author: erich baumann - sswm · lessons learnt during the workshops held by aguasan (an...

First edition: 2000, 1000 copies

Author: Erich Baumann

Published by: SKAT, Swiss Centre for Development Cooperationin Technology and Management

Copyright: © SKAT, 2000

Comments: Please send any comments concerning this publication to:

SKATVadianstrasse 42CH-9000 St.Gallen, Switzerland

Tel: +41 71 228 54 54Fax: +41 71 228 54 55e-mail: [email protected]

Printed by: Niedermann Druck, St.Gallen, Switzerland

ISBN: 3-908001-99-4

Impressum

ContextAccess to adequate water, sanitation, drainage and solid waste disposal are four in-ter-related basic needs which impact significantly on socio-economic development andquality of life. The number of people around the world who still do not have accessto these basic facilities, despite enormous global effort over more than two decades,provides sufficient evidence that conventional approaches and solutions alone areunable to make a sufficient dent in the service backlog which still exists. Numerousinitiatives are ongoing at different levels to improve strategies, technologies, institu-tional arrangements, socio-cultural anchorage, and cost effectiveness, all to enhanceefficiency and, eventually, to have an impact on the sector's goals. In addition, theever-increasing scarcity of water brings policymakers together to find solutions to thechallenge of water resource management. This series of manuals is intended as acontribution to these efforts.

BackgroundThe decision to produce this series of manual was prompted by the positive experi-ence gained with a practical manual based on the experience of Helvetas (a SwissNGO) during the 1970s in Cameroon, which has become outdated with the pas-sage of time. SDC (the Swiss Agency for Development and Co-operation) supportedSKAT's initiative to produce this series, working with professionals with longstandingpractical experience in the implementation of rural water supply projects. Lessonslearnt during the workshops held by AGUASAN (an interdisciplinary working groupof water and sanitation professionals from Swiss development and research organi-sations) over the last 14 years have been included where appropriate. In particular,there is an emphasis on documenting and illustrating practical experiences from allregions of the world.

The ManualsAs can be seen from the table below, this series of manuals is primarily aimed atproject managers, engineers and technicians. However, given the wide range of sub-jects covered, it is also an important working tool for all actors in the sector, rang-ing from those involved with policy development to those constructing systems atvillage level. The series has a clear focus on water supply in rural settings. It pro-poses technologies with due consideration for socio-cultural, economic, institutionaland regulatory requirements. This approach is in keeping with the SDC water andsanitation policy, emphasising the balanced development approach leading to sus-tainable programmes and projects.

It should be noted that the present series deals almost exclusively with water sup-ply. The importance of sanitation is however clearly established in Volume 1, whichdeals predominantly with the software aspects necessary to achieve an impact. Itincludes some proposals for optional tools, approaches and institutional arrangementsand is intended as an overall introduction to the other, more technical, volumes ofthe series.

Some final commentsThe water and sanitation sector is constantly evolving. We would welcome any que-ries, comments or suggestions you might have. Your feedback will be made avail-able to other interested users of the manuals.

Finally, we hope that these manuals will be useful for the practitioner in the fieldas well as for the planner in the office. If the series can be a contribution to provid-ing water to more people in need on a sustainable basis, we will have achievedour goal.

The production of this series has only been possible through the continuous sup-port of colleagues from all over the world. Our sincere thanks to all of them.

Armon Hartmann Karl WehrleHead of Water & Infrastructure Division Head of Water & Construction DivisionSwiss Agency for Development Co-operation SKAT

Foreword

Acknowledgments

I am most grateful to the Water and Infrastructure Division, SDC who funded thiswork; particularly to Armon Hartmann who encouraged the HTN over all the yearswith support and council.

I would like to record my thanks to my colleagues and good friends in the HTNNetwork whose input has been invaluable in arriving at the conclusions reached inthis booklet. Special thanks go to Arun Mudgal who worked very closely with meover many years on technology promotion. Many of his ideas and views have foundtheir way into the text. His advice and review of the manuscript helped to elimi-nate errors and misquotes.

The completion of this book was made possible thanks to the assistance from KarlErpf and Catherine Ndiaye of SKAT. Karl did most of the drawings and Catherineprepared the lay out. Finally, I thank my wife, Ronagh for her critical review and forchanging my words and thoughts into grammatically correct language.

Contents

Contents

1. Introduction ...................................................................................... 1

1.1 HTN ............................................................................................................................ 1

2. Pumps and water lifting techniques ................................................. 3

2.1 Principles for lifting water .......................................................................................3

2.2 Pump types ...............................................................................................................42.2.1 Reciprocating pumps ................................................................................................... 42.2.2 Suction and lift pumps ................................................................................................. 42.2.3 Diaphragm pumps ....................................................................................................... 62.2.4 Progressive cavity (mono) pumps ................................................................................ 6

2.3 Materials for pumps .................................................................................................7

2.4 Selection criteria for handpumps ...........................................................................72.4.1 Operating conditions .................................................................................................... 72.4.2 Other criteria ................................................................................................................ 7

3. Choice of technology ........................................................................ 9

3.1 Groundwater sources .............................................................................................. 93.1.1 Hand-dug well ............................................................................................................ 123.1.2 Hand-drilled borehole ................................................................................................. 143.1.3 Machine drilled borehole ............................................................................................ 16

3.2 Pumping technologies ...........................................................................................183.2.1 Suction hand pumps .................................................................................................. 183.2.2 Direct Action handpumps .......................................................................................... 203.2.3 Deep well handpumps ............................................................................................... 223.2.4 Electrically driven power pumps ................................................................................ 243.2.5 Diesel driven mechanised pumps .............................................................................. 263.2.6 Solar powered mechanised pumps............................................................................ 283.2.7 Wind powered pumps ............................................................................................... 30

4. Typical cost for small water supply systems .................................. 33

4.1 Hand-dug wells, Hand-drilled boreholes, .............................................................33

4.2 Boreholes (high- or low-yielding, small or big diameter), ................................. 33

4.3 Computer supported cost calculation programme ............................................ 35

5. Institutional framework .................................................................. 39

5.1 Role of stakeholders .............................................................................................. 395.1.1 National level .............................................................................................................. 395.1.2 Rural water authorities at district level ....................................................................... 395.1.3 Role of communities.................................................................................................. 415.1.4 Role of ESA projects .................................................................................................. 41

5.2 Extension services ..................................................................................................41

Water lifting

6. Standardisation and private sector support ................................... 43

6.1 Standardisation ...................................................................................................... 43

6.2 Pre-qualification of suppliers ................................................................................44

6.3 Manufacture of handpumps .................................................................................. 446.3.1 Cost of local production ............................................................................................. 45

6.4 Procurement channels of handpumps .................................................................46

6.5 Quality control ........................................................................................................ 46

7. Operation and Maintenance ............................................................ 49

7.1 Community management of O&M .......................................................................497.1.1 Building village level structures .................................................................................. 497.1.2 Restructuring government departments .................................................................... 50

7.2 O&M - costs and strategies .................................................................................. 507.2.1 Cost of maintenance.................................................................................................. 517.2.2 O&M strategy ............................................................................................................ 51

7.3 Private sector involvement in O&M .....................................................................52

7.4 Spare parts distribution .........................................................................................52

8. India handpump case study ............................................................ 55

8.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................55

8.2 The India MKII success story ................................................................................558.2.1 Emergence of a new pump ....................................................................................... 558.2.2 Large-scale production ............................................................................................... 568.2.3 Standardisation .......................................................................................................... 578.2.4 The India MKII in the export market .......................................................................... 588.2.5 Accomplishing quality ................................................................................................ 598.2.6 Government’s role...................................................................................................... 59

8.3 Technology development for change ...................................................................598.3.1 Involving the users..................................................................................................... 598.3.2 The India MKIII development ..................................................................................... 608.3.3 The rationale behind the India MKIII development .................................................... 60

8.4 Changing course .....................................................................................................618.4.1 Has the MKIII been a step in the right direction?...................................................... 61

8.5 Maintaining the assets ..........................................................................................628.5.1 Relevance of handpump programme......................................................................... 628.5.2 The three-tier system................................................................................................. 628.5.3 Practical experience ................................................................................................... 628.5.4 Community based handpump maintenance .............................................................. 63

9. Handpump fact-sheets .................................................................... 65

9.1 No 6 Pump ..............................................................................................................66

9.2 Jibon Pump .............................................................................................................67

9.3 TARA Pump .............................................................................................................68

9.4 NIRA AF85 Pump ...................................................................................................69

9.5 MALDA Pump ........................................................................................................ 70

Contents

9.6 INDIA Mark II Pump .............................................................................................. 71

9.7 INDIA Mark III Pump .............................................................................................. 72

9.8 AFRIDEV Pump ....................................................................................................... 73

9.9 U3M Pump .............................................................................................................. 74

9.10 VERGNET Pump .....................................................................................................75

9.11 VOLANTA Pump .....................................................................................................76

9.12 BUSH Pump ...........................................................................................................77

9.13 Rope Pump..............................................................................................................78

Water lifting

List of abbreviations used

AC Alternate Current

ARWSP Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme

BIS Bureau of Indian Standards

CBHM Community Based Handpump Maintenance

CPHEEO Central Public Health and Environmental Engineering Organisation

DC Direct Current

DCD Department for Community Development

DRA Demand Responsive Approach

DTH Down-the-Hole Drilling

ESA External Support Agency

FOB Free on Board

FRP Fibre Reinforced Plastic

GI Galvanised Iron

GOI Government of India

HDPE High Density Poly Ethylene (plastic)

HTN Network for Cost-effective Technologies in Water and Sanitation

INR Indian Rupee

ISI Indian Standard Institution

lpcd Litre per Capita and Day

MERADO Mechanical Engineering and Research Organisation

MNP Minimum Needs Programme

MOH Ministry of Health

MOW Ministry of Water

MS Mild Steel

NGO Non Government Organisation

O&M Operation and Maintenance

PHED Public Health Engineering Department

PV Photo Voltaic

PVC Polyvinyl Chloride (plastic)

R&D Research and Development

RGNDWM Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission

RWSS Rural Water Supply and Sanitation

SDC Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation

SS Stainless Steel

SWL Static Water Level

VLOM Village Level Operation and Management of maintenance

VWSC Village Water and Sanitation Committee

WES Water and Environmental Sanitation

/cap Per capita

1

1.Introduction

Sustained safe drinking water supply and sanitationfacilities are essential to improve the living condi-tions of the rural population. The provision of safewater helps to combat water borne diseases andimproves community health in general. Thus, it isan essential component of poverty alleviation.Experience has shown that sustainability of waterand sanitation facilities can be greatly enhancedwhen the users have a voice in the decision-making processes of their projects. In view of thisfact, top-down planning is now normally replacedby a joint planning in which the central governmentauthorities set the overall framework, the policiesand the processes. The district level authorities planand organise the execution of the infrastructuredevelopment work and the village communities areinvolved in the detailed planning of their facilities.They participate in the choice of technology and theyneed to be given both the capability and the respon-sibility for the operation and maintenance of theirwater points.

In a demand responsive approach (DRA), user com-munities decide on how they participate in theconstruction of water and sanitation facilities. Thefinal choice of technology rests with them, theydecide what type of water supply and sanitationsystem they want, can afford, and can maintain.The individual community’s choice of technologyis normally guided by its own sense of need andby the affordability of its contribution towards theinvestment cost. Since the village is responsiblefor the management of its water supply facility,it must take into consideration costs for operation,routine maintenance and major repairs or replace-ments as well as the reliability of the system. Toarrive at a sensible choice it is necessary that thecommunity is aware of the technical, financial andinstitutional implications of its technology choice.Information on the different options (point sourcesor piped systems) in an easy to read format canbe of great help to user groups in decision making.This publication is prepared with substantial inputsfrom HTN - The global Network for Cost-effective

Technologies in Water and Sanitation - to meet thisrequirement.

1.1 HTN

HTN promotes affordable technologies for the poor.Established in 1993, with its secretariat at SKAT,Switzerland, HTN pursues the technology promotionachievements of the 1981-1990 International Drink-ing Water and Sanitation Decade. Operating on amodest budget with funds largely provided by theSwiss Agency for Development and Cooperation(SDC), HTN has created a niche, primarily inhandpump technology, and has contributed signifi-cantly to the development of field-proven, reliableand easy-to-maintain designs. Although HTN’s fo-cus continues to be the handpump, its scope nowembraces household water treatment technology,water quality field test kits, drilling and environmentalsanitation.

Mission Statement

� HTN believes that access to basic water andsanitation services is a fundamental right andessential for human development and poverty re-duction.

� HTN aims to facilitate the provision of safe wa-ter and sanitation to the poor and deprivedthrough the promotion of sustainable technolo-gies that are affordable and responsive to theneeds of the users, as symbolised by thehandpump.

� HTN strives to achieve this goal in partnership,through networking and alliance building.

� HTN aspires to be a catalyst for capacity build-ing, mutual learning, knowledge sharing and thedocumentation of experiences.

Introduction

2

Water Lifting

HTN is technically oriented, blending a strong engi-neering background with institutional, financial andsocial principles. It is a focal point for research,development and standardisation of low cost watersupply and sanitation technologies. It places resultsand findings of this work in the public domainthrough the production of publications, internationalspecifications and manuals for quality control, instal-lation and maintenance.

HTN functions as a resource centre, which poolsdiverse experience and expertise through itsmembers. HTN provides demand-based support tosector partners and shares information through work-shops, publications, consultancies and a website.HTN’s approach of equitable sharing of knowledgehelps to bring water to the World’s least servedpeople and places the technology in their hands.

3

2.Pumps and water lifting techniques

In order to keep the size of this publication withinreasonable limits this more theoretical chapter iskept rather short. Interested readers are advised tocontact HTN/SKAT for more in-depth information andspecific literature.

2.1 Principles for liftingwater

Using any one of the following mechanical princi-ples can lift water. Pumps may use one orsometimes a combination of these principles.

a Direct liftWater is physically lifted in a container.Typical examples are:Rope and Bucket, Bailer, Persian Wheel

b DisplacementBecause water can not be compressed it can bepushed or displaced.

Typical examples are:Piston Pumps, Progressive Cavity Pumps, andDiaphragm Pumps

c Creating a velocity headWater can be propelled to a high speed. Themomentum produced can be used either to cre-ate a pressure or a flow.Typical examples are:Propeller Pumps, Centrifugal Pumps, ReboundInertia Pumps, Jet Pumps

d Using the buoyancy of a gasAir that is blown into water which bubbles up-ward. It will lift a proportion of the water that itflows through.Typical examples are: Air lift

e GravityEnergy of a media (water) that flows downwardunder gravity is used to lift water.Typical examples are: Siphons

Figure 1 Pumping principle

Pumps and water lifting techniques

4

Water Lifting

2.2 Pump types

2.2.1 Reciprocating pumps

The most common reciprocating pumps are thepiston pumps. The majority of handpumps used inrural water supply and sanitation (RWSS) are of thisdesign.

The functioning of reciprocating pumps is causedby the principle that water flows from areas ofhigh pressure to areas of low pressure. The recip-rocating pumps create an area of sufficiently lowpressure above the body of water, thus causing itto flow upward.

A reciprocating piston pump consists essentially ofa long vertical pipe, called rising main. This risingmain extends into the cylinder (the area in whichthe piston/plunger moves up and down). Near thebottom of the cylinder, a non-return valve is fitted,called footvalve. The footvalve allows the water toflow from the lower part of the pump into the cylin-der, but prevent it from flowing back into the well.A second non-return valve is situated in the piston/plunger. The piston/plunger and the footvalve willalternatively divide the pump into an upper part ora lower part. The lower part of the pump alwaysextends into water body of the well.

When the operator lowers the piston, the atmos-pheric pressure acts equally on all water surfaces.The footvalve stays closed preventing water frombeing pushed back into the well. The non-returnpiston valve opens allowing water to flow trough thepiston. The piston presses down on to the wateruntil it gushes up through the valve in the piston.

At the lowest point of the stroke, the movement ofthe piston is reverted. The pressure of the watercolumn above the piston causes the piston valveto close. This effects two things:(a) The water above the piston starts rising. It can

not flow backwards and will rise in the risingmain until it reaches the top of the pump; flow-ing out by the spout, and

(b) Because the piston stops pressing on the waterbelow it, the pressure in the lower part of thecylinder drops; a vacuum is created. The waterin the well is still under atmospheric pressureand will push its way past the footvalve into thecylinder.

2.2.2 Suction and lift pumps

Reciprocating pumps are of two types; namelysuction- and lift pumps. In theory, both suction- andlift pumps are the same. The operating principles ofthe reciprocating pump apply to both of them. Thedifference between the two pumps is the positionof the cylinder in relation to the water level.

Suction pumps

In a “suction” pump, the cylinder is above thewater table, usually near the top of the pump in thepump head. The rising main extends below thewater table. When the pump is operated, during theupwards stroke it appears that water gets “suckedup” through the rising main into the cylinder. In fact,the atmospheric pressure forces the water into thearea of low pressure underneath the piston. Thetheoretical limit to which the atmospheric pressurecan push up water is 10 metres. In practice, suc-tion pumps can be used to lift water up to about7-8 metres.

