awwa wastewater operator field guide-american water works association (awwa) (2006)

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WW

Wastewater

Operator Field Guide

Compiled by AWWA staff members:

John M

Stubbart

William G Lauer

Timothy J McCandless

Paul Olson

merican Water Works

ssociation

cience and Technology

AWWA unites the drinking water comm unity by develop ingand distributing author-

itative scientif ic and technological knowledge. Through its members AWWA

develops industry standards for products and pro cesses that advance public

health and safety. AWWA also provides quality improvement programs for water

and w astew ater utilities.

Copyright (C) 2006 American Water Works Association All Rights Reserved



Copyright 006 American Water Works Association.

All rights reserved.

Printed in the United States ofAmerica.

Project Manager: Melissa Christensen Senior Technical Editor

Produced by Glacier Publishing Services Inc.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in

any form or by any means electronic or mechanical including

photocopying recording or any information or retrieval system

except in the form

of

brief excerpts or quotations for review pur-

poses without the written permission of the publisher.

Disclaimer

The authors contributors editors and publisher do not assume

responsibility for the validity of the content or any consequences

of their use.

n

no event will AWWA be liable for direct indirect

special incidental or consequential damages arising out of the use

of information presented in this book.

n particular AWWA will

not be responsible for any costs including but not limited to

those incurred as a result of lost revenue. In no event shall

AWWA’s liability exceed the amount paid for the purchase of thjs

book.

Libraryof Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

has been applied

for

ISBN

1 58321 386 4

merican Water Works

ssociation

West

Qiiiricy Averiiie

Denver

o 80235 3098

303.794.77i 1




reface

T his guide is

a

compilation ofinform ation charts graphs formu-

las and definitions that are used by wastewater system operators

in performing their daily duties. There is s much information

contained in

s

many different sources that finding it while in the

field can be

a

problem. This guide compiles information mostly

from AWWA manuals books an d standards bu t also from other

generic information found in many publications.

T h e sections of this guide grou p the information based on how

it would be used by the operator. T h e guide includes information

for both wastewater treatment and collection. Design engineers

should also find this material helpful. Major sections include

math conversion factors chemistry safety collection p um ps and

motors flow wastewater treatment biosolids an d disposal.

Perusing the guide now will assist in finding handy information

later. T his is the first edition of the guide. If you w ould like to sug-

gest changes or additions

to

the guide please submit them

to

AWWA Publishing Group

6666

W. Quincy Ave. Denver

CO

80235.

vii




Contents

Preface

Basic Math

Systkme International Units

Key Formulas for Math

Key Conversions for

Flows

Key Formulas for

Flows

and Meters

Units of Measure

and

Conversions

Units of Measure

Conversion of US Customary Units

Conversion ofMetric Units

Temperature Conversions

Water Conversions

Water Equivalents and Data

Chemistry

Key Formulas for Chemistry

Conductivity and Dissolved Solids

Safety

OSHA

Safety Regulations

Trench Shoring Conditions

Roadway Traffic and Vehicle Safety

Fire and Electrical Safety

vii

5

10

11

13

14

3

35

9

5

51

5

61

62

81

83

88

90

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Personnel Safety

Health Effects of Toxin Exposure

Collection

Design Flow Rates

Flow Measurement

Sewer Construction

Manholes

Pipe Characteristics

Pipe Joints

Gauges and Valves

Types of Corrosion

Various Factors Affecting Corrosion

Pipe Testing

Water Exfiltration

Pipe Cleaning and Maintenance

Pumps

Electrical Measurements

Frequently Used Formulas

Horsepower and Eficiency

Pump Volage

Maintenance and Troubleshooting

Types of Pumps

Flow

Key Conversions for Flows

Key Formulas for Flows and Meters

Weirs

Types of Flumes

Types of Meters

Wastewater Treatment

Key Formulas

Grit

Filters

Settling

Diffusers

Sequencing Batch Reactors

103

106

9

120

123

129

147

149

160

163

165

166

169

171

173

85

186

186

189

195

197

21 1

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223

228

241

246

261

264

2 73

275

284

288

289

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Intermittent Sand Filters

Septage

Biosolids

Sludge Processing Calculations

Gravity Thickening

Dewatering

Centrifuges

Management Practices

Regulatory Requirements

Discharge and Disinfection

Chlorine

Ultraviolet Light

Marine Discharge

Abbreviations and Acronyms

Glossary

Index

9

294

297

298

3 4

31

315

317

335

369

37

38

387

389

4 5

423

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Basic

Math

A number of calculations are used in the

operation of small wastewater acilities. Some

only need to be calculated once and recordedfor

iLture

reference; others may need to be calculated

morefiequently. Operators need to be a m i l ia r

with

the

ormulas and basic calculations to carry

out their duties properly. Note

that

the orm ulas

in th is section are basic and general; spec %

for m ula sfo r particu lar components

of

wastewater systems can be fo un d in the

relevant sections of th is guide.

1




SYSTEME INTERNATIONAL UNITS

When performing calculations, water operators should pay particu-

lar attention not only to the numbers but also to the units involved.

Where

SI

units and customary units are given, convert all units to

one system, usually

SI,fi.st.

Be sure to write the appropriate units

with each number in the calculations for clarity. Inaccurate calcula-

tions and measurements can lead to incorrect reports and costly

operational decisions. This section introduces the calculations that

are the basic building blocks

of

the water/wastewater industry.

SI

Prefixes

The SI is based on factors of ten, similar to the dollar. This allows

the size

of

the unit of measurement to be increased or decreased

while the base unit remains the same. The

SI

prefixes are

mega, M = 1,000,000

x

the base unit

kilo, k = 1,000 x the base unit

hecta,

h

=

100

x

the base unit

deca, da = 10 x the base unit

deci, d = 0.1 x the base unit

centi,

c

= 0.01 x the base unit

milli, m =

0.001 x the base unit

micro, p = 0.000001 x the base unit

Base SI

Units

Quantity

Unit

Abbreviation

length meter

mass kilogram

time second

electric current ampere

thermodynamic temperature kelvin

amount of substance mole

luminous intensity candela

m

kg

sec

A

K

mol

cd

2




Supplementary

SI

Units

Quantity Unit Abbreviation

plane angle radian

solid angle steradian sr

rad

9

v

m

.-

m

DerivedSI Units With Special

Names

Quantity

Equivalent-Units

Unit Abbreviation Abbreviation

frequency of a periodic

force

pressure, stress

energy, work, quantity of heat

power, radiant flux

quantity of electricity,

electric charge

electric potential, potential

difference, electromotive orce

electrical capacitance

electrical resistance

electrical conductance

magnetic flux

magnetic flux density

inductance

luminous flux

luminance

activity of a radionuclide)

absorbed ionizing radiation dose

ionizing radiation dose equivalent

phenomenon)

hertz

newton

pascal

joule

watt

coulomb

volt

farad

ohm

siemens

weber

tesla

henry

lumen

lux

becquerel

gray

sievert

Hz

V

F

R

S

Wb

T

H

Im

Ix

Bq

GY

sv

sec-’

kg m/sec2

N/m2

N-m

Jlsec

A-sec

WIA

C N

VIA

AN

Vesec

Wb/m2

Wb/A

cd-Sr

lm/m2

disintegrations/sec

J/kg

Jlkg

3




Some Common Derived

SI

Units


absorbed dose rate

acceleration

angular acceleration

angular velocity

area

concentration amount of

substance)

current density

density, mass

electric charge density

electric field strength

electric flux density

energy density

entropy

grays per second

meters per second squared

radians per second squared

radians per second

square meter

moles per cubic meter

amperes per square meter

kilograms per cubic meter

coulombs per cubic meter

volts per meter

coulombs per square meter

joules per cubic meter

joules per kelvin

Gylsec

m/sec2

radlsec’

radlsec

m 2

m o ~ l m ~

A/m2

kglm3

c/m3

V l m

C/m2

J/m3

JIK

exposure

X

and gamma rays) coulombs per kilogram Clkg

heat capacity

heat flux density irradiance

luminance

magnetic field strength

molar energy

molar entropy

molar heat capacity

moment of force

permeability magnetic)

permittivity

power density

joules per kelvin

watts per square meter

candelas per square meter

amperes per meter

joules per mole

jOUleS per mole kelvin

joules per mole kelvin

newton-meter

henrys per meter

farads pet meter

watts per square meter

JIK

W m’

cdlm2

A lm

Jlmol

J/ mol.K)

Jl mo1.K)

N-m

Hlm

lm

W/m2

Table continued on next

page

4




Some Common Derived SI Units continued)


5

radiance watts per square meter W/ m*.sr)

s

steradian

radiant intensity watts per steradian

.-

2

Wlsr

m

specific energy joules per kilogram Jlkg

specific entropy joules per kilogram kelvin Jl kg.K)

specific heat capacity joules per kilogram kelvin J4kg.K)

specific volume cubic meters per kilogram m31kg

surface tension newtons per meter Nlm

thermal conductivity watts

per meter kelvin Wl m.K)

velocity

meters per second m/sec

viscosity, absolute pascal-second Pa.sec

viscosity, kinematic square meters per second m2/sec

volume

cubic meter

wave number per meter

m3

m-’

KEY FORMULAS FOR MATH

Area Formulas

Square

area= s X s

diagonal =

1.414

x s

Rectangle

or

Parallelogram

area

= b

x

h

diagonal

=

square root

b +

h

)

2

5




Trapezoid

(a

+ b h

area

=

Any Triangle

b x h

2

rea=

Right-Angle Triangle

a + b = c

2 2

Circle

area =

C

X

r

circumference = 2

x

T

x

r

2

Sector of

a

Circle

T C X r X r X a

360

rea =

length = 0.01745 x

r

x a

0.01 745

X

r

angle =

1

0.01745

x

adius =

Ellipse

area =

T

x a x b

A

a 4

6




Volume Formulas

rectangle tank volume = r:Z$e) dimension

area of

areaof ) third )

rectangle dimension

rough volume=

dimension

areaof

)

third )

= rectangle dimension

third

= 0.785 D2)

dimension)

cone volume =

Is

(volume of a cylinder)

3

Rectangular Solid

volume = h x a x

b

surface area = 2

X ~ X

) + 2 x b

x

h) +

2

x

a

x

b)

Cylinder

volume=XXr

x h

surface area =

2

x

x

x

rh

x

=

3.142

2

7




Elliptical Cylinder

volume =

n;

x a x

b

x

h

x

h + 6.283 X aX b

+ b 2

area = 6.283 x

Sphere

volume =

surface area = 4 x n x r

Cone

volume =

surface area

= n ; ~

X f i x

(r +

h)

x

h

~ X T C X ~ ’

3

2

n ; x r 2 X h

3

Pyramid

a x b x h

volume

=

Other Formulas

theoretical water gal/min x total head, ft

horsepower 3,960

2

gal/min x Ib/in.

1 715

theoretical water horsepower

pump efficiency

brake horsepower =

volume of basin, gal

flow rate, gprn

detention time, min =

a




filter backwash

rate,

flow, gpm

gal/m in/ft area of filter. ft2

flow, gpm

area, ft2

surface overflow rate =

flow, gpm

weir overflow rate

=

weir length, ft

pounds pe r mil gal

=

parts p er million x 8.34

parts per m illion = po un ds pe r mil gal x

0.12

par ts per million

=

percent s trength of solution x

10,000

pounds per day = volume, mgd x dosage, mg/L x 8.34 lb/gal

feed, Ib/day

volume, mgd x 8. 3 4 lb/gal

osage, mg/L

=

percent element

by weight

rectangular basin

3 =

volum e, ft

rectangular basin

volume,

gal

weight

of

element in com pound

molecular weight of com pou nd

length, ft

x

width,

ftx

height,

t

5

m

.-

x

100

length,

ft

x width, ft

x

height,

ft

x 7.48 gal/f?

right cylinder

3 =

0.785

x

diameter*, ft x height or depth, ft

volum e, ft

right cylinder 0.785 x diameter', t x height or depth,

volume,

gal

ft

x

7.48 gal/ft

gallonsper capita per day,

volume,

gpd

-

average water usage population served/day

9




supply, day s = volume, gpd

(full to tank dry

population served x gpcd

6

ft3/sec

gallons per day of

(demand/day)

water consumption,

=

population x gpcd

1,440

ft3/min ft3/day

flow, gprn

=

flow, cfs x

448.8

gpm/cfs

flow, gpm

flow, cfs

=

448.8

gpmlcfs

1




2

x 12 in./ft

ipe diameter, in. =

rea, ft

0.785

leak rate, gpd

length, mi. x diameter, in.

ctual leakage, gpd/m i./in.

=

NOTE: minimum flushing velocity: 2.5 f p s

maximum pipe velocity: 5.0

f p s

key conversions: 1.55 cfslrngd; 448.8gpm/cfs

KEY

FORMULAS FOR FLOWS

AND

METERS

Velocity

flow, cfs

=

area,

ft x

velocity, f p s

2

distance , ft

=

0.785 x diameter,

fi X

pm

448.8

gpm/cfs time, sec

flow, cfs

velocity,

f p s

=

rea,

ft

2

2

flow, cfs

area, ft

=

velocity,

f p s

Head Loss Resulting

From

Friction

Darcy-WeisbachFormula

h L = f

L/DN

2 /2g

W here (in any consistent

set of

units):

hL =

L =

D =

V =

g =

f

head

loss

friction factor, dimensionless

length o fpip e

diameter

of

the pipe

average velocity

gravity constant

11




Flow

Rate

Calculations

The

rule

of continuity states that die flow Q that enters a system

must also be the flow that leaves the system.

Q , = Q

or

AIVl=A2V2

or

Q=AV

Where:

Q = flowrate

A

= area

Y = velocity

A

V

koyra =

(wi; '.)

x

( d e p )

x E;;.+)

eed rate dosage, conversion factor

fIb/day

>

= ppm

( .:zte7)

8.34

lb/gal

mil/gal

8.34

lb/gal

Summary

of

Pressure Requirements

Value

Requirement

psi

kPa) Location

Minimum pressure 35 241) Al l points within distribution system

Desired maximum

100 690) All points within distribution system

Fire flow minimum

20 140) All points within distribution system

Ideal range

50-75 345-41 7) Residences

35-60 241414) All points within distribution system

20 140) All ground level points

12




Units of

Measure

and Conversions

The ability to accurately and consistently

measure such variables as low and head, along

wi th wastewater quality indicators such as

chemical and biological oxygen demand, total

suspended

solids,

toxins, and pathogens

is

a key

component

of

the successful operation of a

wastewater distribu tion system. Th is section

provides the most common uni ts ofmeasure

and associated conversions typically used

in the wastewater industry.

13




UNITS

OF MEASURE

acre An

SI

unit ofarea.

acre-foot (acre-ft) A unit of volume. One acre-foot is the equivalent

amount

or

volume ofwater covering an area of 1 acre that

is

1 foot deep.

ampere (A) An SI unit of constant current that, if maintained in two

straight parallel conductors of infinite leng th

or

negligible cross section

and placed 1 meter apa rt in a vacuum , wo uld pro du ce a force equal to

2

x 10 newtons pe r nieter oflength.

ampere-hour(A-hr) A un it of electric charge equ al

to 1

ampere flowing

for 1 hour.

angstrom

(A)

A unit ofleng th equal to 10 l o meter.

atmosphere (atm) A unit of pressure equal to 14.7 pou nds per square

inch (101.3 kilopascals) at average sea level un de r standard conditions.

bar A unit ofpre ssu re defined as 100 kilopascals.

barrel (bbl) A un it of volume, frequently 42 gallons for petroleum or

5 5 gallons for water.

baud A measure of analog data transmission speed that describes the

modulation rate of a wave, or the average frequency of the signal. O ne

baud equals 1 signal unit p er second. If an analog signal is viewed as an

electromagnetic wave, on e complete wavelength

or

cycle is equivalent to

a signal unit. T h e term b ud has often been used synonymously with

bits

per

second.

T h e baud rate may equ al bits per second for some trans-

mission techniques, but special modulation techniques kequently

deliver a bits-per-second rate higher than the baud rate.

becquerel (Bq) An S I unit of the activity of a radionuclide decaying at

the rate of on e spontaneo us nuclear transition p er second.

billion electron

volts

(BeV) A unit of energy equivalent to 10’ electron

volts.

billion gallons per day (bgd) A unit for expressing the volumetric flow

rate of water being pum ped, distributed, or used.

binary digits (bits) per second (bps) A

measure of the data transmission

rate. A binary digit is the smallest unit of information

or

data, repre-

sented by a binary “1”

or “0.”

British thermalunit(Btu) A unit of energy. One British thermal unit

was formerly defined as the quan tity of heat required to raise the tem-

perature of 1 pound of pure water 1’ Fahrenheit; now defined as

1,055.06joules.

7

bushel (bu) A unit ofvolume.

caliber (1) T h e diameter of a roun d body, especially the internal diame-

ter of a hollow cylinder.

(2)

T h e diameter of a bullet

or

other projectile,

14




or the diameter of a gun's bore. In

US

customary units, usually

expressed in hundredths or thousandths ofan inch and typically written

as a decimal fraction (e.g., 0.32). In SI units, expressed in millimeters.

calorie gramcalorie) A unit of energy. One calorie is the amount of heat

necessary to raise the temperature of

1

gram ofpure water at 15 Celsius

by 1' Celsius.

candela (cd) An SI unit of lunlinous intensity. One candela is the lumi-

nous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that emits monochro-

matic radiation of frequency

540 x 10"

hertz and that has a radiant

candle

A unit of light intensity. One candle is equal to 1 candela. Can-

candlepower

A unit oflight intensity. One candlepower is equal to 1can-

v

a

>

S

U

S

r

E

o

intensity in that direction of l/683 watt per steradian.

delas are the preferred units.

dela. Candelas are the preferred units.

2

poise.

.-

a

=I

centimeter (cm) A unit oflength defined as one hundredth ofa meter.

centipoise

A

unit ofabsolute viscosity equivalent to

10-

poise. See also

chloroplatinate (Co-Pt) unit (cpu) See

color

unit .

2

.c

c

cobalt-platinum unit

See

color

unit .

colony-forming unit (cfu)

A unit of expression used in enumerating

bacteria by plate-counting methods. A colony of bacteria develops from

a single cell or a group of cells, either ofwhich is a colony-forming unit.

color unit(cu)

The unit used to report the color of water. Standard solu-

tions of color are prepared from potassium chloroplatinate (KZPtCls)

and cobaltous chloride (CoC12.6H20). Adding the following amounts

in 1,000 milliliters of distilled water produces a solution with a color of

500 color units: 1.246 grams potassium chloroplatinate,

1.00

grams

geobaltous chloride, and 100 milliliters concentrated hydrochloric acid

(HCl).

coulomb(C)

An SI unit of a quantity of electricity or electric charge.

One coulomb is the quantity of electricity transported in 1 second by a

current of 1 ampere, or about 6.25 x

10''

electrons. Coulombs are

equivalent

to

ampere-seconds.

coulombs

per

kilogram

(C/kg)

A unit of exposure dose of ionizing radi-

ation. See also roentgen.

cubic eet (ft')

A unit ofvolume equivalent to a cube with a dimension of

1 foot on each side.

cubic

eet per hour (ft'/hr) A unit for indicating the rate of liquid flow

past a given point.

5




cubic feet per minute (ft3/min,

CFM) A unit for indicating the rate of

liquid flow past a given poin t.

cubic feet per second (ft3/sec, cfs) A

unit for indicating the rate of liq-

uid flow past a given point.

cubic inch

k3)unit of volume equivalent to a cube with a dimension

of 1 inch on each side.

cubic meter

(m3)

A

unit ofvolume equivalent to a cube with a dimension of

1 nieter on each side.

cubic yard (yd3)

A unit of volume equivalent to a cube w ith a dimension

of

1 yard on each side.

curie

Ci) unit of radioactivity. On e curie equals 37 billion disintegra-

tions per second, or approximately the radioactivity of

1

gram of

radium.

cycles per second (cps) A

unit for expressing the number

of

times sonie-

thing fluctuates, vibrates, or oscillates each second. These units have

been replaced by hertz. O n e hertz equals 1 cycle pe r second.

dalton (D)

A unit

of

weight. One dalton designates l/16 the weight of

oxygen-16. One dalton is equivalent to 0.9997 atomic w eight unit, or

nominally

1

atomic weight unit.

darcy(da)

The unit used to describe the permeability of a porous

medium (e.g., the movement of fluids through underground formations

studied by petroleuni engineers, geologists or geophysicists, and

groundwater specialists).

A

porous medium is said to have

a

pernieabil-

ity of 1 darcy if a fluid of l-centipoise viscosity that com pletely fills the

pore space of the m edium will flow through it at a rate

of

1 cubic centi-

meter per second pe r square centimeter of cross-sectional area under a

pressure gradient of 1 atmosphere p er centimeter of length. In SI units,

1 darcy

=

9.87 X

lo-

square m eters.

day

A unit of time equal

to

24 hours.

decibel

(dB)

A

dimensionless ratio

of two

values expressed in the same

units

of

measure. It

is

most often applied to a power ratio and defined as

decibels

=

10 loglo (actual power level/reference po wer level), or d B

=

10 loglo W2/Wl),where W is the power level in watts pe r square centi-

nieter for sound. Power is proportional to the square ofpoten tial. In the

case

of

sound, the potential is measured as a pressure, but the sound level

is an energy level. Th us , d B

=

10 loglo

@ I )

or dB

=

20 logio @z/ i),

where i is the potential. The reference levels are not well standardized.

For example, sound power is usually measured above 10 watts per

square centimeter, but both 1 0 an d watts per square centimeter

are used. So un d pressure is usually measured above 20 micropascals in

2

12

16




air. The reference level is not important in most cases because one is usu-

ally concerned with the difference in levels, i.e., with a power

ratio.

A

power ratio of 1.26 produces a difference of 1 decibel.

deciliter(dL)

A unit

of

volume defined as one tenth of a liter. This unit is

often used to express concentration in clinical chemistry. For example, a

concentration of lead in blood would typically be reported in units of

micrograms per deciliter.

degree

(")

A measure of the phase angle in a periodic electrical wave.

One degree is

1360

of the complete cycle of the periodic wave. Three

degree Celsius ("C)

A unit of temperature. The degree Celsius is exactly

equal to the kelvin and is used in place of the kelvin for expressing Cel-

sius temperature (symbol

t )

defined by the equation

t

=

I

70 here T

is

the

thermodynamic temperature in kelvin and I0 = 273.15 kelvin by

degree Fahrenheit( F) A unit of temperature on a scale in which 32

marks the freezing point and 212 the boiling point of water at a baro-

v

a3

5

c

c

aE

hundred sixty degrees equals 2

E

radians.

0

c

a

5

definition.

s

v

c

c

=3

metric pressure of 14.7 pounds per square inch.

-

degree kelvin

(K)

See

kelvin.

dram(dr) Small weight. Two different drams exist: the apothecary's

dram (equivalent to 1/3.54 gram) and the avoirdupois dram (equivalent

to 1/1.17gram).

electron volt (eV) A unit of energy commonly used in the fields of

nuclear and high-energy physics. One electron volt is the energy trans-

ferred to a charged particle with a single charge when that particle f d s

through a potential of 1 volt. An electron volt is equal to 1.6 x

lo-''

joule.

equivalents per liter (eq/L)

An

SI

unit ofan expression ofconcentration

equivalent to normality. The normality of a solution (equivalent weights

per liter) is a convenient way of expressing concentration in volumetric

analyses.

fathom A unit of length equivalent to 6 feet, used primarily in marine

measurements.

feet (ft)

The plural form of a unit of length (the singular form isfoot).

feet board measure

(fbm)

A

unit of volume. One board foot is repre-

sented by a board measuring 1 foot long by 1 foot wide by 1 inch thick

(144 cubic inches).

A

board measuring 0.5 feet by 2 feet by 2 inches

thick would equal 2 board feet.

feet per hour (ft/hr) A

unit for expressing the rate of movement.

feet per minute (ft/min) A unit for expressing the rate of movement.

17




feet per second (ft/sec, fps)

A unit for expressing the rate ofmovem ent.

feet per second squared (ft/sec2)

A unit of acceleration (the rate of

change of linear motion). For example, the acceleration caused by grav-

ity is 32.2 ftisec' at sea level.

feet squared

per

second (ft2/sec) A

unit used in flux calculations.

fluid ounce

(fl oz) A unit for expressing volume, equivalent to ' /128 of a

gallon.

foot

A

unit of length, equivalent to 12 inches. See also

US c u s t o r n q

sys

tern of units.

foot of water

(39.2'

Fahrenheit)

A unit for expressing pressure or eleva-

tion head.

foot per second per foot (ft/sec/ft; sec-l)

A

unit for expressing velocity

gradient.

foot-pound, torque

A unit for expressing the energy used in imparting

rotation, often associated with the power of engine-driven mechanisms.

foot-pound, work

A unit of measure of the transference of energy when

a force produces movement o fa n object.

formazin turbidity unit (ftu) A

turbidity unit appropriate when

a

chem-

ical solution of forniazin is used as a standard to calibrate a turbidim eter.

If a nephelonietric turbidimeter is used, nephelonietric turbidity units

and forniazin turbidity units are equivalent. See also nephelometric tur-

bidity unit.

gallon (gal)

A unit o f volume, equivalent to 23 1 cubic inches. See also

Imperial gallon.

gallons per capita per day (gpcd)

A unit typically used to express the

average num ber of gallons of water used by the average person each day

in a water system. Th e calculation is made by dividing the total gallons

of water used each day by the total number of people using the water

system.

gallons per day (gpd)

A

unit for expressing the discharge o r flow past a

fixed point.

gallons per day per square foot (gpd/ft2, gsfd)

A unit of flux equal to

the quantity of liquid in gallons pe r day throu gh

1

square foot of area. It

may also be expressed as a velocity in units of length p er unit time.

In

pressure-driven membrane treatment processes, this unit is conmionly

used to describe the volumetric flow rate ofpe rm ea te through a unit area

of active membrane surface. In settling tanks, this rate is called the over-

flow rate.

gallons per flush (gal/flush)

The number of gallons used with each

flush of a toilet.

8




gallons per

hour

(gph) A unit for expressing the discharge or flow of a

liquid past a fixed point.

gallons per minute (gpm) A unit for expressing the dischargeor flow of

a liquid past a fixed point.

gallons

per minute per square foot (gpm/ft2)

A

unit for expressing flux,

the discharge or flow of a liquid through a unit of area. In a filtration pro-

cess, this unit is commonly used to describe the volumetric flow rate of&

trate through a unit offilter media surface area. It may alsobe expressed as

a velocity in units of length per unit time.

gallons per second

g p s )

A unit for expressing the dischargeor flow past

a fixed point.

gallonspersquarefoot(gal/ft*)

A

unit for expressing flux, the dis-

charge or flow of a liquid through each unit of surface area of a granular

v

c

.-

$

r

r

a

2

p

filter during a lilter run (between cleaningor backwashing).

liquid past a fixed point.

symbol; the preferred symbol is pg.

3

v

m

allons per square foot per day See gallonsfier

day

per square oot.

gallons per year (gpy)

A

unit for expressing the discharge

or

flow of a

gamma (9

A

symbol used to represent

1

microgram. Avoid using this

gigabyte

(GB) A

unit of computer memory. One gigabyte equals

1

mega-

byte times 1kilobyte,

or

1,073,741,824bytes (roughly 1 billion bytes).

gigaliter

(GL) A unit of volume defined as 1 billion liters.

grad A unit of angular measure equal to

'/400

of a circle.

grain (gr) A unit ofweight.

grainsper gallon (gpg) A unit sometimes used for reporting water analy-

sis concentration results in the United States and Canada.

gram (g)

A fractional unit of mass. One gram was originally defined as

the weight of 1 cubic centimeter or 1 milliliter of water at 4" Celsius.

Now it is 1 / ~ , ~ ~ ~f the mass of a certain block of platinum-indium alloy

known

as the international prototype kilogram, preserved at S k e s ,

France.

gram molecular weight The molecular weight of a compound in grams.

For example, the gram molecular weight of Cop is 44.01 grams. See

also

mole.

gray (Gy) An

SI

unit ofabsorbed ionizing radiation dose. One gray, equal

to 100 rad, is the absorbed dose when the energy per unit mass

imparted to matter by ionizing radiation is 1joule per kilogram. See also

rad;

rem

sievert.

