae Coronophora

Coryneliales Coryneliaceae Corynelia

Alexopolus (1979) Hypocreales HypocreaceaeNectriaceaeClavicipitaceae

HypocreaNectriaClaviceps

Melanosporales Melanosporaceae Melanospora Microascales Microascaceae

Ceratocystidae Microascus Ceratocystis

Phyllochorales Phyllochoraceae Glomerella Ophiostomatales Ophiostomataceae Ophiostoma Diaporthales Diaporthaceae Diaporthe Xylariales Xylariaceae

Diatrypaceae DaldiniaDiatrype

Sordariales Sordariaceae Neurospora

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TripterosporaceaeChaetomiaceaeConiochaetaceaeLasiosphaeraceaeNitschkiaceae

PodosporaChaetomiumConiochaetaCercophora

Melioles Meliolaceae Meliola WikispeciesS.cl. Hypocreomycetidae

S.cl. Sordariomycetidae

Sphaeriales SphaeriaceaeHypocreales Bionectriaceae

Ceratostomataceae Clavicipitaceae Hypocreaceae Nectriaceae Niessliaceae Ophiocordycipitaceae

Diaporthales Diaoporthaceae Gnomoniaceae Melanconiaceae Togninaceae Valsaceae Vialacaceae

Sordariales Chaetomiaceae Lasiosphaeriacaeae Sordariaceae

Ophiostomales Kathistaceae Ophiostomataceae

Order Hypocreales

Hypocrea Gibberella Nectria

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Family Clavicipitaceae

Claviceps purpurea CordycepsOrder Melanospora

Melanospora

Order Microascales

Microascus Ceratocystis

Order Phyllochorales Order Ophiostomatales

Glomerella Ophiostoma

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Order Diaporthales

Diaporthe Gnomonia CryphonectriaOrder Xylariales

Hypoxylon Daldinia concentrica

Diatrype Order Sordariales

Neurospora

Podospora Chaetomium

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Coniochaeta Cercophora

Order Melioles

Meliola

Key characteristics of each order and family Erysiphales: Phyllactinia type centrum, causes powdery mildews or white mildews and are obligate, bitunicate asci, endotunica poorly developed. These are separated from other groups of fungi on the basis of DNA analysis.Meliolales: Black mildews, obligate biotrophs, perithecia ascocarp, capitate hyphopodia, paraphyses arises laterally, setae on ascocarp.Sphaeriales: dark leathery or carbonaceous, globose or pear shaped Xylaria type, asci forcibly discharged. Chaetomiaceae: long hair which cover upper part of perithecium, ostiolate Xylariceae: only necks are open to surface, acts as rhizomorphs, stroma made of fungal tissue Diatrypaceae: stroma made of host and fungal tissue, sausage shaped ascospores. Phyllochoraceae: ascoma embedded in clypeus, biotrophs. Sordariaceae: lives in dung and decaying plant parts, ostiolate or non ostiolate, glabrous or hairy Neurospora: commonly called as red bread mold or bakery mold, presence of nerve like ribs on ascospore, reproduce asexually by macroconidia or microconidia, sexually by spermatization. The ascogonium is called as protoperithecium or bulbil or archicarps, this arises many trichogynes which act as receptors while spermatization.Clavicipitales: perithecia which are immersed in fleshy brightly colored stroma which is made of fungal tissue. Cordyceps: parasite on insects and also fungi like ElaphomycesDiaporthales: Diaporthe type of centrum, perithecium buried in stroma Gnomoniaceae: non stromatic, ascospores hyaline Melanosporaceae: dark colored ascospores, non ostiolateHypocreales: Nectria type centrum Hypocreaceae: ascocarps are immersed in stroma Hypomycetaceae: perithecium is loose prosenchymatous subiculum

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Coronophorales: mucilaginous mass around the tip of the ascocarp – Quelkorper, non ostiolate Coryneliales: parasitic on leaves, ascocarp is closed, botuliform, often opening by funnel shaped clefts

Comparision between different ordersHypocreales Phylochoral

es Xylariales Sordariales Diaporthales Ophiostom

atales Microascales

Nectria type centrum

Diaporthe type

Lack stromata

Ascocarps brightly colored, rarely non ostiolate,subiculum or immersed in stroma

Ascocarp – black ostiolate,embedded in host tissue under clypeus

Ascocarp – embedded in true stroma, entirely of fungal tissue,ONLY NECKS OPEN TO SURFACE