Figure 2 Suction pump

5

A suction pump needs to be full of water before itcan operate. That means pumps need to be primed.In regular practice, water has to be poured into thepump by the operator every time the pump is emp-tied by a leaking footvalve. Thus, the danger existsthat the well can be contaminated through pollutedwater used for priming.

The advantage of suction pumps is that the cylin-der is normally above the level of the soil.Maintenance tasks (replacement of seals andvalves) can be easily performed with few tools.

Lift Pumps

In a “lift” pump, the cylinder is located below thewater table. The rising main above the cylinder al-ways forms part of the upper part of the pump. Any

Figure 3 Lift pump

water in the pump, which is above the water table,is pushed upwards or “lifted”. It rises to the levelof the spout. With each stroke, the amount of wa-ter displaced by the piston is pushed out on the top.

Lift pumps theoretically have no depth limit to whichthey can be used. In practice (for handpump), thelimitations are given by the power a human beingcan exert. Pumping 10 lt./min from 60 - 80 metresrequires about 150 - 180 watt power input. This isvery hard work and tiresome. Normally pumps forsuch depth need to have handles that allow morethan one person operating.

Because the cylinder has to be located below thewater table the pump rod has to reach down to thecylinder as well. That means long, heavy pump rodsthat make maintenance much more complicatedthan with suction pumps. An „open-top“ cylinderconfiguration (i.e. the rising main diameter is biggerthan the cylinder diameter) allows that the piston andfootvalve can be removed without dismantling therising main. This makes maintenance proceduresconsiderably simpler. However, it is more expensiveas larger diameter and heavier rising main pipes areused.


6

Water Lifting

Figure 4 Diaphragm pump

2.2.3 Diaphragm pumps

An alternative to the use of a piston is to create apump in which a flexible diaphragm is moved upand down thus displacing water. A typical exampleof such a diaphragm pump is the Vergnet pumpdescribed in chapter 9, Handpump Fact Sheets.The advantages of diaphragm pumps are that theyare easy to install, since no heavy mechanical partsare used. They can also be made corrosion resist-ant through use of plastic hoses instead of risingmains. The disadvantages are that they need highquality rubber diaphragms that are costly, and theyhave a relatively low efficiency because of the de-formation work needed to expand the diaphragm.Further, the working principle is relatively compli-cated and not so easy to understand. Thus, trainingof mechanics and caretakers is essential.

2.2.4 Progressive cavity(mono) pumps

Contrary to most rotary positive displacementpumps, progressive cavity pumps can be used insmall diameter boreholes. The pump consists of asingle helix rotor inserted into a double helix stator.The rotor helix is made to a high finish; i.e. chro-mium plated steel or polished stainless steel (SS).It is circular in cross section so that it fits exactlyinto one of the two helices of the stator. As aresult, the empty second helix of the stator isdivided into a number of separated voids. Whenthe rotor is turned, these voids are screwed alongthe axis of rotation. In the well water will be trappedin the voids and when the rotor is rotated thesevolumes are pushed upwards and discharged intothe rising main.

Progressive cavity pumps need to be driven at arelatively high speed; therefore, handpumps areoften fitted with a gearbox. This makes this type ofpump relatively complicated and costly.

Figure 5 Progressive cavity principle

7

2.3 Materials for pumps

Traditionally, cast-iron was the main material for theconstruction of pumps. In the last decades, thedesign of handpumps and submersible pumps haschanged and the use of cast-iron has been greatlyreduced.

Modern pumps need to function for long periodof time without breakdown. Therefore, the materi-als need to be strong and stress resistant witha high abrasion resistance. Unfortunately, ground-water is often aggressive; therefore, corrosion isa constant problem for pumps. Hot dip galvanisingor plating of mild steel components does not offeradequate corrosion protection in water that has alow pH value. Stainless steel (SS) offers a materialalternative that is both very strong and corrosionresistant. The big disadvantage however, is thehigh cost of this material. For low cost technologies,the initial cost of a pumping device becomesincreasingly important (communities have to paypart of the initial installation cost). Therefore,although SS can sometimes be the best and prob-ably the most economical solution, the high capitalcost prevents its use.

The development of plastic materials and theemergence of a plastic industry in Third Worldcountries opened new dimensions for designers.Despite the progress made with the applicationof plastic materials there is still a need for researchand development (R&D). Engineering plastics withan e-modulus and a tensile strength similar tosteel are also expensive. However rising mains,pump rods, and bearings are increasingly made ofplastic materials that are common, such as PVC,HDPE and FRP.

2.4 Selection criteria forhandpumps

The conditions under which the pumps are useddetermine largely the selection of the handpumptype used. In general, the critical factors for aselection of a handpump are:(a) Size of User Group(b) Lift (Shallow or Deep Well Applications)(c) Ground Water conditions (corrosion)(d) Development or Emergency situations

2.4.1 Operating conditions

As a rule of thumb it can be said that the stress ona pump is a function of number of users and pump-ing lift, with both factors increasing exponentially.

Stress ≈ ≈ ≈ ≈ ≈ ƒx (Nos. of users)2 x (Pumping lift)2

That means that the number of users and the pump-ing lift are the most important factors.

In areas with aggressive groundwater, it is abso-lutely essential to make sure that pumps arecorrosion resistant.

User group

Some pumps were designed as a family pump withthe objectives to serve small user groups. Thesepumps are generally simple and cheap. However,as soon as they are used for large user groups, theyare not robust enough. Therefore, when the usergroups are large (> 100) it is essential to usestronger pumps that are designed to serve morepeople.

Pumping lift

For different applications, the most appropriatepumps vary. Shallow well applications allow sim-ple suction pumps or direct action pumps. However,they can only be used to a pumping lift of maximum7 metres respectively and 15 metres (installationdepth of 16.5 metres) respectively.

Deep well pumps can cover the complete range ofinstallations, but they are very expensive solutionson boreholes with a high watertable.

2.4.2 Other criteria

International specification

Standardised technologies normally have informationin the public domain. This permits the use of tech-nology without any restriction. Standardisationapproaches allow that all “concerned” (govern-ments, privates industries and users) can getfamiliar with and adapt to the technology. The re-sults are that prices come down and local capacityis generated.


8

Water Lifting

As designs are standardised, it is possible to com-pare cost and quality of locally made or importedpumps with identical products available in the inter-national market, and it is possible to substitute apump with an identical product from another source.Spare parts for standardised pumps are interchange-able irrespective of the suppliers, which makes theorganisation of spare parts distribution much easier.

Ease of repair and installation

Pumps that can be installed quickly with a mini-mum of tools are advantageous. If the basic repairs(replacing seals, replacing bearings, removing ofpiston and footvalve) are simple to perform, villagemechanics can maintain the pump themselves.Heavy and complex tooling makes motorisedcentral maintenance teams necessary. This affectsthe cost of repairs and the time that the pump isout of service.

Reliability

The frequency of breakdowns is very important;Villagers will accept only pumps that give a satis-factory service for a long period. Reliability ofmechanical equipment is commonly measured in“Mean Time before Failure”. This aspect is veryimportant as the communities learn to appreciate thevalue of a safe water supply when the pump isworking for a prolonged period without problems.

In rural water supply however, “Mean Down Time”is also significant. A pump that can be repaired atvillage level might be back in service within days.Otherwise, it is likely to be out of service for sometime before a team of mechanics can be mobilised.

Corrosion resistance

In many countries (i.e. West Africa), the water isvery aggressive. Under these conditions, pumpsthat are not fully corrosion resistant are faced withserious corrosion problems. Rising mains and rodsneed frequent replacement. In addition, corrosion ofdown-hole components releases iron into the drink-ing water, which results in an unacceptable waterquality. Aggressive water makes it imperative to useonly fully corrosion resistant pumps with plastic orSS rising mains and rods.

User preference

Users prefer pumps that have a high yield; they donot like pumps that have a small output and are hardto operate. Pumps that corrode, producing irontainted water that tastes bad and stains food andclothing are generally not accepted. In addition, thelook and feel of a pump can affect its acceptability.In some countries, socio-cultural non-acceptance ofthe pumping position when operating direct actionpumps has proved an important factor in users’preference.

Cost of pump and spares

The price of a pump and especially its spare partsshould be as low as possible. Economic conditionsand the availability of alternative water sourceseffect that the threshold of how much the commu-nities are prepared to pay is low.

Figure 6 Flywheel pump

9

3.Choice of technology

Although theoretically a great variety of systemscan be put together with the various systemcomponents, the feasible technology options avail-able to the community are usually limited in number.Local hydrogeological conditions, strategic decisionsat national level, project execution policies andgovernment’s decisions to standardise may restrictthe choice. Often communities have only one ortwo options to choose from. The communities haveto make the ultimate choice, whereby any possibleassistance has to be given to them to arrive at awell-judged decision. Whoever works with thecommunities during the extension phase (NGOand the district authorities), needs to explain theavailable options that are technically feasible andbuild up an understanding of the implications andcharacteristics of the technologies to facilitatedecision making.

The effects of standardisation on one or a fewtechnologies (familiarity, availability of spare parts,back up through trained mechanics) are discussedlater. Benefits often far outweigh negative aspects.Governments, project planners and decision-makershave to be aware that their selection of technologyoptions has to fit in with the prevailing circumstances.A familiar, established technology supported by effi-cient after-sales and repair services might be a betterchoice than an optimal technology.

Resource constraints make cost considerations animportant factor in many developing countries. Low-cost technologies and approaches, which aim toserve the rural poor and deprived, and low-incomeurban populations can and should have priority toensure that basic levels of services are provided toall. Rather than spending money on a small privi-leged society who can afford to pay the contributiontowards investment cost for a higher level of serv-ice. In many cases, handpumps fitted on lowyielding, small diameter boreholes not suitable formechanised pumps may be the only affordableoption. For this reason, our publication will mainlyfocus on low cost water lifting technologies.

Where the geological conditions permit, profession-ally constructed hand-dug wells or hand-drilledboreholes that remain operational in the dry seasonare in many instances the lowest cost option forsmall rural communities. However, in many areasthe hydrogeological conditions may not allow dig-ging of wells at acceptable cost, here the moreexpensive drilling of boreholes will be necessary. Thehand-dug wells and machine-drilled boreholes canbe fitted with a variety of water lifting devices, someof which are mentioned below. The matching of thewater source (borehole/well) and the pumpingdevice is often a determining factor for the successof an installation.

3.1 Groundwatersources

For the sake of simplicity, the small rural watersupply systems briefly described in this documentare limited to the major technologies available. Themost important options are described in the form ofpackages consisting of system components. Forinstance, a simple hand dug well fitted with ahandpump would consist of two components, thedug well with a concrete lining and a shallow wellhandpump. A piped system is more sophisticatedand may consist of the following main components:a drilled borehole of minimum 150 mm diameter,an electric submersible pump with associatedswitchgear, a diesel generator unit, a small powerhouse for the diesel generator unit, an elevated stor-age tank and the pipe transmission and distributionsystem.

There are three major groundwater sources:a) Covered hand-dug wells with a diameter of ~1.2

metres,b) Hand-drilled boreholes with internal diameters of

100 mm,c) Machine-drilled wells with internal diameters

of 100 mm, 126 mm and 150 mm. The internaldiameter of the boreholes will depend upon the

Choice of technology

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Water Lifting

well yield and the technology option chosen forthe pumping.

These wells or boreholes might be fitted with:� Rope and bucket� Suction handpumps for very shallow installa-

tions of less than 7 metres� Direct action handpump for shallow installations

of up to 15 metres� Deep well handpumps for installations between

10 and 45 metres� Small submersible electric centrifugal pumps

driven by electricity from the national grid� Small submersible electric centrifugal pumps

driven by a small diesel generator� Small submersible electric centrifugal pumps

driven by a photovoltaic system� Constant cavity Mono pumps directly driven by

a small diesel engine� Piston pumps driven by a windmill

Small mechanised systems might have just areservoir (tank) next to the well or might havean overhead tank and a small reticulation system.The outlet could be stand posts, or yard taps.

There are also other water sources, such as treatedsurface water, spring catchment or rainwaterharvesting. If feasible, these options should beconsidered as well. The SKAT series of Manualson Drinking Water Supply deals in detail with someof these technologies. In our publication we willconcentrate on groundwater based options.

Each major component is depicted on a componentsheet in the following pages. The purpose of thiscatalogue of technologies is to serve as a guidefor the field staff working in villages and the users.Therefore, the text is kept to a few key messagesand the illustrations are as non-technical as possi-ble. It outlines the conditions under which atechnology can be applied; its limitations; the suit-ability under hydrogeological conditions; typical costfor construction and O&M; and management require-ments for O&M. An electronic copy of the cataloguecan be downloaded as pdf file from the SKAT/HTNwebsite; www.skat.ch

General note: The below quoted typical O&M costsare recurring costs and do not include depreciationand interest costs.

11


12

Water Lifting

3.1.1 Hand-dug well

Description

Hand-dug wells are constructed with simple toolsin weathered rock, overburden or sedimentary for-mations. The well is lined to the aquifer withconcrete rings. Penetration into the water-bearingzone can be done with caisson rings. This allowsfurther deepening of the well in case that the watertable falls.

Construction can be done with a high degree of com-munity participation. Digging and the constructionwork give the villagers a chance to contribute. Theycan work on their facility under supervision from theconstruction company.

Alternative designs employ different lining methodssuch as in-situ lining by casting concrete intomoulds, cement block lining, ferro-cement lining.

Water lifting devices

� Bucket and rope� Windlass� Handpump (Direct Action Pump)

High yielding dug wells could be equipped withfloating solar-pumps (as used for irrigation) or, if thewater table allows it, above ground centrifugalpumps.

Features and limitations

� It provides a minimum service level.

� The well cover provides protection, but water canbe polluted if rope and buckets are used.

� Fitted with a reliable and easily maintainabledirect action handpump the danger of pollutingthe well is reduced.

� Risk of drying up during dry season or drought.

Design

Standard designs can be used.

Construction

Digging can be difficult in loose soil conditions.

In hard rock conditions compressors, jackhammersand sometimes blasting are required.

Maximum feasible depth for digging is ~20 m.

Cost

Construction costs are moderate (USD 900 to 1,500).If equipped with bucket and rope as lifting deviceper capita investment is as low USD 5-10/cap.

Maintenance costs are minimal (annual well andapron maintenance USD 15).

Technical data

Well diameter (mm): ~1300

Outside diameter (mm): ~1500

Caisson Outside dia. (mm): ~1100

Caisson Inside dia. (mm): ~900

Depth range (m): 5 to 20 (max.)

Assumed Yield (m3/h): 0.5

Service Population (nos.): 150 – 200

Operation and maintenance

Maintenance requirements are minimal, cleaning thewell site and occasional repair of the apron.

13

Figure 7 Well digging

Figure 8 Digging a well Figure 10 Hand-dug well

Figure 9 Ring well


14

Water Lifting

3.1.2 Hand-drilled borehole


Handpump (Direct Action Pump)

Technical data

Borehole diameter (mm): ~250 – 300

Casing Pipe dia. (mm): ~250 – 300

Filter Pipe dia. (mm): ~100 – 150

Depth range (m): 5 to 25 (max)

Assumed Yield (m3/h): 0.5

Service Population (nos.): 150 – 200

Description

Hand-drilled boreholes are normally constructed insedimentary formations. If the transmissivity of theaquifer is high enough, they can provide a sufficientyield for a handpump. Hand-drilled boreholes areconstructed with simple hand-operated drilling equip-ment. The boreholes are lined with PVC casing. Aconcrete apron is constructed for the handpump.

In the alluvial plains in India and Bangladesh, drill-ing by “sludger method” is prevalent. Suchtubewells are not lined, the borehole collapsesaround the rising main of the pump.

As drilling operations are manual, it allows the vil-lagers themselves to do a high percentage of thework under supervision from the drilling company.

Design

Survey drilling of a small pilot borehole is used toestablish the design parameters.


Construction

A tripod is erected over the well site, and then 4 to6 people operate the drillrig.

Maximum feasible depth for hand drilling is~20 –25 m.


Maintenance requirements are minimal, cleaningthe well site and occasional repair if the apron isdamaged.

Cost

Construction costs are moderate (USD 800 to 1,200).

If equipped with a direct action pump as liftingdevice, per capita investment is as low as USD12-15/cap.

Maintenance costs are (annual handpump, well andapron maintenance USD 45).


In clay and sandy soil, drilling is relatively easy. Ifgravel and stones are found and in semi-cementedlayers such as soft sandstone, weathered graniteor laterite hand-drilling is still possible. In layers withbig stones and boulders, hand-drilling is not possi-ble. New developments of hand-operated drill rigsin Africa indicate that it might be possible to usenon-mechanised drill rigs also in hard rock areas.

Boreholes provide a good protection against pollu-tion.

15

Figure 13 Well drilling

Figure 11 Hand drilling

Figure 12 Borehole Figure 14 Hand drilling with sludger method


16

Water Lifting

3.1.3 Machine drilled borehole

Description

Borehole depths normally vary from about 25 toabout 80 metres in basement and sedimentaryformations. In exceptional cases, the depths mightbe as deep as 200 metres. Well siting mightrequire geophysical surveys. Hydraulic rotary rigs orpercussion rigs are normally used for drilling in sedi-mentary formations. Hard rock drilling requiresdown-the-hole hammer drilling. Slotted screens areinstalled at the level of the aquifer. The boreholesare normally fully lined with PVC casing pipes insedimentary formations. In hard rock formations, thewells might be fully lined or the casing pipes onlygo through the over burden down to the hard rock,lower part remains unlined. A concrete apron isconstructed for the handpump.