.c

c

3

hectare (ha)

A

unit ofarea equivalent to 10,000 square meters.

19




henry(H) An

SI

unit of electric inductance, equivalent to meters

squared kilograms pe r second squared p er ampere squared. O ne henry

is the inductance o f a closed circuit in which a n electromotive force of

1 volt is produced when the electric current in the circuit varies uni-

formly at a rate of 1

ampere per second.

hertz (Hz) An SI unit of nieasure of the frequency of a period ic phenoni-

enon in which the period is 1 second, equivalent to second.'. Hertz

units were formerly expressed as cycles per secon d.

horsepower (hp) A standard unit of power. See also US customary sys-

tern of units.

horsepower-hour(hp-hr) A un it of energy o r work.

hour (hr)

An interval of time equal to

'/24

of

a

day.

Imperial gallon A unit of volume used in the United Kingdom, equiva-

inch (in.)

A

unit of length.

inch of mercury (32"Fahrenheit) A unit of pressure o r elevation head.

inch-pound (in.-lb) A unit

of

energy o r torque.

inches per minute (in./min) A unit of velocity.

inches per second (in./sec)

A

unit ofvelocity.

InternationalSystemof Units. See S y s t h e International.

joule (J) An SI un it for energy, work, o r quantity of heat, equivalent to

meters squared kilograms per second squared. O n e jou le is the work

do ne when the point

of

application of a force of 1 newton is displaced

a

distance of 1 meter in the direction of the force (1 newton-meter).

kelvin (K) An SI unit of thermodynam ic temperature.

No

degree sign ( )

is used. Z ero kelvin is absolute zero, the com plete absence ofh ea t.

kilo

A

prefix m eaning 1,000.

kilobyte(kB)A unit of measurement for digital storage of data in various

comp uter media, such as hard disks, random access memory, and com-

pact discs. O n e kilobyte is 1,024 bytes.

lent to the volume of 10pou nd s of freshwater.

kilograin

A

unit ofw eight equivalent to 1,000 grains.

kilogram (kg) An SI unit of mass. O ne kilogram is equal to the mass of a

certain block

of

platinum-iridium

alloy

known as the international pro-

totype kilogram (nicknamed Le G ran d K), preserved at SZvres, France.

A

new standard is expected early in the 2 1

st

century.

kilohertz (kHz) A unit

of

frequency equal

to

1,000 hertz or 1,000 cycles

per second.

kiloliter A unit ofvolunie equal

to

1,000 liters or 1 cu bic meter.

kilopascal (Wa)

A

unit of pressure equal to 1,000pascals.

20




kiloreactive volt-ampere (kvar) A unit of reactive power equal to 1,000

kilovolt (kV) A unit of electrical potential equal to 1,000 volts.

kilovolt-ampere

(kVA)

A unit of electrical power equal to 1,000 volt-

kilowatt (kW) A unit of electrical power equal to

1,000

watts.

kilowatt-hour (kW-hr) A unit ofenergy or work.

lambda(h)

A

symbol used to represent

1

microliter. Avoid using this

volt-ampere-reactive.

amperes.

2

$2

o

aJ

>

c

c

.-

symbol; the preferred symbol is pL.

linear feet ht) A unit ofdistance in feet along an object.

liter (L)

A

unit ofvolume. One liter of pure water weighs 1,000 grams at

liters per day (L/day)

A

unit for expressing a volumetric flow rate past a

liters per minute (L/min) A unit for expressing a volumetric flow rate

lumen Im)An SI unit of luminous flux equivalent to candela-steradian.

One lumen is the luminous flux emitted in a solid angle of 1 steradian by

lux h) n SI unit of illuminance. One lux is the illuminance intensity

given by a luminous flux of

1

lumen uniformly distributed over a surface

of

1

square meter. One lux is equivalent to 1candela-steradian per meter

squared.

4 Celsius at

1

atmosphere ofpressure.

0

2

3

given point.

=I

past a given point. P

r

point source having a uniform intensity of 1 candela.

mega Prefix meaning lo6 in Syst2nie International.

megabyte(MB)

A

unit of computer memory storage equivalent to

megahertz

(mHz)

A unit of frequency equal to 1 million hertz,

or

1

mil-

megaliter (ML) A unit ofvolume equal to

1

million liters.

megaohm(megohm)

A

unit of electrical resistance equal to

1

million

ohms. This is the unit of measurement for testing the electrical resis-

tance of water to determine its purity. The closer water comes to abso-

lute purity, the greater its resistance to conducting an electric current.

Absolutely pure water has a specific resistance of more than

18

million

ohms across

1

centimeter at a temperature of 25 Celsius. See also ohm.

meter

(m)

An

SI

unit of length. One meter is the length of the path

traveled by light in a vacuum during a time interval of 1/299,792,458

second.

meters per second per meter (m/sec/m; see-') A unit for expressing

velocity gradient.

1,048,576 bytes.

lion cycles per second.

21




metric system A system of units based

on

three basic units: the meter for

length, the kilogram for mass, and the second for time-the so-called

MKS

system. Decimal fractions and multiples of the basic units are used

for larger and smaller quantities. The principal departure of the SI from

the more familiar form of metric engineering units is the use of the new-

ton as the unit of force instead of kilogram-force. Likewise, the newton

instead of kilogram-force is used in combination units including force;

for example, pressure or stress (newton per square meter), energy

(newton-meter =joule), and power (newton-meter per second

=

watt).

See also

Syst2me Interrzational.

metric ton (t) A unit ofweight equal to 1,000 kilograms.

mho A unit of electrical conductivity in

US

customary units equal to

microgram (pg) A unit of mass equal to one nullionth of a gram.

micrograms per liter

(pg/L)

A unit of concentration for dissolved sub-

microhm A unit of electrical resistance equal to one millionth of an ohm.

micrometer (pm) A unit oflength equal to one millionth ofa meter.

micromho A unit of electrical conductivity equal to one millionth

of

an

niho. See also

microsiemens.

micromhos per centimeter (pmho/cm) A measure of the conductivity

of

a water sample, equivalent to niicrosiemens per centimeter. Abso-

lutely pure water, from a mineral content standpoint, has a conductivity

of 0.055 niicromhos per centimeter at

25

Celsius.

micrornolar(IrM) A concentration in which the molecular weight of a

substance (in grams) divided by

lo6

(i.e.,

1

pmol) is dissolved in enough

solvent to make

1

liter ofsolution. See

also micromole; molar.

micromole (pmol) A unit of weight for a chemical substance, equal to

one millionth of a mole. See also

mole.

micron p) A unit of length equal to

1

micrometer. Micronieters are the

preferred units.

microsiemens ($3) A unit of conductivity equal to one millionth of a sie-

mens. The microsiemens is the practical unit of nieasurenient for con-

ductivity and is used to approximate the total dissolved solids content of

water. Water with 100 milligranis per liter of sodium chloride (NaCI)

will

have a specific resistance of 4,716 ohm-centimeters and a conduc-

tance

of

212

microsiemens per centimeter. Absolutely pure water, from

a niineral content standpoint, has a conductivity of 0.055 microsiemens

per centimeter at 25 Celsius.

1 siemens, which is an SI unit. See also

siemens.

stances based on their weights.

microwatt

pW)

A unit

of

power equal to one nullionth of a watt.

22




2

microwatt-seconds per square centimeter (pW-sec/cm

)

A unit of mea-

surement of irradiation intensity and retention

or

contact time in the

operation of ultraviolet systems.

mil A unit oflength equal to one thousandth of an inch.

mile (mi) A unit oflength, equivalent to 5,280 feet.

miles per hour (mph) A unit of speed.

milliampere

(mA)

A unit of electrical current equal to one thousandth of

milliequivalent(meq)

A

unit of weight equal to one thousandth the

milliequivdents per liter (meq/L) A unit of concentration for dissolved

v

aa

5

c

an ampere. c

E

equivalent weight of a chemical.

substances based on their equivalent weights.

tion of matter in water as determined by water analyses.

s

a

c

ce

illigram (mg) A unit of mass equal to one thousandth of a gram.

miUiliter

(mL) A

unit ofvolume equal to one thousandth ofa liter.

millimeter

(mm) A

unit oflength equal to one thousandth ofa meter.

milligrams per liter (mg/L) The unit used in reporting the concentra-

5

2

P

c

millimicron (mp)

A

unit of length equal to one thousandth of a micron.

millimolar(rmll) A concentration in which the molecular weight of a

substance (in grams) divided by lo3 (i.e., 1 mmol) is dissolved in

enough solvent to make 1 liter of solution. See also

millimole; molar.

m i h o l e

(mmol)

A unit of weight for a chemical substance, equal to

one-thousandth ofa mole. See also

mole.

million electron volts (MeV) A unit of energy equal to

lo6

electron

volts. This unit is commonly used in the fields of nuclear and high-

energy physics. See alsoelectron volt.

c

3

his unit is correctly called a nanometer.

6

million

gallons

mil

gal,MG)

A unit ofvolume equal to 10 .

million gallons per day (mgd) A unit for expressing the flow rate past a

given point.

m i l s per year (mpy)

A

unit for expressing the loss ofmetal resulting from

corrosion. Assuming the corrosion process is uniformly distributed over

the test surface, the corrosion rate of a metal coupon may be converted

to a penetration rate (length per time) by dividing the unit area of metal

loss by the metal density (mass per volume). The penetration rate,

expressed as mils per year, describes the rate at which the metal surface

is receding because of the corrosion-induced metal loss. See also

mil.

minute (min) A unit of time equal to

60

seconds.

molar(M)

A

unit for expressing the molarity of a solution.

A

1-molar

solution consists of

1

gram molecular weight of a compound dissolved in

23




enough water to make 1 liter

of

solution. A grani molecular weight is the

niolecular weight of a compound in grams. For exam ple, the m olecular

weight of sulhric acid (H2.504) is

98. A

1-molar,

or

1-mole-per-liter,

solution of sulfuric acid would consist of 98 grams of

HzSO4

dissolved in

enough distilled water to make 1 liter ofso lution .

mole (mol) A mole of a substance is a num ber of granis of that substance

where the number equals the substance's molecular weight.

moles

per liter (mol/L,M A

unit of concentration for a dissolved

substance.

mrem

An expression or measure of the extent of biological injury that

would result from the absorp tion of a particular radionuclide at a given

dosage over 1 year.

nanograms per liter

(ng/L)

A unit expressing the concentration of

chemical constituents in solution as mass (nanograms) of solute per unit

volume (liter) of water. O n e million nanograms p er liter is equivalent to

1 niilligram pe r liter.

nanometer(nm)

A unit ofleng th defined as 10 meter.

nephelometric turbidity unit (ntn)

A u nit for expressing the cloudiness

(turbidity) of a sample as measured by a nep helonietric turbidinieter. A

turbidity of 1 nephelometric turbidity unit is equivalent to the turbidity

created by a

1:4,000

dilution of a stock solution of 5.0 milliliters of a

1 000-grani hydrazine sulfate

( (NH2)2*H4S04)

n

100

milliliters of

dis-

tilled water solution plus 5.0 milliliters of a 10.00-gram hexan iethylene-

tetraniine ((CH&N4) in 100 milliliters of distilled water solution that

has stood for

24

hours at 25 f 3 Celsius.

newton (N)An SI un it of force. On e newton is equivalent to 1 kilogram-

meter pe r second squared . It is the force, when app lied to a body having

a mass of

1

kilogram, that gives the body an acceleration of

1

meter per

second squared . Th e new ton replaces the unit kilogram-force, which is

the unit of force in the metric system .

ohm a ) n

SI

unit of electrical resistance, equivalent to meters squared

kilograms per second cu bed pe r am pere squared. O n e ohm is the elec-

trical resistance between two po int s o fa conductor when a constan t dif-

ference of 1 volt potential applied between the two points produces in

the conductor a current of 1

ampere, with

the

conductor not being the

source of any electroniotive force.

one

hundred cubic feet (ccf)

A

un it of volume.

ounce (oz)

A unit of force, mass, a nd volum e.

ounce-inch (ounce-in., ozf-in.)

A un it of torque.

24




parts per billion (ppb) A unit ofproportion, equal to lo-'. This expres-

sion represents a measure of the concentration of a substance dissolved

in water on a weight-per-weight basis or the concentration of a sub-

stance in

air

on a weight-per-volume basis. One liter of water at

4

Cel-

sius has a mass equal to 1.000 kilogram (specific gravity equal to 1.000,

or 1billion micrograms). Thus, when 1 microgram of a substance is dis-

solved in 1 liter of water with a specific gravity of 1.000

(1

microgram

per liter), this would

be

one part of substance per billion parts of water

on a weight-per-weight basis. This terminology is now obsolete, and the

mg

term micrograms per liter (ug/L) should be used for concentrations in

C

water.

parts per

million

(ppm)

A unit ofproportion, equal to

10-

.

This termi-

C

nology is now obsolete, and the term milligrams per liter (m g/L) should

be used for concentrations in water. See also parts per billion.

minology is now obsolete, and the term

grams

per

liter

@) should be

parts per trillion(ppt)

A unit of proportion, equal to

lo-''.

This termi-

nology is now obsolete, and the term

nanograms per liter

(ng/L)

should

be used for concentrations in water. See also arts p e r billion,

pascal (Pa)

An

SI

unit of pressure or stress equivalent to newtons per

meter per second squared. One pascal is the pressure or stress of 1 new-

ton per square meter.

pascal-second (Passec)

A unit of absolute viscosity equivalent to

kilo-

gram per second per meter cubed. The viscosity

of

pure water at

20"Celsius is

0.0010087

pascal-second.

pi

(x)

The ratio

o f

the circumference of a circle to the diameter of that

circle, approximately equal to 3.14159 (or about

**/7).

picocurie (pCi)

A unit of radioactivity. One picocurie represents a quan-

tity of radioactive material with an activity equal

to

one millionth of one

millionth of a curie (i.e., 10-

6

a

This ter- 2parts per thousand (ppt) A unit of proportion, equal to

+

used for concentrations in water. See alsoparts per billion.

C

x

12

curie).

picocuries per liter @Ci/L) A radioactivity concentration unit.

picogram (pg) A unit ofmass equal to gram or kilogram.

picosecond

ps)

A unit of time equal

to

one

trillionth

(1

0.")

of

a second.

plaque-forming unit (pfu)

A unit expressing the number

of

infectious

virus particles. One plaque-forming unit is equivalent to one virus

particle.

platinum-cobalt (Pt-Co)color

unit

(PCU)

See color unit.

poise

A unit ofabsolute viscosity, equivalent to 1 gram mass per centime-

ter per second.

25




pound

(lb)

A

unit used to represent either a mass o r a force. Th is can be

a con hsin g unit because

two

terms actually exist,

fiound

r uss (Ihni) and

Bound

force (Ibf). On e pou nd force is the force with w hich a 1-pound

mass i s attracted to the earth. In equation form,

pou nds force =

1

ocal acceleration resulting from gravity

(poun ds mass)

( standard acceleration resulting from gravity

O ne poun d mass, on the other hand, i s the mass that will accelerate at

32.2 feet per second squared when a 1-poun d force is applied to it. As

an example of the effect

of

the local acceleration resu lting from gravity, at

10,000 feet

(3,300 meters) above sea level, where the acceleration

resulting from gravity is 32.17 feet pe r second squared (979.6 centime-

ters pe r second squared) instead of the sea level value of 32.2 feet per

second squared (980.6 centimeters per second squared), the force of

gravity on a 1-pound m ass would be 0.999 po un ds force. O n the surface

of the earth at sea level, po un d mass and pou nd force are numerically

the same because the acceleration resulting from gravity is applied

to

an

object, although they are quite different physical quantities. Thi s may

lead to confusion.

pound force (lbf)

See

Bound.

pound mass (lbm)

See

pound .

pounds per day (Ib/day)

A unit for expressing the rate at which a chemi-

pounds per square foot (lb/ft2)

A unit of pressure.

pounds per square inch (psi)

A un it of pressure.

pounds per square inch absolute (psia)

A

unit of pressure reflecting the

sum

of

gauge pressure a nd atm osphe ric pressure.

pounds per square inch gauge (psig)

A

unit of pressure reflecting the

pressure measured w ith respect to that of the atmosphere. T h e gauge is

adjusted to read zero at the surrounding atmo spheric pressure.

rad (radiation absorbed dose)

A unit of adso rbed do se of ionizing radi-

ation. Exposure of soft tissue o r similar material to 1 roentgen results in

the absorption ofab out 100 ergs (10 joules) of energy pe r gram, which

is 1 rad. See

also

gray;

rem;

sievert.

radian (rad)

An SI

unit of measure of a p lane angle that is equal to the

angle at the center of a circle su bte nd ed by an a rc equal in length to the

radius. T hi s unit is also used to measure the phase angle in a periodic

electrical wave. Note that 2

n

adians is equivalent to 360".

cal i s ad ded to a water treatment process.

radians per second (rad/sec)

A unit of angular frequency.

26




rem (roentgen equivalent

man

[person]) A unit of equivalent dose of

ionizing radiation, developed by the International Commission on

Radiation Units and Measurements in 1962 to reflect the finding that

the biological effects of ionizing radiation were dependent on the nature

of the radiation as well as other factors. For X- and gamma radiation, the

weighting factor is 1; thus, 1 rad equals 1 rem.

For

alpha radiation, how-

ever, l rad equals20 rem. See also

gray; rad ; sievert.

revolutions per minute (rpm) A unit for expressing the frequency of r

rotation,

or

the number of times a fixed point revolves around its axis in .E

1 minute. 5

revolutions per second (rps) A unit for expressing the frequency of

rotation, or the number of times a fixed point revolves around its axis in

a

1 second.

ce

roentgen

(r)

The quantity of electrical charge produced by X- or gamma

radiation. One roentgen of exposurewill produce about2 billion ion pairs

per cubic centimeter of air. First introduced at the Radiological Congress

held in Stockholm as the special unit for expressing exposure to ionizing

second(sec) An

SI

unit of the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of

radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperline lev-

els of the ground state of the cesium-133 atom.

rn

aa

c

c

Z

radiation, it is now obsolete. See also

gray; rad; rem; sievert.

.-

c

3

second feet A unit offlow equivalent to cubic feet per second.

second-foot day

A

unit ofvolume. One second-foot day is the discharge

during a 24-hour period when the rate of flow is 1 second foot (i.e.,

1 cubic foot per second). In ordinary hydraulic computations,

1

cubic

foot per second flowing for

1

day is commonly taken as 2 acre-feet. The

US

Geological Survey now uses the term

s

duy

(cubic feet per second

day) in its published reports.

section

A

unit of area in public land surveying. One section is a land area

of 1 square mile.

SI

See

Syst2me International.

siemens(S)

A n

SI unit of the derived unit for electrical conductance,

equivalent to seconds cubed amperes squared per meter squared per

kilo-

gram.

One siemens is the electrical conductanceof a conductor in which a

current of

1

ampere is produced by

an

electric potential difference of 1 volt.

sievert (Sv) An

SI

unit

of equivalent

ionizing radiation dose. One sievert

is the dose equivalent when the adsorbed dose of ionizing radiation

multiplied by the dimensionlessfactors Q (quality factors) and N(prod-

uct of any other multiplying factors) is 1 oule per kilogram. One sievert

is

equal to 100 rem. See also

gray; rad;rem.

27




slug T h e base unit of mass.

A

slug

is

a niass that will accelerate at 1 foot

per second squared when

1

po un d force is applied.

square foot (ft2) A unit of area equivalent to that of a square, 1 foot on

each side.

square

inch

(in. ) A

unit o f area equivalent to that of a square,

1

inch on

each side.

square meter (m

)

A unit of area equivalent to that of a square, 1 meter

on each side.

squaremile

(mi') A unit of area equivalent to that

of

a square,

1

mile on

each side.

standardcubic feet per minute (SCFM) A unit for expressing the flow

rate of air. Th is unit represents cu bic feet of

air

per minute at standard

conditions of temperature, pressure, and humidity (32 Fahrenheit,

14.7

poun ds per square inch absolute, and 50%relative hunudity).

steradian (sr) An

SI

unit of measure of

a

solid angle which, having its

vertex in the center of a sphere, cuts

off

an area o n the surface of the

sphere equal to that of a square with sides

of

length equal

to

the radius

of the sphe re.

Syst2me International

(SI)

The International System

of

Units of mea-

sure as defined by the periodic meeting of the General Conference on

Weights and Measures. This system is sonietimes called the interna-

tional metric system or Le S y s t h e International d'UnitCs. T h e

SI

is a

rationalized selection of

units koni the metric system with seven base

units for which names, symbols, and precise definitions have been

established. Many derived units are defined in ternis of the base units,

with

symbols assigned to each and, in some cases, given names (e.g., the

newton

1).

T h e great advantage of

SI

is its establishment of one and

only one unit for each physical quantity-the meter for length, the kilo-

gram (not the gram) for mass, the second for time, and so on. From

these elemental units, units for all other mechanical quantities are

derived. Another advantage is the ease with w hich unit conversions can

be made, as few conversion factors need to be invoked.

tesla

(T)

An SI unit of magnetic flux density, equivalent to kilograms per

second squared per am pere. O n e tesla

is

the

magnetic flux density given

by a m agnetic flux of 1weber p er squ are meter.

2

2

ton

A

unit of force an d niass defined as 2,000 pounds.

tonne

(t)

A

unit of mass defined as 1,000 kilograms. A tonne is some-

torr

A

unit of pressure. O ne torr is equ al to 1 centimeter of mercury at

times

called a metric ton.

0 Celsius.

28




t rue color un it (tc u) A unit of color measurement based on the plati-

num-cobalt color unit. T hi s unit is applied to water samples in which

the turbidity has been removed. On e true color unit equals 1color unit.

See also color un it.

turbidity un it See

nelbhelometric turbidity unit .

US ustomary system

ofunits

A system of units based o n the yard an d

the po un d, commonly used in the United States and defined in Unit of

Weights and Measures (United States Customary and Metric): Defini-

tions and Tables of Equivalents;

National Bureau

o

Standards

Miscel-

historical origin from the United Kingdom (e.g., the length of a king's

foot for the length of

1

foot; the area a team of horses could plow in a

day-without getting tired-for an acre; the load a typical horse could

lift in a m inute for horsepower, an d so forth).

No

organized method of

volt (V) An SI un it of electrical potential, potential difference, an d elec-

tromotive force, equivalent to meters squared kilograms per second

cubed per ampere. One volt is the difference of electric potential

between two po ints of a condu ctor , carrying a co ns tan t cu rren t of

1 ampere, when the power dissipated betw een these poin ts is equal to

1watt.

volt-ampere (VA) A unit used for expressing apparent power and com-

plex power.

volt-ampere-reactive (VAR) A unit used for expressing reactive power.

watt (W) An SI unit of power and radiant flux, equivalent to meters

squared kilograms per second cub ed. O n e watt is the power that gives

rise to the p roduction of energy at the rate of 1 ou le pe r second. Watts

represent a measure of active power an d instantaneous power.

weber (Wb)

An

SI

unit of magnetic flux, equivalent to meters squared

kilograms pe r second squared per ampere. O n e weber is the m agnetic

flux that, linking a circuit of one turn, p rod uc es in the circuit an electro-

motive force of

1

volt as the magnetic flux is reduced to zero at a uniform

rate in 1second.

-

laneous Publication MP 233, Dec. 20, 1960. Most of the units have a

$

S

0

r

5

multiples and fractions is involved. See also Syst.?me International.

.g

S

yar d (yd) A unit

of

length equal to

3

feet.

29




CONVERSION OF US CUSTOMARY UNITS

Linear Measurement

fathoms

x 6 =

feet(ft)

feet (ft) x

12 =

inch es (in.)

inch es (in.) x

0.0833

= feet(ft)

miles (mi) x 5,280 = feet (ft)

yard s (Yd)

x 3

= feet (ft)

yards (yd)

x

36 = inc hes (in.)

Circular Measurement

degree s (angle)

degree s (angle)

Area Measurement

acres

square feet (ft')

squ are inches (in.2)

squa re m iles (mi')

square miles (nip )

squa re m iles (mi')

square yards

(yd')

x 60 =

min utes (angle)

x 0.01745 = radians

x 43,560 = squarefeet(ft ')

x 144

x 0.00695 = squarefeet(f t ' )

x 640

= acres

x

27,878,400

=

square feet

(ft')

= sq ua re inc hes (in.')

x 3,098,000

x 9

Volume Measurement

acre-feet (acre-ft) x 43,560

acre-feet (acre-ft)

x 325,851

barrels petroleum (bo) x

42

board

foot

(tbm)

cub ic feet

(f?) x 1,728

cub ic feet (ftj)

x 7.48052

cu bic feet (f6')

x

29.92

cub ic feet (ft')

x 59.84

cub ic feet (ftj)

x

0.000023

cubic inches (in?)

x 0.00433

cub ic inclies (in? )

x 0.00058

drops

x 60

gallons (gal)

x 0.1337

gallons (gal)

x 231

gallons (gal) x 0.0238

gallons (gal) x 4

gallons (gal)

x 8

gallons, US

x 0.83267

= square yards (yd )

= square feet (ft')

= cub ic feet

(f?)

=

gallons (gal)

=

gallons (gal)

=

144

square inches

X

1

inch

=

cubic inches (in?)

= gallons (gal)

=

quar ts (q t )

= pints (pt)

= acre feet (acre-ft)

= gallons (gal)

= cu bi c feet (ft')

= teaspoons (tsp)

=

cubic feet (ftj)

=

cubic inches (in.j)

= barrels petroleum (b o)

= quarts (qt)

=

pints@)

= gallons, Impe rial




gallons (gal)

gallons (gal)

x

0.0238

=

barrels (pe troleum ) (bo)

gallons, imp erial

x

1.20095

=

gallons,US

pints (pt) x 2

=

quar ts(qt)

quarts (qt)

x 4

=

gallons (gal)

quarts (qt) x 57.75 = cub ic inches (in. )

x

0.00000308

=

acre-feet (acre-ft)

Pressure Measurement

atmospheres x 29.92

atmospheres x 33.90

atmospheres x 14.70

feet ofw ater

feet ofwat er

feet ofwat er

x

0.8826

x

0.02950

x 0.4335

feet ofw ater x 62.43

feet ofwat er x 0.8876

inches of mercury x 1.133

inches ofmercu ry

x

0.03342

inches of mercury

x 0.4912

inches ofwater x 0.002458

inches of water x 0.07355

inches ofwater

x

0.03613

pou nds/squ are in. (lb/in.*) x 144

pounds/square

foot

(lb/ft2)

x

.00694

pounds/square in. (lb/in.*) x 2.307

poundslsquare inch (1 b/ h2 ) x 2.036

poun ds/square inch (lb/in.*) x 27.70

Weight Measurement

cubic feet of ice

cubic feet ofwater (50°F)

cubic inc hes of water

gallons ofw ater (50°F) x 8.3453

milligrams/liter (mg/L) x 0.0584

milligrams/liter (mg/L) x 0.07016

milligrams/liter (mglL)

x

8.345

x 57.2

x

62.4

x 0.036

ounces

(02) x

437.5

= inches of mercury

=

feet ofwa ter

cn

c

Y,

.-

-

=

poun ds per square inch (lb/

z

=

inches of mercury u

=

atmospheres

a

in.2)

s

c

=

po und s per square inch (Ib/ E

3

cn

m

n.*)

2

po un ds p er square foot (lb/ft')

= feet ofwa ter

=

inches of mercury Lc

= atmospheres c

.-

3

=

poun ds per square inch (Ib/

=

atmospheres

= inches of mercury

= po un ds per square inch (lb/

=

pou nd s pe r square foot (lb/ft )

=

pou nds p er square inch (Ib/

=

feet of water

=

inches of mercury

=

inch es of water

in.*)

in.2)

in.*)

=

pounds(1b)

=

poun ds ofwater

=

pounds ofwater

=

pou nd s of water

=

grains per gallon (US) (gpg)

=

grains per gallon (UK) ( imp)

=

po un ds per million gallons

(Ib/mil gal)

=

grains(gr)

31




parts per m illion (pp m )

grains p er gallon

(gpg)

grains pe r gallon (gpg)

x 1

x

17.1 18

x

142.86

percent solution

pounds

(lb)

poun ds (Ib)

pounds (lb)

poun ds/cubic inch (Ib/in.”)

pounds ofwater

pounds ofwater

pou nds of water

tons (short)

tons (short)

tons (long)

cub ic feet air (at 60°F and

29.92 in. mercury)

x 10,000

x 16

x 7,000

x 0.0005

x 1,728

x 0.0160

x 27.68

x 0.1198

x

2,000

x

0.89287

x

2,240

x 0.0763

Flow Measurement

(bo/hr)

barrels per

hour

petroleum

acre-feetlminute (acre-ft/min)x 325,853

acre-feet/niinute (acre-ft/min)x 726

cubic feet/minute (ft’/min)

x 0.1247

cubic feetlminute (ft’/min) x 62.43

cubic feet/second (ft’lsec) x 448.831

cubic feet/second (ft’/sec)

cub ic feet/second (ftY/sec)

x 1.984

gallons/minute (g pm ) x 1,440

gallons/minute gpm)

x 0.00144

gallons/niinute (gpm) x 0.00223

gaIlons/minute (gpm) x 0.1337

gallons/minute

(gpm) x

8.0208

gallons/minute (gp m x 0.00442

gallons/minute

(gpm)

x

1.43

gallons water/minute x 6.0086

million gallons/day (mgd) x 1.54723

million gallons/day (mgd)

x

92.82

million galIons/day (mgd) x 694.4

million gallons/day (mgd) x 3.07

pounds ofwater/minute x 0.000267

x 0.70

x

0.6463 17

=

milligrams per liter (nig/L)

=

parts p er million (pprn)

=

po un ds p er million gallons

(lb/mil gal)

=

milligrams per liter (mg/L)

=

ounces(oz)

=

grains(&

=

tons (short)

= poun ds per cub ic foot (Ib/ft’)

=

cu bic feet (ft’)

=

cu bic inches (in.’)