Ascocarp – dark ostiolate or non ostiolate

Ascocarp – usually immersed or erumpent and have stromatic tissue

Perithecium or cleistothecium

Asci – clavate or cylindrical

Asci – cylindrical, ellipsoid and unitunicate with apical pore

Asci – large with an apical amyloid ring

Asci – cylindrical with a thickened ring

Asci – evanescent or their short stalks gelatinize freeing asci in cavity, if persistant, spores are expelled

Asci – globose to ovoid, evanescent produced in a basal fascicle and released into centre

Asci – globose or ovoid, evanescent, passively discharged

Ascospores – colorless, nonseptate,multiseptate,muriform,do not fragment

Ascospore – dark brown, unicellular, germ slit and not allantoid

Ascospores - dark, septate with variously ornamented walls with one or two germ pores, possess a gelatinous sheath or

Ascospore – one celled

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appendagesAsexual stage – Trichoderma,Verticillium,Fusarium

Asexual stages- Geniculosporium, Nodulosorium

Paraphyses and periphyses are absent

Saprobic Saprobes and parasites

Saprobes Parasites on bark and wood

Parasites on plants and animals

Comparision between Clavicipitaceae and NectriaceaeClavicipitaceae NectriaceaeParasites on grasses Parasites on timber and ornamental

plantsFormation of perithecia which are superficial or immersed in fleshy, bright coloured stroma which is made of entirely of fungal tissue

Ascocarps – fleshy, bright, often white, yellow, red, green, blue. Produced superficially on stroma or immersed in stroma

Asci – long, narrow cylindrical, apical thick cap traversed by single pore

Apical structure of asci do not stain with iodine

Ascspore – long, filiform or fusiform, multiseptate or often fragment into short segments

Ascospore lack germ pores or slits

Ergots or sclerotia are formed Canker and die backAsexual stage – Sphacelia Asexual stage – Fusarium,

Cylindrocarpon

Life cycle of Claviceps purpureaDisease caused: Ergot of rye, ergotism in human by its alkaloids like lysergic acid, ergomatrine, ergotamine, ergotoxine Symptoms: Ergots and honey dew stagesSource of infection: Sclerotia fall to the ground and germinate in spring, producing a number of pin shaped stromata, in the heads of which a large no. of ascogonia develop just below the surface of the stromata. One or more antheridia develop from the base of the ascogonium. The male nuclei from one antheridium enter the ascogonium which ultimately gives rise to the ascogenous hyphae. The peridium which is one or two layers thick grows around these. The perithecium is short neck lined with periphyses and opens at the surface of the stroma by an ostiole. Each mature perithecium bears a conspicuous ascus cap at its tip. The mature asci grow up to the ostiole in succession and the filiform ascospores are forcibly discharged one at a time after shorter intervals.

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Primary infection: Release of ascospores coincides with anthesis of the grass or cereal hosts. The developing ovaries then get infected. But the process of infection of the ovary is unknown.Development in host tissue: A few days after being infected by the ascospore, the ovary tissues are destroyed by developing mycelium and acervuli like structure consisting of a cottony, mycelial mat and covered with small conidiogenous cells are formed. The conidiogenous cells produce minute, oval, unicellular conidia at their tips. The asexual stage of C.purpurea was called Sphacelia segetum. The conidia are enveloped in a sticky, sweet liquid called “honey dew” (consists of glucose, fructose, sucrose and other sugars). The supply of water and sucrose increases as soon as the infection of the flower takes place. The pathogen present in the host tissue converts the sucrose from the host to mono-, di and oligosaccharides, resulting in a continuous sink for sugar translocation and evaporation and an increase in the osmotic concentration of sugars. These factors are responsible for the increased rate of translocation towards the infected ovary.Secondary infection: Insects are attracted towards the honey dew and help to transmit the conidia to healthy flowers. On reaching a flower, the conidium germinates and the young ovary gets infected. After a few days of infection, a crop of conidia capable of infecting young ovaries is formed, thus propagating the fungus and spreading the disease. The mycelial mat begins to harden and is ultimately converted into a hard, black sclerotium which is often considerably larger than the rye grain.

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Class Discomycetes

Produce fructification with an exposed hymenium, called apothecium. Shapes of apothecia – cup, saucer, club, tongue, mushroom like, saddle, brain,bell like, sponge like, funnel shaped.

Hymenium consists of asci and paraphyses. All the Discomycetes eject their spores forcibly except the Tuberales in which the ascocarps are closed and the spores are dispersed by animals.

Mostly saprobic, few are parasitic such as Monilinia, Rhytisma. Some fungi like Morchella are edible.