As drilling operations are mechanised, they givelittle opportunity for participation by the villagers.


� Manually operated pumps

� Mechanised pumps


If only a handpump yield of 1-2 m3/h is requireddrilling is possible almost anywhere.

Boreholes provide a year-round water supply andgive a good protection against pollution.

Design

The geophysical survey allows to establish thedesign parameters.


Boreholes might be lined to the full depth or only inthe overburden.

Artificial Gravelpacks might be applied.

Apron design should take into consideration theusers needs. In desert areas, it may be necessaryto construct a cattle trough.

Construction

Siting and Drilling requires specialised technicalskills.


Depending on the geological formations the boreholemight require maintenance about once every tenyears, when it needs to be cleaned and redeveloped.

The apron has to be kept clean and may requireoccasional repairs.

Cost

Construction costs are estimated between USD4,000 and 15,000 in Africa depending on diameter,depths, and design. Regional cost variances areconsiderable between East and West Africa (WestAfrica being 2-4 times more costly). Even morepronounced are cost differences between Africa andAsia (in India a 80 m borehole costs USD 1,000).

Maintenance costs depend on the pumping device(annual cost for well and apron maintenance onlyis USD15).

Well redevelopment costs are (USD 500 to 1,200,every 10 years).

Technical data

Borehole diameter (mm): ~160 – 200

Casing Pipe dia. (mm): ~100 – 200

Filter Pipe dia. (mm): ~100 – 200

Depth range (m): 25 to 200 (max)

Assumed Yield (m3/h): 1 – 20

Service Population (nos.): 300 – 2000(depending onyield)

17

Figure 15 Drill rig

Figure 18 Small Rotary Drill

Figure 17 Percussion Rig

Figure 16 Borehole unlined


18

Water Lifting

3.2 Pumpingtechnologies

Chapter 2 deals with the theoretical issues of liftingwater and some of the aspects on designs. In Chap-ter 9, Handpump Fact Sheets, the most commonhandpump types are briefly described. Therefore, thetechnology description here is kept to a minimum.

3.2.1 Suction hand pumps

Description

Suction pumps have all moving parts above ground.The piston is operated in a cylinder in the pump body.Therefore, the operating depth is limited by atmos-pheric pressure to 6-8 metres.

Technical data

Cylinder diameter (mm): 60 – 80

Maximum Stroke (mm): 400

Approx. discharge lt./min: 30 – 60(depending oninstallation andwell)

Pumping lift (m): 0 – 7

Daily output (m3): 1 – 3

Population served (nos.): 70 – 150

Households (nos.): 10 – 20

Type of well: borehole ordugwell

Material

Pump head: Cast Iron

Handle: Cast Iron

Rising main: PVC pipe

Plunger/footvalve: Brass

Local manufacturing

The Suction pumps can easily be produced indeveloping countries.

Installation

The installation of the suction pumps is easy anddoes not need any lifting equipment or special tools.

Maintenance

These pumps have an excellent “Community Man-agement Potential” since all wearing componentsare above ground. Only simple tools are needed forall repairs. These pumps are reliable and popular withthe communities.

Remarks

Suction pumps are limited to pumping lifts of amaximum of 8 m.

They are normally family pumps for smaller usergroups (50-70 users).

They require priming. If the footvalve is leaking, useof polluted water for priming the pump may pollutethe borewell.

19

Figure 19 Suction Pump

Figure 20 No. 6 Pump


20

Water Lifting

3.2.2 Direct Actionhandpumps

Description

The Direct Action Handpumps are based on abuoyant pump rod that is directly articulated bythe user, discharging water at the up- and downstroke. The pump head and the standing plateare made of galvanised steel and the handle ofstainless steel. Pump rod and rising main are ofHDPE or PVC pipes (with threaded connections) andthe rest of the down-hole components are madeof plastics. This makes these pumps completelycorrosion resistant.

Technical data

Cylinder diameter (mm): 50 – 53.4

Maximum Stroke (mm): ~400


Pumping lift (m): 2 – 15


Population served (nos.): 300

Households (nos.): 30


Material

Pump head: galvanised steel

Handle: SS

Pump rods: HDPE/PVC pipe

Rising main: HDPE/PVC pipe

Plunger/footvalve: plastic

Installation

The installation of direct action pumps is easy anddoes not need any lifting equipment or special tools.The rising main with footvalve and pumpheadas well as the pump rod with handle and plungercan be assembled on the ground. When laid nextto each other the correct length can be checked.Both, the rising main and the pump rod can be easilylowered into the well.

Maintenance

These pumps have an excellent “CommunityManagement Potential”. Only simple tools areneeded to pull out the entire pumping element aswell as the footvalve and rising main. Direct actionpumps are reliable and normally popular with thecommunities.

Remarks

Direct action pumps are limited to pumping lifts ofa maximum of 15 m.

It is recommended not to go deeper than 12 m.

Direct action pumps are designed as “family”pumps (50-70 users) as well as “community”pumps (up to 300 users).

Local manufacturing

The direct action pumps are specially designed tobe produced in developing countries.

21

Figure 21 Tara Direct Action Pump

Figure 22 Drawing Direct Action Pump

Figure 23 Malda Direct Action Pump


22

Water Lifting

3.2.3 Deep well handpumps

Description

Deep well pumps are normally conventional leveraction handpumps. However, foot or flywheel oper-ated designs are also used. The configuration caninclude an open top cylinder; i.e. the piston and thefootvalve can be removed from the cylinder with-out dismantling the rising main. Or they can featurethe conventional configuration with a small diarising main and a bigger dia cylinder, which requiresdismantling of riser main for repairs on pistonand footvalve. The riser pipes are made of GI pipes,u-PVC or SS. The pump rods are of mild steel,SS or glass fibre reinforced plastic. The pumpingelements, plunger/footvalve are made of brass orengineering plastics.

Technical data

Cylinder diameter (mm): 50 – 63.5

Maximum Stroke (mm): 125 – 250


Pumping lift (m): 2 – 80 (100)


Population served (nos.): 300

Households (nos.): 30


Material

Pump head: galvanised steel

Handle: galvanised steel

Pump rods: galvanised/stainless steel,FRP plastic

Rising main: galvanised steel,stainless steel orPVC pipes

Plunger/footvalve: Brass

Local manufacturing

Deep well handpumps require a good industrial basefor local production. The market must be substan-tial enough to justify the investment in tooling. Indiaand several African countries have achieved localproduction.

Installation

Depending on the design, the installation of deepwell pumps may require specialised equipment andskilled manpower, however for newer designs theinstallation is not difficult and does not need anylifting equipment or special tools. Other designsrequire well-trained mechanics or a mobile teamwith lifting tackle and a comprehensive tool kit.

Maintenance

Many deep-well pump designs have “CommunityManagement Potential”. They are reliable, easilyrepaired by a village caretaker and popular with thecommunities. Only simple tools are needed to pullout the entire pumping element as well as thefootvalve and rising main.

Remarks

If galvanised iron is used for rods and rising main,the pumps are not corrosion resistant and should notbe used in areas with aggressive water (pH value< 6.5).

If PVC rising mains are used, the pump should notbe used in unlined boreholes and very deep instal-lations.

23

Figure 25 Deep Well Pump

Figure 24 Deep Well Pump Figure 26 Progressive Cavity Deep Well Pump

Figure 27 UPM Pump


24

Water Lifting

3.2.4 Electrically driven powerpumps

Figure 28 Electrically driven progressive cavity pump


A distribution network with standpipes or houseconnections can be installed. These provide a goodservice level.

Description

Where extensions from the national power grid reachthe villages, electrically driven power pump systemsare favourable for medium and large communities.This technology is well proven and does not haveany limitations in pump size for the small plantsneeded for rural centres. The pump flow is limitedby the internal diameter of the borehole. Provided itis not necessary to lay long power lines to the pumpsite, the capital cost for electric motor and pumpare moderate. In many countries, the tariff systemmakes the use of electricity attractive. A water stor-age tank is required to ensure water supply duringthe period when power supplies are suspended andto balance the hourly fluctuations in demand. A dis-tribution network with stand pipes might be installed.

Technical data

Pump/motor diameter (mm): ~140 – 150

Pumping head (m): 5 – 300

Discharge (m3/h): 1 – 25

Power input (kW) 1 – 20


Watertank (% of daily output): 30 – 40



Cost

The costs of these systems vary depending on thedistance of the pump site from the grid, the size ofthe distribution network, and the type of reservoir(elevated or ground level tank). As a rule, the unitcost is in the region of USD 40,000 to 70,000.

O&M cost are approx. USD 0.80 to 1.50 per capitaand year; thus comparable with a system in whichthe pump is driven by solar power.


Submersible electric pumps can operate with littlemaintenance.

Voltage fluctuations in the grid can cause problems,or even make operation impossible.

Construction

The digging of trenches for the distribution networkallows for community participation during construc-tion.

25

Figure 29 Power Pump System

Figure 30 Water tank Figure 31 Stand post


26

Water Lifting

Figure 32 Diesel driven pump

3.2.5 Diesel drivenmechanised pumps

Description

These units consist typically of a small diesel en-gine coupled with a generator that drives asubmersible pump or a diesel engine driving a spin-dle-driven progressive cavity type (Mono-type)pump. The capital cost for engine, generator andpump are acceptable. High fuel prices and availabil-ity of diesel tend to make this option less attractive.The diesel engine requires intensive maintenanceand ensured supply of spare parts. A water storagetank is required to ensure water supply during theperiod when the engine is not operated. A distribu-tion network with standpipes might be installed.

Technical data




Power input (kW) 1 – 20







Construction



Diesel driven pumps require an operator to be onattendance when in use.

They need constant maintenance and the supply ofspare parts needs to be ensured.

Fuel supplies need to be organised.

Cost

The costs of these systems vary depending on thesize of the distribution network, and the type of res-ervoir (elevated or ground level tank). As a rule, theunit cost is in the region of USD 40,000 to 70,000.O&M cost are approx. USD 0.50 to 2.50 per capitaand per year; this is about 25% higher than for asolar system or system in which the pump is drivenby electricity from the grid.

27

Figure 33 Diesel Pump System

Figure 34 Diesel Pump Figure 35 Dieselpump with progressive cavity pump


28

Water Lifting

Figure 36 Solar Pump

3.2.6 Solar poweredmechanised pumps

Description

Presently there are two major types of solar pumps;both are photovoltaic pumping systems convertingsunlight directly into a DC current. One systemconverts the DC current of the PV array into a con-ditioned AC current by means of an inverter, whichdrives a speed regulated three-phase submersiblecentrifugal pump. The other type employs a sub-mersible pump fitted with a DC electric motor. Thissystem does not require an inverter. The array ofsolar panels is mounted on a frame. The pumpsoperate automatically when the solar radiationsupplies enough energy to run the electric motor.The system runs virtually maintenance free.Solarpumps normally fit into 126 mm dia borehole.

A water storage tank is required to ensure watersupply during the time when the pump is notrunning and to balance the hourly fluctuation indemand. A distribution network with stand pipesmight be installed.

Technical data




Power input (kWh/m2/day) 4.5 – 5.5






A distribution network with stand pipes or houseconnections can be installed. They provide a goodservice level.

Solarpump systems are rather sensitive to the powerrequirements. The investment cost and the O&Mcost rise more or less directly with the pumpinghead. At high lifts of more than 35 metres, alterna-tive options might be preferable.

Construction



Solar powered systems can operate with little main-tenance. Repairs need specialised skilled personnel.They do not need any consumables.

Cost

The costs of these systems vary depending on thepumping lift and the size of the distribution network,as well as the type of reservoir (elevated or groundlevel tank). As a rule, the unit cost is in the regionof USD 35,000 to 70,000. The present high price ofthe solar panels increases the cost of systems thatrequire more energy (high lift).

O&M cost are approx. USD 0.80 to 1.50 per capitaand year; this is the same as a system in whichthe pump is driven by electricity from the grid.

29

Figure 37 Solar Pump System

Figure 38 Solarpanels


Figure 39 Solar System

30

Water Lifting

3.2.7 Wind powered pumps

Figure 40 Windmill pump

Description

Windpumps normally have a steel multi-bladed,fan-like rotor which drives via a reduction gear boxa reciprocating pump linkage that is directly con-nected to a piston pump located below in theborehole. Windpumps are often applied at highheads: typically, 10 to 100 m. Inevitably, becauseof the robust nature of their construction, windpumpsare quite expensive in relation of their power out-put. However, the O&M cost are moderate.Windpumps run with little maintenance for manyyears.

A water storage tank is required to ensure watersupply during when the pump is not running and tobalance the hourly fluctuation in demand. A distri-bution network with standpipes might be installed.

Technical data




Watertank (% of daily output): 100





Windpump systems are only feasible where a regu-lar wind is ensured. In order to withstand occasionalstorms, windmills must have a means to limit thepower they can deliver.

Construction



Windpumps can operate with little maintenance.Repairs need specialised skilled personnel. They donot need any consumables.

Cost

The costs of these systems vary depending on thepumping lift and the size of the distribution network,the type of reservoir (elevated or ground level tank).As a rule, the unit cost is in the region of USD35,000 to 60,000.

O&M cost are approx. USD 0.80 to 1.50 per capitaand year; this is the same as a system in whichthe pump is driven by electricity from the grid.

31

Figure 41 Windmill Pump System

Figure 43 Windmill pumpFigure 42 Windmill pump


33

4.Typical cost for small water supplysystems

The estimated cost for the technologies depictedin the previous chapter were calculated to serveas a general guideline. It should, however, bestressed that cost may change substantially fromcountry to country and region to region. Price levelsare higher in West Africa than in East Africa. Evenmore pronounced are cost differences betweenAfrica and Asia (a factor of 5 to 20 applies). How-ever, the relations remain valid.

It should, however, be mentioned that cost calcu-lations are difficult to compare. There are nostandardised guidelines for costing of typical invest-ment costs and running costs. The results mightvary considerably, depending on what factors arechosen for:(a) contingencies on capita investment;(b) overhead on capita investment;(c) rate of interest for capital amortisation (applica-

ble in calculating O&M and depreciation costs);etc.

All such factors can change greatly from country tocountry and project to project.

The cost of the technology options can be summa-rised as follows:

4.1 Hand-dug wells,Hand-drilledboreholes,

This technology offers the lowest investment percapita ($11/cap) and the lowest annual unit cost forcommunities of sizes from 50 to 5000 inhabitants.However, this technology provides only basic serv-ice and can only be used where drilling or diggingis possible and the water is relatively near the sur-face.

4.2 Boreholes (high- orlow-yielding, smallor big diameter),

Peter Wurzel discusses the cost implications ofdesign parameters in borehole drilling in detail in theSKAT/HTN publication: "Simplified low cost drillingfor handpumps".

Peter Wurzel made some essential points in hisbook, which are briefly summarised in the follow-ing table.

Higher yields require: Consequence:

Deeper boreholes Bigger rigs needed, cost per metre goes up

Bigger diameter boreholes Bigger rigs needed, cost goes up

Elaborate site investigations Cost for siting goes up, risk of failures is higher(geophysics)

Intensive well development Gravelpack needed, screens with high open area needed cost forpumptesting goes up

Table 1

Typical cost for small water supply systems

34

Water Lifting

The sufficient well yield for a handpump is about1 m3/h. This allows a simplified specification forthe borehole, which can reduce cost considerably.This type of simplified borehole can however notbe fitted with a mechanised pumping system andit can only serve up to 500 persons. Drilling foryields of 5-10 m3/h requires a more sophisticateddrilling and siting technology and a mechanisedpump needs to be fitted. Such a borehole might beable to serve 1,000 to 2,000 or more people.

P. Wurzel argues that if a mismatch is specifiedbetween the pumping device and the borehole,i.e. a handpump on a over-specified borehole, thecost of the water source can easily be twice as highthan necessary. Considering that Africa alone needsas many as 100,000 boreholes in the next years, asaving of USD 3,000 per water point could make abig difference, especially under the present fundingconstraint. Therefore, the “careful selection of theoptimal specification for the borehole” can have abig impact. It is unlikely that a community, whichhas the means to pay for higher O&M costs, wouldopt for a handpump when it is given the opportu-nity to acquire a motorised system. However, if theprinciples of “willingness to pay” and “first come,first served” are used only in DRA it might effectthat the poorer segment of the population is left out.The challenge in the next 2 or 3 decades will be tooffer the rural population a realistic mix of technolo-gies that are cost effective and at the same timefulfils the demands of the users.

As a rule, for smaller communities with 50-1,000inhabitants point sources with handpumps are themost economical choice and should be preferred.Whereas for larger habitats with the populationexceeding 1,000 citizen, mechanised systemswith either stand posts or yard taps might becomefeasible.