= gallons (gal)

=

pounds(1b)

= tons(1ong)

=

pounds(1b)

= pounds(1b)

(for normal w ater applications)

= gallons pe r m inute (gpm)

=

gallons per min ute

(gpm)

=

cub ic feet pe r seco nd (ft’/sec)

=

gallons per second (gps)

=

po und s ofwater per minute

=

gallons per minute (gpm )

=

million gallons per day (mgd)

= acre-feet per day (acre-ft/day)

=

gallons per da y (gpd)

=

million gallons per day

(rngd)

=

cubic feet pe r second (ft“/sec)

= cubic feet per m inu te (ft’/min)

=

cubic feet per h our (ft3/hr)

=

acre-feet per day (acre-ft/day)

=

barrels

(42

petroleum gal) pe r

=

tons of water per 24 hours

=

cub ic feet per seco nd (ft’/sec)

= cubic feet per min ute (ft’lmin)

=

gallons per m inute (gpm)

=

acre-feet per day (acre-ft/day)

= cub ic feet per seco nd (ft’lsec)

ho ur (bo/day)

32




Work Measurement

British thermal units (Btu) x 778.2 = foot-pounds (ft-lb)

British thermal units (Btu) x 0.000393

=

horsepower-hours (hp-hr)

British thermal units (Btu)

x

0.000293 = kilowatt-hours (kW.hr)

foot-pounds(ft-lb)

x

0.001286 = British thermal units (Btu)

foot-pounds (ft-lb)

X 0.000000505

=

horsepower-hours(hp.hr)

foot-pounds(ft-lb)

X

0.000000377= kilowatt-hours (kW-hr)

horsepower-hours hp-hr)

X

2,547

horsepower-hours hp.hr) X 0.7457

kilowatt-hours (kW.hr) X 3,412

kilowatt-hours (kW.hr)

X

1.341

Power Measurement

boiler horsepower x 33,480

boiler horsepower x 9.8

British thermal unitslsecond x 1.0551

(Btu/sec)

British thermal units/minute x 12.96

(B tu/min)

British thermal unitslminute

x

0.02356

(Btulmin)

British thermal units/minute

x

0.01757

(B tu/min)

British thermal units/hour

x

0.293

(Btu/hr)


x

12.96

(Btu/hr)


x

0.00039

(Btu/hr)

foot-pounds per second

x

.0771

(ft-lb/sec)

foot-pounds per second x .001818

(ft-lb/sec)

foot-poundsper second x ,001356

(ft-lb/sec)

foot-poundsper minute x .0000303

(ft-lh/min)

foot-poundsper minute x .0000226

(ft-lb/min)

horsepower (hp) x 42.44

= British thermal units (Btu)

= kilowatt-hours (kW-hr)

= British thermal units (Btn)

= horsepower-hours hp-hr)

= British thermal units per hour

=

kilowatts (kW)

= kilowatts (kW)

(Btu/hr)

=


= horsepower (hp)

(ft-lb/sec)

= kilowatts (kW)

= watts(W)

= foot-pounds per minute

= horsepower (lip)

(ft-lb/rnin)

= British thermal units per

minute (Btulmin)

= horsepower (hp)

= kilowatts (kW)

= horsepower (hp)

= kilowatts (kW)


minute (Btu/min)

33




horsepower (lip)

horsepower (hp )

horsepower (lip)

horsepower (lip)

horsepower (hp)

kilowatts (kW )

kilowatts (kW )

kilowatts (kW)

kilowatts (kW)

kilowatts (kW)

kilowatts (kW)

tons ofrefrigeration (US)

watts (W )

watts (W )

watts ( W )

watts (W )

x 33,000

x 550

x

1,980,000

x 0.7457

x

745.7

x 0.9478

x 56.87

x

3,413

x 44,250

x 737.6

x

1.341

x 288,000

x

0.05692

x 0.7376

x 44.26

x

0.001341

Velocity Measurement

feet/minute (ft/niin) x 0.01667

feet/minute (ftimin) x 0.01136

feet/second (ft/sec) x 0.6818

miles/hour (niph) x 88

miles/hour (mph ) x 1.467

Miscellaneous

grade:

1

percent

(or

0.01)

=

foot-pounds pe r minute

= foot-pounds per second

=

foot-pounds pe r h ou r (ft-lb/hr)

=

kilowatts (kW )

= wat ts (W)

= British thermal units pe r

= British therma l units per

=

British thermal units pe r hour


=


= horsepower (hp )


=

British thermal u nits per

= foot-pounds (force) p er sec ond


= horsepower (hp)

(ft-lb/min)

(ft-lb/sec)

secon d (Btu/sec)

minute (Btu/min)

(Btu/hr)

(ft-lb/min)

t-lb/sec)

24

hours

minute (Btulmin)

(ft-lb/sec)

(ft-lb/min)

= feet pe r se con d (ftlsec)

= miles pe r hou r (mph)

= miles per hou r (mp h)

=

feet pe r minu te (ftirnin)

= feet pe r sec ond (ftlsec)

=

1

foot pe r

100

feet

34




CONVERSIONOF METRIC UNITS

l inear Measurement

inch (in.) x 25.4

inch (in.)

x

2.54

foot

(ft)

x

304.8

foot (ft) x 30.48

foot (ft) x 0.3048

Yard (Yd) x 0.9144

mile (mi) x 1,609.3

mile (mi) x 1.6093

millimeter

(mm)

x

0.03937

centimeter (cm) x 0.3937

meter

(m)

x 39.3701

meter (m) x 3.2808

meter (m) x 1.0936

kilometer km) x 0.6214

Area Measurement

square meter

(m')

x

10,000

hectare (ha)

x

10,000

square inch (in.s) x 6.4516

square foot (ft2)

x

0.092903

square yard (yd ) x 0.8361

acre

x

0.004047

acre x 0.4047

square mile (mis)

x

2.59

square centimeter (cm') x 0.16

square meters (m2)

x

10.7639

square meters

( m P )

x 1.1960

hectare (ha)

x

2.471

square kilometer(h ) x 247.1054

square kilometer

(h2)

0.3861

Volume Measurement

cubic inch (in?) x 16.3871

cubic foot (fts)

x

28,317

cubic foot (ft3) x 0.028317

cubic foot (ft') x 28.317

cubic yard (yd3) x 0.7646

acre foot (acre-ft) x 1,233.4

=

millimeters (mm)

=

centimeters (cm)

= millimeters (mm)

= centimeters (cm)

= meters(m)

=

meters(m)

= meters(m)

=

kilometers km)

=

inches (in.)

= inches (in,)

= inches (in.)

=

feet (ft)

=

yards(yd)

= miles(mi)

=

square centimeters (cm')

= square meters (mP)

=


=

square meters

(m2)

= square meters (n?)

=

square kilometers (km')

=

hectares (ha)

=

square kilometers (km2)

=

square inches (in. )

=

square feet (ft2)

= square yards (yd2)

=

acres

=

acres

=

square miles (mi')

=

cubic centimeters (an3)

= cubic centimeters (cm3)

= cubic meters (m3)

=

liters(L)

= cuhic meters (m')

= cubic meters (m')

35




ounce (US fluid)

( 0 2 )

quart (liquid) (qt)

quart (l iquid) (qt)

gallon

(gal)

gallon (gal)

bushel (bu)

cub ic centim eters (cni’)

cubic m eter

(m’)

cubic meter (m”)

cubic meter (my)

cubic m eter

(ni’)

liter

(L)

liter

(L)

liter (L)

decaliter

(dL)

decaliter (dL)

hectoliter (hL)

hectoliter

(hL)

hectoliter (hL)

hectoliter (h L)

peck (pk)

x 0.029573

x

946.9

x 0.9463

x 3.7854

x 0.0037854

x 0.881

x 0.3524

x 0.061

x 35.3183

x 1.3079

x 264.2

x

0.000811

x 1.0567

x 0.264

x 0.0353

x

2.6417

x 1.135

x 3.531

x 2.84

x 0.131

x 26.42

Pressure Measurement

pound/square inch (psi) x 6.8948

poundlsquare inch (psi) x 6,894

pound/square inch (psi) x

0.070307

po un d/ squa re foot (Ib/ft‘)

x 47.8803

pound/square foot (b/ft 2)

x 0.000488

po un dls qu are foot (Iblft’) x

4.8824

inches of mercury x 3,386.4

inchcs

ofwater

x 248.84

bar x

100,000

pascals (P a)

x 1

pascals (Pa) x 0.000145

kilopascals (kPa) x 0.145

pascals (Pa) x

0.000296

=

liters(L)

= milliliters (mL)

=

l i ters(L)

= liters(L)

=

cu bic me ters (m’)

= decaliters

(dL)

=

hectoliters (hL )

=

cu bic inches (in.’)

= cu bic feet (ft’)

=

cubic yards (yd’)

=

gallons (gal)

=

acre-feet (acre-ft)

= quart (liquid) (qt)

=

gallons (gal)

= cu bic feet (ft’)

= gallons (gal)

=

pecks (pk )

= cubic fee t (ft’)

= bushels (hn )

= cubic yards

(yd’)

= gallons (gal)

=

kilopascals (kPa)

=

pascals (P a)

=

kilograms/square centimeter

= pascals (P a)

= kilograms/square centimeter

(kg/cm‘)

= kilogram s/squ are meter (kglm’‘)

=

pascals (Pa)

=

pascals (Pa)

=

newtons pe r squ are meter (N/m‘)

= newtons pe r squ are meter

(N/m‘)

( k g / c 4

= pounds/square inch (psi)

=

pounds/square inch (psi)

= inches ofmercury (at

60’F)

36




kilogram/square cen tim eterx

14.22

kilogram/sqnare centimeterx

28.959

kilogram/square meter

x

0.2048

centimeters ofm ercu ry x 0.4461

(kg/cm')

(kdcm2)

(kg/m')

Weight Measurement

pound (lb)

x 453.59

ounce

02) x 28.3495

poun d (Ib) x

0.4536

ton (short)

x

0.9072

pounds/cubic foot (Ib/ft3) x 16.02

pounds/million gallons x 0.1198

(Ib/mil gal)

gram

(9) x 15.4324

gram

(9)

x

0.0353

kilograms (kg)

x

2.2046

megagram (metric ton )

x 1.1023

gramspiter (dL) x

0.0624

gramslcubic meter

(gjm3)

x 8.3454

gram k) x

0.0022

kilograms (kg)

x 0.0011

Flow Measurement

gallons/second (gps)

x

3.785

=

pounds/square inch (psi)

= inches of mercury (at 60°F)

=

po un ds per square foot (lb/ft2)

=

feet ofw ater

m

= grams (g)

9

= g r a m s ( d

c

s

= megagrams (m etric ton)

r

= gram s per liter (gjL)

9

=

kilograms (kg)

c

tu

3

v

tu

a

= grams per cubic meter (gjm3)

=

grains(gr) I

=

ounces

02 )

=

pounds( Ib) .-

=

pounds(1b)

3

Y-

c

= tons (short)

= tons (short)

=

po un ds p er cub ic foot (Ib/ft')

=

poun ds/m illion gallons

(Ib/mil gal)

=

liters pe r second (L/sec)

gallons/minute (g pm ) x

0.00006308 =

cubic meters pe r second

gallons/minute (gpm)

x 0.06308

= liters per secon d (L/sec)

gallons/hour (g ph)

x 0.003785 =

cubic m eters pe r hou r (m3/hr)

gallons/day (gpd )

x 0.000003785=

million liters per da y (ML/day)

gallons/day (gpd ) x

0.003785 =

cubic m eters pe r day @/day)

cub ic feet/second (ft3/sec)

x

0.028317

=

cubic meters per second

cub ic feet/second (ft3/sec) x 1,699

=

liters per m inute (L/min)

cub ic feet/minute (f$/min) x 472

=

cubic centim eters/second

cub ic feetlminute (ft3/min) x

0.472

= liters per second (L/sec)

cub ic feet/minute (ft3/min) x

1.6990

= cubic meters per h our (m 3/hr)

million gallons/day (mgd) x 43.8126 = liters per seco nd (L/sec)

(m3/sec)

ms/sec)

(cm3/sec)

37




million gd lons/da y (mgd)

x

3,785

million gallons/day (mgd)

x

0.043813

gaIlons/square foot (gal/ft‘) x

40.74

gallons/acre/da y

x

0.0094

(gal/acre/day)

gallons/square foot/day x 0.0407

gallons/square foot/day x 0.0283

(gal/ft‘/day)

galIons/square fo ot/niinute

x

2.444

(gal/ft’/min)

gallons/square foo t/minute

x

0.679

(gal/ft’/niin)

gallons/square foo t/minu te

x

40.7458

(gaI/ft‘/min)

gallons/capita/day (gp cd) x 3.785

liters/second (L/sec )

x

22,824.5

liters/second (L/sec)

x

0.0228


x

15.8508


x

2.1 19

liters/niinute (Limin) x 0.0005886

cubic centimeters/second x 0.0021

(cm’/sec)

cub ic meters/second (m’/ x 35.3147

sec)

cubic meters/second (m’/ x 22.8245

sec)

cubic meters/second (m’/

x

15,850.3

sec)

cubic meters/hoar

(m’/hr)

x

0.5886

cubic nieters/hour (m’/hr)

x

4.403

cu bic me ters/d ay (m’/day) x 264.1720

W/ft“ /day)

= cub ic m eters pe r day (m’/day)

= cubic meters pe r second

=

liters per square meter (L/m2)

= cubic meters/hectare/day

=

cubic meters/square meter/day

= litersl squ are mete r/m in (L/ni‘/m)

(n<’/sec)

(m’Pa/day)

(m’/m‘/day)

= cubic m eters/square meter/liour

= liters/square m eter/second

=

literslsquare meter/minute

= liters/day/capita (L/d/capita)

=

gallons pe r day (gp d)

= million gallons pe r da y (mgd)

=

gallons p er m inute

(gpm)

=

cub ic feet pe r minu te (ft’/min)

= cub ic feet per secon d (ft’/sec)

= cub ic feet pe r minu te (ft’lmin)

(m”/m‘/hr) = m/hr

(L/m‘/sec)

(L /ns /min)

= cu bic feet pe r seco nd (ft’/sec)

= million gallons per day

(mgd)

=

gallons per minute (gpm)

=

cub ic feet per minute (fi’/min)

= gallons pe r minute

(gpm)

=

gallons

per day (gpd)

cub ic meters/day (m’/day) x

0.0002641

7

=

million gallons pe r day (mgd)

cubic m eters/hectare/day

x

106.9064

=

gallons pe r acre pe r day

(mY/ha/day) (gal/acre/day )

cubic meters/square x 24.5424 = gallons /square foot/day

meter/day (m”/m 2/day ) gal/ft2/day)

liters/square nieter/minute

x

0.0245

(L/m’/min) (gal/ft2/min)

liters/square meteijniinute x 35.3420

(L/ni‘/min) (gal/ft‘/day

)

= gallons/square foot/minute

= gallons /square foot/day

38




Work, Heat, and Energy Measurements

British thermal units (B tu) x 1.0551

British thermal units (Btu) x 0.2520

foot-po und (force) (ft-lb)

x

1.3558

=

joules

(J)

horsepower-hour (hp-hr ) X 2.6845

watt-second (W-sec)

x

1.000 = joules (J)

watt-hour (W -h r) x 3.600

=

kilojoules (kJ)

kilowatt-hour (kW -hr ) X 3,600

=

kilojoules kJ)

kilowatt-hour(kW.hr) X 3,600,000 = joules J)

British thermal units per x 0.5555 = kilogram-calories p e r kilogram

British thermal units per x

8.8987

= kilogram-calories/cubic meter

cu bic foot (Btu/fts) (kg-cal/ms)

kilojoule (kJ)

x 0.9478

= British thermal units (B tu)

kilojoule (kJ)

kilojoule (kJ) X 0.2778

=

watt-hours(W.hr)

joule (J) x 0.7376 = foot-po und s (ft-lb)

joule (J)

x 1.0000

= watt-seconds (W-sec)

joule

(J)

x

0.2399

=

calories(ca1)

megajoule (MJ) X 0.3725 = horsepower-hour (hp.hr)

kilogram-calories (kg-cal)

x 3.9685 =

British thermal units (B tu)

kilogram-calories pe r

x 1.8000

= British thermal units pe r pou nd

kilogram-calories per liter

x

112.37

= British thermal units pe r c ubic

(kg-cal/L) foot (Btu/f$)

kilogram-calories/cubic x 0.1 124

=

British thermal un its pe r cub ic

meter (kg-cal/ms) foo t (Btu/ft3)

=

kilojoules (kJ)

=

kilogram-calories (kg-cal)

=

megajoules (MJ)

po un d (Btu/lb) (kg-cal/kd

X 0.00027778

= kilowatt-hours (kW -hr)

kilogram (kg-cal/kg) (Btu jlb)

Velocity, Acceleration, and Force Measurements

feet per min ute (ft/min) = meters per ho ur (m/hr)

feet pe r h ou r (ft/hr)

=

meters per ho ur (m/hr)

miles pe r hour (mph) x 44.7

=

centimeters per second

miles per hour (mph)

=

meters per minute (mlmin)

miles per ho ur (m ph) = kilometers per ho ur (km/hr)

feet/secon d/seco nd (ft/sec')x 0.3048 = meters/second/second (m/se$)

inches/second/second x 0.0254 = meters/second/second (m/sec2)

(in./sec*)

pound-force (lbf)

x 4.44482 =

newtons(N)

centimeters/second (cm/ x 0.0224 = miles pe r hou r (mph)

sec)

x 18.2880

x 0.3048

(cmlsec)

x

26.82

x

1.609

39




nieters/second (ni/sec) x 3.2808

meters/rninute (m/niin) x 0.0373

meters per

hour

(rn/hr) x 0.0547

meters per ho ur (rn/hr) x 3.2808

kilonieters/second (km/sec)x

2,236.9

kilonieters/hour (km/hr) x

0.0103

nieters/second/second

x

3.2808

(m/sec2)

rneters/second/second x

39.3701

(ni/sec')

newtons

(N)

x 0.2248

= feet pe r s eco nd (ft/sec)

=

miles per ho ur (rnph)

= feet pe r minute (ft/min)

= feet pe r ho ur (ft/hr)

=

miles per hou r (mph)

= miles pe r min (mpm )

= feet/s eco nd /second (ft/sec')

=

inches/second/second (in./sec2)

= po un ds force (Ibf)




Factors for Convers ion

us Multiply by Metric (Sl) or

US

length

inches (in.)

feet (ft)

yard bd)

miles (mi)

Area

square inch (in?)

square feet (ft')

acres

square miles (mi')

Volume

cubic feet

(ft3)

cubic yard (yd3)

gallon (gal)

2.540

0.0254

0.3048

12

0.9144

3

1.609

1,760

5,280

6.452

0.0929

144

4,047

0.4047

43,560

0.001

562

2.590

640

28.32

0.02832

7.48

6.23

1,728

0.7646

3.785

0.003785

4

8

128

0.1337

centimeters (cm)

meters

m)

meter (m)

inches (in.)

meters (m)

feet (ft)

kilometers (km)

Yards

b d )

feet (ft)


square meters m2)

Square

inches

ti )

square meters (m')

hectares (ha)

square feet (Ul ,

square miles (mi')

square kilometers (kin')

acres

liters

L)

cubic meters

m3)

gallons, US

gallons, Imperial

cubic inches (in?)

cubic meters (m3)

liters

(L)

cubic meters

(m3)

pints (pt)

fluid ounces (fl

oz)

cubic feet Cft?

quarts (qt)

'c

v

c

3

c

.-

Table continued on next page

41




Factors for Conversion (continued)

us Multiply by Metric (SI) or US

acre-feet (acre-ft)

Weight

pounds (lb)

grains (gr)

tons (short)

tons (long)

gallons of water, US

gallons, Imperial

.cubic feet

(ft3)

of

pounds per cubic

foot

Unit Weight

water

(1b/ft3)

pounds per ton

Concentration

(PPm)

(gpg)

parts per million

grains per gallon

Time

days

32

946

0.946

1.233

1o ~

1,233

1,613.3

453.6

0.4536

7,000

16

0.0648

2,000

0.9072

2,240

8.34

10

62.4

7.48

157.09

16.02

0.016

0.5

0.5

1

8.34

17.4

142.9

24

1,440

86,400

fl oz

milliliters (mL)

liters (L)

cubic hectometers (hm3)

cubic meters (m3)

cubic yd (yd3)

grams (g)

kilograms (kg)

grains (gr)

ounces (oz)

grams (9)

pounds (Ib)

tonnes (metric tons)

pounds (Ib)

pounds (Ib)

pounds (Ib)

pounds (Ib)

gallons (gal)

newtons per cubic meter (N/m3)

kilograms forcehquare meter

(kgf/m2)

gramskubic centimeter (g/cm3)

kilograms/metric ton (kg/tonne)

milligrams per kilogram (mg/kg)


poundshillion gallons (Ib/mil gal)


pounds/million gallons (lb/mil gal)

hours (hr)

minutes (min)

seconds (sec)


42





us

Multiply by Metric (Sl)or US

hours (hr)

minutes (min)

feet per mile (fvmi)

feet per second

Slope

Velocity

(Wsec)

inches per minute

miles per hour (mph)

(in./min)

knots

Discharge

(ft3/sec)

cubic feet per second

million gallons per

day (mgd)

gallons per minute

(gpm)

gallons per day (gpd)


per acre-foot

(mgaacre-ft)

60 minutes (min)

60

seconds (sec)

0.1894 meters per kilometer (m/km)

v

S

a3

.-

720 inches per minute (in./min) r

0.3048 meters per second (m/sec) 5

30.48

centimeters per second (cm/sec)

8

0.6818

0.043

0.4470

1.609

0.5144

1.852

0.646

448.8

28.32

0.02832

3,785

3.785

0.04381

694

1.547

3.785

0.06308

0.0000631

8.021

0.002228

3.785

0.430

U

m

=I

miles per hour (mph) S

2

kilometers per hour (kmlhr) ’

centimeters per second (cm/sec)

meters per second (m/sec)

meters per second (m/sec)

kilometers per hour (km/hr)

P

v

r

3

c

.-

million gallons per day (mgd)


liters per second (Usec)

cubic meters per second (m3/sec)

metric tons per day

cubic meters per day (m3/day)



cubic feet per second (ft3/sec)

liters per minute (Umin)

liters per second (Usec)


cubic feet per hour

(ft3/hr)

cubic feet per second (ft3/sec)

liters (or kilograms) per day (Uday)

gallons per minute per cubic yard

(gPm/Yd3)

0.9354 cubic meters/square meter/day

(m3/m2.day)


43




Factors

for

Conversion (continued)

us Multiply by Metric (SI)

or

US

acre-feet per day 0.01428

cubic feet per gallon 7.4805

cubic feet per million 0.00748

cubic feet per 1,000 0.001

Application Rate

(ft3/gal)

gallons (ft3/mil gal)

cubic feet per minute

(ft3/1 000 ft3min)

cubic feet per cubic feet 180

per hour (ft3/ft3.hr)

cubic feet per minute per 0.00748

foot (ft3/min+t)

cubic feevpound (ft3/lb) 0.0625

gallons per foot per day 0.0124

(gal/ft.day )

gallons per square 40.7458

foot per minute

(gal/$min) 0.04075

2.445

58.6740

gallons per acre 0.00935

(gal/acre)

million gallons per 0.430

day per acre-foot

(mgd/acre-ft)

pounds per acre (Ib/acre) 1.1 21

pounds per pound per 1

pounds per day (Ib/day) 0.4536

pounds per square foot 4.8827

day (Ib/lb.day)

per hour (lb/$.hr)

cubic meters/second (m3/sec)

cubic me tedcubic meter m3/m3)

cubic meterdl ,000 cubic meters

(m3/1000

m j

cubic meterdcubic meterhinute

(m3/m3min)

gallonshquare foovday (gal/ft’.day)

cubic meters per minute per meter

(m3/minm)

cubic meters per kilogram (m3/kg)

cubic meters per meter per day

(m3/m.day)

liters per square meter per minute

(Um’min)

cubic meters per square meters per

minute (m3/m2min)

cubic meters per square meter per

hour (m3/m2.hr)

cubic meters per square meter per

day (m3/m’,day)

cubic meters per hectare (m3/ha)

gallons per minute per cubic yard

(gpm/yd3)

kilograms per hectare (kglha)

kilograms per kilogram per day

kilograms per day (kglday)

kilograms per square meter per

hour (kg/m’.hr)

(kg/kg.day)

Table continued o next page

44




Factors

for

Conversion (continued)

us

Multiply

by

Metric (SI) r US

pounds per 1.000 square 0.0049

feet per day (Ib/l,OOO

f12.day)

pounds per acre per day 1.1 209

(Ib/acreday)

pounds per cubic feet per 16.01 85

hour (lb/ft3.hr)

pounds per 1,000 cubic 0.0160

feet per day

(Ib/l,OOO ft3.day)

pounds per 1,000 gallons 120.48

(Ib/l,OOO gal)

pounds per million 0.12

gallons (Ib/mil gal)

Force

pounds (Ib) 0.4536

453.6

4.448

pounds per square inch 2.309

(Psi) 2.036

51.71

6894.76

Pressure

703.1

0.0690

pounds per square foot 4.882

47.88

(Ib/f?)

pounds per cubic inch 0.01602

(Ib/in.’)