Classification:

Mycologist Order Family Examples Ainsworth (1971) Medeolariales Medeolariaceae Medeolaria

Cyttariales Tuberaceae Tuber Pezizales Thelobolaceae

SarcoscyphaceaePezizaceaeAscobolaceaePyrenomycetaceaeMorchellaceaeHelvellaceae

ThelobolusSarcoscyphaPezizaAscobolusPyronemaMorchellaHelvella

Rhytismatales Rhytismataceae Hypodermataceae

RhytismaLophodermium

Ostropales OdontotremataceaeStictidaceaeTriblidiaceae

Helotiales AscocorticaceaeOrbiliaceaeDermateaceaeHyaloscyphaceaeSclerotiniaceaeHelotiaceaeGeoglossaceaeHemiphacidiaceaeGelatinodiscaceaePhacidiaceaeMediolariaceae

Alexopolus (1979) MedeolarialesRhytismatales Rhytisma Ostropales Ostropales

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Cyttariales Cyttaria Helotiales Leotiaceae

SclerotiniaceaeDermateaceaeGeoglossaceaeOrbiliaceae

BulgariaMoniliniaDiplocarponGeoglossumOrbilia

Gyalectales Coenogonium Lecanorales S.or.

PeltigerineaeLecanorineaeCladoniineaeTeloschistineae

LobariaLeconoraCladoniaCaloplaca

Calicales CaliciaceaeMyocaliciaceae

Pezizales PezizaceaeTuberaceaeTerfeziaceaeElaphomycetaceaeGlaziellaceaeOtidiaceaeSarcoscyphaceaeSarcosomataceaeTheelobolaceaeAscobolaceaePyronemataceaeAscodemidiaceaeMorchellaceaeHelvellaceae

PezizaTuberTerfeziaElaphomycesGlaziellaAnthracobiaSarcoscyphaChlorioactisThelobolusAscobolus PyronemaAscodesmisMorchellaHelvella

Wikispecies Leotiomycetes

Cyttariales Cyttariaceae Helotiales Ascocorticiaceae

Bulgariaceae Dermateaceae Geoglossaceae Helotiaceae Hemiphacidiaceae Hyaloscyphaceae Leotiaceae Loramycetaceae Phacidiaceae Rutstroemiaceae Sclerotiniaceae Vibrisscaceae

Rhytismatales Ascodichaenaceae

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Lecaromycetes

Pezizomycetes

Cryptomycetaceae Cudoniaceae Rhytismataceae

Gyalectales Gyalectaceae Ostropales Graphidaceae

Coenogoniaeae Gomphillaceae Odontotremataceae Phaneromycetaceae Solorinellaceae Stictidaceae Thelotremataceae

Teloschistales Letrouitiaceae Teloschistaceae

Lecanorales Anziaceae Arthrorhaphidaceae Bacidiaceae Calylidiaceae Candelariaceae Cetrodoniaceae Crocyniaceae Dactylosporaceae Gypsoplacaceae Haemotommataceae Lecanoraceae Lecideaceae Loxosporaceae Megalosporaceae Megalariaceae Micareaceae Miltideaceae Mycoblastaceae Ophioparmaceae Pachyascaceae Parmeliaceae Pilocarpaceae Ramalinaceae Rhizocarpaceae Scoliciosporaceae Sphaerophoraceae

Pezizales Ascobolaceae Ascodesmidaceae Caloscyphaceae

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Carbomycetaceae Chorioactidaceae Discinaceae Glaziellaceae Helvellaceae Karstenellaceae Morchellaceae Pezizaceae Pyronemataceae Rhizonaceae Sarcoscyphaceae Sarcostomataceae Tuberaceae

Order Rhytismatales

Rhytisma

Ostropales Cyttaria

Order Helotiales

Bulgaria Chlorociboria

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Monilinia Diplocarpon Geoglossum Orbilia Order Gyalectales

Coenogonium + Trentepohlia

Order Lecanorales

Peltigera Lobaria Sticta Physcia

Leconora Parmelia Cladonia Caloplaca

Order Pezizales

Peziza Tuber

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Terfezia Elaphomyces Scutellinia Anthracobia

Sarcoscypha Wynnea Urnula Sarcosoma

Thelobolus Ascobolus

Saccobolus Pyronema Coprotus

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Ascodesmis

Morchella Disciotis Verpa

Helvella Gyromitra

Key characteristics of each order and familyMedeolariales: endophytic on stems of hosts, causing fusiform swelling of the stemCyttariales: ascoma are large, spherical to pyriform, grouped in large clustersTuberales: truffles provide gastronomic delights to man and pig, hypogeal closed apothecia, mycorrhizal relationPezizales: operculate epigean apothecia Thelobolaceae: minute apothecia with usually single ascus with multilayers Sarcoscyphaceae: apothecia are large, often stipulate and tough, gelatinous Pezizaceae: cup or disc shaped apothecia grow on dung or on wood Ascobolaceae: ascospores thick walled, egutulate Pyronemycetaceae: apothecia are small discoid to cupulate, rarely stalked, often hairy and commonly have carotenoids