Where reliable power is supplied from a grid, andthe community has a population of about 2,500, theinvestment per capita and the cost per m3 of waterfor a submersible pump powered by the grid wouldbe basically in the same range as the cost forboreholes equipped with handpumps. For largercommunities, the cost will decrease. Long dis-tances from grid to pump site and the village to thepump site, in conjunction with a low populationdensity can double these costs. Under such unfa-vourable conditions, handpumps would even be

more cost effective for larger communities. Respec-tively, the better choice could be a diesel generatoror a solarpump system. Contrary to solar systems,higher pumping heads do not push up the operationcosts of a diesel driven system disproportionally asthe additional energy cost is reasonable. Such asystem would, therefore, have its advantages whenhigh lifts are encountered.

For a community with 1,200 inhabitants, the invest-ment cost of a mechanised pump powered bya diesel generating unit would be almost identicalwith the cost of a system with electricity supplyfrom a grid, the extra cost for the diesel generatorbeing greatly offset by the cost of the power line.However, the annual running cost would beabout 20%-25% higher for the system with thediesel generator. The electricity from the gridnormally costs far less than the fuel for the dieselgenerator. Naturally a diesel generator requiresincreased servicing and maintenance and mayrequire a full-time operator. Diesel generator sys-tems have the advantage that they are independentfrom a grid, which may be some distance awayfrom the well site, and may provide low voltage orintermittent electricity.

For communities with 600 inhabitants, smallsolarpump systems powered by photovoltaicpanels may be cost-effective when pumping directlyinto small ground level reservoir. Solarpumps havea high potential for communities between about1,000 and 2,000 inhabitants, especially when thepumping head is low. At present the standardisedsmall solar systems with up to about 1,600 Wppanel size are of interest, because of their accept-able cost and proven reliability. Photovoltaic solarpanels are still quite expensive, which results in highcapital costs. In addition, the standardised systemsare still rather small in capacity so that larger com-munities would need more than one solarpump withextra wells/boreholes.

Solarpump systems are rather sensitive to the powerrequirements for high pumping heads. At a dailyirradiation of 4.5-5.0 kwh/m2/day, the output ofa 1,600 Wp plant when pumping against a head of35 metres would be about 25 m3/day, supplying1,200 people. And when pumping against20 metres total head about 45 m3/day can beexpected, supplying 2,000 people. The lower pump-ing head would decrease the investment cost nearly

35

to 50%. For communities with 1,200 inhabitants,the solarpump option can be lower in annualcost than the diesel generator and the handpumpsystem; it would even be competitive with gridsystems.

It should be noted that these are general conclu-sions, which would need to verified under the localconditions. In India (where electrical power is avail-able in the villages), solar pumps are the mostexpensive, and electric pumps the most economi-cal options for communities with 1,000 habitants ormore. The large capital cost of a solar system is adeterrent for its application.

4.3 Computer supportedcost calculationprogramme

When pricing the system components and analys-ing the costs, one arrives at a typical range of costper capita or cost per unit water for standard as-sumptions. An exact analysis can only then bemade, when the actual data from a site is drawntogether. The total number of parameters is quitesubstantial, more so for small reticulated (piped)plants than for handpumps. Therefore, the least costoption may differ from community to community.

Some of the major parameters are mentioned be-low:(a) Drilling cost per metre and depth of borehole;(b) Settlement pattern of the community;(c) Location of the well site;(d) Well yield;(e) Pumping lift;(f) Cost of labour, fuel and electricity;(g) Cost of major machinery, especially solar

panels, etc.

To help in finding a decision whether a small pipedsystem or a handpump based system is more costeffective, HTN prepared an Excel based spreadsheetprogramme, which calculates for all available tech-nology options:� Total Investment Cost;� Investment Cost per Capita;� Overall O&M Cost per Annum;� Yearly O&M Cost per Person;� Unit Cost per m3 Water;� Depreciation Cost.

The cost calculation tool allows entering the keyparameters of any specific village. The data needto be compiled during a participatory assessmentof the village. Results specific for the location areimmediately calculated and can be shown to thecommunity. Thus, the community has a good indi-cation of the cost implications ahead of it to makean informed decision on technology choice. The useof a computer programme based on actual villageparameters produces cost indicators that are muchnearer to reality than the typical cost calculatedbased on general assumptions.

This programme is available for downloading on theHTN/SKAT Website; www.skat.ch


36

Water Lifting

Figure 44 Investment cost

Community parameters

Water consumption 25 lt/capDemographic characteristicsTotal no. of households 150 NosPersons per household 6 NosTotal population 900 NosHouseholds per hectarePopulation density core area 120 Nos/haPopulation density total area 12 Nos/haPercentage core area 0.33 %Total area 19 ha

Production of new source (m3/day) 22.5 m3

Distance to source 500 mDistance source to tank 100 mDistance tank to core area 400 mSpring elevation over village 75 mDistance form grid power supply 80 m

Static water table 12 mTotal pumping head 22 mElevation source to tank 10 m

Economic conditionsAvg. value of time (USD/hr)Avg. value of water (USD/m3)Interest rate 0.1 %Electric power cost (USD/kwh) 0.15 USD/kwhDiesel fuel cost (USD/litre) 0.8 USD/litreGeneral overheads and contingencies 0.25

Total Investment Cost in USD

-

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Figure 45 Investment cost per capita

Figure 46 O&M cost per capita


Investment Cost per Capita in USD

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Maintenance Cost per Capita in USD

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38

Water Lifting

39

5.Institutional framework

5.1 Role of stakeholders

The present trend calls for adoption of the DRA inthe implementation of national rural water policies.DRA includes a decentralised, district based ap-proach in which the rural communities have to sharethe cost and to take the responsibility for the man-agement of their water points and sanitationfacilities. The willingness of the rural communitiesto participate in the planning, the construction andthe maintenance of their facilities is crucial for thesuccess of such an approach. Village communitiescan only assume this responsibility if they havepartners at community/district level with which theycan collaborate in this task. The key actors in thisjoint task are the district water authorities, some-times appointed partner organisation (NGOs) and,the private sector entrepreneur.

The implementation of decentralised, district basedRWSS programmes could involve the following agen-cies and activities.

5.1.1 National level

The role of the national government sector agency(Ministry of Water) mandated to take charge of theprovision of water has changed. It has shifted fromthe “provider” of water supply and sanitation facili-ties to the “promoter, facilitator and co-ordinator” inthe construction of these facilities. Also in this newfunction, the national sector agency continues to bethe main governing body in the sector. However, itshares its assignments with the communities, thedistrict authorities and the private sector. The nationalsector agency carries out many functions:(a) Policy and national planning functions (decisions

on level of services, strategic orientation),(b) Seeking, co-ordinating and administrating internal

and external funding of projects, co-ordinationwith ESA’s,

(c) Co-ordinating, guiding and supervising projectsand NGO activities,

(d) Keeping records and inventory country (country

wide database of facilities, hydro-geologicalprofiles), inter-linking with regional databases,

(e) Formulation of standards and guidelines (prepa-ration of specifications, manuals, biddingdocuments, contract documents, quality controlprocedures),

(f) Pre-qualification of suppliers,(g) Establishing training programmes for district

personnel, extension workers, constructionworkers and pump mechanics, etc.,

(h) Co-ordinating of health and hygiene educationwith MOH and DCD,

(i) Formulating guidelines for monitoring and evalu-ation of the programme.

The national sector agency needs to be adequatelystaffed to perform the work. In case of absence ofsufficient staff, the agency may consider involve-ment of the private sector to assist in somefunctions, such as formulation of standards, guide-lines and establishing of training programmes.

The sector agency might also provide consultancyservices (or employ and supervise private compa-nies undertaking the consultancy services) such as:(a) Provision of hydro-geological services,(b) Design of complex systems,(c) Provision of technical back up services (well

maintenance, repair of water systems).

5.1.2 Rural water authoritiesat district level

Functional district level authorities that have theability to perform all tasks on hand are a prerequi-site to the success of DRA. District water andsanitation authorities are quite complex units. Theycombine inputs from the district political (elected)body, the district planning office, the district water,the health and the community development authori-ties. These units are responsible for planning,supervising and co-ordinating all RWSS activitiesin the district. In view of the overall objective toimprove health and the living conditions of rural

Institutional framework

40

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populations, the district units should not be restrictedto water supply but must include sanitationand hygiene as equally important complementaryaspects. The promotion and construction of latrinesare of similar importance to the construction of wellsand boreholes.

It takes a long time and much effort to establishsuch units as competent and useful bodies. Specialemphasis has to be placed on capacity building andstrengthening of the district institutions (planningoffices, social services committees, and tenderboards).

The specific functions of a district unit are:a) Preparation of a development plan for the provi-

sion of water points,b) Co-ordination and planning of all RWSS projects

including NGO’s activities,c) Financial administration,d) Collection of data on water resources and exist-

ing water points and to provide a feedback intothe district/regional database,

e) To inform the communities how a subsidisedfacility can be obtained,

f) To form links between communities and the pri-vate sector,

g) To assist the communities in the choice of tech-nology and in the choice of location of thefacilities,

h) To vet, rank and forward for approval applica-tions for subsidies,

i) To conduct feasibility studies to plan technicallysound water facilities,

j) To review and approve designs,k) To prepare and issue tender documents, and

standard contracts,l) To participate in the pre-qualification of suppli-

ers/contractors,m) Administration of contracts,n) To supervise construction works and ensure

quality standards,o) To inspect and certify construction works,p) To organise and/or conduct training of extension

workers, construction workers, pump mechan-ics, and the various members of the villagewater and sanitation committees,

q) To organise and/or conduct seminars/workshopsfor community management training,

r) To keep records and inventory of all RWSSschemes,

s) To monitor village level O&M activities.

Interventions in rural water supply service deliveryhave been ongoing with varied approaches in virtu-ally all districts before decentralisation. Traditionalexternal support agencies, supporting the sector inthe districts should be encouraged to continue theirsupport under the DRA policy.

The district units should co-ordinate ongoing activi-ties and make the best use of already existingcapacities.

The appointment of a private partner organisation/consulting firm, which is conversant with the man-agement requirement of such co-ordination and thetechnical aspects of rural water supply could provebeneficial. The partner organisation may be used toundertake the promotion of RWSS policy in closeco-operation with the district authorities. Existingprivate sector capacity in the districts can assist inplanning, design, formulation of standards andguidelines, supervision, training, and implementationof schemes.

Figure 47 Handpump Maintenance

41

5.1.3 Role of communities

The communities need to be fully involved in allaspects of planning and should take part specificallyin the following functions:(a) Choice of technology, design, choice of location,(b) Construction, labour input, contribution of build-

ing materials,(c) Contract(s) with the private sector suppliers,(d) Financing, contributions towards construction

cost; O&M, management of funds,(e) General maintenance, operational know-how

and awareness of the importance of keepingfacilities clean,

(f) Purchase of spare parts, responsibility for theuse of funds.

5.1.4 Role of ESA projects

The ESA projects should take on the role of a“banker” rather than the role of an “executioner” ofprojects. ESAs participate with the national levelsector agency in planning. They ensure through theirtechnical staff (consultants) that the assistedprojects are feasible, and executed according tonational water policy.

The demand for training at all levels is usually veryhigh. ESA can help to finance training programmesand to support the setting-up of national traininginstitutions, which will provide training for waterdepartment-, district- and private sector staff.

5.2 Extension services

The work with communities was traditionally doneby community development- and health depart-ments. District and national level authorities mayappoint NGOs and private firms to take over suchsocial service delivery. Their function is to:(a) Mobilise communities to construct RWSS facili-

ties. Educate communities on hygiene andsanitation aspects and use of safe water andlatrine facilities,

(b) Assist communities in establishing village waterand sanitation committees.

The work of such agencies with the villages willensure that the communities are aware of thebenefits of a sustainable, reliable and safe watersupply with improved sanitation facilities. This work

also enables the villagers to understand the waterrelated aspects of health education. It will create ademand to acquire RWSS facilities. The villagesalso need to be informed of the procedures involvedin obtaining improved facilities.

The extension work with the communities shouldhelp to convince the village population that the newwater facilities bring a lasting improvement to theirvillages. Only a community, which understands thevalue of reliable and safe water, will involve itselfactively in the planning, financing and constructionand proper maintenance of the water facilities.

DRA requires the full commitment of all partiesotherwise; there is the danger that sustainability isjeopardised because of a half-hearted commitmentresulting in insufficient sense of ownership and sub-sequently bad maintenance. A set of agreed criterianeed to be drawn up that determines when a com-munity becomes ready to participate. Willingness topay should not be the only criteria. Other aspectsneed to be considered, such as coherence of thedecision making (is it only the village head whopushes the work or is it the entire community),social aspects (does the agreement cater for a bal-anced social self-control between the rich and thepoor), etc.

Institutional framework

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43

6.Standardisation and private sectorsupport

6.1 Standardisation

Provision of goods and services through the privatesector has to be achieved within a well-definedpolicy framework and technical regulatory system.Standardisation and clearly defined regulations areessential preconditions for the local private sectorto operate successfully. Governments (possiblywith the inclusion of Standards Institutions) canstandardise the technologies used. Pumps andproducts that are already manufactured locally ata reasonable price and quality should be given pref-erence. Detailed standard designs and technicalspecifications have to be established, includingdrawings, bills of quantities, production proceduresand quality control requirements. Wherever possi-ble and feasible, pumps covered by an internationalspecification (HTN, BIS) should be considered.Standardisation on public domain products willprevent distortion of the market as the pricescan be checked on an international level. Theseinternational standards and technical packagesdefine each one of the technology options inunequivocal manner and can be adapted as nationalstandards, thus eliminating the need to devise coun-try specific standards. They form the basis for anylocal or international competitive bidding.

Most countries with successful standardisation pro-grammes received the endorsement on ministeriallevel or of national parliament. This high levelapproval is essential to implement the decisionat administration and water department level. Insti-tutional strengthening of government technicaldepartments (Standards Sections) has to includean element of building up the capacity to prepare,disseminate, maintain and administer the nationaltechnical specifications. A technical departmentneeds to be created within the government sectoragency. It should have the necessary personnel tomaintain and administer the standards and specifi-cations and to supervise compliance with thesespecifications.

Private sector participation in the formulation ofstandards and specifications should be encouragedthrough the formation of associations of drilling com-panies, equipment- and handpump suppliers and/orconstruction companies. Governments should en-gage in a dialogue with them for the elaboration, andthe periodic review and revision of the standards.

The standardisation policy gives the privatesector a clearly stated indication of the technicalrequirements. This encourages them to invest inequipment and product specific tooling and to pur-chase materials in bulk. The standardisation on afew technologies also reduces the training require-ments significantly both in the private and the publicsector.

Figure 48 Handpump Specification

Standardisation and private sector support

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6.2 Pre-qualification ofsuppliers

Once the technologies are defined, the next step isto identify suppliers and/or manufacturers capableof making the product or providing a service asspecified.

A system of pre-qualification should be introduced,under which the supplier is examined for his tech-nical, managerial and financial capability. Informationshould be collected on:(a) Technical ability;(b) Infrastructure/equipment;(c) Financial capability;(d) Past performance.

Industries that do not have a system of internalquality control should be excluded. External inspec-tion agencies may be used for verifying through a“works inspection” whether the above criteria aresatisfied. Once the inspection agency gives a posi-tive recommendation, a “trial order” can be placedon the prospective supplier. During the execution ofthe trial order, visits to site/factory can be made toascertain that the necessary technical, managerialskills are available, and a quality control system isin place. A supplier/contractor that has passed theabove procedure may be registered as a “CertifiedSupplier”. Only suppliers that have reached thisstatus should be eligible for participation in biddingfor contracts. The performance of the contractor hasto be reviewed on an annual basis. Those who donot comply with the quality standards should loosetheir registration as certified suppliers and licenseto operate on RWSS schemes. In this way, it ispossible to keep a check on the private sector andmaintain high level of workmanship.

For provision of other services to RWSS pro-grammes, pre-qualification of agencies may be donebased on the type of work. At national level drillingcontractors could be qualified. At the regional ordistrict level hand dug well and latrine contractors,maintenance contractors and NGOs or support or-ganisations for community animation could beidentified and pre-qualified.

RWSS projects may have to provide technical andmanagerial training to contractors and NGOs withthe aim to establish themselves as private entre-preneurs or support organisations. It will be

necessary to develop specific structured trainingprogrammes for each target group. Training networkcentres could play a vital role in formulating the train-ing materials and training methodologies.

Support to the private sector only makes sense ifthe market is substantial enough to allow the pri-vate companies to survive and carry on operating.An essential factor for the development of a strongprivate sector is the co-ordination of sector activi-ties at national, regional and district level. MOW,ESAs and NGOs should co-ordinate their activitiesand policies in such a way that a sufficient marketfor private enterprises develops allowing them tooperate in a free competitive environment. Procure-ment practices should change wherever possiblefrom international competitive bidding to local com-petitive bidding.

6.3 Manufacture ofhandpumps

Many countries have successfully established localproduction of handpumps and other rural watersupply and sanitation equipment. These effortsreduce dependence on imports and improvesustainability. However, the investments requiredfor equipment and tooling to set up manufacturingcapacity are quite high and the working capitaldemand is considerable. Companies starting produc-tion of handpumps need to have the necessaryfinancial backing and the managerial ability for sus-tained operation. Local entrepreneurs would considerthe investment for tooling only if the firm prospectof a future market exist. The minimum annual pro-duction should be at a level of 500 or more pumps.