16

tons per square inch 1.5479

millibars (mb) 100

kilograms per square meter per day

(kg/m2.day)

kilograms per hectare per day

kilograms per cubic meter per hour

kilograms per cubic meter per day

(kg/haday) v

.g

E

c

(kg/m3.hr) 0

(kg/m3,day)

(kg/l,OOO m3) =I


P

U

c

kilograms per 1,000 cubic meters

ce

p

c

.-

kilograms force (kgf)

I

grams (9)

newtons (N)

3

feet head of water

inches head of mercury

millimeters of mercury

newtons per square meter

(N/m2)

=

pascals (Pa)

kilograms of force per square meter

(kgf/m2)

bars

kilograms of force per square meter

(kgf/m2)

newtons per square meter (N/m2)

grams of force per cubic centimeter

(gmf/cmj

grams of force per liter (gmf/L)

kilograms per square millimeter

(kg/mm2)







us Multiply by Metric (SI) or

US

inches of mercury

345.34

kilograms per square meter (kg/mz)

atmospheres

pascals

Mass and Density

slugs

.pounds

slugs per cubic foot

density

9

f water

specific weight (p)

of water

Viscosity

pound-secondsper

cubic foot or slugs per

foot-second (Ib-sec/ft3

or slugdft-sec)

square feet per second

0.0345

kilograms per square centimeter

0.0334 bars

0.491 per square inch (psi)

101,325 pascals (Pa)

1,013 millibars (1mb = 100 Pa)

14.696 per square inch (psi)

1

o


1.0x 10-5

bars

1.0200 10-5

kilograms per square meter (kglm’)

9.8692

lo4 atmospheres

1.40504 x

1O4 per square inch (psi)

4.0148

inch head of water

7.5001 x lo4

centimeters head of mercury

(kg/cmz)

14.594

32.174

0.4536

51 5.4

62.4

980.2

1.94

1,000

1

1

kilograms (kg)

pound (lb) (mass)

kilograms (kg)

kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3)

pounds per cubic meter (lb/ft3)

at 50°F

newtons per cubic meter (N/m3)

at 10°C

slugs per cubic foot (slugs/ft3)

kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3)

kilograms per liter (kg/L)

grams per milliliter (g/mL)

47.88 newton-seconds per square meter

(N-sec/mz)

0.0929

square meter per second (m2/sec)

(ft2/sec)


46





us Multiply by Metric (SI) or US

Work

British thermal units

778

(BtN

0.293

1

British thermal units/

pound (Btu/lb)

British thermal units/

cubic foot/degrees

Fahrenheiffhour

(Btum3.0F.hr)

horsepower-hours


(hp.hr)

horsepower per

1,000

gallons (hp/l,OOO gal)

Power

horsepower (hp)

2.3241

5.6735

2,545

0.746

3,413

1.34

0.1 970

550

746

2.545

kilowatts (kw)

3,413

British thermal units/hour 0.293

12.96

0.00039

(“F

-

32)

x

(EtuJhr)

Temperature

degrees Fahrenheit

(“0 (519)

degrees Celsius

“C

x

( 9 4

+

ec, 32

“C + 273.1

5

foot-pounds (ft-lb)

watt-hours Whr)

heat required to change

1

Ib of

kilojoules per kilogram (kJ/kg)

watts per square meter per degrees

Celsius per hour

v

Q1

5

water by 1°F S

.-

r

=

”

(W/m2%.hr) 0

2

a

P

British thermal units (Btu) 0

horsepower-hour (hphr) .-

=

c

British thermal units (Btu)


c

c

kilowatts per cubic meter (kW/m3)

=3

foot-pounds per second (ft-lb/sec)

watts

British thermal units per hour

(Btu/hr)

British thermal units per hour

(Btu/hr)

watts

foot-pounds per minute (ft-lb/min)

horsepower (hp)

degrees Celsius

(“C)

degrees Fahrenheit (“F)

Kelvin (K)

47




Decimal Equivalents

of

Fractions

Fraction Decimal

‘/64 0.01563

l/32 0.031 25

3/64 0.04688

l/16 0.06250

5/64 0.07813

3/32

0.09375

7/64 0.10938

118

0.12500

9/64

0.14063

5/32

0.1 5625

0.1 7188

3/1 0.18750

3/64 0.20313

7/32 0.21875

l5/64

0.23438

114 0.25000

7/64 0.26563

9/32 0.28125

19/64 0.29688

O/32 0.31 250

21/64 0.32813

11/32 0.34375

23/64

0.35938

318 0.37500

25/64

0.39063

13/32 0.40625

27/64

0.42188

7/1 0.43750

29/64

0.45313

15/32

0.46875

31/64

0.48438

112 0.50000

Fraction Decimal

33/64

0.51 563

l/32

0.53125

35/64

0.54688

9/1

6

0.56250

37/64

0.5781 3

9/32

0.59375

3g/64 0.60938

518

0.62500

41/64 0.64063

21/32

0.65625

43/64 0.67188

11/16 0.68750

45/64

0.70313

23/32 0.71875

47/64

0.73438

314 0.75000

49/64 0.76563

25/32 0.781 25

%4 0.79688

13/16 0.81250

53/64 0.82813

27/32

0.84375

55/64 0.85938

7/a

0.87500

s7/64

0.89063

29/32

0.90625

59/64

0.92188

5/1 6

0.93750

61/64

0.95313

31/32

0.96875

63/64

0.98438

48




TEMPERATURE CONVERSIONS

F

C

F

C

F

C

0.555 (OF-32) = degrees Celsius ( C)

(1.8

x

C)+ 32 = degrees Fahrenheit (OF)

C 273.15

=

kelvin (K)

boiling point*

=

212°F

= 100°C

=

373K

=

0°C

= 273K

freezing point* = 32°F

*At 14.696 psia, 101.325 kPa.

Celsius/Fahrenheit Comparison Graph

49




WATER CONVERSIONS

Water is composed of two gases, hydrogen and oxygen, in the ratio

of two volumes of the former to one of the latter. It is never found

pure in nature because

of

the readiness with which it absorbs

impurities from the air and soil.

One foot ofwater column at 39.1 F = 62.425 pounds on the

square foot.

One foot of water column at 39.1 F

=

0.4335 pound on the

square inch.

One foot of water column at 39.1 F = 0.0295 atmospheric

pressure.

One foot of water column at 39.1 F

=

0.8826 inch mercury

column at 32°F.

One foot of water column at 39.l F = 773.3 feet of air

column at 32°F and atmospheric pressure.

One pound pressure per square foot = 0.01602 foot water

column at 39.1 F.

One pound pressure per square foot = 2.307 feet water

column at 39.1 F.

One atmospheric pressure

2

29.92 inches mercury column

=

33.9 feet water column.

One inch of mercury column at 32°F = 1.133 feet water

column.

One foot of air column at 32°F and 1atmospheric pressure =

0.001293 foot water column.

50




WATER EQUIVALENTS AND DATA

1 US gallon of water weighs 8.345 pounds.

1 cubic foot ofwater equals 7.48 gallons.

1 foot head of water develops 0.433 pounds pressure per

square inch.

rn

cPounds per hour times 0.1 2 equals gallons per hour.

.-

Grains per gallon times 0.143 equals pounds per 1,000 gallons.

Parts per million divided by 120 equals pounds per 1,000

>

I=

m

=I

5

gallons.

m

E

2

=

1 grain per gallon equals 17.1 parts per million.

Estimated flow in gallons per minute equals pipe diameter in

inches squared times20.

P

surface requires

4

allons per hour of feedwater.

I

* 1 boiler horsepower based on 10 square feet of heating

1pound of coal will produce 7 to

10

pounds

of

steam.

1gallon of oil will produce 70 to 120 pounds of steam.

1,000 cubic feet of natural gas will produce 600 pounds

of

c

.-

c

3

steam.

Saturated salt brine for zeolite regeneration contains

2.48 pounds of salt per gallon or 18.5 pounds per cubic foot.

Refrigeration tonnage is gallons per minute

of

cooling water

times increased temperature divided by 24.

Cooling tower makeup is estimated at 1.5 gallons per hour

per ton of refrigeration.

1 ton of refrigeration is 288,000 Btu.

51




Chemistry

The science

of

chemistry deals with the structure

composition and changes

in

composition

of

matter as well as wi th the laws tha t govern these

changes.

Ti

understand and work uccessfilb

with the chemical phases

of

wastewater treatment

such as coagulation sedimentation softening

disinfection an d chemical removal of

various undesirable substances

a wastewater operator needs to know

some basic chemistry concepts.

5




p l

P IA

ILL

Key Atomic Number

Common Name

Atomic Mass (Weigh t)

Atom ic weights conform to the 1961 v

of the Commission

on

Atomic Weig

rn

,,>-,,,,-,,,-*, ,,-, ,,, ,, , , ,=

endApp,,edChem,s,ryThe

1389055 14 115

14090765

11424

(145)

15036

15

amBSO,e lemen ts ,o-118

thos e numb ers I2271 2320381

231

03588 2360269 I2371 244) 2

89 90 91 92 93 94 95

er iodic

Table

o Elements

Copyright (C) 2006 American Water Works Associatio



List of

Elements

Actinium

Aluminum

Americium

Antimony

Argon

Arsenic

Astatine

Barium

Berkelium

Beryllium

Bismuth

Boron

Bromine

Cadmium

Calcium

Californium

Carbon

Cerium

Cesium

Chlorine

Chromium

Cobalt

Copper

Curium

Dubnium

Dysprosium

Einsteinium

Erbium

Europium

Fermium

Fluorine

_______~

Name Symbol Atomic Number Atomic Weight

Ac 89 227'

Al

Am

Sb

Ar

As

At

Ba

Bk

Be

Bi

B

Br

cd

Ca

f

C

Ce

cs

CI

Cr

co

cu

Cm

Db

DY

Es

Er

Eu

Fm

F

13

95

51

18

33

85

56

97

4

83

5

35

48

20

98

6

58

55

17

24

27

29

96

105

66

99

68

63

100

9

26.98

243'

121.75

39.95

74.92

21

0'

9.01 1=

w

137.34

247'

rn

.-

E

208.98

10.81

79.90

112.41

40.08

251

12.01

140.1 2

132.91

35.45

52.00

58.93

63.55

247'

262'

162.50

252.

167.26

151.96

257'

19.00

Table

continued

on next page

55




List of Elements (continued)


Francium

Gadolinium

Gallium

Germanium

Gold

Hafnium

Hassium

Helium

Holmium

Hydrogen

Indium

Iodine

Iridium

Iron

Krypton

Lanthanum

Lawrencium

Lead

Lithium

Lutetium

Magnesium

Manganese

Meitnerium

Mendelevium

Mercury

Molybdenum

Neodymium

Neon

Neptunium

Nickel

Fr 87 223.

Gd

Ga

Ge

Au

Hf

Hs

He

Ho

H

In

I

Ir

Fe

Kr

La

Lr

Pb

Li

Lu

Mg

Mn

Mt

Md

Hg

Mo

Nd

Ne

NP

Ni

64

31

32

79

72

108

2

67

1

49

53

77

26

36

57

103

82

3

71

12

25

109

101

80

42

60

10

93

28

157.25

69.72

72.64

196.97

178.49

265'

4.00

164.93

1.01

114.82

126.90

192.22

55.85

83.80

138.91

262'

207.2

6.94

174.97

24.31

54.94

265'

258*

200.59

95.94

144.24

20.18

237.05+

58.69


56




List

of

Elements (continued)

Niobium

Nitrogen

Nobelium

Osmium

Oxygen

Palladium

Phosphorus

Platinum

Plutonium

Polonium

Potassium

Praseodymium

Promethium

Protactinium

Radium

Radon

Rhenium

Rhodium

Rubidium

Ruthenium

Rutherfordium

Samarium

Scandium

Seaborgium

Selenium

Silicon

Silver

Sodium

Strontium

Sulfur


Nb 41 92.91

N

No

0s

0

Pd

P

Pt

Pu

Po

K

Pr

Pm

Pa

Ra

Rn

Re

Rh

Rb

Ru

Rf

Sm

sc

sg

Se

Si

As

Na

Sr

S

7

102

76

8

46

15

78

94

84

19

59

6

9

88

86

75

45

37

44

104

62

21

106

34

14

47

11

38

16

14.01

259.

190.23

16.00

106.42

30.97

195.08

244

209

P

E

.I

cn

(u

.-

5

39.10

140.91

145

231.04+

226.03+

222.

186.21

102.91

85.47

101.07

261

150.36

44.96

263.

78.96

28.09

107.87

22.99

87.62

32.06

able continued on next pa ge

57




List of Elements (continued)

Name

Symbol Atomic Number

Atomic

Weight

Tantalum

Ta 73

180.95

Technetium

Tc

43 98.91'

Tellurium

Te 52

127.60

Terbium

Tb 65

158.93

Thallium

TI 81

204.38

Thorium

Th 90

232.04+

Thulium

Tm 69

168.93

Tin

Sn 50

118.69

Titanium

Ti

22 47.90

Tungsten

W 74

183.85

Ununbium

Uub 112

27'

Ununnillium

Uun 110

269'

Ununhexium

Uuh 116

289'

Ununoctium

uuo

118 293'

Ununquadium

uuq 114

285'

Unununium

uuu

111

27'

Uranium

U 92

238.03

Vanadium

V 23

50.94

Xenon

Xe

54

131.29

Ytterbium Yb 70 173.04

Yttrium

Y

39

88.91

Zinc

Zn 30

65.38

Zirconium

Zr 40 91.22

*Mass number

of

most stable or best-known isotope.

tMass

of most

commonly available, long-lived sotope.

58




Compounds Common in Wastewater Treatment

Chemical Name Common Name Chemical Formula

Aluminum hydroxide AI(OH)3

Aluminum sulfate

Ammonia

Calcium bicarbonate

Calcium carbonate

Calcium chloride

Calcium hydroxide

Calcium hypochlorite

Calcium oxide

Calcium sulfate

Carbon

Carbon dioxide

Carbonic acid

Chlorine

Chlorine dioxide

Copper sulfate

Dichloramine

Ferric chloride

Ferric hydroxide

Ferric sulfate

Ferrous bicarbonate

Ferrous hydroxide

Fluosilicic acid

Hydrochloric acid

Hydrofluosilicic acid

(fluosilicic acid)

Hydrogen sulfide

Hypochlorous acid

Magnesium bicarbonate

Magnesium carbonate

Magnesium chloride

Maanesium hvdroxide

(hydrofluosilicic acid)

Alum floc

Filter alum

Ammonia

Limestone

Hydrated lime

(slaked lime)

HTH

Unslaked lime

(quicklime)

Activated carbon

Blue vitriol

Ferric hydroxide floc

Muriatic acid

Table

continued

on

next

page

59




Compounds Common in Wastewater Treatment (continued)

Chemical Name

Common Name

Manganese dioxide

Manganous bicarbonate

Manganous sulfate

Monochloramine

Potassium bicarbonate

Potassium permanganate

Sodium bicarbonate

Sodium carbonate

Nitrogen trichloride

(trichloramine)

Sodium chloride

Sodium chlorite

Sodium fluoride

Sodium fluosilicate

Sodium hydroxide

Sodium hypochlorite

Sodium phosphate

Sodium silicofluoride

Sodium bisulfite

Sodium sulfate

Sodium suCite

Sodium thiosulfate

Sulfur dioxide

Sulfuric acid

Trichloramine

(sodium silicofluoride)

(sodium fluosilicate)

(nitrogen trichloride)

Soda

Soda ash

Lye

Bleach

Oi l

of vitriol

Chemical Formula

Mn02

Mn(Hc03)~

mn504

nh2c1

khc03

KMn04

NaHC03

Na2C03

nc13

NaCl

NaC102

NaF

Na2SiF6

NaOH

NaOCl

Na3P04

.1

2H20

Na2SiFs

NaHS03

Na2S04

Na2S03

Na2S203 5H20

502

nc13




KEY FORMULA S FOR C HEM ISTRY

total suspended solids, mg/L =

paper wt. and dried solids, g paper wt., g

mL

of

sample

x

1,000,000

residue,

mg x 1,000

mL sample

total

solids, mg/L

=

mL of titrant X normality X 50,000

mL of sample

otal alkalinity, mg/L =

Langelier saturation index

=

p H

pH,

saturated

concentration 1x volume 1 = concentration

2 x

volume 2

residue, mg

x

1,000

mL sample

mg/L total solids

=

weight

of

solute

weight ofsolution

ercent strength by weight

=

x 100

total weight

molecular weight

number

of

moles

=

moles of solute

liters

of

solution

molarity

=

total weight

equivalent weight

number of equivalent weights =

number

of

equivalent weights

of

solute

liters

of

solution

normality

=

molecular weight of

new measure

molecular weight of

i

ld measure

old concentration)

=

new concentration

61




High Concentration H+ and OH-

High Concentration

of

H+

Ions

Ions in Balance of OH-

Ions

Pure Acid

Neutral Pure Base

0 - 1

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

-12-13-14

The

pH Scale

CONDUCTIVITY AND DISSOLVED SOLIDS

Electrical conductivity is the ability of a solution to conduct an

electric current an d it can b e u sed as an indirect measure

of

the

total dissolved solids T D S ) in a wa ter sample.

T h e unit

of

measure co mm only used is siemens per centimeter

S/cm). T h e conductivity of water is usually expresse d as micro-

siemens per centimeter pS/cm) whic h is 10 S/cm . T h e relation-

ship between conductivity an d dissolved solids is approximately:

2

pS/cm

=

1

pp m which is the same as

1

mg/L)

6

T h e conductivity o fwater from various s ourc es is

Absolutely pu re water

Distilled water = 0.5 pS/cm

Mountain water = l .OpS/cm

Most drinking water sou rces = 50 0 to 800 pS/cm

Seawater = 5 6 m S / c m

Maximum for pota ble water

=

0.055 pS/cm

= 1,055 pS/cm

Som e com mo n conductivity conversion factors are

mS/cm

x

1,000 = pS/cm

pS/cm x

0.001

= mS/cm

P s/cm X I

=

pmhos/cm

ps / c m x 0.5

=

m g /L of T D S

mS/cm x 0.5 = g /L of T D S

m g / L T D S

x

0.001 = g /L of T D S

m g / L T D S x 0.05842 = g p g T D S

62




Densities

of

Various Substances

Density

Substance

lb/ft3 lb gal

Solids

Activated carbon'

Lime't

DW

alumr

Aluminum (at 20°C)

Steel (at 20°C)

Copper (at 20°C)

Propane (-44.5 C)

Gasolinet

Water (4°C)

Fluorosilicic acid (So%, -8.1 C)

Liquid alum (36'Be, 15.6 C)

Liquid chlorine (-33.6%)

Sulfuric acid (18°C)

Methane (OOC, 14.7 psia)

Air (20°C, 14.7 psia)

Oxygen (OOC, 14.7 psia)

Hydrogen sulfidet

Carbon dioxidet

Chlorine gas (OOC, 14.7 psia)

Liquids

Gases

8-28 (avg. 12)

20-50

60-75

168.5

486.7

555.4

36.5

43.7

c

v

.-

E

.88

5.84 P

62.4 8.34

c

v

36.5 4.88 .-

62.4 8.34

43.7 5.84 5

77.8-79.2 10.4-10.6

83.0 11.09

97.3 13.01

114.2 15.3

0.0344

0.075

0.089

0.089

0.1 15

0.187

*Bulk density of substance.

t Temperature and/or pressure not given.

The density of granite rock is about 162 lb/f?, and the density

of water is 62.4 lb/f?. The specific gravity of granite is found by

this ratio:

density ofgranite 162 lb/ftg

density ofwater 62.4 lb/ftg

specific gravity

=

- = 2.60

63




Specific Gravities of Various Solids and Liquids

Substance Specific Gravity

Solids

Aluminum

(20°C)

Steel

(20°C)

Copper (20°C)

Activated ca rb oit

Lime^+

Dry alum'+

Soda ash*t

Coagulant aids (polyelectrolytes)*t

Table salft

Liquid alum

(36OBe, 15.6 )

Water

(4°C)

Fluorosilicic acid (30 , 8 . 1 C)

Sulfuric acid

(18°C)

l iquids

2.7

7.8

8.9

0.13-0.45

(avg.

0.19)

0 . 3 2 4 . 8 0

0.96-1.2

0.43-0.56

0.77-1.1 2

0.48-1.04

1.33

1 oo

1.25-1.27

1

.a3

Ferric chloride (30 ,30°C) 1.34

*Bulk density used to determine specific gravity.

t Temperature and/or pressure not given.

Specific Gravities of Various Gases

Gas SDecific Gravitv

Hydrogen (OOC;

14.7

psia)

Methane

O0C 14.7

psia)

Carbon monoxide^

Air

(20°C; 14.7

psia)

Nitrogen (0°C; 14 .7 psia)

Oxygen (OOC;

14.7

psia)

Hydrogen sulfide*

Carbon dioxide*

Chlorine gas (OOC;

14.7

psia)

Gasoline vaDor*

- -

0.07

0.46

0.97

1

oo

1.04

1.19

1.19

1.53

2.49

3.0

When released in a room, these

gases will first rise to the ceiling

area.

- - - - -

-

- - -

When released in a room, these

gases will first settle to the floor

area.

*Temperature and pressure not given.

64




Common

Element Valences

Arsenic

As)

+3,

+5

Barium (Ba)

+2

Cadmium

Cd)

+2

Calcium (Ca) +2

Carbon (C) +4, -4

Chlorine (Cl)

-1

Chromium (Cr) +3

Hydrogen (H) +1

Copper (Cu) +1, +2

Dilution

normality

of

volume of

-

normality

of)

(volume

of)

solution 1 solution 1 solution 2 solution 2

N l ) V , ) = WZ)(VZ)

This equation can be abbreviated as

Common

Element Valences

Magnesium (Mg)

+2

Mercury (Hg) +1,

+2

Nitrogen (N) +3, -3, +5

Oxygen

0)

-2

Phosphorus P)

-3

Potassium

K)

+1

Selenium (Se) -2, i -4

Sulfur S) -2, +4, +6

4

cn

.-

=

Parts of A

Required

Solution

A,

Higher = A %

Concentration I\ o,ution

I

Conce

Sum =Total

Parts in

Desired Solution

l

c = Parts of B

Required

ntration

:

esired

Solution

B,

I = C %

Lower = B %

Concentration

Rectangle Method (sometimes called the dilution rule)

65




Some Chemicals Used in Water and Wastewater Treatment

Chemical Name Name Formula Used for

Common Chemical

Aluminum oxide

Aluminum sulfate

Ammonia

Calcium bicarbonate

Calcium carbonate

Calcium hydroxide

Calcium hypochlorite

Calcium oxide

Carbon

Chlorine

Chlorine dioxide

Copper sulfate

Ferric chloride

Ferric sulfate

Ferrous chloride

Fluosilicic acid

Alumina

Alum

Ammonia gas

Ammonia aqua

Limestone

Hydrated lime or

slaked lime

HTH

Unslaked lime

or

quick lime

Activated carbon

Blue vitr iol

Fluoride

.(hydrofluosilicic acid)

Hydrochloric acid Muriatic acid

Ozone

Potassium dichromate

Potassium permanganate

Sodium aluminate

Sodium bicarbonate Baking soda

Sodium carbonate Soda ash

Sodium chloride Salt

Sodium chlorite

Sodium fluoride

Sodium fluosilicate

Sodium Calgon

Sodium hydroxide Lye

Sodium hypochlorite Bleach

Sodium phosphate

Sodium thiosulfate

Sulfuric acid

Oi l

of vitriol

Zinc orthophosphate

hexametaphosphate

A1203 Fluoride, arsenic removal

A12(S04)y14H20 Coagulation

NH3 (ammonia

NHdOH (ammonia Chloramination

gas)

Alkalinity

Softening

Chlorination

Softening

Taste, odors, and pesticide

removal

Disinfection

Disinfection

Algae control

Coagulation

Coagulation

Chlorite control

Fluoridation

Disinfection

Taste and odor control

Coagulation

Alkalinity

Softening

Chlorine dioxide formation

Fluoridation

Fluoridation

Sequestering

Alkalinity

Chlorination

Zn3(P04)2 Corrosion control

.

66




Nitrification Reaction

Biological nitrification is an aerobic au totrophic process in w hich

the energy for bacterial growth is derived from the oxidation of

inorganic compounds, primarily amm onia nitrogen. Autotrophic

nitrifiers, in contrast

to

heterotrophs, use inorganic carbon diox-

ide instead of organic carbon for cell synthesis. T h e yield of nitri-

fier cells per unit of substrate metabolized is many times smaller

than that for heterotrophic bacteria.

Although

a variety of

nitrifylng bacteria exist in nature, the two

genera associated with biological nitrification are

Nitrosomonas

and

Nitrobucter.

T h e oxidation of ammonia

to

nitrate is a two-step

process requiring both nitrifiers for the conversion.

Nitrosomonas

oxidizes ammonia to nitrite, while

Nitrobacter

subsequently trans-

forms nitrite

to

nitrate. T h e respective oxidation reactions are as

follows:

-

v

Ammonia oxidation:

Nihobacler

NH; +

1 . 5 0 2

+ 2HC0,

+

NO, + 2H2COs + H20

Nitrite oxidation:

Nihobacter

NO, 0.502 + NO,

Overall reaction:

nimf iers

NH;

2 0 2

+

2HCO.j

+

NO,

+

2H2COs

+

H20

67




Dissolved-Oxygen Concentration in Water as a Function of Temperature

and Salinity (barometric pressure = 760 mm Hg)

Dissolved-Oxygen Concentration, mg/L

Salinity,

ppt

Temperature,

C 5 1 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

0 1460 1411 1364 1318 1274 1231 1190 1150 1111 1074

1 142 0 1373 1327 1283 1240 1198 1158 1120 1083 1046

2 1381 1336 1291 1249 1207 1167 1129 1091 1055 1020

3 1345 1300 1258 1216 1176 1138 1100 1064 1029 995

4 1309 1267 1225 1185 1147 1109 1073 1038 1004 97 1

5 1276 1234 1194 1156 11 18 1082 1047 1013 98 0 94 8

6 1244 1204 1165 11 27 1091 1056 1022 98 9 957 927

7 12 13 11 74 11 37 11

00

1 0 6 5 1 0 31 9 9 8 9 6 6 9 3 5 9 0 6

8 1 1 83 1 1 4 6 1 1 0 9 1 0 7 4 1 0 4 0 1 0 07 9 7 5 9 4 4 9 1 4 8 8 5

9 1155 11 19 1083 1049 1016 984 953 923 894 866

1 0 1 1 28 1 0 92 1 0 5 8 1 0 2 5 9 9 3 9 6 2 9 3 2 9 0 3 8 7 5 8 4 7

11 1 1 0 2 1 0 67 1 03 4 1 0 0 2 9 7 1 9 4 1 9 1 2 8 8 3 8 5 6 8 3 0

12 1 0 7 7 1 04 3 1 0 1 1 9 8 0 9 5 0 9 2 1 8 9 2 8 6 5 8 3 8 8 1 2

13 1 0 53 1 0 2 0 9 8 9 9 5 9 9 3 0 9 0 1 8 7 4 8 4 7 8 2 1 7 9 6

14 1 0 29 9 9 8 9 6 8 9 3 8 9 1 0 8 8 2 8 5 5 8 3 0 8 0 4 7 8 0

15 1 0 07 9 7 7 9 4 7 9 1 9 8 9 1 8 6 4 8 3 8 8 1 3 7 8 8 7 6 5

16 9 8 6 9 5 6 9 2 8 9 0 0 8 7 3 8 4 7 8 2 1 7 9 7 7 7 3 7 5 0

17 9 6 5 9 3 6 9 0 9 8 8 2 8 5 5 8 3 0 8 0 5 7 8 1 7 5 8 7 3 6

18 9 4 5 9 1 7 8 9 0 8 6 4 8 3 9 8 1 4 7 9 0 7 6 6 7 4 4 7 2 2

19 9 2 6 8 9 9 8 7 3 8 4 7 8 2 2 7 9 8 7 7 5 7 5 2 7 3 0 7 0 9

20 9 0 8 8 8 1 8 5 6 8 3 1 8 0 7 7 8 3 7 6 0 7 3 8 7 1 7 6 9 6

Jabie

continued on next page

68




Dissolved-Oxygen Concentration in Water as a Function

of

Temperature

and Salinity (barometric pressure

=

760

mm Hg) (continued)

Dissolved OxygenConcentration, m g A

Salinity,

ppt

Temperature,

C

0

5

1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5 3 0 3 5 4 0 4 5

21

8.90 8.64

8.39 8.15 7.91 7.69 7.46 7.25 7.04

8.84

22 8.73 8.48 8.23 8.00 7.77 7.54 7.33 7.12 6.91 6.72

23 8.56 8.32

8.08

7.85

7.63 7.41 7.20

6.99 6.79 6.60

24 8.40 8.16 7.93 7.71 7.49 7.28 7.07

6.87 6.68

6.49

25 8.24

8.01 7.79 7.57 7.36 7.15 6.95 6.75 6.56 6.38

26

8.09 7.87 7.65

7.44 7.23 7.03 6.83

6.64 6.46

6.28

27

7.95 7.73 7.51 7.31 7.10 6.91 6.72

6.53 6.35

6.17

28 7.81 7.59 7.38 7.18 6.98 6.79

6.61 6.42

6.25 6.08

29 7.67 7.46 7.26 7.06 6.87 6.68

6.50

6.32 6.15

5.98

30 7.54

7.33

7.14 6.94

6.75 6.57

6.39 6.22

6.05 5.89

31

7.41 7.21

7.02 6.83 6.65 6.47

6.29 6.12

5.96 5.80

32 7.29 7.09 6.90 6.72 6.54

6.36 6.19

6.03 5.87 5.71

33 7.17

6.98 6.79

6.61 6.44 6.26 6.10

5.94

5.78 5.63

34

7.05 6.86 6.68 6.51 6.33 6.17

6.01 5.85 5.69 5.54

35

6.93 6.75

6.58 6.40

6.24 6.07

5.92 5.76 5.61 5.46

36 6.82 6.65

6.47

6.31 6.14 5.98 5.83 5.68 5.53 5.39

37

6.72

6.54 6.37 6.21 6.05 5.89 5.74

5.59 5.45 5.31

38

6.61 6.44 6.28

6.12 5.96 5.81 5.66

5.51 5.37

5.24

39 6.51 6.34 6.18 6.03 5.87 5.72 5.58 5.44 5.30 5.16

40 6.41 6.25 6.09 5.94 5.79 5.64 5.50

5.36 5.22

5.09

ppt = parts per thousand.