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Morchellaceae: apothecia are fairly large and stipulate with sponge like or bell shaped pileus Helvellaceae: false morel or saddle fungi, large stipitate apothecia with a discoid to cup or saddle shaped hymenium with cerebleform pileus – gyrometroidRhytismatales: apothecoid or lirellate ascocarp immersed in stroma or host tissue Rhytismataceae: stromata are well developed, carbonaceous and multiloculate Hypodermataceae: stromata – carbonaceous with single apotheciumOstopales: parasites on herbaceous stems, bark or wood, not economically importantHelotiales: inoperculate apothecia Sclerotiniaceae: cup shaped, yellowish brown stalked apothecia that develops from sclerotium or stromata Dermataceae: sessile apothecia which never arises from sclerotium Geoglossaceae: commonly called as earth tongues, club or fan or tongue shaped apothecia

Comparision between ordersPezizales Helotiales Tuberales Operculate, epigean apothecium of various shapes and sizes- fleshy, brittle, leathery, gelatinous

Inoperculate, cup or disc shaped apothecium

Hypogeous ascoma remain closed, fleshy to leathery, globose wit hymenium that lines a single or complex series of locules

Asci – arranged on hymenium; Ascal apex – thinner, apical or subapical lid

Asci – slightly thickened apices

Asci – globose or oval

Ascospore – violently discharged

Ascospores – several septate and are variously shaped asymmetrical with upper end wider

Ascospores – unicellular, hyaline or brown, often spherical, smooth or spiny

Saprobes Parasites like Monilinia Fruiting bodies are not formed in artificial cultures

Comparision between families

Pezizaceae Morchellaceae Helvellaceae Cup or disc shaped Cup or bowl shaped Cup to saddle shaped,

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apothecium – sessile or stalked

apothecium – long stalked large stiptate, variously convoluted

Ascal apex – intensely blue with iodine

Ascal apex doesnot blue with iodine

Ascospore – uninucleate, thin walled

Ascospore – multinucleate, tiny droplets usually present at the poles of fresh, young ellipsoid ascospores

Ascospore – quadrinucleate but not crowned by small epiplasmic guttules

Grows on dung Morels, bell morels Lorchels, lorels, brain fungi

Asexual stage - Chromelosporium

Class Loculoascomycetes

Production of asci within locules ina preformed stroma (ascostroma) that constitutes ascocarp.

Ascus – bitunicate, foot or hoof, a knob like structures are produced at the base of each ascus.

Locules lack its wall which differs from perithecium in stroma in which perithecium is covered by its own wall.

Uniloculate ascstromata – Pseudothecium; modified uniloculate ascostromata – Thyriothecium, hysterothecium.

Apical modification of within the cytoplasm at the ectotunica apex with a series of refractile spirals visible at light microscope level surrounding an “apical or ocular chamber”

Classification

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Mycologist Order Family Example Ainsworth (1971) Myriangiales Myriangiaceae

Saccardinulaceae ElsinoePiedraia

Dothideales Trichothyriaceae ChaetothyriceaePseudosphaeraceaeEnglerulaceaeDothioraceaeDothideaceaeCapnodiaceae

Mycosphaerella Capnodium

Pleosporales PleosporaceaeVenturiceaeLophiostomataeae

PleosporaVenturiaLophiostoma

Hysteriales Hysteriaceae Farlowiella Hemisphaeriales Micropeltidiaceae

MunkiellaceaeMicrothyriaceaeTrichopeltiaceaeParmulariaceaeAulographaceaeBrefeldiellaceaeLeptopeltidaceaeStephanothecaceaeSchizothyriaceae

Microthyrium

Alexopolus (1979) Coryneliales CoryneliaDothideales Dothideaceae

PseudosphaeraceaeMicrothyriaceae

MycosphaerellaLeptosphaerulinaTrichothyrium

Myriangiales MyriangiaceaeElsinoaceaePiedraiacea

MyriangiumElsinoePiedraia

Arthonales Opegrapha Asterinales Hyphopodia Capnodiales Capnodiaceae

AntennularielliaceaeEuantennariaceae

Capnodium

Chaetothyriales ChaetothyriaceaeHerpotrichiellaceaeMetacapnodiaceae

Capronia

Petellariales Rhytidhysteron Pleosporales Pleosporaceae

LeptosphaeraceaePleosporaLeptosphaera

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HysteriaceaeMicropeltidaceaeTubeufiaceae PheotrichaceaeVenturiaceaeBotryosphaeriaceae