Figure 49 Handpump Production

45

In Africa, most countries could realistically not sup-port more than one or two manufacturers. Wherelocal companies are already producing handpumps,care should be taken to ensure that this nationalasset is not lost. As mentioned above, a policy ofstandardisation helps to maintain a dependablemarket and thus the viability of these local privateenterprises.

Local industrial capacity building can be achievedthrough demand-based technical assistance to theprivate sector in the form of technology transfer andSouth-South co-operation. HTN provides a pivotingpoint for such services.

However, in order to reach the users, greateremphasis should be placed on strengtheneddealership networks and on effective service deliv-ery mechanisms rather than on local production.Development of accomplished sales and servicenetworks can be best assisted by promoting mar-ket oriented policies and procurement procedures,which include the local private sector, in the supplyof handpumps, as well as a whole range of relatedservices, such as drilling, installation, after-salesservice, spare parts supply, and training.

6.3.1 Cost of local production

Cost of local production vs. imported pumps is afrequently discussed topic. Local costs are often

much higher. In Mozambique the differencebetween imports and local Afridev pumps wereassessed. Important factors that led to the highercosts were:(a) Cost comparisons were often made based on

one-sided assumptions. It is not correct to com-pare cost figures of a handpump FOB Bombaywith the cost of a pump delivered to the provin-cial capital.

(b) Manufacturers had to pay import duty onraw material and a sales tax on the finalproduct. Such levies were waved for importedhandpumps.

(c) The importation procedures were relatively com-plicated and lengthy which effected that rawmaterial needed to be purchased well in ad-vance. Thus, working capital was tied up for along time.

(d) The cost of labour was considerably higher inMozambique than for instance in India.

(e) Foreign handpump manufacturers may profitfrom an export promotion scheme.

Many of these points could not be changed. How-ever, at least comparisons should be fair.

To establish the sales price at a regional dealer’soutlet, the following table tries to quantify the costcomponents of a handpump delivered to a provin-cial town:

Table 2

The calculations are based on the following assumptions:(a) 12-18 months from order to delivery when imported,(b) typical African distances between national and provincial centres,Items 2 to 9 are often not accounted for in donor assisted projects.


Cost of Afridev Pump in USD Imported Imported Locally50 Nos. 500 Nos. made

per annum per annum1. Sales Price FOB or ex factory 385.- 385.- 868.-2. Sea-freight & Insurance 60.- 45.-3. Clearing and Forwarding 60.- 30.-4. Customs Duty 0.-5. Storage Cost 25.- 25.-6. Re-packing and Local Assembly 45.- 45.-7. Transportation to Provincial Centre 40.- 40.-8. Supervision and Planning 60.- 40.- 25.-9. Capital Cost / Pre-financing 115.- 97.- 45.-

Total pump delivered to Provincial Town 790.- 707.- 938.-

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The calculation indicates that the cost of an Afridevpump made in Mozambique is higher than animported pump. It should however be noted thatthe difference is less for smaller purchase orders.Therefore, small NGO’s and self-help groups profitmost from local production. The additional benefitsfrom local production are the technical back-up thatthe producer can provide. Additional advantagesinclude the accountability for the quality of theproduct, the industrial development of the countryand most important the support to the spare partssupply given by a producer who is in the country.Bearing these factors in mind, it seems justified topurchase the pumps locally. If further steps are takento involve the local producer in the training andafter sales services the cost benefits ratio mighteven turn in favour of local purchase.

6.4 Procurementchannels ofhandpumps

Ideally, although we might be far from this visionin many places, handpumps should be purchaseddirectly by the village communities. The cost of ahandpump could be within the financial reach of theuser community. Projects and policies should aimat establishing a system of cost sharing for low costtechnologies in which:(a) The project subsidy pays for the establishment

of the water point (planning, construction/drilling,supervision, etc.),

(b) The community purchases directly the hand-pump and pays fully for it.

In order to achieve the goal of direct purchase,the community needs to have a supplier/dealernearby. Most countries have not yet establishedsuch a regional/district dealer network, and it willtake some time to create it. What is needed isa radical change in the procurement procedures.Instead of buying pumps in bulk through local orinternational competitive bidding, procurement guide-lines for direct purchase by the communities shouldbe established. (See also chapter 6.3 Manufactureof handpumps)

The supply contracts for handpumps (betweenthe community and the dealer) should specify theprovision of hardware (handpumps) as well asrelated services. The pumps could be purchased as

turnkey installations (including: supply, distribution,delivery to site, installation, training of village care-taker, provision of after-sales services). The priceof a turnkey handpump installation is about twicethe FOB cost, depending on the distribution systemand the number of pumps involved.

A comprehensive network of regional dealers andspare part outlets in the private sector could havethe following pattern:(a) A pre-qualified supplier imports/manufactures the

pumps and spares. He appoints regional dealers,trains them in marketing and technical aspects.

(b) The regional dealers are the licensed representa-tives of the supplier. They sell (at regional level)and install handpumps. They appoint areamechanics, who are trained to perform repairs,sell spare parts and assist in the installation.

(c) The area mechanic is the link to the community.He is the representative of the regional dealer.

(d) The village caretaker is a member of the villagewater committee. His interaction with the areamechanic is the backbone of the day to daymaintenance of the pump.

6.5 Quality control

It is expedient to establish an independent third partyquality assurance for the supply of pumps. If thedirect purchase of pumps by the communitiesbecomes the rule, new ways to set up such aninspection service control need to be found. Com-munities will buy the handpumps only when demandarises; there will not be any bulk orders.

The national sector agency is not directly involvedin the purchases; therefore, it could take on a roleas an independent party. Procurement guidelinesand the pre-qualification procedures should imply thatonly the pre-qualified suppliers are allowed to sellpumps. Supply contracts could be issued that coveran anticipated one to three year’s requirements ofpumps and spare parts. The national agency couldfor instance enter into an agreement with an inspec-tion agency to examine the pumps ordered. Eachproduced/imported pump would be inspected forconformity to standard in the premises of the manu-facturer or on arrival of the shipment by theindependent inspection agency. If found conformingto the specifications, it is marked with an inspec-tion certification stamp. The marked pumps could

47

be released individually when a communitypurchased a pump. The inspection contract couldinclude the provision that the retainer for the guar-antee period will be paid to the supplier after theacceptance reports from the handpump installationshave been received at the end of the guaranteeperiod.


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49

7.Operation and Maintenance

In many countries, the national sector agencieswere traditionally responsible for O&M of watersystems. Thousands of handpumps were undercentralised, government-managed maintenance; ahuge and difficult task for understaffed and under-financed government agencies. Experience hasshown that investments were often endangeredbecause of lack of adequate maintenance.

7.1 Communitymanagement ofO&M

A transition to decentralised, community managedmaintenance structures is presently taking place aspart of DRA. Community management has the ob-jective of relieving the government of the day to dayinterventions in remote rural areas and attainingsustainability by motivating the communities to takeover the full financial and managerial responsibilityfor O&M. The holistic approach to management ofwater supply means integration of all aspects (tech-nical, financial, institutional, social, environmentaland managerial) into the planning, the operation andthe upkeep of water supply systems.

7.1.1 Building village levelstructures

Legal ownership is an essential prerequisite forresponsible management. Empowerment means,the communities take on the responsibility of deci-sion making in relation to O&M of the watersystems. Only owners can assume accountabilityfor decisions.As a rule, management should be delegated tolowest possible level. Ideally, water systems mustbe legally transferred to local bodies. Governmentscannot grant ownership of infrastructures to privatepersons or bodies that have no legal standing.Wherever they exist, elected village authoritiesor registered Water User Groups can offer thenecessary legal status to take over ownership. Such

bodies can decide to whom they want to delegatethe responsibility of O&M. Options are: directmanagement; elected or appointed village watercommittees or user groups; subcontracts to aprivate enterprise or an NGO.

World-wide, DRA is considered essential whencommunity empowerment for the management ofO&M is promoted. It is believed that for commu-nity based O&M the following conditions have tobe met. The communities need to:(a) Have contributed to the investment cost for new

facilities,(b) Have installed the handpump themselves or

have actively been involved in all stages of theplanning, implementation/development of thefacilities,

(c) Have been trained to do simple repairs,(d) Know that the government will not maintain the

assets,(e) Have sufficient funds for maintenance,(f) Be willing to pay fully for O&M.

New water supply facilities

Normally DRA is practised in development projectswhere new infrastructures are planned/constructed.DRA starts from the outset for the constructionof new systems, communities are motivated toparticipate, they have the choice of technology. Withtheir active managerial and financial contribution,they in turn receive an improved service.

Existing water supply facilities

In the case of existing facilities, where a transitionfrom centralised to decentralised O&M takes place,demand and choice of technology can not playa major role (as the infrastructure is already built).Management of the existing assets will be the mainchallenge. However, improvement and expansionof water and sanitation services will have to gohand in hand with the upkeep of the existinginfrastructures to ensure users’ interest in taking

Operation and Maintenance

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over the responsibility willingly. It will be prudentto carry out major repairs before existing facilitiesare handed over. Communities should also be givensome incentives for proper upkeep of watersystems.

The major task however is to create a senseof ownership and awareness that it is in their owninterest to assume full responsibility for maintenanceof their RWSS structures. They need to comprehendthe importance of keeping the water systems inworking conditions to ensure uninterrupted watersupply and better health. This requires institutionalstructures, which allow them to have legal owner-ship. It is important to mutually agree in aparticipatory assessment on the most appropriateinstitutional model. This process will lead to a far-reaching institutional sector reform. The transitionof responsibility for management of water supplysystems from the governments to the local bodieshas to include strategies that allow a smoothchangeover during which all partners can build upthe capacity to fulfil their new roles and at the sametime to safeguard the achievements of the past.

7.1.2 Restructuringgovernmentdepartments

Restructuring of government structures is needed.These departments were primarily executing agen-cies to construct and maintain water schemes.They are adapted to deal with technical aspects butare normally not well trained/organised to addresssoftware issues. It is important to examine theirstrengths, weaknesses, to review their system,organisational structures and procedures, to analysetheir staffing pattern and decision-making proc-esses. This investigation should form the basisfor the definition of their future roles in a compre-hensive system pursuing community based,demand driven RWSS projects. Full transparency isneeded to avoid insecurity among the governmentstaff; otherwise, they see decentralisation as athreat. The process has to take into account thehuman factor that naturally resists any change. Ifresistance develops among the staff, the wholeconcept is seriously endangered.

Decentralised O&M aims at reducing the overallgovernment spending for maintenance. Care has tobe taken that real savings are achieved. For this

purpose, the excess staff should be trained in newdisciplines to meet the growing requirements.Sensitisation of government functionaries will beanother important activity to make application ofDRA a success.

7.2 O&M - costs andstrategies

It is generally agreed that the running costs for O&Mcan be fully recovered from revenues collected bythe villages. The limitations however are:(a) Major repairs might be beyond the technical

capacity of the village or area mechanic and welloutside the financial capacity of the community,

(b) Depreciation cannot be achieved, cost forreplacement of pumps and extension of sys-tems is too high for communities,

(c) Borehole maintenance requires specialised skillsand equipment.

Sharing of responsibilities and costs between thegovernment and the villages might be a pragmaticapproach. In order to arrive at an operative costsharing system, constant interaction between thecommunities, the government and the private sec-tor (as provider of goods and services) is necessary.The communities should be obliged to maintain thewater systems when they take over ownership. Theyare normally willing to assume their share and arequite capable and willing to manage O&M in the firstfew years. But how do they cope after severalyears, when the system is old and worn outand daily maintenance cost reach exorbitantheights? In order to keep up the momentum it isnecessary to establish a constant monitoring andadvisory service.

Successful introduction of community managementon a sustained basis requires that:(a) The water systems are reliable for a long period

of time, and the water quality is acceptable tothe people.

(b) The necessary back up services (spare parts,repair services, technical support, etc.) are ac-cessible at short notice and in the vicinity.

(c) A monitoring system of O&M is established andadvisory support is provided to the villages.

(d) Provisions are made for repairs beyond the ca-pacity of communities, like well maintenance,rehabilitation/extension, etc.

51

7.2.1 Cost of maintenance

The cost of maintenance is often quoted withoutreflecting the full cost, this includes cost of spareparts, distribution, transport, labour, cost of estab-lishment of support organisations, etc. Many ofthese cost items are difficult to quantify, as forinstance a community member might travel a fullday to buy spare parts and would not calculatethe cost for lost labour and travel. For the sake ofsimplicity, most studies try to separate theseaspects and calculate only the cash contribution acommunity has to make, i.e. repairs and spareparts. Costs for O&M range from about USD 0.10(for direct action handpumps) to USD 2.50 (fordiesel pumps) per capita and per year.

The cost analyses normally exclude depreciation,that means the cost of rehabilitation and replace-ment of equipment are not counted. Sincethese costs are often covered under developmentbudgets, this would seem to make sense. At macrolevel, it would however also be necessary to lookinto the economic costs of rehabilitation.

The cost paid fully by the communities is onlyone component of the total O&M cost. In additionto this part, it is necessary for governments ordistrict authorities to budget for back up servicesi.e. extension/supervision, well maintenance, etc.The fact that the private sector can be used toprovide some of these services has a rationalisingeffect.

Preventive maintenance

The cost effectiveness of preventive maintenanceis beyond doubt. Breakdown maintenance prevailsunder community management; preventive mainte-nance is virtually not done. Sustainable preventivemaintenance requires a complete behaviouralchange and will only be accepted to a very limitedextent. It is important to introduce a monitoringsystem under which the communities are motivatedto make the necessary repairs in time.

Systems that require a higher level of maintenance(diesel pumped systems, reticulated systems) aprivatised O&M arrangement under which a com-pany or a water user group operates the waterfacilities could ensure the necessary level of preven-tive maintenance. Such a private operator can

organise tariff collection and take on the role of theexecuting agency for O&M.

7.2.2 O&M strategy

A model for a successful maintenance strategycould include the following key aspects:a) Standardisation of equipment to keep the number

of pumps and spare parts to a minimum.b) Introduction of a continued annual preventive

maintenance and inspection service. Communi-ties sign an agreement that they will havethe facilities inspected by an approved privatemechanic on a regular basis. During theseinspections, fast wearing parts are exchanged.Communities will have to pay the mechanic forthis service.

c) Communities also pay a nominal monitoring feeinto a water fund controlled by the district au-thorities.

d) The communities pay any other repairs and ad-ditional spare parts, which become necessarybetween the inspections.

e) The district water authorities permanently provideO&M support by advising and motivating the com-munities. They supervise the private mechanicsand provide a link between them and the commu-nity. They maintain the district database of all waterfacilities. O&M technicians can be recruited fromwater department personnel that become redun-dant under the new sector policy.

f) The district authorities ensure back up for majorrepairs that are well outside the technical andfinancial capability of the communities. The pri-vate sector can be invited to tender for servicecontracts and borehole cleaning and redevelop-ment (see below).

g) Identification of what services can be privatised.Franchising of some of the services to NGOs orprivate companies, which are acting on behalf ofthe districts should be considered.

h) District personnel are trained on all technologies.i) Financial assistance (district water funds) to the

communities in case of a major repair orborehole rehabilitation. The district authorities cangrant soft loan credits for the repairs to commu-nities eligible for assistance if they have they paidtheir fee to the district water fund and have hadthe annual inspections carried out.

j) Assistance to the private sector to develop anetwork for after-sales services provided bytrained mechanics and supply of spare parts.


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k) Training of community pump mechanics, areamechanics and O&M Technicians by suppliers.

7.3 Private sectorinvolvement in O&M

As said earlier, suppliers of handpumps and equip-ment should be compelled to set up their ownafter-sales service network. They establish regionalsales centres equipped with the necessary toolsand spares and appoint area mechanics as districtrepresentatives. These area mechanics are smallentrepreneurs who inspect, maintain and repairhandpumps. Although regular inspections willprovide a basic workload, the economic base ofsuch a job is not sufficient to support a mechanicfull time. The suppliers will have to utilise smallenterprises that are already operating in a relatedfield (car/motorcycle mechanics, household articlerepairers). It might be worthwhile looking at thealready existing capacity in the private sector. Inmany countries, the maintenance requirements ofirrigation boreholes are met by the private sector. Itshould be possible to give this already establishedcapacity a reasonable and responsible share in theO&M work for drinking water.

In order to perform the (preventive maintenance)inspections, the area mechanic need to be certifiedby the district authorities. For this, he will have toundergo the specified training. The training of areamechanics would be left to the supplier under theguidelines for pre-qualification.

The facilitating and regulating roles have to beretained by government agencies. The institutions atnational, regional and district will have to assume theassignments of co-ordination, planning, monitoring anddirection. These roles: the authorities, the responsibili-ties and the ways in which these tasks can beperformed need to be defined. Water resources man-agement cannot be left to individual communities whencompetitive use for domestic water supply, industry andirrigation becomes an issue.

7.4 Spare partsdistribution

Spare parts supply for pumps (specificallyhandpumps) in rural water supply is the weak link

in the chain of after sales services. Hardly any-where, has satisfactory spare parts distribution beenachieved. Selling of spare parts is generally nota profitable business. Turnovers are too small; andthe components that need to be kept in stockare many. Therefore the willingness of the privatesector to take up this commercially uninterestingactivity is minimal.