69




Dissolved-Oxygen Concentration in Water*as a Function of Temperature

and Barometric Pressure (salini ty

=

0 ppt )

Dissolved-Oxygen

Concentration, mg/L

Barometric

Pressure,

mm

of

mercury

Temperature,

C

735 740 745

750

755 760 765 770 775 780

0 14.12 14.22 14.31 14.41 14.51 14.60 14.70 14.80 14.89 14.99

1 13.73 13.82 13.92 14.01 14.10 14.20 14.29 14.39 14.48 14.57

2 13.36 13.45 13.54 13.63 13.72 13.81 13.90 14.00 14.09 14.18

3 13.00 11.09 13.18 13.27 13.36 11.45 13.53 13.62 13.71 13.80

4 12.66 12.75 12.83 12.92 13.01 13.09 13.18 13.27 13.35 13.44

5 12.33 12.42 12.50 12.59 12.67 12.76 12.84 12.93 13.01 13.10

6 12.02 12.11 12.19 12.27 12.35 12.44 12.52 12.60 12.68 12.77

7 11.72 11.80 11.89 11.97 12.05 12.13 12.21 12.29 12.37 12.45

8 11.44 11.52 11.60 11.67 11.75 11.83 11.91 11.99 12.07 12.15

9 11.16 11.24 11.32 11.40 11.47 11.55 11.63 11.70 11.78 11.86

10 10.90 10.98 11.05 11.13 11.20 11.28 11.35 11.43 11.50 11.58

11 10.65 10.72 10.80 10.87 10.94 11.02 11.09 11.16 11.24 11.31

12 10.41 10.48 10.55 10.62 10.69 10.77 10.84 10.91 10.98 11.05

13 10.17 10.24 10.31 10.38 10.46 10.53 10.60 10.67 10.74 10.81

14 9.95 10.02 10.09 10.16 10.23 10.29 10.36 10.43 10.50 10.57

15 9.73 9.80 9.87 9.94 10.00 10.07 10.14 10.21 10.27 10.34

16 9.53 9.59 9.66 9.73 9.79 9.86 9.92 9.99 10.06 10.12

17 9.33 9.39 9.46 9.52 9.59 9.65 9.72 9.78 9.85 9.91

18 9.14 9.20 9.26 9.33 9.39 9.45 9.52 9.58 9.64 9.71

19 8.95 9.01 9.07 9.14 9.20 9.26 9.32 9.39 9.45 9.51

20 8.77 8.83 8.89 8.95 9.02 9.08 9.14 9.20 9.26 9.32


70




Dissolved-Oxygen Concentration in Water as a Function

of

Temperature

and Barometric Pressure (salinity = ppt) (continued)

Dissolved-Oxygen Concentration, ms/r

Barometric Pressure,

mm

of

mercury

Temperature,

o c

735 740

745 75 755 76

765

no 775 78

21 8.60 8.66 8.72 8.78 8.84 8.90 8.96 9.02 9.08 9.14

22 8.43 8.49 8.55 8.61 8.67 8.73 8.79 8.84 8.90 8.96

23 8.27 8.33

0.39 8.44

8.50

8.56 8.62

8.68 8.73 8.79

24 8.11

8.17 8.23

8.29 8.34 8.40 8.46 8.51

8.57

8.63

25 7.96 8.02

8.08

8.13 8.19

8.24

8.30

8.36 8.41

8.47

26

7.82

7.87 7.93

7.98

8.04

8.09 8.15

8.20

8.26 8.31

27 7.68

7.73 7.79

7.84 7.89 7.95 8.00

8.06

8.11 8.17 .-

E

28

7.54 7.59 7.65 7.70 7.75 7.81 7.86 7.91 7.97 8.02

30

7.28

7.33 7.38 7.44 7.49 7.54 7.59 7.64 7.69 7.75

v

9

7.41 7.46 7.51 7.57 7.62 7.67 7.72 7.78 7.83 7.88

31 7.16 7.21 7.26

7.31

7.36

7.41

7.46 7.51 7.46 7.62

32 7.04 7.09 7.14 7.19 7.24 7.29 7.34 7.39 7.44 7.49

33 6.92 6.97 7.02 7.07 7.12 7.17 7.22 7.27 7.31 7.36

34 6.80

6.85 6.90 6.95

7.00

7.05

7.10 7.15

7.20

7.24

35

6.69 8.74 6.79

6.84 6.89

6.93

6.98 7.03

7.08 1.13

36 6.59

6.63 6.68

6.73 6.78 6.82 6.87

6.92 6.97

7.01

37 6.48 6.53 6.57 6.62 6.67 6.72 6.76 6.81 6.86 6.90

38 6.38 6.43 6.47

6.52 6.56

6.61

6.66 6.70

6.75 6.80

39 6.28 6.33 6.37 6.42 6.46 6.51 6.56 6.60 6.85 6.69

40 6.18 6.23 6.27

6.32

6.36

6.41

6.46 6.50 6.55 6.59

* ppt

=

parts per thousand.

71




Asterionella

Hydrodietyon

Rridiniurn

Anabaena

Anacystis

Mallomonas

Staurastrum

Aphanimmenon

Nilella

Dmobryon

Tabellana

Pandorina

Vmglenapsis

Synedra

Ceralium

Gomphosphaena

Source:Standard Methods for the Examination

of

Water and Wastewater.

Taste and Odor Algae

72




Anacystis

Cymbella

Chlorella

Synsdra

R vu

a ia

ekslra

Cyclotella

Tahellarla

Spirogyra

Asterionella

Fragilaris

AnabaeM

Dialoma

Source: Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater.

Filter- and Screen-Clogging Algae

73




Phonnidium

Fyrobottys

Merismqledia

Carteria

Lepacinclls

Nilzschia

Telraedron

Chiorococcum

Anabaena

Euglena

Splragyra

Oscillateria

Phacus

Chlorogonium

Chbrel la

Stigeocbnium

G l o ~ l c a p ~

Gomphoneme

ArWlrospira

Lyngbya

Chlamydomonas

Source: Standard Methods for the Examination

of


Freshwater Pollution Algae




Rhirocloniurn

Pinnularia

Navimls

Aphandheca

Ulahrix

Chromulvla

Cladophora

Micrasteries

Cal rix

Mend on

Chamaesphon

Source; Standard Methods for the Examinationof Water and Wastewater.

Clean Water Algae

75




Nodidaria

Euglena

Micractinium

Mougwtla

Phscus

Gamphosphilaria

Gonium

Slephanadiscus

Dw

d

u

Sphaerwps

Slaurmas Zygnema Eudonna

PeiliaSVum

Source:Standard Methods or the Examination of Water and Wastewater.

Plankton

and

Other Surface Water Algae

76




Phormidium

Ulothrix

Achnanthes

Sl&&llWn

Cham

Cladophora

Gomphonema

Vamheria

Tetraspara

Audouinells

TolypaIhrix

Oedogonium

DrapWi?EUla

Chaetophora

Source:

Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater.

Algae Growing on Surfaces

77




Planklosphaeea

Poiyedriopsis Eiakatothrix

Spirulina

ChrOrnulina

Diacanthos

Clwteridium

Vacualaria

Ourococcua

Chodatella

Chm

mo

n

Ankistrodesmus

Cryptomonas

Massarila

Plemmonas

Closlerioopsts

Cosrnariurn

Clostsrium

Seenedesmus

Goienkinia

Schizdhnx

Schroederia ChlamVdarnonas

Source: Standard Methods for the Examination

of


Wastewater Treatment Pond Algae

7a




Source:

Standard Methods for the Examinationof Water and Wastewater.

Estuarine Pollution Algae

79




Safety

Wastewater operators are exposed to

a

number

of

occupational hazards.

n

act, water and

wastewater treatment r a n k high o n the national

listings

of

indu strial occufiations where

on-the-job in juries can occur. Whether regulated

by the Occupational Safe and Health

Administration

o r

dictated by common sense

and p la nt policy, s afi working practices

are

a n

impor tan t pa r t of the wastewater operator’sjob.

81




Pipeline Color Coding Used in Wastewater Treatment Plants

Type of Line Contents of Line Color of Pipe

Sludge lines Raw sludge

Sludge recirculation or suction

Sludge draw off

Sludge recirculation discharge

Gas lines Sludge gas

Natural gas

Water lines Nonpotable water

Potable water

Water for heating digestors or

buildings

Other lines

Reuse

Chlorine

Sulfur dioxide

Sewage (wastewater)

Compressed air

Brown with black bands

Brown with yellow bands

Brown with orange bands

Brown

Orange (or red)

Orange (or red) with black

bands

Blue with black bands

Blue

Blue with 6-in. (1

50-mm)

red bands spaced 30 in.

(760 mm) apart

Purple

Yellow

Yellow with red bands

Gray

Green

Source: Recommended Standards for Water Works and Recommended Standards

for Wastewater Facilities the “Ten States Standards” ).

NOTE:t is recommended hat the direction of flow and name of the contents be noted

on all lines.

82




OSHA SAFETY REGULATIONS

Confined Space Entry

Beginning in April 1993, the Occupational Safety and Health

Administration (OS HA) implemented and started enforcing com-

prehensive regulations governing confined spaces. M ost states and

municipalities have adop ted these standards, even if OSH A does

not regulate them directly.

Virtually all access entrances now come under OSHA stan-

dard 29

CFR

1910.146,

Permit Required Confined Spaces.

These standards formally implement requirements and clarify

previous recommendations and suggestions made by industry

representatives.

Emergency Rescue

As

of

April

15,

1993,

a

mechanical device for rescue became

required for all vertical-type, permit-required confined spaces

deeper than

5

ft [1910.146(k)(3)(ii)J. A safety line and human

muscles are no longer acceptable means of rescue for most con-

fined spaces with the potential for vertical rescue. Systems that

were used in the past, including “boat winches,” should no longer

be used. Today, “hum an-rated” alternatives are available that sat-

isfy the OSHA requirements. This means that the manufacturer

has designed the system specifically for lifting people rather than

materials.

Nonemergency IngressIEgress

Means for safe entry and exit by au thorized personnel are ju st as

important, per 1910.146(d)(4), as rescue systems. Most tripod/

winch systems used for nonemergency work positioning an d sup-

port applications (such

as

lowering a worker into an access space

that does not contain

a

ladder) are defined as “single-point adjust-

able suspension scaffolds.” Trip ods and davit-arms are examples.

Both general industry standards (OSH A 19 10 ) an d construction

industry standards (OS HA 1926) stipulate specific requirements

that must be satisfied when a tripod/manually operated winch




system is the primary m eans used

to

suspend o r su pp ort workers.

Excerpts from the standards follow.

Utility owners and operators are also now clearly responsible

for contractor o r subcontractor activities in an d around confined

spaces.

Contractors should be trained in following proper proce-

dures and using the right equipment.

I. a. OSHA 1910.28(i)( 1) Single-point adjustable suspension

scaffolds. The scaffolding [tripod, davit-arm], including

power units or manually operated winches, shall be

a

type

tested and listed by a nationally recognized testing laboratory.

b.

OSHA

1926.451(k)( 1) Single-point adjustable suspen-

sion scaffolds. T h e scaffolding [tripod, davit-arm], includ-

ing power units or manually operated winches, shall be

a

type

tested and listed by Underwriters Laboratories or Fac-

tory Mutual Engineering Corporation.

84




Confined Space Entry Procedure

Job: Manhole Inspection and Cleaning Employee:

Dept: Foreman:

Municipality:

Required and/or Recommended personal protection equipment (PPE): Coveralls, rubber glo

Sequence of

Basic

Job

Steps Potential Accidents

r

Hazards

1. Secure the work site to ensure Injury or damage to equipment by contact with

vehicles. Injury to public, either pedestrians or

vehicle occupants.

Ignition of gases that may be present and toxic

traffic and public safety.

2. Check manhole for hazardous

gases before removing access vapors.

cover.

3. Remove access cover. Injury to back or foot; slips and falls.

Safety




Confined Space Entry Procedure (continued)

Sequence of

Basic Job Steps

4. Before entering confined space,

use flashlight or mirror to

visually check condition of

manhole and ladder rungs.

Ensure that testing of hazard-

ous

gases is continuous and

ventilation is in use where

entry is required.

8

Potential Accidents r Hazards

Falls, hazardous gases, and infection.

5.

Perform routine flushing

Hazardous gases may be released from

disturbed sediments. Surcharging of collection

system. Slips, falls, and infection.

Injury to back or foot; slips and falls.

operation, removing debris

and sediment as necessary.

6.

Replace access cover.




Entry Date: Start Time: Completion Time:

Description of Work To Be Performed:

Description

of Space

Confined Space

ID

Number: Type: Classificalion:

Building Name:

Location of Confined Space:

Entry Checklist

Potential Hazards Identified?

Communicalions EstablishedWith Operations Center?

Emergency Procedures Reviewed?

Entrants and Atlendants Trained?

Isolation of Energy Completed?

Area Secured?

Emergency Escape Retrieval Equipment Available?

Personal Protective Equipment Used?

es NO

Yes

O

Yes O

es NO

Yes

O

es NO

Yes NO

Yes

NO

Confined Space Equipment and PPE Used During Entry

ripod With Mechanical Winch

arness

GeneraVLocal Exhaust Venlilalion

Air Purifying Respirator

Self-containedBreathing Apparatus

teel

Toe

Boots

Safety Glasses/Goggles/Face Shield

Chemical Resistanl Clothing

Hearing Protection

cF

Rescue Tripod With Lifeline Hard Hat

Two-way Communications Gloves

v

Other PPE or Equipment Used:

Air Monitoring Results Prior

to

Entry

Monitor Type: Serial Number:

Oxygen % LEL

%

co

%

HpS

%

Calibration Performed? Yes No Initials

Alarm Conditions? D y e s ONO

Monitoring Performed by (sign):

Continuous Air Monitoring Results

Date: -Time:

~

Time

Oxygen % LEL CO % H2S- %

Time- Oxygen-

%

LEL-% CO-

%

H2S-

%

Time Oxygen

%

LEL-

% cop % HzS %

Authorization

We have reviewed the work authorized by this permit and the information contained here-

in. Written instructions and safety procedures have been received and are understood.

Entry cannot

be

approved if any checks are marked in the NO column. This permit is not

valid unless all appropriate tems are completed. This permit is to be kept at the job site.

Return site copy to supervisor.

Entrant's Name Signature: Date:

Atlendant's Name Signature: Date:

Supervisor's Name Signature: Date:

Confined Space Entry Permi t

a i




TRENCH SHORING

CONDITIONS*

Sheet Pilings

Trench Depth

4

ft to

8

ft-2 in. thick rnin.

More than 8 ft-3 in. thick rnin.

I

Braces

4

in. x 4 in. rnin.

(see specifications)

Sheet piling or equivalent solid sheeting is required for trenches

4

ft or more deep.

Longitudinal-stringer dimensions depend on the strut braces, the stringer spacing,

and the depth of stringer below the ground surface.

Greater loads are encountered as the depth increases,

so

more

r

stronger

stringers and struts are required near the trench bottom.

Running

Material

* This section adapted from Office of Water Programs California State Universik

Sacramento Foundation in Small Water System Operation and Maintenance. For

additional information visit <www. owp.csus.edu> or call 916 278 6142.




Uprights

2

n

x 8

in

Depth to

1

t

3

in

x

8

in

Depth more than

10

?

renches 5 ft or more deep and more than

8

ft long must be braced at intervals of

8 fl or less. .c

Hard Compact Ground

(5

t

or more in depth)

m

cn

Stringers Cleats

4 in

x

4 in min

x

E

Additional Sheeting

as

Required

Sheeting must be provided and must be sufficient to hold the material in place.

Longitudinal-stringer dimensions depend on the strut and stringer spacing and on

the degree o f instability encountered.

Saturated, Filled, or Unstable Ground (additional sheeting as required)

9




ROADWAY, TRAFFIC, AND VEHICLE SAFETY-

Recommended Barricade Placement for Working in a Roadway

NOTE:

If

traffic is heavy or cons truction work cau ses interference in the o pen

lane, one

or

m ore flaggers should b e used.

Speed Limit,

mph hm/hr)

20 (32)

25 (40)

30 (48)

35 (56)

40 (64)

45 (72)

50 (81)

55

(89)

Lane Width,

11 f t (3.4

in

0 ft (3 m)

12 ft (3.7 m)

ff

70

105

150

205

270

450

500

550

Taper len gth,

m)

f t

m)

(21)

75

(23)

(32)

115 (35)

(46)

165

50)

(62)

225 (69)

(82) 295 (90)

(137)

495 (151)

(152)

550 (168)

(168)

605 (184)

t

80

125

180

245

320

540

600

660

Minimum

Number of

Cones Required

5

6

7

8

9

13

13

13

*

This section adapted from Office of Water Programs California State University

Sacramento foundation in Small Water System Operation and Maintenance. for

additional information visit < w w . owp.csus.edu> or call 916 278 6142.




Provide adequate

path for pedestri an

traffic here.

2

lacem ent near intersection. Som e locations m ay require high-level warnings

at points 1 and 2.

Y-

ce

cn

Placement at major traffic s ig nalx ont ro lled ntersection where congestion is

extreme. Som e locations may permit warnings at points 1,

2,

3,

and 4

Placementof Traffic Cones and Signs

91




Placement for multilane highway.

Place high-level warning in same

lane as obstruction. See table on

page 90 for distances.

Placement for normal service,

leak, or construction. See

table on page 90 for distances.

Placementof Traffic Cones and Signs (continued)




Typical High LevelWarning

Placement on curved ro

The same pattern

as

sh

over double center line

flagger or police officer.

Placementof Traffic Cones and Signs (continued)

Safety




Placement for g ate op eration or oth er jobs

of

short duration.

Employ ee mu st w ear high-visibility vest or jack et.

Altern ate placem ent for o peration describ ed above.

High-level warning is m ounted on rear of vehicle that is

parked in advance of w ork location. Emplo yee mus t wear

high-visibility vest o r jack et.

Placement

of

Traffic Cones and Signs (continued)




Road

Work

Ahead

150

ft

min.

Work

Area

Work

High-Level

Space Warning

Device

Single

Lane

Ahead

Road

100

t min.

Work

Ahead

150

f t min.

Closing

of

Left Lane

95




Road

Work

Ahead 150fi

rnin.

Work

Area

Work

Space

Delineators

High-Level

Warning

Device

100 ft rnin.

Right Lane

Closed A head

150 f t

min.

Road Work

Ahead

Closing of Right Lane

96




1.

Truck and spoil bank

placed ahead of

excavation for

employee protection.

2. Cone pattern

arranged with gentle

curves-traff ic

adjusts smoothly.

3. Pipe blocked

to

prevent rolling into

street. Barricades

warn pedestrians.

4. Material is neatly

stacked.

5.

High-level warning

or barricades of

solid material to give

audible warning

of

vehicles entering

work area.

6.

Pedestrian bridge

over excavation.

7. Left side of truck

protected by cone

pattern; work area

entirely outlined.

8.

Tools

out of way of

pedestrians; tools

not

in

use replaced

in truck.

9. Pickup parked in

work area or on

street away from

work area.

Good

Practices n

Work

Area Protection

97




Strongback

Member

60 in.

Back

View

Strongback

Member

60 in

42

in.

36 in.

Side

View

Rope or Chain

Hook Closing

No Scale

Materials Schedule: Construction Method:

Strongback: 1-1 in. Black Pipe

Remainder:

?4

in. Black Pipe

(or other with equivalent strength)

Electric Weld

Safety Orange or Yellow

NOTE:

Strongback member and both sides should be coupled together

so

they can be stacked for transportation and quickly assembled if needed.

Finish:

Typical

Portable

Manhole Safety Enclosure




Boostei

Battery

\

B

A

Disabled

Vehicle

Body

Ground

\

Discharged

Battery

Proper Booster Cable Hookup

To boost the battery

of a

disabled vehicle from that

of

another vehi-

cle,

follow th is procedure.

For m aximum eye safety, wear protective goggles arou nd vehi-

cle batteries

to keep flying battery fragments and chemicals ou t of

the eyes. Should battery acid get into the eyes, imm ediately fli sh

them with water continuously for

15

minutes, then

see a

doctor.

First, extinguish all cigarettes and flames.

A

spark can ignite

hydrogen gas from the battery fluid. Next, take

off

the battery

caps,

if removable, and add distilled water if it is needed. Check for ice

in the battery fluid. Neverjump-start a frozen battery Replace the

caps.

Next, park the vehicle with the “live” battery close enough

so

the cables will reach between the batteries ofthe two vehicles. T h e

vehicles can be parked close, but d o not allow them

to

touch. If

they touch, this can create a dangerous situation. Now set each

vehicle’s parking brake. Be sure that an automatic transmission is

set

in park; put a manual-shift transmission in neutral. Make sure

your headlights, heater, and

all

other electrical accessories are

off

100




(you don’t want to sap electricity away from the discharged [dead]

battery while you’re trying to start the vehicle). If the two batteries

have vent caps, remove them. Then lay

a

cloth over the open

holes. This will reduce the risk of explosion (relieves pressure

within the battery).

Attach one end

of

the jum pe r cable to the positive terminal

of

the booster battery (A) and the other end

to

the positive terminal

of the discharged battery

(D).

T h e positive terminal is identified

by a + sign, a red color, or a

“P”

on the battery in each vehicle.

Each

of

the two booster cables has an alligator clip

at

each end.

To

attach, simply squeeze the clip, place it over the terminal, an d let

i t

shut. Now attach one end of the remaining booster cable to the

negative terminal

of

the booster battery (B). T h e negative terminal

is marked with a sign, a black color, o r the letter “N.” Attach the

other end of the cable to a metal part o n the engine of the disabled

vehicle

(C).

Many m echanics simply attach it to

the

negative post

of the battery, bu t this is not recom mended because a resulting arc

could ignite hydrogen gas present at the battery surface and cause

an explosion. Be sure that the cables do not interfere with the fan

blades or belts. T h e engine in the booster vehicle should be run-

ning, a lthough it is not an absolute necessity.

Get in the disabled vehicle and start the engine. After it starts,

remove the booster cables. Removal is the exact reverse

of

attach-

ment. Remove the black cable attached to the previously disabled

vehicle, then remove it from the negative terminal of the booster bat-

tery. Next, remove the remaining cable from the positive terminal of

the dead battery and then from the booster vehicle. Replace the vent

caps and you’re done. Have the battery and/or charg ing system of

the vehicle checked by a mechanic to correct any problems.

101




FIRE AND ELECTRICAL SAFETY

BFeaker,x,

G

' Hot ncoming Line

To Load

Grounded

Neutral

Line

Sensing Ring

The differential transformer continuously measures the current flow in the

hot and neutral lines. Under normal conditions, the current is equal in

each line.

If

there is a differenceof as little as 5 mA (0.005 A) the amplifier

energizes the shunt trip coil which causes the circuit breaker to

trip in

'k0fh of a second or less.

EXAMPLE:hand drill has a defective motor winding allowing a portion of the

current to flow to the metal case and thus through your body causing a

shock and possible electrocution.

Always use a ground fault interrupter when using electrical equipment

outdoors and in damp, wet locations. Always make sure your electrical tools

are in good shape.

Ground Fault Interrupter

Types

of Fires and

Fire Extinguishers

~ ~~

Class

of

Fire

and Extinguisher

Combustible

Mater ial Marking Extinguish With

Paper, wood, cloth A (ordinary Water, soda-acid, and dry

combustibles) chemical rated

A,

B,

C

Oil, tar, gasoline, paint B (flammable Foam, carbon dioxide, liquid

liquids) gas (HalonTM),and dry

chemical rated B, C, or A, B,

C

Electric motors, power cords,

C

(electrical Carbon dioxide, liquid gas

wiring, and transformer boxes

equipment) (HalonTM), nd dry chemical

Sodium, zinc phosphorus,

0

special Only special dry-powder

magnesium, potassium, and

metals) extinguishers marked for this

rated B, C, or A, B, C

titanium, especially as dust or

turnings

purpose

102




PERSONNEL

SAFETY

4 1,500

Purging Time, min

Manhole Volume,

f t3

Effective Blower

Capacity,cfm

Useof alignment chart:

1. Place straightedge on manhole volume left scale).

2. Place either end of straightedgeonblower capacity right scale).

3.

Read required purging time, in minutes, on diagonal scale.

4. If

two blowers are used, add the two capacities, then proceed as above.

5 When common gases are encountered, increase purging time by

50%.

6. Effective blower capacity is measured with one or two 90 bends in

standard 154 blower hose.

Ventilation

Nomograph




Hazardous Location Information

A hazardous location s an area where the possibility of explosion and fire is created by the p

(Fibers and flyings are not likely to be suspended in the air but can collect around machin

can ignite them.)

Class I Class

(National Electrical Code [NECI-500-5) (NEC-500-6) (NEC

Those areas in which flammable

gases or vapors may be present

in the air in sufficient quantities to

be explosive or ignitable.

Those areas made hazardous by the

presence of combustible dust.

Thos

prese

proce

Div i s i on D iv i s i on I I

(NEC-800-5, 6, 7) (NEC-500-5, 6, 7) (NEC

In the normal situation, hazard

would be expected to be present

in everyday production operations

or during frequent repair and

maintenance activity.

In the abnormal situation, material is

expected to be confined within closed

containers or closed systems and will be

present only through accidental rupture,

breakage, or unusual faulty operation.

The g

group

acco

explo

The d

grwp

the c

NOT




Hazardous Location Information (continued)

Typical Class ocations

Petroleum refineries, and gasoline storage and dispensing areas

Industrial firms that use flammable liquids in dip tanks for parts cleaning or other o

Petrochemical companies that manufacture chemicals from gas and oil

Dry-cleaning plants where vapors from cleaning fluids can be present

Companies that have spraying areas where products are coated with paint or plast

Aircraft hangars and fuel servicing areas

Utility gas plants, and operations involving storage and handling of liquefied petrole

Typical Class

I

Locations

g

Grain elevators, flour and feed mills

Plants that manufacture, use, or store magnesium or aluminum powders

Plants that have chemical or metallurgical processes; producers of plastics, medici

Producers of starch or candies

Spice-grinding plants, sugar plants, and Cocoa plants

Coal preparation plants and other carbon-handling or processing areas

Textile mills, cotton gins, cotton seed mills, and flax processing plants

Typical Class 111 Locations

Any plant that shapes, pulverizes, or cuts wood and creates sawdust or flyings

Source:Explosion

Proof

Blowers:

95 3 and

9575 07 NEC (Warning: Explosion-proof blowe

Safety




Hazards Classif ication

Class 1 Explosives

Class2 Gas

Class

3

Flammable liquid

Class

4

Flammable solids potential spontaneous conibus-

tion, or emission of flammable gases when in contact

with water)

Oxidizing substances and organic peroxides

Toxic poisonous) and infectious substances

Class 5

Class

6

Class 7 Radioactive material

Class 8 Corrosives

Class 9 Miscellaneous dangerous goods

HEALTH EFFECTS OF

TOXIN

EXPOSURE

Although the foul odor rotten eggs) ofhydrogen sulfide is easily

detected at low concentrations, it is an unreliable warning because

the gas rapidly desensitizes the sense of smell, leading to a false

sense of security. In high concentrations of hydrogen sulfide, a

worker may collapse

with

little or no warning.