Glonium

PodonectriaPreussiaVenturiaGuignardia

Melanommatales MelanommataceaeDidymosphaeriaceaeMassariaceaePyrenulaceaeMytilinidiaceae Platystomaceae

MelanomaNeotestudinaZopfiaPyrenulaActidiumHerpotricha

Wikispecies Arthoniomycetes

Dothidiomycetes

Arthoniales Arthoniaceae Chrysothicaceae Melaspilaceae Roccellaceae

Dothideales Decampiaceae Dothidiaceae Dothioraceae

Order Coryniales

Corynelia Tripospora Caliciopsis

Order Dothideales

pie Mycosphaerella Leptosphaerulina Microthyrium

Order Myriangiales Order Arthoniales

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Elsinoe Piedraria Opegrapha

Order Capnodiales Order Petellariales

Capnodium RhytidhysteronOrder Pleosporales

Pleospora Cochliobolus Leptosphaeria Glonium

Podonectria Preussia Venturia

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Guignardia

Order Melanommatales

Neotestudina Zopfia Massaria Pyrenula Mytilidion

Actidium Herpotrichia

Keys characteristics of each family and orderMyriangiales: uniascal locules immersed in stroma Myriangiaceae: asci are spherical or broadly clavate and are borne in uniascal loculi Sacchardinulaceae: specialised parasites on human hairDothidiales: loculi contains several cylindrical asci in fasicles without paraphyses or pseudoparaphyses Dothidiaceae: loculi are ostiolate, parasitic on vascular plants Capnodiaceae: commonly called as sooty molds, bitunicate asci in ostiolate ascocarps with many septate ascosporesPleosporales: paraphyses are present, Pleospora type centrum Pleosporaceae: multiseptate ascospores without germ pores or slits

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Venturiaceae: single septate, ovoid or ellipsoid, greenish or brown ascospores Lophiostomataceae: beak of pseudothecium is laterally compressed with an cleft like ostiolum with one to many septate ascospores Hysteriaceae: saprophytic, thick walled apically rounded ascocarps with sunken cleft that usually produce wide, 1 – many celled ascosporeHemisphaerales: hemispherical, dimidiate, shield shaped ascocarps, Pleospora type centrum

Comparision between orders:

Dothideales Pleosporales Myriangiales Dothidea type centrum Pleospora type centrum Ascostroma –

indeterminate growth, single ascus develop in each of several non ostiolate locules in fertile region

Hamathecium absent Hamathecium – absentAsci – ovoid to cylindrical, fissitunicate, usually in fasicles

Asci – basal, occupy wide region of base of locule

Asci – fissitunicate, globose, clavate

Ascospores – uninucleate to multinucleate, muriform

Ascospores – hyaline or darker

Ascospore- pale red brown,one to few celled or muriform, often asymmetric spores

Comparision between familiesPleosporaceae Venturiaceae

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Perithecium or cleistothecium embedded in substrate

Pseudothecia or ascostromata with several locules

Sticky and appandaged ascospores Ascospore – 2 celled hyaline to olive green, dark brown. Both cells are unequal in size

Plant and animal parasites Attacks apple, related speciesAsci – club shaped Ascus formation usually takes place by

the formation of crosiersOrigin of germ tube with respect to hilumJack in the box discharge of ascospores Jack in the box discharge of ascospores

Class Loboulbeniomycetes

Lack mycelium, hyaline to darkly pigmented thalli, basal evanescent asci. Absence of hamathecial tissues. Obligate parasites of insects, mites, and few millipedes. Heteroeocy – occurrence of different life states in distinct hosts. Ascospore develops into conidium producing anamorphs on arthropod and may produce haustoria to penetrate the integument.

Classification Mycologist Class Order Family Ainsworth (1971) Laboulbeniomycetes Labuolbeniales

SpathulosporalesLabuolbeniaceaeSpathulosporaceae

Alexopolus (1979)

Labuolbeniales

Spathulosporales

LabuolbeniaceaePyxodiophoraceaeCeratomycetaceaeEuceratomycetaceaeHerpomycetaceae Spathuosporaceae

Wikispecies Laboulbeniomycetes Labuolbeniales Ceratomycetaceae Euceratomycetaceae Herpomycetaceae Laboulbeniaceae

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Order Laboulbeniales

Pyxidiophora Laboulbenia

Key characteristics of each order and familyLoboulbeniales: spermatia produced endogenously inside simple antheridiaSpathulosporaceae: one celled ascospore

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