Figure 50 Street sign spare supplies

As mentioned above, pre-qualified suppliers have toset up a network of spare parts outlets. Theoreti-cally, the distribution network could have thefollowing appearance:(a) The national supplier keeps sufficient, fully

comprehensive stocks of all spares in hiscentral store.

(b) In each region, the regional dealer keepsadequate stocks of spare parts. Models in whichthe financial risk is shared between the nationalsupplier and the regional dealer need to beworked out. The quantity of spare parts in stockshould be sufficient to cover at least 80% of allbreakdowns. In the case where the components

53

are not in stock with the regional dealer, itshould be possible to order the parts within oneweek from the national supplier. The regionaldealer sells the spare parts either directlyto communities or through an appointed areamechanic. The bulk of the spare parts sales arecomponents replaced during the (preventivemaintenance) inspections. This allows theregional dealer to plan closely the annual turn-over of spare parts.

(c) The area mechanic is the principal outlet forspare part sales. He makes the annual inspec-tions, replaces the fast wearing parts. He hasa margin on all spares sales. He might stockonly the parts that he has to replace during theinspection. Any other spare part required forrepairs, he orders from the regional dealer, thusmaking it available in less than a week.

(d) The government prepares a list of recommendedspare parts sales prices for all the standardisedpumps. This list will be reviewed and agreed onannually together with the pre-qualified suppliers/manufacturers. If the price list is published, thecommunities will know how much a spare partscosts.

Experience tells that such a system might not besustainable in many rural areas in Africa. The aftersales structures tend to break up soon after the salesof pumps drop when an investment project is com-pleted. In order to make the activity attractive it willbe necessary to bring incentives other than thedirect financial gains. It might be useful to augmentthe financial viability through corporate sponsorshipfor rural water supply. Sponsoring of spare partssupplies for rural water could be attractive to bigcompanies for advertising. The challenge will be tosell new, unconventional ideas to such companies.


Figure 51 Pricelist spare parts

55

8.India handpump case study

8.1 Introduction

In the year 1967, UNICEF responded to the droughtin Uttar Pradesh and Bihar by bringing eleven ‘down-the-hole’ (DTH) pneumatic drilling rigs into thecountry. This started the Indian handpump revolu-tion. The arrival of these rigs initiated a programmethat was to become the largest of its kind in theworld, in terms of both area covered and peopleserved. The Government of India has made theprovision of clean, safe drinking water a cornerstoneof its rural development programme. The ruralwater supply programme covers approximately600,000 villages, serving almost three-quarters ofIndia’s 1,000 million population.

This case study looks at the handpump developmentin India from the early 1970s to end 1990s and triesto critically review the implementation approachesin research and development, standardisation, ca-pacity building, quality assurance and procurement.It also highlights the importance of proper technol-ogy selection, standardisation and quality control.

It analyses the complications maintaining such hugenumbers of assets and how India tried to react tothese challenges with the development of the IndiaMKIII designed for easy maintenance and repair. Thestudy offers an outlook towards new strategies ofdecentralisation and community management.

8.2 The India MKIIsuccess story

8.2.1 Emergence of a newpump

In 1967, the pneumatically operated drill rigsincreased the output of boreholes. The pumpsfitted on them were of the cast-iron ‘family’ pumptype used in American and European homesteads.Designed to meet family needs, the pumps werebreaking down under operating conditions in which

they had to operate almost continuously for morethan 10 hours a day. NGO’s in Jalna and Sholapurdesigned new improved pumps with a single pivothandle and sealed ball bearings. The connectingrod was kept aligned and in a state of constanttension through a chain running over a quadrant.A pedestal fitting over the borewell-casing pipeensured a sanitary seal and the pump was set inconcrete to eliminate movement. Several hundredsof these Jalna Jalwad and Sholapur pumps wereproduced over the next few years.

Little co-ordination took place so that the pumpswere invariably different from each other and evenmore serious, pump components of the same de-sign were also not interchangeable. This made O&Mrather difficult.

Excerpt from a report by Ken McLeod, UNICEF1977:“For the sake of this record, it is not necessaryto detail the problems, existent, within theprogramme in 74, save to say, that the situationwas bordering on disaster, and the drillingprogramme, UNICEF‘s prime responsibility,was in danger of being nullified, if a durablehandpump could not be supplied….”

The association of UNICEF

Water supply and environmental sanitation wereimportant components of UNICEF’s Integrated Coun-try Programme. In 1974, UNICEF carried outa survey of handpumps fitted on bore-wells. Theresults were not encouraging, about 75% of the castiron handpumps were inoperative. In the Bangaloreworkshop on handpumps in 1974, these unaccept-able results were presented and UNICEF evenconsidered stopping its support to the boreholeprogramme because of the high failure rate.

To meet the requirements of rural India, a partner-ship between two GOI organisations, the

India handpump case study

56

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Mechanical Research and Development Organisa-tion (MERADO) and Richardson & Cruddas, bothin Madras and UNICEF started for the developmentof an improved handpump, the India MKII (there wasnever a MKI pump). UNICEF played a key role act-ing as a co-ordinator and facilitator in thedevelopment work of the India MKII. MERADO pro-vided design support, while Richardson & Cruddaswere responsible for manufacturing the variousprototypes. The partnership that evolved was quiteunique as the Indian partners invested considerablefinancial and manpower resources without everentering into a contract with UNICEF. The HandpumpProject was based on the mutual understandingthat India needed an improved handpump andthat all parties would work towards this goal. Itwas also clear, that once the research work wasfinished, the design would be made available in thepublic domain.

The Handpump Project focused on:(a) Development of a sturdy and reliable community

handpump,(b) Large-scale local production in simply-equipped

workshops at low cost,(c) The use of materials and components available

in the country;(d) Reducing pumping effort to minimise the burden

on women,(e) Demonstrating that a better-designed handpump,

standardisation and quality control could facili-tate a more effective maintenance system,

(f) Demonstrating that a more reliable supply ofpotable water could reduce the incidence ofwater-borne and water-related diseases.

The Sholapur pump remained the point of referenceduring development of the India MKII. In 1975,UNICEF purchased 6,500 Sholapur ‘conversionheads’ and provided them to various state govern-ments. The ‘conversion heads’ (or top part of theSholapur pump) replaced the multi-pivot handle ofthe cast iron handpump. The successful outcomeof this hybridisation changed the Government’sattitude towards the handpump as a source ofwater in rural areas.

To achieve these various above objectives, theresearch and development team made the follow-ing design changes:(a) Increasing the pedestal diameter from 5" to 6" to

accommodate the 5" casing,

(b) Replacing the pipe handle with a solid bar, tocounter-balance the weight of the connectingrods,

(c) Replacing the two-part Sholapur design (headwith water tank and pedestal) with a three-partmodular design (head, water tank and pedestal).

Field-testing was carried out in 1976-1977 in theCoimbatore district of Tamil Nadu State under thejoint supervision of the Tamil Nadu Water Supplyand Drainage Board and UNICEF. The combinationof a deep SWL (around 40 metres) and a highhandpump usage pattern made the district an idealtesting-ground. Another 1,000 pumps manufacturedby Richardson & Cruddas were put on trial invarious states in December 1977. The results werevery encouraging; the pumps had a very low break-down rate, were easy to operate and widelyappreciated by communities and Government. Withthe extensive testing programme completed, itwas now time to introduce the new pump in largenumbers.

8.2.2 Large-scale production

The improved pump design found acceptance bythe Government of India and a number of stategovernments. Demand started to rise. India neededto set up quickly a mass production capacityfor handpumps. By 1978, Richardson & Cruddasmanufactured about 600 India MKII per month.

UNICEF helped to identify and develop new manu-facturers. It focussed on co-operation withestablished private companies to achieve a quickproduction base and tangible results. Crown Agentswas engaged to carry out works inspection atpotential manufacturers. These inspections servedto verify the technical and financial capability of thecompanies that had applied to become India MKIImanufacturers. Once competence was ensured, trialorders were placed with these companies. UNICEFand the inspection agency provided technical assist-ance to manufacturers for setting up productionprocesses and in the jig and fixture design. It wasmandatory for manufacturers to establish a func-tional internal quality control management. Thisprocess enabled many of the private sector com-panies to improve their production and in-housequality control systems. They became qualified asUNICEF approved handpump suppliers.

57

The pragmatic policies pursued and promoted byUNICEF, on standardisation, local capacity buildingand quality assurance paid rich dividends and withina few years the handpump programme expandedphenomenally. The private sector’s response tomeet demand for handpumps was excellent. R&C,INALSA, Meera & Ceiko Pumps and Ajay IndustrialCorporation soon became major players in thehandpump industry, in India and abroad. The totalproduction capacity reached over 100,000 units by1982. By 1984, more than 600,000 handpumps hadbeen installed and, in 1998, some 3 million IndiaMKII handpumps provide water to the rural and ur-ban population across India.

By 1984, UNICEF had licensed 36 approved manu-factures; the annual production capacity had grownto over 200,000 units. All the qualified manufactur-ers had undergone rigorous works inspections forassessment of their capacity and capability to meetthe stringent standards. In 1996, the Bureau of In-

dian Standards (BIS) took over the task of issuingproduction licenses. The number of BIS licensedmanufacturers has reached 62 by the year 1998.They have a total annual production capacity of over300,000 handpumps.

8.2.3 Standardisation

A focus for the quality of the product was alwaysin the forefront in the development of the India MKII.The problems of non-standardisation had becomeapparent during the prototype testing of the IndiaMark II. Many imitations, virtually all of a substand-ard quality, had appeared in the market. In 1976, theCentral Public Health and Environmental Engineer-ing Organisation (CPHEEO) in concurrence withUNICEF took a decision to formulate a nationalstandard. The drawings and specifications of thehandpumps were given to the Indian Standard In-stitution (ISI), now the Bureau of Indian Standards(BIS), so that it could prepare a national standard


Savings due to Standardisation of India MKIIUttar Pradesh 1990-1998

-1,0002,0003,0004,0005,0006,0007,0008,0009,000

1,99

0

1,99

1

1,99

2

1,99

3

1,99

4

1,99

5

1,99

6

1,99

7

1,99

8

Year

Savi

ng in

Lak

s IN

R

Nos

of P

umps

(x10

0)

Saving per year Accumulated saving Nos of Pumps

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on the handpump. The National Conference onDeepwell Handpumps, sponsored by the CPHEEOand UNICEF, held in 1979 at Madurai, Tamil Nadu,endorsed the need for standardisation and strictquality control.

In 1980, the first ISI Specification for DeepwellHandpumps IS: 9301-1979 was issued. The proc-ess of national standards formulation was flexibleenough to be responsive to the needs of the field.Work on refinement of the technology continuedto improve reliability, durability and ease of mainte-nance. Any change in the standard was acceptedonly after it had proved its field worthiness. The ISIreviewed and modified the standard in 1982, 1984and 1990.

The co-operation between UNICEF and the nationalBureau of Standards created the necessary author-

ity for the efforts by UNICEF to maintain quality. Theeffect of standardisation and the private sector pro-duction of handpumps lead to fierce competition,which brought prices of pumps and spare parts downconsiderably.

8.2.4 The India MKII in theexport market

Although the India MKII was primarily designed forIndian rural conditions, it soon found its way abroad.The India MKII went on to conquer export markets.Indian manufacturers successfully competed in in-ternational markets. Over the years, they becamethe main suppliers of handpumps to the Africancontinent. The combination of a sturdy product,manufactured to a high quality standard at a com-petitive price opened the possibility for the Indianproducers to secure global tenders.

Handpumps in India

-

500,000

1,000,000

1,500,000

2,000,000

2,500,000

3,000,000

1974

1976

1978

1980

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

Year

No

s

Total Pumps by UNICEF Total Pumps by GOI Total Pumps in Service

59

Production of India MKII pumps started in variouscountries outside India e.g. Germany, Italy, Mali,Togo, Nigeria, Uganda. Countries like Nigeria,Uganda, Ghana, Mali, Sudan included the India MKIIpump in their national standardisation programme.

8.2.5 Accomplishing quality

A key factor to the success of both the domestichandpump programme and the export sales ofIndian handpumps was UNICEF’s strict commit-ment to quality and the effective partnership withBIS. It was realised that large scale manufactureof India MKII pumps in many different companieswould have the great potential of bringing pricesdown due to competition. At the same time, itposed a serious threat to the product as well. Tocounteract this potential problem, UNICEF insistedon strict quality control of all pumps to ensurelongevity and inter-changeability between pumpsand parts produced by the various manufacturers.It arranged and paid for pre-delivery inspections ofall handpumps purchased for GOI by independentinspection agencies (Crown Agents and SGS) overa period of fifteen years. The technical supportprovided to manufacturers was instrumental to eco-nomically produce handpumps of adequate qualityin India.

In 1996, the full responsibility for quality control wastransferred to the BIS. Recognising the need forcontinued quality, government departments purchaseonly from BIS approved manufacturers with pre-delivery inspections at the manufacturer’s works bya BIS inspector. The state governments pay for theinspection cost, which is now included in the pur-chase price of the handpumps. By end of 1998,UNICEF had stopped supporting spare parts inspec-tions. For spare parts supply the BIS issuesself-inspection licences to manufacturers under aself-marking scheme i.e. those parts are not anylonger subject to third party inspection.

Despite these efforts, it is difficult to maintain thequality standards. Many manufacturers feel thatUNICEF’s withdrawal from inspection and qualitycontrol has been a discernible step backwards.Maintaining acceptable quality is a big challenge.Three million India MKII pumps of good quality area tremendous asset, however if the quality stand-ards drop, huge numbers of inferior quality pumpscould be a colossal liability.

8.2.6 Government’s role

The Government of India (states governments andthe RGNDWM in implementing the ARWSP andthe MNP) played a crucial and decisive role in theaccomplishment of the handpump programmestrategy. The attached graph shows the significantpart played by GOI in this programme to achievecoverage for the rural population. UNICEF supportwas catalytic in nature and shifted from the initialhardware demonstration towards mainly softwareinputs. The government’s strong support of stand-ardisation and quality control was crucial for thehandpump programme in India to accomplish thetremendous task of providing safe water to most ofthe rural population.

The GOI has realised that the days of striving fornumbers have ended. It is now essential to man-age the assets that were built up over the last 20years. To improve, expand and sustain the existinginfrastructure will be another formidable task.

8.3 Technologydevelopment forchange

8.3.1 Involving the users

Community based O&M of handpumps had beenunder consideration on the very beginning of theIndia MKII development.

Ken McLeod wrote in 1979:“New concepts are being developed overseasand we will submit them to field testing, as andwhen they become available. A concept shortlyto be tested in our application is the cylinder thatallows for the removal of the piston and footvalve without removal of the rising main…..Thisconcept, if proved to be reasonably durable andby this we mean one year’s trouble-free opera-tion, could bring village maintenance in sight.”

The VLOM-concept centred initially very muchon the development of so called VLOM handpumps.The development of the India MKIII pump falls intothis era. The line of thinking was that easy to repairhandpumps would automatically trigger communityinvolvement. Only with time, it became apparentthat the VLOM-concept depends much less on


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technology and rather more on software and insti-tutional aspects.

8.3.2 The India MKIIIdevelopment

The UNDP/World Bank’s Handpump Project andUNICEF supported a field-testing project nearCoimbatore in Tamil Nadu. The objective of thisproject was to carry out improvements on the IndiaMKII. The project developed and field-testedtwo handpump designs, the India MKII (modified)Deepwell Handpump and the India MKIII (VLOM)Deepwell Handpump. Development work to improveserviceability had to be carried out without adverselyaffecting the inter-changeability of the components,reflecting the large number of pumps already inthe field.

In the India MKIII, an open top cylinder and2½” galvanised iron riser pipe were fitted. The aboveground mechanism was modified to facilitatewithdrawal of the extractable piston and foot valvewithout having to remove the rising main. The footvalve is placed in a conical receiver and a nitrile

rubber O-ring provides sealing. A push rod in thefootvalve purges the column of water when the footvalve is lifted; thus, retrieval becomes much easier.

8.3.3 The rationale behind theIndia MKIII development

The Coimbatore Project made a wealth of data avail-able, comparing India MKII and MKIII pumps. Thedata indicated that repairs to the India MKIII took67 % less time than for the India MKII. Difficultrepairs, which required a mobile team, were 86%less. The tools (weighing approximately 7 kg) weresufficient to perform 90% of all repairs. The costsfor O&M depend on the following factors:(a) Type of maintenance structure,(b) Number of pumps a maintenance structure can

look after,(c) Number of interventions per year,(d) Cost of parts replaced.

The maintenance cost of the India MKIII was cal-culated to be $ 23.50 per annum less than the IndiaMKII. The reduction is mainly due to the cost of themobile teams being reduced by 66%.

THE VLOM CONCEPT

The inter-regional Handpump Project (later named Water and Sanitation Program) initiated in 1981 byUNDP/World Bank in support of the international drinking water decade was the major promoter of theVillage Level Operation and Management of Maintenance (VLOM) concept. It was seen as the mostsuitable approach to the maintenance problems.