Potential Effects

of

Hydrogen Sulf ide Exposure

ppm

Effectsand

Symptoms

Time

1,000

or more Unconsciousness, death Minutes

500-700 Unconsciousness, death

30 minutes

to 1 hour

200-300

Marked eye and respiratory irritations

1

hour

50-1 00 Mild eye and respiratory irritations

1

hour

10

Permissible exposure level 8 hours

106




Carbon monoxide is an odorless, colorless gas that may build

up in a confined space. In h igh concentrations of carbon monox-

ide a worker may collapse with little o r no warning.

Potential Effects of Carbon Monoxide Exposure

Effectsand Symptoms

4,000

2,000-2,500

1,000-2,000

1,000-2,000

1,000-2,000

600

400

200

50

Fatal

Unconsciousness

Slight heart palpitation

Tendency to stagger

Confusion, headache, nausea

Headache, discomfort

Headache, discomfort

Slight headache, discomfort

Permissible exposure limit

Time

cl hour

30 minutes

30 minutes

Y

hours

2 hours

hour

2 hours

3

hours

8 hours

Chlorine is a highly toxic chemical even in small concentra-

tions

in

air. T h e following table show s the physiological effects

of

various concentrations

of

chlorine by volume in air.

Effects of Chlorine Gas Exposure

ppm

Effects

and Symptoms

3

4

5

5

30

40

1,000

Slight symptoms after several hours’ exposure

Detectable odor

60-minute inhalation witnout serious effects

Noxiousness

Throat irritation

Coughing

Dangerous from

30

minutes to 1hour

Death after a few deep breaths

107




Common Dangerous Gases Encountered in Water Supply Systems and

Explos ive Range

(% by volume in air)

of Gas Formulae (air = 1 L imi t l im i t

Carbon dioxide

con 1.53

Not flammable Not flammable

Specific Grav i i yp

Name Chemical Vapor Density lo w er Upper

~

Carbon co

0.97 12.5 74.2

monoxide

Chlorine

c12

2.5

Not flammable Not flammable

Not explosive Not explosive

Ethane CZH4

1.05

3.1

15.0

~

Gasoline C5Hin to CgHzo 3.0 to 4.0 1.3 7.0

vapor

Hydrogen Hz 0.07 4.0 74.2




at Wastewater Treatment Plants

Common Physiological

Properties

Effects

Most Simplest and Least

(percentages @ercentages Common Expensive

Safe

given are percent given are percent

Sources

Methodof

in air by volume)

in air by volume)

in

Sewers

Testingt

Colorless, odorless,

10%

cannot be Issues from carbona- Oxygen deficiency

nonflammable.

Not

endured for more ceous strata. Sewer indicator

generally present in than a few minutes. gas.

dangerous amounts

unless there is respiration.

already an oxygen

deficiency.

Acts

on

nerves of

Colorless, odorless, Hemoglobin of blood Manufactured fuel CO ampoules

nonirritating, has strong affinity for gas

tasteless. gas causing oxygen

Flammable. starvation.

0.2

Explosive. to

0.25

causes

unconsciousness in

30

minutes.

2

-

a

cn

Greenish yellow Respiratory irritant, Leaking pipe Chlorine detector.

gas, or amber color irritating to eyes and connections. Odor, strong. Ammonia

liquid under pressure. mucous membranes. Overdosage.

on

swab gives

off

Highly irritating

30

ppm causes white fumes.

and penetrating odor. coughing.

4 M 0

ppm

Highly corrosive dangerous in

in presence of

30

minutes.

1,000

ppm

moisture. likely to be fatal in a few

breaths.

Colorless, tasteless, See Hydrogen. Natural gas Combustible gas

odorless, nonpoison- indicator

ous. Flammable.

Explosive.

Colorless. Odor Anesthetic effects

Leaking storage

1.

Combustible gas

noticeable in

0.03 .

when inhaled.

2.43

tanks, discharges indicator

Flammable.

rapidly fatal.

1.1%

o

from garages, and 2. Oxygen deficiency

Explosive. 2.2%

dangerous for

commercial or indicator for

even short exposure. home dry-cleaning concentrations

operations.

>30

Colorless, odorless, Acts mechanically

to

Manufactured fuel Combustible gas

tasteless, nonpoi- deprive tissues of gas indicator

sonous.

Flammable. oxygen.

Does not

Explosive. Propagates support life. A simple

flame rapidly: very asphyxiant.

dangerous.


109




Common DangerousGases Encountered n Water Supply

Systems

and

Explosive Range

(% by

volume in air)

Name Chemical Vapor Density Lower Upper

of Gas Formulae (air = 1) Limit Limit

Specific Gravitypf

Hydrogen HzS

sulfide

1.19 4.3

46.0

Methane CH4 0.55 5.0 15.0

Nitrogen Nz 0.97 Not flammable Not flammable

Oxygen 02

(in air)

1 1 1 Not flammable Not flammable

*Gases with a specific gravity

less

than 1.0 are lighter than air; those with a specific gravity

t The first method given is the preferable esting procedure.

Never enter a

12%

atmosphere. Use detection meters with alarm warning devices.

more than 1.0 are heavier than air.

110




at Wastewater Treatment Plants (continued)

Common

Properties

(percentages

below are percent

in air

by

volume)

Physiological Effects Most Simplest and

(percentages Common Cheapest

Safe

below

are percent SOUlCeS Method

of

in air

by

volume) in

Sewers

Testingt

Rotten egg odor

in small concen-

trations but sense

of smell rapidly

impaired. Odor not

evident at high

concentrations.

Colorless. Flammable.

Explosive. Poisonous.

Death in a few Petroleum fumes,

1.

H2S analyzer

minutes at 0.2 . from blasting, sewer 2. H2S ampoules

Paralyzes respiratory gas

center.

Colorless, tasteless, See Hydrogen. Natural gas, marsh

1.

Combustible gas

odorless, nonpoison- gas, manufacturing indicator

ous.

Flammable.

fuel

gas, sewer gas

2.

Oxygen deficiency

Explosive. indicator

Colorless, tasteless, See Hydrogen. Issues from some Oxygen deficiency

odorless. rock strata. Sewer indicator

Nonpoisonous.

Principal constituent

of air (about 79%).