Initially the Handpump Project aimed to develop a new generation of better handpumps. However, fieldtrials indicated strongly that technology did not solve problems related to handpump breakdowns. Pumpswere not repaired for many reasons, missing mechanics, missing tools and spare parts, non-availabil-ity of vehicles or lack of fuel.

A careful appraisal of the inter-linked obstacles surrounding handpump maintenance systems led to theconclusion that handpump technology had to be ‘user-friendly’, that the villagers, with a minimum oftraining, should be able to work as handpump mechanics. The design philosophy aimed at a pump thatcould be put back into service with little effort and minimal administrative overhead.

In the beginning, the VLOM idea restricted itself to the hardware aspect, with the intention of develop-ing pumps that were:� manufactured locally, thus ensuring the availability of spare parts;� maintainable by a village caretaker with minimal skills and a few light tools;� sturdy under field conditions;� cost effective.

These objectives contained within them the inherent need for organising an enabling environment withinwhich the people and their pump could interact. The software element became prominent and very im-portant. Community participation and management took on a sharp definition. The responsibility for O&Mof the pumps was now at village level.

61

Further, community based O&M has the potentialto shorten the downtime of the handpumps. Asurvey noted that the time taken to report a break-down varied from 4 to 13 days. The time takento put the pump back in operation varied from 7 to44 days after the receipt of the report. Approximately80-85% of the handpumps are operational at anytime. That means in average a pump is out ofservice for approximately 50-70 days in a year. Ifusers can repair their own pumps, the problem oflong delays could be mitigated largely.

The capital costs of an India MKIII are 36.3% higherthan that of the India MKII, excluding the cost ofborewell and platform, mainly due to the bigger sizedrising main. In India, the initial costs are a veryimportant consideration in the selection of equip-ment. Higher capital expenditure can be justifiedonly if it can be offset by lower recurring mainte-nance costs and other advantages.

8.4 Changing course

The arrival of the INDIA MKIII was probably essen-tial to initiate the shift in government thinking.The India MKIII being easy to maintain at villagelevel encouraged the philosophy that communitiescould take charge of their pumps. The convincingfigures from the Coimbatore project indicated thatthe higher investment cost of the MKIII appearedto be justified.

Demonstration projects of Community BasedHandpump Maintenance (CBHM) using MKIII werestarted in Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradeshand Maharashtra. The projects mainly concentratedon the training of communities, particularly women,in performing the necessary repairs and (some-times) inclusion of Gram Panchayats into theprocurement of spare parts. However, the full po-tential offered by the Panchayati Raj system toestablish clear legal community ownership of thewaterpoints with new roles for the technical depart-ments and the rural development departments wasnot explored. Spare parts still had to be obtainedthrough the old government channels.

As CBHM demonstration projects were not partof a full institutional reform, the structures atPHEDs/boards and at the district/block level did notchange.

Obviously, the engineers see CBHM as a threatto their jobs. With the lack of perspective withinthe departments, the India MKIII never found wideacceptance. The technical limitations (becauseof the weight of the rising main pipes the pumpcould not be used in installations deeper than 30 m)further reduced the impact.

8.4.1 Has the MKIII been astep in the rightdirection?

Has this pump actually achieved its objectives? Interms of factual improvement of the reliability of thehandpumps, it was certainly a small step forward.Ease of maintenance is not a decisive factor for theO&M of handpumps. Village communities who canmaintain their diesel/electric irrigation pumps arewell capable of repairing a handpump, whether it isMKII or MKIII. The felt need to have an operatingpump is the deciding factor and this is mainly linkedto ownership and commitment.

On the other hand, sometimes a good idea needsa tangible piece of hardware to go with it. From thispoint of view, the India MKIII has probably been avery useful tool for the advocacy of communitybased maintenance at all levels.

The MKIII did not accomplish its goal:“to stand in the village and invite, perhapschallenge, the community to participate, to

maintain, to manage”.

It did however trigger off a different develop-ment:

“the GoI started to believe that alternativesto the established three-tier maintenance

concept are feasible.”

From this point, the real merit of the MKIII develop-ment is hidden in the diameter of the rising main.It opened a door and the GOI seized this opportu-nity and works now on the development of a fullycomprehensive decentralised maintenance concept.


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8.5 Maintaining theassets

8.5.1 Relevance of handpumpprogramme

By 1999, an estimated 3.0 million India MKII/IIIhandpumps has been installed in rural India,serving a population of approximately 500 million.The number of boreholes and handpumps representan investment of approximately 150 billion INR (orUSD 40 billion). A study commissioned by UNICEFin 1985 found, on average, 87% of the pumps wereworking at any time. This figure stands in starkcontrast to an assessment in the 1970s when thebreakdown rate was so high that only 25% of thepumps were working. The presently reported resultsof handpump performance vary from 98% opera-tional at any time to about 60%. These figures maywell be too optimistic, it can be safely assumed thatabout ~65% of the pumps are in working condition.

Progress in rural electrification allowed the provisionof a higher level of service through small pipedsystems. The handpump is increasingly a supple-mentary water supply system that is used asstandby in case of a pumped scheme failure. Therelevance of the handpumps is diminishing in India.

It should however be noted that the rapid progressof the ARWSP and MNP increased the water sup-ply coverage of rural communities within the last 18years from 31% to nearly 90%. With this increas-ing number of water points, the cost to maintainthem rose rapidly as well. Presently the cost to thegovernment for the O&M of 3 million boreholes withhandpumps is approximately 3,000 million rupees(USD 75 million). The burden on the government isvery high and might not be sustained for muchlonger. In the new Guidelines for Implementation ofRural Water Supply Programme (1999), theRGNDWM plans to set up an effective cost sharingarrangement.

The designers of the India MKII had attempted tocreate a veritably robust machine. They had delib-erately tried to reduce the frequency of maintenanceinterventions. The question of ease of repair was notan important design consideration. Thus, for all itssimplicity of design and durability, the India MKII didnot offer the user the opportunity of a ‘hands-on’approach to handpump maintenance. The India MKII

designers had assumed that when necessary, com-petent professionals would be called in from thedistrict headquarters or from the Public HealthEngineering Department (PHED) to repair the pump.

8.5.2 The three-tier system

The National Conference on Deepwell Handpumpsheld at Madurai in 1979 was a significant landmarkfor handpump maintenance. It recommended thepresently predominant three-tier maintenance sys-tem as a workable solution for handpump O&M. Itoffers the users a rudimentary opportunity toparticipate in the responsibility for O&M. The sys-tem consists of:(a) Village caretaker,(b) One block-level mechanic who looks after 100

pumps, and(c) One mobile repair team at district level for every

1,000 pumps.

The intention was for the handpump caretaker towork on a purely voluntary basis and to keep pumpsurroundings clean and to report breakdowns.

8.5.3 Practical experience

The three-tier maintenance system was adopted innearly all states. It appears that in practice, only thetwo tiers on top (i.e. the block-level mechanics andthe district mobile maintenance teams) were effec-tively established. The system with the voluntarycaretakers never really worked well; high dropoutrates effected that soon many of the caretakers hadgiven up their responsibility. This adversely affectedthe reporting of handpump failure to district/blocklevel officials.

The complicated institutional setting with two agen-cies responsible for handpump O&M, (the technicaldepartments are responsible for the installations andthe major repairs but the Panchayats are responsi-ble for day to day O&M) does not help to make thesituation more transparent. In reality, the three-tiersystem has been replaced by a one-tier system inwhich the mobile teams have to carry the mainburden. They can only react to reported breakdownsand have no possibility of carrying out preventivemaintenance. The norms set for the three-tiersystem, (i.e. (a) one block-level mechanic for100 pumps, (b) one mobile team for 1,000 pumpsand (c) one hydrofracturing unit/compressor per

63

30,000 boreholes) are not sufficient to allow a fullycomprehensive coverage of all pumps with mobileteams. A mobile team can in average attendto about 3 pumps per day. This would bring thetheoretical total pump repairs to about 860 perannum. In reality the total number of repairs willbe less due to various reasons (truck not availabledue to maintenance, idle time due non-availabilityof crew, truck being used for other purposes, etc.).The realistic number of pumps covered by amobile team would be approximately 500. Thelack of maintenance personnel and transport effectsthat the repair services cannot be carried at theplanned level. Frequently, it takes a long timebetween reporting of the breakdown and the arrivalof the repair unit.

Despite an institutional environment that is not con-ducive for effective O&M the pump, performancefigures are quite good. This can be attributed to thefollowing factors:(a) Norms set for handpumps (250 people) are real-

istic,(b) The India MKII is a good pump (in design and

quality),(c) Level of competence and commitment within

PHED’s is high,(d) The political will to provide water to rural popu-

lation is strong.

However, the three-tier system is relatively expen-sive, and also lacks responsiveness, in terms oftime and occasionally inclination.

8.5.4 Community basedhandpump maintenance

The RGNDWM conducted a national workshop oncommunity based O&M in RWS in 1997. Sincethen several states have taken the idea up andrun workshops on the same subject. These work-shops provide a very useful platform to discuss theconcept in a participatory manner with state levelgovernment officials, in order to define the future roleof the governmental structures and to formulateaction plans for the transition. The mission realisedthe need for change. The main thrust of the ARWSPis not any longer on numbers and coverage but itstrives rather for quality of the systems. Now thatIndia is moving towards decentralisation (9th 5-yearplan), the mission included community based O&Min the Guidelines for Implementation of Rural Water

Supply Programmes (1999) as the way for thefuture. The RGNDWM’s methodology for implemen-tation sets the conditions for community basedO&M, it includes the need for communities to:(a) Own the assets,(b) Be involved at all stages in the planning, imple-

mentation/development and maintenance of thefacilities,

(c) Be trained to do simple repairs,(d) Know that the government will not maintain the

assets,(e) Have sufficient funds for maintenance,

These changes are an effective step forward inintroducing CBHM. India has theoretically the idealinstitutional set-up for decentralisation of O&M. Theimplementation of CBMH including all aspects(change of institutions, legal ownership, technicalback up, financing including cost sharing, etc.)by Panchayati Raj Institutions/local communities,water user committees, NGOs will be supportedthrough special incentives to institutionalise commu-nity participation.

It should be noted that CBHM will not reduce costsignificantly. The cost per handpump for O&M willremain about the same, however down time can begreatly reduced. In contrast to the centralised sys-tem, where all the financial resources come fromthe government, it offers the possibility to introducean effective cost sharing arrangement and account-ability.

The vigilant implementation of the new guidelinesby RGNDWM will empower the communities toplan, build and maintain their water systems. Formany years to come handpumps will remain theirprincipal source of safe water.


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65

9.Handpump fact-sheets

Handpump fact-sheets

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9.1 No 6 Pump

Description

The No 6 Pump is lever operated Suction Hand-pump. Typically, No 6 Pumps are installed incollapsible tube wells with the screen extendingto the coarse sand aquifer. The pump head andthe handle are made of cast iron. Pump rodand axles are made of mild steel. The pistonassembly is made of brass with a plastic bucketseal. The suction pipe and the robo screen areof PVC pipes. This makes this pump reasonablycorrosion resistant.

Technical data

Cylinder diameter (mm): 89.0Maximum Stroke (mm): 215*) Approx. discharge about 75 watt input m3/h:

at 5 m head 4.5Pumping lift (m): 0 – 7Population served (nos.): 50 – 100Households (nos.): 5 – 10Water consumption (lpcd): 20 – 25Type of well: collapsible

tubewell(or dugwell)

Material

� Pump head cast iron� Handle cast iron� Pump rods mild steel� Suction pipe PVC pipe� Cylinder cast iron� Plunger/footvalve brass

Local manufacturing

The No 6 Pump has an excellent potential forlocal manufacturing.

Installation

The installation of the No 6 Pump is easy and doesnot need any lifting equipment or special tools. Thedrillers who sink the tube well with the “sludgermethod” also install the pump.

Maintenance

This pump has an excellent “Community Manage-ment Potential”. Only two spanners are neededto repair the plunger and the footvalve. A villagecaretaker can perform all maintenance operations.

Remarks

This pump is like all Suction pumps limitedto pumping lifts of a maximum of 8 m. It isrecommended not to go deeper than 6-7 m. TheNo 6 Pump is not designed for a high daily output,but rather a family or small community pump.

Suppliers

The No 6 Pump is a public domain handpump.Technical information and a list of recommendedmanufacturers are available from HTN SKAT,homepage: www.skat.ch

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9.2 Jibon Pump

Description

The Jibon Pump is lever action deep set handpump.Typically, Jibon Pumps are installed in collapsibletube wells with the screen extending to the coarsesand aquifer. The pump head and the handle aremade of cast iron. Pump rods are made of glassfibre reinforced plastic. The piston assembly andthe footvalve are made of plastic and stainlesssteel. The rising main, the suction pipe and the roboscreen are of PVC pipes. This makes this pumpreasonably corrosion resistant.

Technical data

Cylinder diameter (mm): 54.0Maximum Stroke (mm): 215*) Approx. discharge at about 75 watt input m3/h:

at 5 m head 3.0at 10 m head 1.8at 15 m head 1.2

Pumping lift (m): 0 – 12Population served (nos.): 50 – 100Households (nos.): 5 – 10Water consumption (lpcd): 20 – 25Type of well: collapsible

tubewell (ordugwell)

Material

� Pump head cast iron� Handle cast iron� Pump rods FRP� Rising main PVC pipe� Cylinder PVC pipe� Plunger/footvalve plastic, different

materials

Local manufacturing

The Jibon Pump has an excellent potential forlocal manufacturing.

Installation

The installation of the Jibon Pump is easy and doesnot need any lifting equipment or special tools. Thedrillers who sink the tube well with the “sludgermethod” also install the pump.

Maintenance

This pump has an excellent “Community Manage-ment Potential”. Only two spanners are needed torepair the plunger and the footvalve. All mainte-nance operations can be performed by a villagecaretaker.

Remarks

This pump is limited to pumping lifts of a maxi-mum of 20 m. It is recommended not to go deeperthan 15 m. The Jibon Pump is not designed for ahigh daily output, but rather a family or small com-munity pump.

Suppliers

The Jibon Pump is a public domain handpump.Technical information and a list of recommendedmanufacturers are available from HTN SKAT,homepage: www.skat.ch


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Water Lifting

9.3 TARA Pump

Description

The TARA Pump as a Direct Action Handpumpis based on a buoyant pump rod that is directlyarticulated by the user, discharging water at theup- and down stroke. TYPICALLY, TARA pumpsare installed in collapsible tube wells with the screenextending to the coarse sand aquifer. The pumphead and the handle are made of galvanised steel.Pump rod and rising main are of PVC pipes andthe rest of the down hole components are madeof rubber, plastic, stainless steel and brass. Thismakes this pump corrosion resistant. The TARAPump is subject to Indian Standard IS 14106.

Technical data



Pumping lift (m): 2 – 15Population served (nos.): 100Households (nos.): 10Water consumption (lpcd): 20 – 25Type of well: borehole (or

dugwell)

Material

� Pump head galvanised steel� Handle galvanised steel� Pump rods PVC pipe� Rising main PVC pipe� Cylinder PVC pipe� Plunger/footvalve different materials

Local manufacturing

The TARA Pump has an excellent potential forlocal manufacturing.

Installation

The installation of the TARA Pump is easy and doesnot need any lifting equipment or special tools. Thedrillers who sink the tube well with the “sludgermethod” also install the pump.

Maintenance

This pump has an excellent “Community Manage-ment Potential”. Only simple tools are needed topull out the entire pumping element and thefootvalve. A village caretaker can perform all main-tenance operations.

Remarks

This pump is like most of the “Direct ActionPumps” (DAP) limited to pumping lifts of a maxi-mum of 15 m. It is recommended not to go deeperthan 12 m. The TARA Pump is not designed for ahigh daily output, but rather a family or small com-munity pump.

Suppliers

The TARA Pump is a public domain handpump.Technical information and a list of recommendedmanufacturers are available from HTN SKAT,homepage: www.skat.ch

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9.4 NIRA AF85 Pump

Description

The NIRA AF85 Direct Action Handpump is basedon a buoyant pump rod that is directly articulatedby the user, discharging water at the up- and downstroke. The pump head and the standing plateare made of galvanised steel and the handleof stainless steel. Pump rod and rising main areof HDPE pipes and the rest of the down hole com-ponents are made of plastics. This makes thispump completely corrosion resistant.

Technical data



Pumping lift (m): 2 – 15Population served (nos.): 300Households (nos.): 30Water consumption (lpcd): 15 – 20Type of well: borehole or

dugwell

Material

� Pump head galvanised steel� Handle stainless steel� Pump rods HDPE pipe� Rising main HDPE pipe� Plunger/footvalve HDPE

Local manufacturing

The NIRA AF85 Pump is a protected productand is not intended for local production. Althoughbesides the main company in Finland, there is onebranch in Ghana (Ghanira) and one in Tanzania(Tanira) producing this pump.

Installation

The installation of the NIRA AF 85 Pump is easyand does not need any lifting equipment orspecial tools.


Maintenance

This pump has an excellent “Community Manage-ment Potential”. Only simple tools are needed topull out the entire pumping element as well as thefootvalve and rising main. This pump is reliable andpopular with the communities.

Remarks

This pump is like most of the “Direct ActionPumps” (DAP) limited to pumping lifts of a maxi-mum of 15 m. It is recommended not to go deeperthan 12 m.

Suppliers

Technical information on the NIRA AF85 is avail-able from Vammalan Konepaya Inc. P.O. Box 54,SF-38201, Vammala, Finland. Tel: +358 351126 67/ Fax: +358 351 431 34.

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Water Lifting

9.5 MALDA Pump

Description

The MALDA Pump as a Direct Action Handpumpis based on a buoyant pump rod that is directlyarticulated by the user, discharging water at theup- and down stroke. The pump head, standingplate and the handle are made of galvanised steel.The sleeve, which protects the handle bar againstwear, is made of stainless steel. Pump rod andrising main are of HDPE pipes and the rest of thedown hole components are made of plastics. Thismakes this pump completely corrosion resistant.

Technical data



Pumping lift (m): 2 – 15Population served (nos.): 300Households (nos.): 30Water consumption (lpcd): 15 – 20Type of well: borehole or dugwell

Material

� Pump head galvanised steel� Handle galvanised steel� Handle sleeve stainless steel� Pump rods HDPE pipe� Rising main HDPE pipe� Cylinder HDPE pipe� Plunger/footvalve HDPE

Local manufacturing

The MALDA Pump is specially designed to beproduced in various developing countries.

Installation

The installation of the MALDA Pump is very easyand does not need any lifting equipment orspecial tools. The rising main with footvalve andpump head as well as the pump rod with handle andplunger can be assembled on the ground. When laidnext to each other the correct length can bechecked. For the installation both, the rising main andthe pampered do not need to be dismantled again.

Maintenance

This pump has an excellent “Community Manage-ment Potential”. Only simple tools are needed topull out the entire pumping element as well as thefootvalve and rising main.

Remarks

This pump is like most of the “Direct ActionPumps” (DAP) limited to pumping lifts of a maxi-mum of 15 m. It is recommended not to go deeperthan 12 m.

Suppliers

The MALDA Pump is a public domain handpump.Technical information and a list of recommendedmanufacturers are available from HTN SKAT,homepage: www.skat.ch

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9.6 INDIA Mark II Pump

Description

The INDIA Mark II Pump is a conventional leveraction handpump and is subject to Indian Stand-ard IS 9301. This pump has a pump head, pumpstand and a handle of galvanised steel. The downhole components exist of a brass lined cast ironcylinder with a footvalve and a plunger of brass.The plunger has a double nitrile rubber cup seal,the rising main is a Ø32 mm GI pipe and the pumprods are of galvanised steel with threaded connec-tors. This pump is not corrosion resistant andshould not be used in areas with aggressive wa-ter ( pH value < 6.5 ).

Technical data

Cylinder diameter (mm): 63.5Maximum Stroke (mm): 125*)Approx. discharge at about 75 watt input m3/h:

at 10 m head 1.8at 15 m head 1.3at 20 m head 1.0at 25 m head 0.9at 30 m head 0.8

Pumping lift (m): 10 – 50Population served (nos.): 300Households (nos.): 30Water consumption (lpcd): 15 – 20Type of well: borehole

Material

� Pump head galvanised steel� Handle galvanised steel� Pump stand galvanised steel� Pump rods galvanised steel� Rising main galvanised GI pipe� Pump cylinder cast iron / brass� Plunger/footvalve brass

Local manufacturing

All “above ground components” have a potentialfor local manufacturing, all the other parts need ahigh degree of quality control to ensure a reliableoperation. The cost of the tooling requirement issubstantial and therefore the number of manufac-turer will be limited.


Installation

The installation of the INDIA Mark II Pump needwell trained area mechanics or a mobile team withlifting tackle and comprehensive tool kit.

Maintenance

This pump has limited “Community ManagementPotential”, but it is reliable and popular with thecommunities. To service the INDIA Mark II Pumpskills and tools are needed which exceeds the abil-ity of a village-level caretaker. However trained areamechanics can successfully maintain the pump.

Suppliers

The INDIA Mark II is a public domain handpump.Technical information and a list of recommendedmanufacturers are available from HTN SKAT,homepage: www.skat.ch

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Water Lifting

9.7 INDIA Mark III Pump

Description

The INDIA Mark III Pump is a conventional leveraction handpump and is subject to Indian Stand-ard IS 13056. This pump has similar configurationsas the INDIA Mark II, only the “down hole com-ponents” were changed in order to improve thevillage level maintenance. The most important im-provement is the “open top cylinder”, whichmakes it possible to remove the plunger and alsothe footvalve without lifting the cylinder and therising main ( Ø65 GI pipe). This pump is not corro-sion resistant and should not be used in areas withaggressive water ( pH value < 6.5 ).

Technical data

Cylinder diameter (mm): 63.5 (50)Maximum Stroke (mm): 127*) Approx. discharge at about 75 watt input m3/h:

at 10 m head 1.8at 15 m head 1.3at 20 m head 1.0at 25 m head 0.9at 30 m head 0.8


Material

� Pump head galvanised steel� Handle galvanised steel� Pump stand galvanised steel� Pump rods galvanised steel� Riser pipes galvanised GI pipe� Pump cylinder cast iron / brass� Plunger/footvalve brass

Local manufacturing

All “above ground components” have a potentialfor local manufacturing, the other parts need a highdegree of quality control to ensure a reliable opera-tion. The cost of the tooling requirement issubstantial and therefore the number of manufac-turer will be limited.

Installation

The installation of the INDIA Mark III Pump needswell-trained area mechanics or a mobile team withlifting tackle and comprehensive tool kit. Pump cyl-inder settings of more than 30 m are difficult,because of weight of the rising main.

Maintenance

This pump has an improved Community Manage-ment Potential” compared to the INDIA Mark II,because the “open top cylinder” gives the possi-bility of a simpler maintenance with less toolsinvolved.

Suppliers

The INDIA Mark III is a public domain handpump.Technical information and a list of recommendedmanufacturers are available from HTN SKAT,homepage: www.skat.ch

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9.8 AFRIDEV Pump

Description

The AFRIDEV Pump is a conventional lever actionhandpump. The configuration includes an open topcylinder, i.e. the piston can be removed from thecylinder without dismantling the rising main. Thefootvalve is retractable with a fishing tool. The riserpipes are made of u-PVC. The pump rods are ofstainless- or mild steel with hook and eye connec-tors, allowing removal without tools. Engineeringplastics like POM and PA 66 are used for thepumping elements, plunger/footvalve and for thebearings. This pump is corrosion resistant in thestainless steel rod configuration.

Technical data

Cylinder diameter (mm): 50Maximum Stroke (mm): 225*) Approx. discharge at about 75 watt input m3/h:

at 10 m head 1.4at 15 m head 1.1at 20 m head 0.9at 30 m head 0.7


Material

� Pump head galvanised steel� Handle galvanised steel� Pump stand galvanised steel� Pump rods SS or galvanised

steel� Rising main u-PVC pipe 63 mm� Pump cylinder u-PVC pipe 2 inch� Plunger/footvalve Polyacetal POM

Local manufacturing

All steel parts of this pump have a potential for lo-cal manufacturing.

Local companies who manufacture u-PVC pipesand have the knowledge of processing engineer-ing plastics are able to produce the “down holecomponents”.

The cost of the tooling requirement is substantialand therefore the number of manufacturer will belimited.


Installation

The installation of the AFRIDEV Pump is not diffi-cult and does not need any lifting equipment.

Maintenance

This pump has an excellent “Community Manage-ment Potential”, it is reliable, easy to repair by avillage caretaker and popular with the communi-ties. The only tools needed are one spanner andthe fishing tool.

Suppliers

The Afridev is a public domain handpump. Techni-cal information and a list of recommendedmanufacturers are available from HTN SKAT,homepage: www.skat.ch

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Water Lifting

9.9 U3M Pump

Description

The U3M pump is a conventional lever actionhandpump. The configuration includes an opentop cylinder, i.e. the piston can be removed fromthe cylinder without dismantling the rising main.The footvalve is retractable with a fishing tool.The riser pipes are made of u-PVC. The pump rodsare of stainless steel or glass fibre reinforced plas-tic, allowing simple removal. The pumpheadhas similar configurations as the INDIA Mark III,the “down hole components” are similar to Afridevcomponents. The cylinder follows the Afridev con-figuration. The plunger uses the 50 mm open topIndia MKIII brass design. This pump is fully corro-sion resistant.

Technical data

Cylinder diameter (mm): 50Maximum Stroke (mm): 150*) Approx. discharge at about 75 watt input m3/h:



Material

� Pump head galvanised steel� Handle galvanised steel� Pump stand galvanised steel� Pump rods SS or FRP� Rising main u-PVC pipe 63 mm� Pump cylinder u-PVC pipe with

brass liner 50 mm� Plunger/footvalve brass/plastic

Local manufacturing

All “above ground components” and steel parts ofthis pump have a potential for local manufactur-ing. The other parts need a high degree of qualitycontrol to ensure a reliable production. Local com-panies who manufacture u-PVC pipes are able toproduce the rising main. The cost of the toolingrequirement is substantial and therefore the numberof manufacturer will be limited.

Installation

The installation of the U3M Pump is not difficult anddoes not need any lifting equipment.

Maintenance

This pump has an excellent “Community Manage-ment Potential”, it is reliable, easy to repair by avillage caretaker and popular with the communi-ties. Few tools are needed for all repairs.

Suppliers

The U3M is a public domain handpump. Technicalinformation and a list of recommended manufac-turers are available from HTN SKAT, homepage:www.skat.ch

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9.10 VERGNET Pump

Description

The VERGNET Pump has unconventional designfeatures. It is operated by foot with a pedal. Thedisplacement of the piston located at ground levelis hydraulically transmitted to a rubber diaphragmdown in a stainless steel cylinder. The expansionand the contraction of the diaphragm deliver thewater to the surface. The top cylinder is connectedto the pumping element on the bottom, via a flex-ible hose. The pumping element is made of rubberand stainless steel, which makes this pump cor-rosion resistant.

Technical data

Cylinder diameter (mm): N/AMaximum Stroke (mm): 200*) Approx. discharge at about 75 watt input m3/h:



Material

� Pump stand galvanised steel� Foot pedal mild steel� Pipes (flexible hose) HDPE� Top cylinder stainless steel� Bottom cylinder stainless steel� Pumping element rubber diaphragm� Valves brass

Local manufacturing

The VERGNET Pump is a protected product and isnot intended for local manufacturing. Only the steelparts of the pump stand would have a potential forlocal manufacturing.

Installation

The installation of the VERGNET Pump is very sim-ple and does not need any lifting equipment.


Maintenance

This pump has a good “Community ManagementPotential”. The above ground components allowinterventions by the village caretaker, but belowground components are difficult to repair. The dia-phragm requires frequent cleaning.

Remarks

The replacement of a diaphragm is expensive. Thepump requires a considerable effort to operate. Al-though full body weight can be applied to the pedal,children and small users find it sometimes hard tooperate the pump. If the yield of the borehole al-lows and the water demand is high, it is possibleto install 2 pumps in one borehole.

Suppliers

Technical information on the VERGNET Pump isavailable from Vergnet S.A. 6, rue Henry Dunant,F- 45140 INGRE, France. Tel: + 33 1 38 43 36 52/ Fax: + 33 1 38 88 30 50

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Water Lifting

9.11 VOLANTA Pump

Description

The VOLANTA Pump is a reciprocating pump drivenby a large flywheel. A crank and a connecting rodconvert the rotary motion in a reciprocating action,which is transmitted to the plunger via stainlesssteel pump rods. The crankshaft and the flywheelrun on ball bearings mounted on a plate which canbe fixed to a steel or concrete pedestal. The cylin-der is of glass fibre reinforced plastic with aclose-fitting seal-less stainless steel plunger. Thecomplete cylinder can be lifted from the well bythe threaded pump rods, without removing the PVCrising main. This pump is corrosion resistant.

Technical data

Cylinder diameter (mm): 50Maximum Stroke (mm): 400*) Approx. discharge at about 75 watt input m3 /h:at 20 m head 1.0at 40 m head 0.5at 60 m head 0.25(at 80 m head 0.15)Pumping lift (m): 10 – 80Population served (nos.): 300Households (nos.): 30Water consumption (lpcd): 15 – 20Type of well: borehole

Material

� Pump stand mild steel painted� Flywheel mild steel painted� Rising main PVC� Pump cylinder reinforced epoxy

resin� Plunger / Pump rods stainless steel� Valves rubber

Local manufacturing

The VOLANTA Pump is a protected product and isnot intended for local manufacturing, but there arecountries where assembling and installation of thispump are made locally.

Installation

The installation of the VOLANTA Pump is not diffi-cult and does not need any lifting equipment.However extensive masonry work is required.

Maintenance

This pump has an excellent “Community Manage-ment Potential”. Only simple tools are needed topull out the entire pumping element, includingpump rod and footvalve.

Remarks

Some users find it difficult to start the pump. Smallchildren have to stay away from this pump, espe-cially the area of the rotating flywheel is adangerous playground. Because of the PVC risingmain, the pump should not be used in unlinedboreholes.

Suppliers

Technical information on the VOLANTA Pump isavailable from Jensen Venneboer b.v., P.O. Box12, NL-8130 AA Wijhe, the Netherlands. Tel: + 3157052 2525 / Fax: + 31 57052 3618.

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9.12 BUSH Pump

Description

The Bush Pump is a conventional lever actionhandpump. The typical feature of this pump is the“Hardwood block” that acts as both a bearing andlever mechanism. The pump stand is of paintedmild steel and the handle is a galvanised GI pipe.The “down hole components” consist of Ø50 mm(NB) GI pipe for the rising main, pump rods of Ø16mm galvanised mild steel, brass footvalve andcylinder (Ø75 mm), bronze plunger with leatherseals. This pump is not corrosion resistant andshould not be used in areas with aggressive wa-ter ( pH value < 6.5 ).

Technical data

Cylinder diameter (mm): 75Maximum Stroke (mm): 200 – 250*) Approx. discharge at about 75 watt input m3/h:


Pumping lift (m): 5 – 50Population served (nos.): 300Households (nos.): 30Water consumption (lpcd): 15 – 20Type of well: borehole or

dugwell

Material

� Pump stand painted steel� Handle galvanised steel

pipe� Bearing block Hardwood� Pump rods galvanised steel� Riser pipes galvanised GI pipe� Pump cylinder brass� Plunger/footvalve bronze/brass

Local manufacturing

The Bush Pump has an excellent potential for lo-cal manufacturing and is produced by differentcompanies in Zimbabwe.

Installation

The installation of the Bush Pump needs welltrained area mechanics. Lifting tackle is only usedfor deep applications and for large size “open topcylinders”. No special tools are needed.


Maintenance

The pump with the Standard configuration has alimited Community Management Potential”, but itis reliable and popular with the community. The“open top cylinder version” gives the possibility ofa simpler maintenance (see remarks).

Remarks

Besides the “Standard” configuration, there existsan “Open Top Cylinder” version with different cyl-inder sizes (Ø50 mm/Ø63.5 mm/Ø75 mm). Tomake maintenance easy, pump rods withcasehardened hook and eye connectors are alsoavailable.

Suppliers

Technical information on the Bush Pump is avail-able from The National Action Committee for WaterSupplies and Sanitation, Government of Zimbabwe.

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Water Lifting

9.13 Rope Pump

Description

The Rope Pump features a unique design in whichsmall plastic pistons are lined up on a rope. Thedistance between the pistons is approximately1 m. Over a crank operated drive wheel the ropeis pulled through a plastic rising pipe. The pumpstand is of painted mild steel and the drive wheelconsists of cut old tires. A ceramic guide box leadsthe rope with the pistons into the rising pipe. Thispump is reasonably corrosion resistant.

Technical data

Piston nominal diameter (inch): 1”, ¾”, ½”*) Approx. discharge at about 75 watt input m3 /h:


Pumping lift (m): 0 – 30Population served (nos.): 70Households (nos.): 3 – 10Water consumption (lpcd): 15 – 20Type of well: dugwell or

borehole

Material

� Pump stand painted steel� Crank painted steel pipe� Drive pulley rubber and mild

steel� Pistons plastic� Guide box ceramic and PVC� Rising pipe PVC pipe

Local manufacturing

The Rope Pump has an excellent potential forlocal manufacturing and is produced by differentcompanies in Nicaragua as well as elsewhere.

Installation

The installation of the Rope Pump is easy. It canbe done by trained area mechanics. No liftingtackle and no special tools are needed.

Maintenance

The rope pump has an excellent “CommunityManagement Potential”. A torn or broken rope canbe replaced without any special tools. A villagecaretaker can perform all maintenance operations.

Remarks

This rope pump is usually installed in dug wells.Even though it is not limited in pumping lifts,the major application range is up 15 m. The Ropepump is not designed for a high daily output,but rather a family or small community pump.Models exist for family use as well as for com-munity use.

Suppliers

The rope pump is a public domain handpump. Tech-nical information and a list of recommendedmanufacturers is available from Rope Pump Tech-nology Transfer Division, Apartado postal 3352,Managua, Nicaragua, e-mail [email protected]

author: erich baumann - sswm · lessons learnt during the workshops held by aguasan (an...

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