Nonflammable. gas

~~~~ ~~

Colorless, odorless, Normal air contains

Oxygen depletion Oxygen deficiency

tasteless, nonpoison-

20 93%

of

O2

from poor venblabon indicator

ous

gas Supports

Humans tolerate and absorpbon or

combustion

down to

12

chemical consumption

Below

5%

to

7%,

likely to be fatal

of available

O2

111




Chlorine and Safety

W he n using chlorine, observe the following precautions:

1. Use a mask when entering a chlorine-containing atmosphere.

2.

Apparatus, lines, and cylinder valves should be checked

regularly for leaks. Use ammonia fumes to test leaks.

Amm onia an d chlorine pro du ce w hite fbmes of amm onium

chloride, w hich indicate leaks.

3. Because it is heavier than air, always store chlorine on the

lowest floor; it will collect at the lower level. For the same

reason, never sto op dow n wh en a chlorine smell is noticed.

H andle ch lorine carefully and respectfully, as she is the “green

goddess of water.”

112




Waterborne Diseases

Waterborne Disease Causative Organism

Source of

Organism in Water

Gastroenteritis Salmonella(bacteria) Animal or human feces

Typhoid

Salmonella iyphosa

Human feces

(bacteria)

Dysentery Shigella Human feces

Cholera Vibrio cholerae

Human feces

Infectious hepatitis Virus Human feces, shellfish grown in

(bacteria)

d

polluted waters

Amoebic dysentery

Entamoeba histolytica

Human feces

(protozoa)

Giardiasis Giardia amblia

(protozoa)

Wild animal feces suspected

Cryptosporidiosis Cryptosporidium Human and animal feces

Safety




Potential Waterborne Disease-Causing Organisms

Organism Major Disease

Bacteria

Salmonella fyphi

Typhoid fever

Salmonella paratyphi

Paratyphoid fever

Other Salmonellaspp Gastroenteritis (salmonellosis)

Shigella Bacillary dysentery

Vibrio cholerae

Pathogenic

Escherichia

coli

Yersinia enterocolitica

Campylobacter jejuni

Legionella pneumophila

d

Cholera

Gastroenteritis

Gastroenteritis

Gastroenteritis

Legionnaires’ disease, Pontiac fever

Mycobacterium avium intracellulare Pulmonary disease

Pseudomonas aeruginosa Dermatitis

Aeromonas hydrophila

Helicobacter pylori

Gastroenteritis

Peptic ulcers

Enteric Viruses

Poliovirus Poliomyelitis

Coxsackievirus Upper respiratory disease




Potent ial Waterborne Disease-Causing Organisms (continued)

Organism

Major

Disease

Echovirus Upper respiratory disease

Rotavirus Gastroenteritis

Notwalk virus and other calciviruses Gastroenteritis

Hepatitis

A

virus

HepatitisE virus

Infectious hepatitis

Hepatitis

Astrovirus Gastroenteritis

Enteric adenoviruses GastroenteriUs

Protozoa and Other Organism

uI

Giardia lamblia

Giardiasis (gastroenteritis)

Cryptosporidium parvum Cryptosporidiosis (gastroenteritis)

Entamoeba histolytrca Amoebic dysentery

Cyclospora caya anensis Gastroenteritis

-A

Micraspora

Acanthamoeba

Toxoplasma gondii

Naegleria fowleri

Gastroenteritis

Eye infection

Flu-like symptoms

Primary amoebic meningoencephalitis

Blue-green algae Gastroenteritis, liver damage, nervous system

Fungi Respiratory allergies

Safety




Typical Pathogen Survival Times

at

20 -30°C

Pathogen

Surviva

Fresh Water and Sewage

Viruses'

Enteroviruses 4 2 but usually

<50 <60

bu

Bacteria

Fecal coliforms*

Salmonella spp.

Shigellaspp.'

<60 but usually

<3

<60 but usually

<3

<3 but usually 4

<3

bu

<3 bu

l o bu

Vibrio choleraet <3 but usually 4 <5 but

Protozoa

Helminths

E histolytica cysts <3 but usually 5

4

u

A. lumbricoides eggs Many months <60 bu

In seawater, viral survival is less, and bacterial survival is very much less, than in fresh

Includes polio-, echo-, and coxsackie viruses.

$ c cholerae

survival in aqueous environments

is

a subject of current uncertainty.




Infectious Doses of Selected Pathogens

Organisms Infectious

Dose*

Escherichia coli

(enterOpathOgeniC)

Clostridium perfringens

Salmonella typhi

Vibrio cholerae

Shigella flexneri A


Shigella dysentariae

106-10’o

l-lo’o

lo4-lo7

103-107

180

20

10

Giardia lamblia

<10

Cryptosporidiumparvum 1 10

Ascaris lumbricoides 1-10

Enteric virus 1-10

*Some of the data for bacteria are given as

IDSo,

which is the dose that infects

50 of the people given that dose. People given lower doses also could become

infected.

5

Microorganism Concentrations in Raw Wastewater

Organisms Concentration,numbef/lOO mf

Total coliforms 107-1010

Clostridium perfringens

103 105

Enterococci 104-105

Fecal coliforms 104-109

Fecal

Streptococci

io4-106

Pseudomonas aeruginosa 1 03-1 o4

Protozoan cysts io3-105

Shigella 1-lo3

Salmonella

1

O*-I

o

Helminth ova

10-lo3

Enteric virus 102-1 o

Giardia lamblia cysts

10-lo4


cysts 1-10

Cryptosporidiumparvum oocysts

1

0-1

o3

117




Examples

of

Concentration of Microbial Pathogens in Raw Wastewater

and Sludge

Raw Wastewater, Sludge,

Microbial Agent

number/l number/gm

Salmonella 4 x

lo3 MPN

2

x

lo3 MPN

Enteric virus

3 x

l o 4

pfu

1 x 103 pfu

Giardia

2

x 10’

cysts

1

x lo2cysts

Cryptosporidium 2 x lo2oocysts

ND*

Helminths

8 x 10’

ova

3

x

10

ova

*

ND

=

no data.

Estimate of Percent Removal of Selected Microbial Pathogens Using

Conventional Treatment Processes

Primary Secondary Digested

Microbial Agent Treatment Treatment Sludge

Salmonella 50

99 99

Enteric virus 70

99 15

Giardia cysts 50

75 30

Helminth ova

90

99.99 30

118




Collection

Miles of pipes connect homes to wastewater

treatment plants Some are gravity systems and

some are pressure systems These systems must

operate

proper

to protect public health and

the environment

119




DESIGN FLOW

RATES

The average daily flow (volume per unit time), maximum daily

flow, peak hourly flow, minimum hourly and daily flows, and

design peak flow are generally used as the basis of design for sew-

ers, lift stations, sewage (wastewater) treatment plants, treatment

units, and other wastewater handling facilities. Definitions and

pu rpos es of flow are given as follows.

T h e design average flow is the average of the daily volumes to

be received for a continuous

1

-monthperiod of the design year.

T h e average flow may be used to estimate pu m pin g and chemical

costs, sludge generation, an d organic-loading rates.

T h e maximum daily flow is the largest volume of flow to be

received durin g a continuous 24 -ho ur period. It is employed in

the calculation of retention time for equalization basin a nd chlo-

rine contact time.

T h e peak hourly flow is the largest volume received d urin g a

1-hour period, based o n annual data. It is used for die design of

collection and interceptor sewers, wet wells, wastewater pum ping

stations, wastewater flow measurements, grit chambers, settling

basins, chlorine contact tanks, and pipings. T h e design peak flow

is the instantaneous maximum flow rate to be received. T h e peak

hourly flow is commonly assumed to be three times the average

daily flow.

T h e minimum daily flow is the sm allest volume

of

flow received

du ring a 24-ho ur period. T h e minimum daily flow is important in

the sizing of conduits where solids might be deposited at low-flow

rates.

The minimum hourly flow is the smallest hourly flow rate

occurring over a 24-hour period, based on annual data. It is

important

to

the sizing of wastewater flowmeters, chemical-feed

systems, and pu m pin g systems.

120




Example

Estimate the average and maximum hourly flow for a comniunity

of 10,000persons.

Step

1.

Estimate wastewater daily flow rate.

Assume average water consumption = 200 L/(capita-day)

Assume

80

of water consumption goes to the sewer.

average wastewater flow = 200 L/(c*d)

x

0.80

x 1O OOO persons x

0.001

m3/L

=

1,600 m3/day

Step 2. Compute average hourly flow rate.

average hourly flow rate = 1,600m3kd.y x

1

day/24 hr

= 66.67m3/hr

Step 3. Estimate the maximum hourly flow rate.

Assume the maximum hourly flow rate is three times the

average hourly flow rate, thus

maximum hourly flow rate

=

66.67 m3/hr

x 3

c

aa

.-

u

= 200m3/hr

Minimum Slopes for Various Sized Sewers

at

a Flowing Full Velocity of

2.0 ft/sec and Corresponding Discharges*

s

Flowing Full Discharge

Sewer Diameter, Min imum Slope,

in. w1m f t ft3/sec:

gpm

8 0.33 0.7 310

10 0.25 1.1 490

12 0.19 1.6 700

15 0.14 2.4 1,080

18 0.11 3.5 1,570

21 0.092 4.8 2,160

24 0.077 6.3 2,820

27

0.066

8.0 3,570

30 0.057 9.8 4,410

36 0.045 14.1 6,330

Courtesy

of

Pearson Education, Inc.

*Basedon Manning s ormula with

n =

0.013.

121




Velocity

Formula

c1istaiic.e

ttaveletl, t t

iiirie ot'test. scc

velocity

tt/sec

=

Area

of

Partly Filled Circular Pipes

d/D Factor

0 01

0 02

0 03

0

04

0 05

0

06

0 07

0

08

0

09

0

10

0 11

0

12

0 13

0

14

0

15

0 16

0 17

0 18

0 19

0

20

0

21

0

22

0 23

0

24

0 25

0 0013

0 0037

0 0069

00105

0 0174

00192

0 0242

0 0294

0 0350

0 0409

0 0470

0 0534

0 0600

0

0668

0

0739

00811

0 0885

0

0961

0

1039

01118

0

1199

0 1281

0

1365

0 1449

0

1535

d/D

Factor

0 26

0 27

0 28

0

29

0 30

0 31

0 32

0 33

0 34

0 35

0

36

0

37

0

38

0 39

0 40

0 41

0 42

0

43

0

44

0

45

0

46

0

47

0

48

0

49

0

50

0 1623

0

1711

0 1800

0

1890

0 1982

0 2074

0 2167

0 2260

0 2355

0 2450

0

2545

0 2642

0

2739

0 2836

0 2934

0 3032

03130

0

3229

0 3328

0

3428

0 3527

0

3627

0

3727

0

3827

0

3927

d/D Factor

0 51

0 52

0 53

0

54

0 55

0

56

0 57

0 58

0 59

0

60

0 61

0

62

0

63

0

64

0 65

0 66

0 67

0 68

0

69

0 70

0

71

0 72

0 73

0 74

0 75

0 4027

04127

0 4227

0

4327

0 4426

0 4526

0 4625

0 4724

0 4822

0 4920

0

5018

05115

05212

0 5308

0

5404

0

5499

0 5594

0 5687

0

5780

0 5872

0 5964

0 6054

0

6143

0 6231

0

6319

d10

Factor

0 7 6 0 6 4 0 5

0 7 7 0 6 4 8 9

0 7 8 0 6 5 7 3

0 7 9 0 6 6 5 5

0 8 0 0 6 7 3 6

0 8 1 0 6 8 1 5

0 8 2 0 6 8 9 3

0 8 3 0 6 9 6 9

0 8 4 0 7 0 4 3

0 8 5 0 7 1 1 5

0 8 6 0 7 1 8 6

0 8 7 0 7 2 5 4

0 8 8 0 7 3 2 0

0 8 9 0 7 3 8 4

0 9 0 0 7 4 4 5

0 9 1 0 7 5 0 4

0 9 2 0 7 5 6 0

0 9 3 0 7 6 1 2

0 9 4 0 7 6 6 2

0 9 5 0 7 7 0 7

0 9 6 0 7 7 4 9

0 9 7 0 7 7 8 5

0 9 8 0 7 8 1 6

0 9 9 0 7 8 4 1

1 0 0 0 7 8 5 4

d =depth, inches

D =

diameter, inches

122




FLOW

MEASUREMENT

Collection system operators need

to

know the fundamentals

of

wastewater flow measurement in

a

sewer pipe. There are many

devices available for flow measurem ent.

All

of

these flow meters

are based on the simple principle that the flow rate equals the

velocity of flow multiplied by the cross-sec tional areas of the flow.

T h is p rinciple is expressed by the following formula:

Q,

cubic feet pe r second

=

(area, ftz)(velocity, ft2)

Calcu lation of the cross-sectional area

of

flow in a sewer line

can be made by using a factor found in the table on page 122. Th is

procedure is explained in the example below.

Example

T h e depth offlow in a 12-in. diameter sewer is

5

in. Determine the

cross-sectional area

of

the flow.

Known

Unknown

D o r diameter, in.

=

12 in.

d o r depth, in.

=

5 in.

Cross-sectional area, ft2

c

aJ

.-

-

T o determine the cross-sectional area for a sewer pipe flowing

s

partially full, use the following steps:

1. Find the value for the depth , d , divided by the diameter,

D.

d. in. 5 in.

~-

D,

in . 12in.

=

0.42 in.

2. Find the correct factor for 0.42 in the table on page 122.

factor = 0.3130 (number

unknown)

_ -

0.42

D

123




3. Calculate the cross-sectional area.

Pipe cross-sectional

-

(factor)(diameter,

in.)

-

area, sq ft 144 in.Z/ftz

=

(0.3130)(12 n.)2

144 in.2/ft2

=

0.313

ft2

1,200

1.100

1.000

800

900

700

6

500

300

:::L

Midnight 2

1,200-

1.100

Average Flow, 720 gpm

200

100

0

Midnight 2

4 6 8 10 12 2 4

6

8 10

Midnight

Noon

Typical Municipal Wastewater Flow Pattern

-

' ' 1 ' ' ' ' ' '

I

4 6 8 10 12 2 4

6

8 10

Midnight

Noon

Typical Municipal Wastewater Flow Pattern

Midnight 2 4 6 8

10

12 2 4 6 8 10 Midnight

Noon

Variation in Concentrationof BOD in the Wastewater and

Resulting BOD Loading Pattern

*BOD = Biological oxygen demand

Courtesy

of

Pearson Education Inc.

Wastewater Flow and Strength Variations for a Typical Medium-Sized

City

124




.g

r

.

;

E

a

m

E

NOTE:n an actual water system environment, correction factors may b e

needed in the use of this nomograph.

-

5

4

3

2

- 1 1

-10

- 9

-8

7

6

-5

a . rc4

-3.5

-3

-2.5

-2

-1.5

-1

Flow Rate Nomograph

for

Venturi Meter

125




Typical Wastewater Flow Rates for Miscellaneous Facili ties

Gallons per Person

per Day (unless

Type of

Establishment otherwise

noted)

Airports (per passenger) 5

Bathhouses and swimming pools

Camps

Campground with central comfort station

With flush toilets, no showers

Construction camps (semipermanent)

Day camps (no meals served)

Resort camps (night and day) with limited plumbing

Luxury camps

Cottages and small dwellings with seasonal occupancy

Country clubs (per resident member)

Country clubs (per nonresident member present)

Dwellings

Boarding houses

(additional for nonresident boarders)

Rooming houses

Factories (gallons per person, per shift, exclusive of industrial wastes)

Hospitals (per bed space)

Hotels with laundry (two persons per room) per room

Institutions other than hospitals including nursing homes (per bed

space)

Laundries-self-service (gallons per wash)

Motels

(per bed) with laundry

Picnic parks (toilet wastes only per park user)

Picnic parks with bathhouses, showers and flush toilets (per park user)

Restaurants (toilet and kitchen wastes per patron)

Restaurants (kitchen wastes per meal served)

Restaurants (additional for bars and cocktail lounges)

Schools

Boarding

Day (without gyms, cafeterias, or showers)

Day (with gyms, cafeterias, and showers)

Day (w ith cafeterias, but without gyms or showers)

Service stations (per vehicle served)

Theaters

Movie (per auditorium seat)

Drive-in (per car soace)

10

35

25

50

15

50

too

75

100

25

50

10

40

35

250

150

125

30

50

5

10

10

3

2

100

15

25

20

5

5

10


126




Typical Wastewater Flow Rates for Miscellaneous Facili ties (continued)

Gallons per Person

per Day (unless

Type of Establishment otherwise noted)

Travel trailer parks without individual water and sewer hookups 50

(per space)

100

Workers

Travel trailer parks with individual water and sewer hookups (per space)

Offices. schools, and business establishments (per

shift)

15

Approximate Wastewater Flows for Various Kinds of Establishments

and Services

Pounds

of

Biological

Gallons

per

Oxygen Demand per

TYpe Person per Day Person per Day

Domestic wastewater from residential areas

Large single-family houses

Typical single-family houses

Multiple-family dwellings (apartments)

Small dwellings or cottages

Domestic wastewater from camps and motels

Luxury resorts

Mobile home parks

Tourist camps or trailer parks

Hotels and motels

Boarding schools

Day schools with cafeterias

Day schools without cafeterias

Each employee

Each patron

Each meal served

Transpoitation erminals

Each employee

Each passenger

Schools

Restaurants

Hospitals

Offices

Drive-in theaters (per stall)

Movie theaters (per seat)

Factories, exclusive of industrial and cafeteria

wastes

120 0.20

80

0.17

60-75 0.17

50 0.17

100-1 50 0.20

50 0.17

35 0.15

50 0.10

75 0.17

20 0.06

15 0.04

30

0.10

7-10 0.04

4 0.03

15 0.05

5 0.02

150-300 0.30

15

0.05

5 0.02

3 5

0.02

15-30 0.05

~~

Courtesy of Pearson Education, Inc.

127




Average Characteristicsof Selected industrial Wastewaters

Milk Meat Synthetic Chlorophenolic

Processing Packing Textile Manufactu re

Biological oxygen demand,

1,000 1,400 1,500 4,300

mg/L

Chemical oxygen demand, 1,900 2,100 3,300 5,400

mg/L

Total solids,

mg/L

1,600 3,300

8,000

53,000

Suspended solids, mg/L

300 1,000 2,000 1,200

Nitrogen, mg WL 50

150 30

0

Phosphorus, mg P/L

12 16

0 0

PH 7 7

5

7

Temperature, C

29 28

Grease,

mg/L

-

500

27,000

hloride,

mg/L

140

henols,

mg/L

17


128




SEWER

CONSTRUCTION

Conduit material for sewer construction consists

of two

types:

rigid pipe and flexible pipe. Specified rigid materials include

asbestos-cement, cast iron, concrete, and vitrified clay. Flexible

materials include ductile iron, fabricated steel, corrugated alumi-

num, thermoset plastic (reinforced plastic mortar and reinforced

thermosetting resin), and thermoplastic. Thermoplastic consists

of

acrylonitde-butadiene-styrene (ABS), ABS

composite, poly-

ethylene

(PE),

and polyvinyl chloride (PVC).

Nonpressure sewer pipe is commercially available in the size

range from

4

to

42

in. 102 to

1,067

mm) in diameter and

13

ft

4.0 m) in length. Half-length sections

of

6.5 ft (2 m) are available

for smaller size pipes.

Guard Stake

o+oo

7s

Marking on Guard Stake

Facing Sewer Line

(painted on pavement)

,.

.

Marking on Guard Stake

Facing Sewer Line

(painted on pavement)

v

Control Points for Sewer Construction (continued on next page)

129




/

/

/

Control

Points

for Sewer Construction (continued)

130




Clsanolrt Box (see not

mped

BacMill 90% RehINe

InstallVenically and Cut lo Length

Long-RadiusFining Vs-in.

Bend

Buiklino

Sewer

Long-RadiusFining (Win. Bend) at Terminus

Only

Terminate

cleanout at

cbsesl joint

lo

surface with temporary plug. After all backfill is complete and

subgrade

made in areas

lo

be

paved, the Final riser pipe and

box

shall be installed as shown.

Cleanout at Property L ine

_I

Ln

D

m

Engineer TWO- are onen made with a

modate line cleaning equipment.

Typical Connection o Deeper

Lonaitudinal Buildina Sewer

TypicalTwo-Way Cleanout to Grade

(All residential uses when under paving

andlar covered area: and

far all

indusl&l

and commercial

uses)

E

FimshedGrade

Typical Connection o Building Sewer Where Addit ional Depth Is Required

NOTES:

1 . Cleanouts should be extended to suriace

so

they are accessible without

excavation in order

to

reduce maintenancecosts and customer complaints

regarding yard disturbance.

2.

It

may be difficult to push equipment through two-way cleanout fittings

because of the right-angle entrance instead of a gradual entrance.

Types and Locations

of

BuildingSewer Cleanouts

131




low-Pressu re Collection System

Where the topography and ground conditions of an area are not

suitable for a conventional gravity collection system due to flat

terrain, rocky conditions, or extremely high groundwater, low-

pressure collection systems are now becoming a practical alterna-

tive. Pressure sewers may be installed instead of gravity sewers in

an area because 1) a pipe slope is not practical to maintain gravity

flow, (2) smaller pipe sizes can be used due to pressurization, and

(3)reduced pipe sizes can be installed due to a lack of infiltration

and inflow because the pipeline has no leaks and water does not

enter the system through manholes. Operation and maintenance

considerations when comparing pressure sewers with gravity sys-

tems include the facts that pressure systems have

(1)

higher energy

costs for pumping;

(2)

greater costs for pumping facilities; (3)

fewer stoppages;

(4)

o root intrusion; (5) no extra capacity for

infiltration and inflow;

(6)

no deep trenches or buried pipe; and

(7)

no inverted siphons for crossing roads or rivers. The principal

components of a low-pressure collection system include gravity

sewers, holding tanks, grinder pumps, and pressure mains.

Gravity sewers connect a building’s wastewater drainage sys-

tem

to a buried pressurization unit (containing a holding tank)

located on the lot as illustrated in the accompanying figure.

Holding tanks serve as a reservoir for grinder pumps and have

a capacity ofapproximately

50

gallons. The figure also illustrates a

typical pressurization unit with a holding tank.

Grinder pumps serve both as a unit to grind the solids in the

wastewater (that could plug the downstream small-diameter pres-

sure sewers and valves) and to pressurize the wastewater to help

move it through the collection system. The figure also illustrates

the location of the submersible grinder pump in the holding tank.

Pressure mains are the “arteries” of the low-pressure collection

system and convey the pressurized wastewater to a treatment

plant. Because the wastewater is “pushed” by pressure, the mains

132




Control Panel

Pressurization Unit Contains: Holding Tank, Grinder Pump, Float Switches, and Gats

Plan

Control Panel

Pressurization Unit Contains: Holding Tank, Grinder Pump, Float Switches, and Gats

Plan

Unit

Profile

Valve

Principal Components of a Typical Low-Pressure Collection System

-

are not dependent on a slope

to

create a gravity flow and can be

laid at a uniform depth following the natural slope

of

the land

along their routes. Low-pressure collection systems must have

access for maintenance. Th is means line access where a pig can be

inserted into a line for cleaning and also removed from the line.

“Pig” refers

to

a poly pig, which is a bullet-shaped device made of

hard rubber or similar material. Manholes or boxes must have

valves and pipe spools (2- to 3-ft-long flanged sections of pipe)

that can be removed for cleaning the pipe o r for pum ping into o r

out of the system with a portable pump. Refer to the figures that

illustrate the profile

of a

typical low-pressure main and a typical

low-pressure collection system.

133




Air Relief Valve at

Valve and

Cleanout

f High Points in Main

II\\W

.

Pressure Sewer Main

(following contour of land)

NOTE: Vertical scale is exaggerated.

Profile of a Typical Low-Pressure Main

.

Pressurization Unit ...Connector

-Service Line Valves and Cleanouts

-Pressure Main

Schematic of a Typical Low-Pressure Collection System

134




Vacuum Collection Systems

II__

Vacuum

Cleanout

Plan

Vac

Bra

umll -Center Line

inch I

Gravity Vacuum

Vacuum

Sewer

Branch Main

Profile

Principal Components of a Typical Vacuum Collection System

Transport Pocket Cleanout

about 2004 ntervals)

NOTE: ertical scale is exaggerated.

Profile

of

a Typical Vacuum Collection System

Vacuum Interface Unit -Vacu um Sewer Main

-Vacuu m Branch Transpo rt Pocket Cleanou t

Schematic of a Typical Vacuum Collection System

135




Backfill Loads in Pounds per Linear Foot on 8-in. Circular Pipe in a Trench Inst

Clay Fill

Height of Backfill H

A bo veTo oo fPio e.f f 1 f t 6 i n . 1 f t 9 i n . 2 f t O i n . 2 f t 3 i n . 2 f t 6 i n . 2 f t 9 i n . 3 f

Trench Width at Top of Pipe

6

7

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

i

559

649

712

736

757

774

608

683

7aa

aoi

a1 1

a1 9

a27

a33

a38

846

a49

a51

a54

842

694

761

a1 9

a68

91 1

948

979

1 007

1 030

1 051

1 068

1 083

1 096

1 107

1 117

1 125

1 133

1 139

1 144

1.149

724

847

969

1,088

1 119

1 170

1 215

1 254

1 319

1 346

1 369

1 390

1 408

1 424

1 438

1 450

1 461

1 470

1 289

1.478

1,213

1,332

1,458

1 513

1 560

1 603

1 640

1 674

1 703

1 730

1 754

1 775

1 793

1 810

1 825

1 838

1,575

1,698

1,818

1,942

1 993

2 034

2 070

2 103

2 133

2 159

2 184

2 205

2 225

2,065

2,182

2,308

2,429

2,553

2 545 2

2.607 2

2 578 2

2 635 3




Backfill Loads in Pounds per Linear

Foot

on 8411. Circular Pipe in aTrench Inst

Clay Fill (continued)

Height o f Backfi l l

H

A bo veTo po fPip e,f t 1 f t 6 i n . 1 f t 9 i n . 2 f t O i n . 2 f t 3 i n . 2 f t 6 i n . 2 f t 9 i n . 3

lYench Width at Top

of

Pipe

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

855 1,153

857 1,156

858 1,159

859 1,162

860 1,164

861 1,166

862 1,167

862 1,169

862 1,170

863 1,171

863 1,172

863 1,173

864 1,173

864 1,174

864 1,174

1,486

1,492

1,498

1,502

1,507

1,511

1,514

1,517

1,519

1,522

1,524

1,525

1,527

1,528

1,529

1,850

1,861

1,870

1,878

1,886

1,892

1,898

1,904

1,908

1,913

1,916

1,920

1,922

1,925

1,927

2,242

2,258

2,273

2,286

2,297

2,308

2,317

2,326

2,333

2,340

2,346

2,352

2,357

2,362

2,366

2,659

2,682

2,702

2,721

2,738

2,753

2,767

2,780

2,791

2,802

2,811

2,820

2,828

2,835

2,842

Source: American Concrete Pipe Association,<www.concrete-pipe.org>.

The bold printed igures are the maximum oad at the transition width for any given height of backf

t The trench width at which the backfill fill load on

the pipe

is a maximum and remains constant rega

Collection




A

sewer laser

can

be set up

on

a tripod or

a three-point trivet plate in the excavation,

above it, or

on

the pipe. The laser target is

mounted

on

a pole and adjusted to give

the distance from the beam to the pipe

invert.

A

level vial

on

the pole indicates a

vertical position.

Over the Top

The versatility and flexibility of a sewer

laser permits a varietyof open-excavation

setups with the beam projected down the

center line of the pipe or over the top.

pen Excavation

A

sewer laser can be set up in a manhole

utilizing a transit to set the sewer line

accurately The transit is plumbed over the

laser on a mount that clamps

to

the

manhole edge The laser beam IS

projected along the pipe center line

n the Manhole

Some sewer lasers can be set directly

inside pipes as small as 6

in.

in diameter.

This allows fast setups the second day

as

well as the versatility to meet situations in

which the laser cannot be set up in a

manhole.

In Small Pipe

s

.-

a

For large pipe, a laser can be set up

directly

on

the invert of the pipe using the

In Large Pipe

=

Electronic self-leveling sewer lasers can

also be

used

to provide line and grade

control in pipe-jacking operations. The

laser IS set up in the jacking pit, and the

target is mounted

on

the cutting shield.

Pipe Jacking

Grade Control

Using

Fixed-Beam Laser

139




1. In lieu of a shoring system, the sides or walls of an excavation or trench may be

sloped, provided equivalent protection is thus afforded. Where sloping is a substitute

for shoring that would otherwise be needed, the slope shall be at least %horizontal

to 1 vertical unless the instability of the soil requires a slope flatter than 3/4 to

1.

_ _ _ _

\

\

\ // Flatter Than

\

3/4 to 1

\

Exceptions: In hard, compact

soil

where the depth of the excavation or trench is 8 ft

or less, a vertical cut of 3% ft with sloping of 3/4 horizontal to 1 vertical is permitted.

In

hard, compact soil where the depth of the excavation or trench is 12 ft or less, a

vertical cut of 3% f l with sloping of 1 horizontal o 1 vertical is permitted.

2. Benching in hard, compact soil is permitted provided hat a slope ratio of % horizontal

lo 1 vertical, or flatter, is used.

2 ft Minimum (typical)

Sloping or Benching Systems

140




EacMil

12 in.

(3M)mm)

Hand-

Minimum Placed

Backfill

Bedding

Bedding

Load Faaon

2.2

Wive baddill material ightly tamped

2.8

ASTM D448=

67 crushed Stone

3.4

Reinforced

concrete,

p = 0.4%

Class A-l

Hand-

placed

Backfill

Bedding

Load Factor 1.5

Shaped

M o m

classc

Backfill

12m

-(3Wmm)

Minimum

classB

12

in

3M) m)

Minimum

€I

inimum

8 4

in.

(103

mm)

Load Factor

1 5

Minimum

class c

Load Factor 1.1

Fbt or Unshsped

Trench Bottom

Class D

NOTE:he standard classes of rigid sewer-pipe bedding and their load factors

(bedding factors) are shown. For example, an 8-in. vitrified clay pipe that has a

three-edge bearing load supporting strength

of

2,200

Ib/ft

will have a supporting

strength of

(2,200 Ib/ft x 1.5)

= 3.300 IbM when laid

on

a class C type

of

bedding.

Classeso f

Bedding

141




Courtesy of SRECO-Flexible, Inc.

Power Bucket Machines and Set Up

142




Highway

Loads

on Circular Pipe in Pounds per Linear Foot

Height o f Fill

HAb

Pipe Diameter, Trench Width,

in

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

12 1.33 3,780 2,080 1,470 1,080

760 550

15

18

21

24

27

30

33

36

39

42

48

54

60

66

72

i

1.63 4,240

1.92 4,110

2.21 3,920

2.50 4,100

2.79 3,880

3.08

3,620

3.38 3,390

3.67 3,190

3.96 3,010

4.25 2,860

4.83 2,590

5.42 2,360

6.00 2,170

6.58

2,010

7.17 1,870

2,360

2,610

2,820

3,010

2,940

2,830

2,930

2,810

2,670

2,550

2,330

2,150

1,990

1,850

1,730

1,740

1,970

2,190

2,400

2,590

2,770

2,950

2,930

2,850

2,770

2,620

2,490

2,450

2,520

2,580

1,280

1,460

1,620

1,780

1,930

2,070

2,200

2,330

2,440

2,560

2,480

2,360

2,250

2,160

2,190

900

1,030

1,150

1,270

1,380

1,480

1,580

1,670

1,760

1,840

1,990

2,050

1,960

1,880

1,810

660

750

840

930

1,010

1,080

1,160

1,230

1,290

1,360

1,470

1,580

1,680

1,640

1,570

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

78 7.75 1.750 1.630 2.630 2.240 1.770 1.520 1

Collection




Highway

Loads

on

Circular Pipe in Pounds per Linear Foot (continued)

Height

of

Fill HA

Pipe Diameter, Trench Width,

in

f t

0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5

3 0

84

8.33 1,650 1,540 2,730 2,290

1,810

1,460

90

8.92 1,550 1,460 2,530 2,330 1,850

1,470

96

9.50

1,470 1,380 2,410 2,290 1,880 1,500

102

10.08 1,390 1,320

2,300 2,190 1,910 1,530

108

10.67 1,320 1,260

2,200 2,090

1,830

1,560

114

11.25 1,260

1,200

2,110 2,010

1,760

1,540

120

11.83 1,210 1,150 2,020 1,930

1,700

1,480

126 12.42 1,160 1,100 1,940 1,860 1,640 1,430

132

13.00 1,110

1,060

1,870 1,800

1,580

1,380

138

13.58 1,070 1,020

1,800

1,730 1,530

1,340

144

14.17

1,020 980 1,740 1,670 1,480

1,300

Source

American Concrete Pipe Association, cwww.concrete-pipe,org>.

DATA 1. Unsurfaced roadway.

2. Loads: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials HS 20, t w o 16,00

12,000-lb dual-tired wheels, 4 ft on centers with impact included.

NOTES:

1.

Interpolate for intermediate pipe sizes and/or fill heights.

2. Critical loads:

a. For H = 0.5 and 1 O

fl

a single 16,000-lb dual-tired wheel.

b. For H= 1 . 5 4 0

l

two 16.000-lb dual-tired wheels, 4

fl

on centers.

c For H 4.0 ft, alternate loading.

3. Truck live loads for H = 10.0 fl or more are insignificant.




Recommended Impact Factors for Calculating Loads on Pipe With Less

Than 3-ft Cover Subjected to Highway Truck Loads

HeigM

of Cover H

Impact Factor

0 to 1 f t 0 in.

1.3

1

ft

1 in.

to

2

f t 0

in. 1.2

2 f t l i n . t o Z f t 1 1

in.

1.1

3 ft 0 in. and greater

1 o

Source:

StandardSpecifications or Highway Bridges.

by the American Association

of

Sfate

Highway and VansportationOfficials, Washington,D Usedby permission.

Crushing Strength Requirements for Vitrii ied Clay Sewer Pipe Based on

the Three-Edge Bearing Test

Nominal Size, in.

Standard Strength, /b//in. f f Extra Strength, /b//in.

f f

4 1,200 2,000

6

8

1,200

1,400

2,000

2,200

10 1,600 2,400

12 1,800 2,600

15 2,000 2,900

18 2,200 3,300

21 2,400 3,850

24 2,600 4,400

27 2,800 4,700

30 3,300 5,000

33 3,600 5,500

36 4,000

6,000

Source: ASTM Specification

C700,

Standard and Extra Strength Clay Pipe. CopyrightASTM

INTERNATIONAL. Reprinted wi th permission.

145




Strength

Requirements

for Reinforced Concrete

Sewer

Pipe

Based

on

the

Three-Edge Bearing

Test (in pounds per linear foot

of inside

pipe

diameter)

Classification

D Load to Prod uce D Load Pipe Size

0.01-in. Crack

at

Failure Diameter, in.

Class

I

800 1,200

Concrete strength

4,000

psi

60-96

Concrete strength 5,000

psi

102-1 08

Class

II 1,000 1,500

Concrete strength

4,000

psi

12-96

Concrete strength

5,000

psi

102-108

Class 111

1,350 2,000

Concrete strength

4,000

psi

12-72

Concrete strength

5,000

psi

78-1 08

Class IV

2,000 3,000

Concrete strength 4,000 psi

12-66

Concrete strength 5,000 psi

60-84

Class V

3,000 3,750

Concrete strength 6,000 psi 12-72

Source: ASTM SpecificationC76 667: opyright ASTM INTERNATIONAL. Reprinted wi th

permission.

146




MANHOLES

M anholes provide an access to the sewer for inspection and main-

tenance operations. T he y also serve as ventilation, multiple pipe

intersections, and pressure relief. M ost m anholes are cylindrical in

shape.

T h e m anhole cover must be secured

so

that it remains in place

and avoids a blowout during peak flooding periods. Leakage

from around the edges

of

the manhole cover should be kept to

a

minimum.

For small sewers, a m inimum inside diameter

of 4

t

(1.2

m) at

the bottom tapering

to

a cast-iron frame that provides a clear open-

ing usually specified as

2

ft

(0.6

m)

has been widely adopted. For

sewers larger than 24 in. (600 mm), larger manhole bases are

needed. Sometimes a platform is provided at one side, or the man-

hole is simply a vertical shaft over the center of the sewer.

Manholes are commonly located at the junctions

of

sanitary

sewers, at changes in grades o r alignment except in curved align-

ments, an d at locations that provide ready

access

to the sewer for

preventive maintenance and emergency service. Manholes are usu-

Manhole spacing varies with available sanitary sewer mainte-

nance methods. Typical manhole spacings range from

300

to

500 ft (90 to

150 m) in straight lines. For sewers larger than 5

ft

(1.5

m), spacings

of

500 to 1,000 ft (15 0 to

300

m) may be used.

Where the elevation difference between inflow and outflow

sewers exceeds about 1.5 ft (0.5 m), sewer inflow that is dropped

to the elevation of the outflow sewer by an inside o r ou tside con-

nection is called a drop manhole (or d ro p inlet). Its purpose is to

protect workers from the splashing of wastewater, objectionable

gases, and odors.

.-

lly installed at street intersections.

2

s

147




8-in. Minimum

NOTE

Channel wihh may be made wider

to

accommodate agency's type

of

cleaning equipment.

BandedRubberCoupling

(All

asbestoscementpipe

and vitrified

clay pipe)

6-,, ,rn,,rn

Set manhole sections

with steps in this

quadrant when channels

enter from two sides

Plan of

Bottom

Water

stop as recommended

b

pipe manufacturers all

pLt, pipe material)

NOTE:

Thls is

a

typical manhole

for

small-diametersewers

Manholeswill vary for

large-diametersewers

and wdlh different

agencies.

Precast Concrete Manhole

148




PIPE CHARACTERISTICS

Pressure Pipe

AWWA

C900

refers to a category of standard dimension ratio

SDR)

pipe that is the same diameter as ductile-iron

DI)

pipe

A N S I / A W A C900,

Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Pressure Pifie, and

Fabricated Fittings,

4

in.-1 2 in. (1

00mm 300mm),for

WaterDis

tribution). T he following are

all

classified as

C900

pipe.

SDR/14

is

pressure class

200, SDR/18

is pressure class

150, SDR/25

is pres-

sure class

100.

T h e class signifies working pressure.

SDR

refers to a ratio ofwall

thickness to actual pipe outside diameter

OD).

For example,

SDR/18

pipe x

6.90 in.

(the actual

OD of 6-in. DI

pipe) has a wall

thickness of

6.90118 = 0.38 in.

Mechanical oints on

C900

fittings

are used with

C900

pipe.

SDR/21

and

SDR/26

have class designations that correspond

to rated working pressure. T h e ratings incorporate a lower service

factor than

C900

pipe, w hich explains why

SDR/21

and

SDR/26

list a higher class rating

for

a given wall thickness.

SDR/21

is

class

200; SDR/26is

class

160.

T h e SDR numbers relate to wall thickness. SDR/21 X

6.63

in.

(actual6-in. steel pipe OD) has a wall thickness of 6.63/21 = 0.32 in.

i

z

$

Workine: Pressure,

f i s i

Y .*

Pipe

Size,

Schedule

40

Schedule

80

ila socket socket Threaded

‘ p

3/4

1

1 4

1

12

2 ’ p

2

3

4

6

600

480

450

3

70

330

300

280

260

220

180

850

690

630

520

47

1

425

400

375

324

280

420

340

320

260

240

210

200

190

160

140

149




Schedules 40 and

80

have the same diameter as steel pipe. The

pressure ratings vary with the diameter of the pipe. The larger the

diameter, the lower the rating.

SDK/21, SDK/26,

and all Schedule pipe can be used with

Schedule 40 and Schedule

80

fittings because they conform to

steel pipe dimensions.

C900, SDR/21 and

26,

and Schedule 40/80, can be used for

sewer lines.

SDR/35

and SDR/41 are used exclusively for sewer drain only.

Their outside dimensions are different from SDR pressure pipe

and are different from each other in sizes other than 4

in

and

6

in.

Flange

Guide

Gasket and Machine Bolt Dimensions for 150-lb Flange

Gasket

Dimensions

Machine Bolt

Pipe Size, Bolts Dimension, Ring, Full Face,

in.

Needed

in. in. in.

2 4

2v2 4

3

4

3’12 8

4

8

5

6

1 0 1 2

12 12

518 x 2314

5/8

x 3

518 x 3

518

x

3

518 x 3

314

x

3l14

314 x

3l14

3/4

x 3l/2

718 x 3314

718 x 4

2318 4118

2718 4718

3l/2

x

53/8

4

x 6318

4l12

x

g7/8

59/16

X

7314

6516 x a314

a518 x 11

103h x 13

12

x

16’/8

2318 x 6

2718

7

3

x

7’12

4

x

a112

4’12

x 9

59/i6

x

10

65/8

x 11

8518

x 13’/2

10314

x 1 6

12314 x

1 9

150

Next Page


http://13865_05b.pdf/

http://13865_05b.pdf/



Pumps

Two basic categories

o

pumps are used in

wastewater operations: velocity pumps and

positive-displacementpumps. velocitypumps

which include centrifugal and vertical turbine

pumps are used

or

most wastewater distribution

system applications. Positive-displacement

pumps are most commonly used in wastewater

treatment plants

or

chemical metering.

185




ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS

A simple explanation of electrical measurements can be made by

comparing the behavior of electricity to the behavior ofwater.

Volts

potential) can be compared to the pressure in a water

pipe psi).

Amperage current) can be compared to quantity of flow in

Resistance ohms) can

be

likened to the friction loss in a

pipe.

a pipe wm).

FREQUENTLYUSED FORMULAS

kilowatts=

1 horsepower = 746 W power

1

horsepower = 0.746 kW power

disk-watt hours constant

x

revolutions

x

3,600

seconds

x

100

horsepower output

horsepower supplied

efficiency =

x

100

brake horsepower

motor horsepower

efficiency =

x

100

water horsepower

brake horsepower

water horsepower

motor horsepower

efficiency = x 100

efficiency = x 100

power, ft-lb/min = head, ft x flow rate, Ib/min)

gallous

pumping rate =

inute

volts = amperes x resistance

watts = volts

x

amperes

watts = amperes*x resistance

186




flow rate, gpm x total head, ft

3,960

water horsepower =

Single-Phase Alternating Current

(AC)

Motor

horsepower volts

X

amps x efficiency X power factor

output) 746

volts x amps x power factor

1,000

ilowatts =

Two-Phase

AC

Motor

volts

x

amps

x

power factor

1,000

kilowatts =

Three-Phase

AC

Motor

horsepower 1.73

x

volts x amps x efficiency

x

pow er factor

output) 746

1.73

x

amps

x

power factor

x

volts

1,000

kilowatts =

cn

Sludge Pumping Head

Loss

h e Hazen-Williams calculation for head

loss

is based on a fluid

in turbulent flow.

As

the solids in sludge increase,

the

fluid

becomes increasingly thicker, changing the fluid characteristics

and increasing the velocity required for the fluid

to

become turbu-

lent. Velocities

of

5-6

ft/sec

are used

as

an economic balance

between pipe size and water head

loss.

Because sludge lines are

rarely sized to be less than

6

in.

150

mm) to prevent clogging and

ease cleaning, velocities of less than 2 ft/sec are common. T h e fig-

ure provides a comparison between the flow of water an d that of

sludge. Water has a shear stress of zero; therefore, at even the

smallest amount

of

energy, water w ll flow. Sludge will not flow

until a threshold amount of pressure or yield stress is applied.

Even when it is moving, the am ount of energy required to increase

Q

187




sludge velocity is greater than for water and is defined by the coef-

ficient ofrigidity.

T h e Bingham plastic model is a good predictor of sludge head

loss

in laminar flow. T h e equation may be written

as

follows:

6s q v

H / L =A -

3wD wD

Where:

D

= diameter

of

pipe, in

ft

S

=

shear stress at the yield poin t w here sludge begins to

q =

coefficient

of

ridigity, in Ib/ft-sec

H =

head loss measured in feet ofwater height

L

= length

of

pipe, in ft

z, = average velocity, in ft/sec

w =

weight ofwater,

64 4

b/cu ft

flow, in Ib/ftz

12

OO

200

400

600 800 1,000

1,200

Flow,

gpm

C=pip e friction factor.

NOTE:

urv es are plotted for waste-activated, digested, and pr imary

sludges at

3.5

water at

C 100

and w ater at

C

120 with no solids.

Courtesy

o

Pearson

Education

Inc.

Head

Loss

Versus

Flow

for 100 ft

of

6-in.

Pipe

188




HORSEPOWER AND EFFICIENCY

.

Power Loss Due to Motor and Pump Inefficiency

Molor Efficiency Pump Efficiency

82

67

Wire-to-Water

Efficiency

(82 )(67 ) = 55

ire-to-Water Efficiency

90

8

70

60

5

50

3

40

_

30

2

10

0

Capacity gpm

Example Pump Performance Curve

189




Approximate Full Load Current and Fuse Size Required

by

AC Motors*

115 V 230 V, Single-Phase

Ordinary Time Delay Ordinary Time Delay

hD AmDeres Fuse

Fuse

AmDereS Fuse Fuse

I16

4.4

15 8 2.2

I4 5.8 20 10 2.9

It3 7.2 25 12 3.6 16

12 9.8 30 15 4.9 25

314

13.8

45 20 6.9 25

1 16 50 25 8 25

1112 20 60 30

10 30

2 24 80 35 12 40

3 17 60

5 28 90

7'12 40 125

10

50 150

'Assumes motors

running

at usual

speeds

with normal

torque

characteristics.

Three-Phase Induction Motors

6

8

12

15

15

20

25

40

60

80

~

220

v

460

v

Ordinary Time Delay Ordinary Time Delay

hD

AmDeres Fuse Fuse

AmDeres Fuse Fuse

314

1

1 12

2

3

5

7'12

10

15

20

25

30

40

50

60

75

100

125

150

2

2.8

3.6

5.2

6.8

9.6

15.2

22

28

42

54

68

80

104

130

154

192

248

312

360

15

15

15

15

25

30

50

75

90

125

175

225

250

350

400

500

600

4 1

4 1.4

6 1.8

8 2.6

10 3.4

15 4.8

25 7.6

35 11

40 14

60 21

80 27

100 34

125 40

150 52

200 65

250 77

300 96

400 124

450 156

180

15 2

15 3

15 3

15 4

15 5

15 8

25 15

35 20

45 20

70

30

90 40

110 50

125 60

175 80

200 100

250 125

300 150

400 200

500 250

600 300

4nn

00 480 240

190




Standard Classification of NEMA Enclosures for Nonhazardous Locations'

2

3

R

4

4x

6

12

13

b P e Intended Use

Intended for indoor use, primarily to provide a degree of protection from

persons

or

equipment contacting the electrical components.

Intended for indoor use, to provide some protection against limited

amounts of falling water and dirt.

Intended for outdoor use, primarily to provide a degree of protection

against windblown dust, rain and sleet, and ice on the enclosure.

Intended for outdoor use, primarily to provide a degree of protection

against falling rain and sleet; undamaged by the formation of ice on the

enclosure.

Intended for indoor or outdoor use, primarily to provide a degree of

protection against windblown dust and rain, splashing water, and hose-

directed water; undamaged by the formation of ice on the enclosure.

Intended for indoor or outdoor use, primarily to provide a degree of

protection against corrosion, windblown dust and rain, splashing water,

and hose-directedwater; undamaged by the formation of ice on the

enclosure.

Intended for use indoors or outdoors where occasional submersion is

encountered.

Intended for indoor use, primarily to provide a degree of protection against

dust, galling dirt, and dripping noncorrosive liquids.

Intended for indoor use, primarily to provide a degree of protection against

dust, spraying of water, oil, and noncorrosive coolant.

*These descriptions are in summary form only and

are

not complete representationsof the

ational Electric ManufacturersAssociation (NEMA) standards for enclosures.

191




Wet Well

Water

Level

Static

Discharge Total

Head Static

Head

Static Negative Center Line

Suction Head or

of

Pump

Suction Lift Impeller

Static Heads (Pump

Is

Not Operating)

Total Dynamic Head

(From Suction EGL

to Discharge EGL)

EGL

=

Energy Grade Line

HGL

=

Hydraulic Grade Line

=

Velocity

Head,,,

V

= Velocity, Wsec

g

=

Gravity,32.2 n/sec2

z

Dynamic Heads (Pump

Is

Operating)

NOTE:his figure illustrates a pum p with a suction lift. Pumps s hou ld have a suction

hea d which means the wet well water level sho uld be higher than th e pum p impeller.

This pu m p will have difficulty starting unless it is a self-priming pum p because the

water level in the wet we ll IS below the pump.

Also,

if air gets into the suction line, the

only way

it

can get

out

is through the pump.

Controls

may be m odified to allow the

pump to operate only when a suction he ad exists if flooding

of

the service area will

not

result.

Static and Dynamic Heads




Fill

Lube

FLng

1. Front Bearing Bracket 6. End Cover 11. Back Bearing

2. Front Air Deflector 7. Stator 12. Back Bearing Bracket

3.

Fan

8.

Screens 13. Oil Lubricuation Cap

4.

Rotor

9.

Conduit Box

5. Front Bearing

10. Back Air Deflector

Electric Motor Lubrication

New

Smooth surface. May be bright or

dull and somewhat discolored

due to oxidation or tarnishing.

Used

Surface may be pitted and have

discolored areas of black, brown,

or may have blue heat) tint. If

half of the thickness mass) of

the silver points is still intact, they

are usable. This is the time to

order a backup set.

Severeor Long-time Use

Surface badly pitted and eroded

with badly feathered and lifting

edges. Replace entire contact

set.

Visual Inspectionof Contact Points

193




Photo supplied by Siemens Energy and Automation Inc.

Three-Phase Magnetic Starter

194




PUMP VOLAGE

North

American Standard System Voltages

Type

Minimum Minimum

Nominal Maximum

Maximum (phase)

o f

Tolerable

Favorable System

Favorable Tolerable System

107

200

21 41428

2441422

400

2,100

3,630

6,040

12,100

12,600

30,000

60,000

100,000

120,000

140.000

110

21 0

2201440

2501434

420

2,200

3,810

6,320

12,600

13,000

120 125

240 240

240/480 250/500

2651460 2271480

480 480

2,400 2,450

4,160 4,240

6,900 7,050

13,200 13,800

14,400 14,500

34,500

69,000

115,000

138,000

161,000

127

1

250 3

2541508 1

288/500 3

500 3

2,540 3

4,400 3

7,300 3

14,300 3

15,000 3

38,000 3

72,500 3

121,000 3

145,000 3

169.000 3

195




North Ameri can Standard Nominal Voltages

Nominal Generator Transformer Switchgear Capacitor

System Rated Secondary Rated Rated

Single Phase Systems

120 120 120 120

1201240 120/240 120/240

240 230

208/120 208/120 208/240

240 230

Three Phase Systems

240 240 240

240 230

480/277 480/277

480/277 480 460

480 480/277

48

0

277

480 480

2 400 2 400/1 388 2 400 2 400 2 400

4 160 4 160/2 400 4 160/2 400 4 160 4 160

6 900 6 900/3 980 6 900/3 980 7 200 6 640

7 200 6 900/3 980

7 200/4 160 13 800 7 200

12 000 12 500/7 210 12 00016 920 13 800 12 470

13 200 13 800/7 970 13 800/7 610 13 800 13 200

14 400 14 00018 320 13 800/7 970 14 400 14 400




Current Ratings for Low-Voltage Switches, in amperes

1201240

v 230 V

240 v

30 30 30

60

60 60

100 100 100

200 200 200

400 400

600 600

800 800

1,200 1,200

6OOV

30

6

100

200

400

600

800

1,200

MAINTENANCE AND TROUBLESHOOTING

Pump

and Motor Maintenance Checkl ist

Refer to the manufacturer’s operations and maintenance recom-

mendations for specific guidance. T hes e suggestions are general in

nature. T h e type ofequipm ent that is in operation determines how

and when maintenance takes

place.

Water quality and equipment

history play a predominant role in scheduling maintenance. Above

all, safety is the main concern when performing any duty on

equipment. Electrical, mechanical, and confined-space safety

practices must be a part of an y preventive maintenance checklist.

1 .

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Daily

or

during

routine

visits

when pump

is

in

operation)

B

f

Visually observe pu m p and m otor operation.

Read the amperage, voltage, flows, run hours, and other

information from motor control center.

Inspect mechanical seals.

Check operating temperature.

Check warning indicator lights.

Check oil levels.

Note any unusual vibration.

197




Weekly

1.

Test per-square-inch levels

of

the relief valve system; these

should be set just above the normal operating pressure of

the system.

2. Inspect stuffing box and note the amount

o

leakage;

adjust or lubricate packing gland as necessary.

A

leakage

rate

o

20 to 60 drops

o

seal water per minute is normal for

a properly adjusted gland; inadequate or excessive leakage

are signs of trouble.

Do

not overtighten packing gland

bolts. Clean drain line if necessary.

3. Check valve lubricant levels.

4. Test the priming system and perform preventive main-

tenance as necessary.

5.

Inspect motor for indications of overload or electrical

failure. Check for burnt insulation, melted solder, or dis-

coloration around terminals and wires.

6. Check for and remove any obstructions in or around the

impeller, screens, or intake, as appropriate. Be sure to

shut off the pump.)

7.

Test transfer valve, if applicable.

Monthly

1. Check bearing temperatures with a thermometer.

2.

Clean strainers on system piping including strainers-on

automatic control valves.

3.

Perform dry vacuum test.

4. Check oil level in pump gearbox; add oil

as

necessary.

5. Inspect gaskets.

6. Check motor ventilation screens and clean or replace as

7. Check pressure gauge reliability.

8. Check foundation bolts.

9. Clean pump control sensors may be required weekly,

10. Check drive flange bolts, i f applicable, and tighten as

necessary.

depending on water quality).

necessary.

Next Page


http://13865_06b.pdf/

http://13865_06b.pdf/



Flow

The movement of water and wastewater is

dynamic with many variablesfor monitoring

and measuringflow. Maintaining the firol- er

flow

is

critical to wastewater ofierations.

Wastewater uses spec ic devices unique

to the industry.

221




Summary of Pressure Requirements

60

1 ,440

f tVmin

~~ ~

Value

Requirement

psi kPaJ

Location

W/day

Minimum pressure 35 (241) All points with in distribution system

20 (140) All ground level points

Desired maximum 100

(690)

All points within distribution system

Fire flow minimum 20 (140) All points with in distribution system

Ideal range

5&75 (345-417) Residences

35-60 (241-414) All points within distribution system

60 1 ,440

QPS QPm

QPd

flow, gpm = flow, cfsX 448.8 gpm/cfs

flow,

gpm

flow, cfs =

448.8

gpm/cfs

222




2

pipe diameter, in. =

area,

ft

x 12

in./ft

0.785

leak rate, gpd

length,

mi. x

diameter, in.

actual leakage, gpd/mi./in.

=

NOTE minimum flushing velocity: 2.5 fps

maximum pipe velocity: 5.0

f p s

key conversions:

1.55

cfs/mgd; 448.8 gpm/cfs

KEY

FORMULAS FOR FLOWS

AND

METERS

Velocity

flow, cfs

=

area, ft

x

velocity,

fps

2

distance, ft

gpm = 0.785

X

diameter,ft

X .

448.8 gpm/cfs hme, sec

flow

cfs

velocity,

fps

=

rea, ft2

flow,

cfs

velocity, fps

area,

ft'2

=

Head Loss Resulting From Frict ion

Darcy-Weisbach Formula

hL = f L/D) P2/2g)

Where (in any consistent set of units):

h~ =

headloss

= friction factor, dimensionless

L = length

ofpipe

D = diameter of the pipe

V =

averagevelocity

g =

gravityconstant

223




Hazen-Williams Formula

Where:

j = head loss, in ft

k1

= 4.72,

in units of secondsl.85 per feet0.68

L

= pipelength,inft

Q = flowrate, incfs

C =

Hazen-Williams roughness coefficient

D

=

pipe diameter, in ft

The value of C ranges from 60 for corrugated steel to

150

for

clean, new asbestos-cement pipe.

Manning Formula

2

w = .486R3sz

n

Where:

w =

flowvelocity,infps

n = Manning coefficientof channel roughness

R

= hydraulic radius, in ft

S

= channel slope (for uniform flow) or the energy

slope (for nonuniform flow), dimensionless

The energy slope is calculated as

-dH/dx

where

H

is the total

energy, which is expressed as

Where (in any consistent set of units):

=

elevation head

y = waterdepth

v = velocity

g

= gravitational constant

x = distance between any two points

224




Approximate Flow Through Venturi Tube

Q =

19.05

d f h

for an y Ve nturi tube.

Q =

1 9 . 1 7 d f h

for a Venturi tube in which d l = '/3 d2

Where:

Q =

flow,ingpm

dl

= diameter ofVentu ri throat, i n in.

H

= difference in head between upstream e n d and

throat, in ft

d2

=

diameter of main pipe, in in .

These formulas are suitable for any liquid with viscosities

similar to water. T h e values given here are for water.

A

value of

32.17 4 ft/sec2 was used for the acceleration ofgra vity and a value

of 7.48 gal/ft3 was used in com puting the constants.

225




Q

A

General Case, Open Channel

Cubic-Feet-per-Second Flow

Depth,

ft

Velocity,

ftlday

Width,

I

fi

Width,

n

Q A Q

A

V

Wday

Cubic-Feet-per-Minute Flow Cubic-Feet-per-Day Flow

Velocity,

Wtime

Diameter,

n

V

Velocity,

ri&;?)

0,785

Diameter . i t ] wtlme ]

1

Q

A

- t

General Case, Circular Pipe Flowing Full

The

Q=

AVEquation

As It

Pertains to Flow in an Open Channel

226




5,000

4,000

0.04-

0.05

0.06

0.08

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

8.2<

0.8

1 -

2 -

3 -

4 -

5 -

6 -

8 -

10

20

36 3 000

24 1,500

400

300

200

10

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

Flow

Loss

of Head, Pivot Nominal Discharge,

Coefficient f fper Line Pipe Size,

gpm

(C) Value 1 000 t

in.

Draw a line between two known values and extend it so that it touches the

pivot line. Draw a line between the point on the pivot line and the other known

value. Read the unknown value where the second line intersects the graph.

Flow of Water in Ductile-Iron Pipe

227




WEIRS

V-notch Weir

Angle

of

Weir

Rectangular Weir

Courtesy

of

Public Works Magazine.

Types of Weirs

T h e tw o niost co mm only used w eir types are the V-notch and rect-

angular, illustrated in the figure above.

To

read a flow rate grap h

or

table per tain ing to a weir, you m ust know two measurements: (1)

the heigh t

H

of the water above the weir crest; a n d

(2)

the

angle

of

the w eir (V-notch weir)

o r

the

length

of the crest (rectangu lar weir).

flow, gpd

weir length, ft

weir overflow rate

=

Example

A

nomograph for

60

and

90

V-notch weirs is given in the figure

on page

229.

Using this nom ograp h, de termine (a) the flow rate in

gallons per minute if the height of water above the

60

V-notch

weir cre st is

12

in.; an d ( b) the gallons-per-day flow rate over a

90

V-notch weir when the height of the water is 12 in. over the

crest.

(a) T h e scales used on this graph are logarithmic. This

information

is

important because it determines how

interpolation sho uld be performed w h en the indicated

flow falls between two known values.

First, draw a horizontal line from 12 o n the

height

scale o n theleft to 1 2 o n the

height

sca le on the r igh t .

T h e n o n t h e s ca le f o r a

60

V-notch, read the flow rate

228




F 7 000

=

6 000

5

=

5:OOO

21 4,000

40

z- 30

20

I

3 -

2 -

10

8

-6

- 4

c

1 - g 2

400

r

300

10

8

6

4

3

2

1.5

1

25

21

18

15

12

10

9

.s

7

.

a,

I

2

Courtesy of Public

Works Magazine

Flow Rate Nomograph o r 60 and

90"

V-notch Weirs

indicated by a 12-in. head. T h e

flow

rate falls between

600

and

700

gpm at approximately 650 g pm .

b)

O n the scale for a

90

V-notch, the indicated

flow

rate

is

between 1,000 and 2,000 gpm. More precisely, it falls

between 1 100 and

1,200

gpm at a reading of about

1 150

gpm. Convert the gallons-per-minute rate to

gallons per day:

1,150 gpm ) 1,440 min/day)

=

1,656,000 gpd

229




Discharge From a V-Notch Weir With End Contractions'

Discharge Over Weir, gpm

Head (H) Weir Angle,

degrees

in.

10th

of

foot 22.5 30 45

60 90

1 ,083 0.4 0.5 0.8 1.2 2.0

1

14

,104 0.8 1.0 1.6 2.2 3.9

1

I2

,125 1.2 1.7 2.6 3.5 6.1

1314 ,146 1.8 2.4 3.8 5.2 9.1

2 ,167 2.6 3.4 5.3 7.3 12.7

2l14 ,188 3.4 4.6 7.1 9.8 17.1

2112 ,208 4.4 5.9 9.1 12.7 22.0

2314 ,229 5.6 7.5 11.6 16.1 27.9

3 .250 7.0 9.4 14.4 20.1 34.8

3'14 ,271 8.7 11.4 17.9 24.9 43.1

3'12 ,292 10.3 13.8 21.3 29.6 51.3

3314 ,313 12.3 15.4 25.3 35.2 61.0

4 ,333 14.4 19.2 29.6 41.1 71.2

4l/4 ,354 16.7 22.3 34.5 47.8 83.0

4'12 ,375 19.3 25.8 39.8 55.3 95.8

4314 ,396 22.1 29.5 45.6 63.3 109.9

5 ,417 25.2 33.6 51.8 71.9 124.8

5 14 ,437 28.3 37.8 58.4 81.1 140.6

5'12 ,458 31.9 42.5 65.6 91.1 158.0

5314 ,479 35.6 47.4 73.3 101.7 176.4

6 ,500 39.7 53.0 81.8 113.6 196.9

*The distance

(0)

on either side

of

the weir must

be

at least 314 L

230




Example

The table on page 232 pertains

to

the discharge

of

45 V-notch

weirs. Use the table to de termine (a) flow rate in cubic feet per sec-

ond when the head above the crest is 0.75

ft;

(b) the gallons-per-

day flow rate when the head is 1.5 ft.

(a) In the table, part o fthe head (0.7) is given o n the vertical

scale, and the rem ainder (0.05) is given o n the horizon-

tal scale

(0.7 +

0.05

=

0.75). T h e cubic-feet-per-second

flow rate indicated by a head of

0.75 ft

is 0.504 I?/sec.

b)

A

head of 1.5

ft

is read as 1.5 on the vertical scale and

0.00

on the horizon tal scale (1.5 +

0.00

= 1.50). The

million-gallons-per-day low rate indicated by this head is

1.84 mgd. Th is is equal

to

a flow rate

of

1,840,000 gpd.

(The

mgd

column was read in

this

problem because it is

easier to convert to gallons per day

from

million gallons

per day than from cubic feet per second.)

231




Discharge of

45

V-notc h Wei rs

.oo .01 .02 .03 .04 .05

Head,

f t

f W e c mgd ft3/sec mgd ft3/sec mgd W s e c mgd W/sec mgd W s e c mg

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1

.o

003

,019

.051

,105

,183

289

,425

.593

,796

1.04

,002

,012

,033

,068

,118

,187

.274

,383

,514

,669

,004

,021

,055

1 1 1

,192

,301

.440

,611

,818

1.06

,003

,014

,036

,072

,124

194

284

-395

,529

686

,005

,024

.060

,118

.202

,313

,455

,630

,841

1.09

,003

,015

.039

,077

,130

,203

,294

,407

,543

.703

.006

,026

065

.126

,212

326

,471

,650

,864

1.11

.004

,017

.042

,081

,137

,211

,305

,420

,558

-721

,008

,029

.070

.133

,222

339

,488

,670

,887

1.14

.005

,019

.045

,086

,143

219

,315

-433

,573

,738

,009

,032

.075

.141

.232

,353

.504

,690

,911

1.17

,00

,02

.04

.09

,15

.22

.32

,44

,58

.75




Discharge of

45

V-notch Weirs (continued)

oo

.01 M .03 .04 -05

Head

f t

M h e c

mgd

W s e c

mgd

fP/sec

mgd

fP/sec

mgd

@/set

mgd

M/sec

mgd

1.1 1.31 ,849

1.34 ,869

1.37 888

1.41 908 1.44 ,929

1.47 ,949

1.2 1.63 1.06 1.67 1.08

1.70 1.10 1.74 1.12

1.77 1.15 1.81 1.17

1.3 1.99 1.29 2.03 1.31

2.07 1.34 2.11 1.36

2.15 1.39 2.19 1.42

1.4 2.40 1.55

2.44 1.58 2.49 1.61

2.53 1 64

2.58 1.66 2.62 1.69

1.5 2.85 1.84 2.90 1.87

2.95 1.91 3.00 1.94 3.05 1.97

3.10 2.00

1.6 3.35 2.17 3.41 2.20 3.46 2.23 3.51 2.27 3.57 2.30 3.62 2.34

1.7 3.90 2.52 3.96 2.56 4.02 2.60

4.08 2.63 4.13 2.67

4.19 2.71

1.8 4.50 2.91 4.56 2.95 4.63 2.99

4.69 3.03 4.75 3.07

4.82 3.11

1.9 5.15 3.33 5.22 3.37 5.29 3.42 5.36 3.46

5.43 3.51 5.50 3.55

2.0 5.86 3.79 5.93 3.83 6.00 3.88 6.08 3.93 6.15 3.98 6.23 4.03

Adapled

f rom

Leupold and Stevens Inc.

PO

Box

688

Beaverton Oregon

97005

f rom

Stevens Water

R

'fta/sec

=

1.035

H5n;

ngd

=

ft3/sec

x

0.646

Flow




P

p

OL




Discharge From a Rectangular Weir With End Contractions*

Discharge

Over

Weir,

gpm

Length

1)

of

Weir,

t

ead (H)

Add itional gpm for Each

in.

T M h o f f o o t

1

3 5

Foot

Over

5 f t

1 .083 35.4 107.5

179.8 36.05

11/4 ,104 49.5 150.4

250.4 50.4

1112 .125

64.9

197

329.5 66.2

1314

,146

81 240

415 83.5

2 .167

98.5

302 506

102

Z1/4 .188 117 361

605 122

2112 .208

136.2 422

706 143

2%

.229

157 485

815 165

3

.250 177.8 552

926 187

3l14 ,271

199.8

624

1,047 21 1

3 /2 .292

222 695

1,167 236

3314 ,313

245

769

1,292 261

4 .333

269

846

1,424 288

4114 .354

293.6 925

1,559 31 6

q1/2 .375

318

1,006

1,696 345

4314 .936 344 1,091 1,835 374

5'14 ,437 395.5 1,262 2,130 434

5314 .479 449 1,442

2,440 495

5

417

370 1,175 1,985 405

S1/2

.458

421.6 1,352 2,282 465

6

,500

476.5 1,535 2,600 528

The distance (0)

on

either side of the weir

must

be at least 3H.

235




Example

A

nomograph for rectangular weirs (contracted an d suppresse d) is

show n o n page 237. Using this nomo graph , determ ine (a) the flow

in gallons per minute over a suppressed rectangular weir if the

length o f the weir is

3

ft an d the heigh t of the water over the weir is

4

in.; (b ) the flow in gallons pe r m inu te over a contracted rectangu-

lar weir for the same weir length a n d head as in (a).

T o use die nomograph,

you

m ust know th e difference betwee n

a contracted rectangular weir (one

with

en d contractions) an d a

suppressed rectangular weir (one

without

end contractions).

A

contracted rectangular weir comes in somewhat

from

the side of

the chan nel before the crest cutou t begins. O n a suppres sed rect-

angular weir, however, the cres t cutout stretches from o ne s ide of

the channel to the other.

T o determine the flow over the su ppres sed weir, dra w a

line from

L = 3

ft on the left-hand scale through

H =

4

n. (right side of the middle scale).

A

flow ra te o f

850

gpm

is

indicated where the line crosses the right-

han d scale. T h i s is the flow over the supp ressed rectan-

gular weir.

T o determ ine the flow rate over a contracted rectangular

weir using the no mo graph , first dete rm ine the flow rate

over a suppressed weir given the weir length and h ea d ,

as in (a). T h e n subtract the flow indicated o n the m iddle

scale.

In th is example, the flow rate over a 3-ft-long supp ressed weir

with a he ad of

4

n. is 850 gpm.

To

determ ine th e flow rate over a

contrac ted weir

3

ft long with

a

head of

4

n., a correction factor

must

be

subtracted from the

850

gpm.

As

indicated by the m id dl e

scale,

the

correction factor is

20

gpm.

850

gpm supp ressed rectangular weir

20

gpm

830 gp m contracted rectangular weir

236




005

01

1

/s

E

0

a

I

.

Courfesyof Public Works

Magazine.

Flow Rate Nomograph or Rectangular Weirs

Example

Use the table o n pages 238-240 to determine the flow rate (in mil-

lion gallons per day) over

a

contracted rectangular weir if the

length of the weir crest is 3 ft and the head

is 0.58

ft.

Enter the table under the head column

at

0.58; mov e right until

you come und er the 3 heading for length of

weir

crest. T he indi-

cated flow r a te is 2.739 mgd.

237




Flow Through Contracted Rectangular Weirs

W

Length of

Weir

Crest

1

1%

2

Head,

ft @/see mgd

ft3/sec

mgd

fP/sec

mgd

W s e

.36 ,667 ,431 1.026 ,663 1.386 ,895 2.105

.37 ,695

3 8 ,721

.39 ,748

.40 .775

.41 ,802

.42 ,830

43 ,858

.44 ,886

.45 ,915

.46 .943

.47 ,972

.48 1.001

.49

1.030

.50

1.059

448

465

483

500

518

536

554

572

591

609

628

646

665

684

1.070

1.111

1.153

1.196

1.239

1.283

1.327

1.372

1.417

1.462

1.508

1.554

1.601

1.647

,690

,717

,745

,772

,800

,829

,857

,886

,915

,945

,974

1.004

1.034

1.064

1.445

1.501

1.559

1.617

1.676

1.736

1797

1.858

1.920

1.982

2.045

2.108

2.172

2.236

,932 2.195

,969 2.28

1.006 2.37

1.044 2.459

1.083 2.55

1.121 2.642

1.160 2.73

1.200 2.83

1.240 2.925

1.280 3.02

1.320 3.11

1.361 3.21

1.403 3.31

1.444 3.41




Flow Through Contracted Rectangular Weirs (continued)

length of

Weir

Crest

1 1 2

Head,

f f

@/SIX

mgd

Wsec

mgd

fP/sec

mgd

fP/se

.51 108 9 ,703 1.695 1.095 2.302 1.486 3.515

,722 1.743

,742 1.791

,761 1.838

-781 1.888

,800 1.938

,820 1.986

,840 2.035

,859 2.085

,879 2.136

,899 2.186

,920 2.237

,940 2.287

,960 2.339

1.126 2.368

1.156 2.434

1.188 2.499

1.219 2.567

1.251 2.636

1.282 2.703

1.314 2.771

1.347 2.840

1.380 2.910

1.412 2.980

1.444 3.050

1.477 3.120

15 10 3 192

~ ~

.980 2.390 1.544 3.263

.52 1.119

5 3 1.149

.54 1.178

.55 1.209

.56 1.240

.57 1.270

.58 1.300

.59 1.331

-60 1.362

.61 1.393

.62

1.424

.63 1.455

64 1.487

,651 1.518

1.529

3.61

1.571 3.71

1.614

3.82

1.658 3.92

1.701 4.03

1.745 4.136

1.790

4.24

1.830 4.34

1.879 4 45

1.924 4.56

1.970

4.67

2.015

4.78

2.061 4.89

2.107 5.00

Flow




Flow Through Contracted Rectangular Weirs (continued)

len gt h of Weir Crest

~~~~~~~~

1

1

2

Head,

ft fP/sec

mgd

fP/sec

mgd

fP/sec

mgd

fP/se

.66 1.550 1.001

2.443 1.577

3.336

2.153 5.12

.67 1.581 1.021

2.494

1.611 3.407

2.200 5.23

E

.68 1.613 1.042 2.546 1.644 3.480 2.247 5.34

5.46

69 1.646 1.062 2.600 1.680 3.555 2.295

.70

1

677 1.083 2.652 1.713 3.627 2.342 5.57

.71 1.709 1.104 2.705 1.747 3.701 2.390 5.69

.72 1.741 1.124 2.758 1.781 3.775 2.438 5.80

.73 1.774 1.145 2.812 1.816 3.851 2.486 5.92

Adapted from Leupold and Stevens Inc.

PO

Box

688

Beaverton Oregon 97005 from Stevens

Water




Wastewater

Treatment

Wastewater treatment is a biological system tha t

must

be kept

in

balance. I t is a scientific ar t

requiring knowledge of multip le disciplines.

N ew technologies are m ak ing treatment more

complex as

greater

regulatory demands

are required f o r the ind ustry .

261




+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

6




6

3

:

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

i

t




KEY FORMULAS

Weir

Overflow

for Rectangular Clarifier

volume

of

tank

flow rate

detention time

=

flow, gpd

2

urface overflow rate

=

tank surface, ft

flow, gpd

weir overflow rate =

weir length,

ft

Calculat ions fo r Pounds of Bio log ical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

and Suspended Solids loading in a Prim ary Clarifier

Influent

BOD, mg/L

252 mg/L

Effluent

BOD, mg/L

141

mg/L

Removed

BOD, mg/L

111 mg/L

solids applied,)

solids flow, ingd X 8.34 X MLSS, mg/L)

Ib/day

loading =

rate

surface area, ft2

0.785 x

d )

Where:

MLSS

=

mixed liquor suspended solids

264




Filters

flow, mgd

x

8.34 X BOD , mg/L

ft

hydraulic load ing rate =

recirculation flow, mgd

primary effluent flow, mgd

ecirculation flow ratio =

Contactors

total flow app lied , gpd

area, ft

2

ydraulic lo adin g rate

=

flow, mgd x

8.34

x soluble BOD ,

mg/L

media area,

1,000

ft'

organic loadin g rate =

Ponds

2

flow,gpdhydraulic load ing rate,

gpd/fl

=

area, ft

flow, acre-ft/day

area, acre

hydraulic loa din g rate, acre-ft/day/acre

=

BOD, lb

=

flow x

8.34

Ib/gal x mg/L

% BO D B O D influent, mg/L B O D efnuent, mg/L

removal B O D influent, mg/L

- x

1

organic load ing rate, flow, mgd X 8.34 Ib/gal x B O D , mg/L

1b BO D/day /acre acre

volume of po nd , gal

flow rate,

gpd

detentio n time, days

=

BOD

g

z

nitial dissolved oxygen (D O ), mg/L - inal D O , mg/L

sample volume, mL/bottle volume, mL

I-

ce

-

265




Filter Loading Rate

flow, gpm

filter area, ft

2

ilter loading rate

=

inches of water fall

minute

filter loading rate =

Filter Backwash Rate

flow, gpm

2

ilter backwash rate =

filter area,

ft

inches

of

water rise

minute

filter backwash rate

=

Force

force = pressure

x

area

Head

ft-lb

head =

-

lb

V P

2

elocity head

=

64.4 ft/sec

actual flow rate

x

100

C

value

equivalent flow rate =

266




Recvcle

, ,

Clariiier

erobic

Stages Stages Stages

influent

Anaerobic

Anoxic

Recycle

Recycle

1

Recycle

2

Clariiier

Recycle

2

Clarifier

Stages

Return Sludge

' Waste Sludg e

VIP Process

Containing P

_ _ _ _ - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - - - - - - -

Source:Met cal f e a nd Eddy Inc. 1991.

Combined Biological Nitrogen and Phosphorus Removal Processes

268




Aeration

nfluent Primary

Clarifier

Pr imary

anAs

ludge

---

Supernatant

Return

to

hosphorus-Deficient

Return Sludge

Source:

Water

and

Wastewater Calculations Manual,

copyrjght2007,

The McGraw-Hill Companies.

PhoStrip Process for Phosphorus and Nitrogen Removal

Mixed Anaerobic Aerobic Anoxic Settle Decant

Fill Stir Stir Stir

Source:Water

and

Wastewater Calculations Manual, copyright2007,


Sequencing Batch Reactor for Carbon Oxidation Plus Phosphorus and

Nitrogen Removal

269




Wuhrmann Process for Nitrogen Removal

Chemicals Used in Wastewater Treatment

Produces calcium carbonate in wastewater which acts as

ime-calcium

oxide, CaO

Ferrous sulfate-

F e ( W 3

Alum or filter alum-

A12(S04)3*14H20

Ferric chloride-

FeCl3

Polymer

a coagulant for hardness and particulate matter. Often

used

in

conjunction with other coagulants, because by

itself, large quantities of lime are required for

effectiveness, and lime typically generates more sludge

than other coagulants.

Typically used with lime to soften water. The chemical

combination forms calcium sulfate and ferric hydroxide.

Wastewater must contain dissolved oxygen for reaction to

proceed successfully.

Used for water softening and phosphate removal. Reacts

with available alkalinity (carbonate, bicarbonate, and

hydroxide) or phosphate to form insoluble aluminum salts.

Reacts with alkalinity or phosphates to form insoluble iron

salts.

High-molecular-weight compounds (usually synthetic)

which can be anionic, cationic, or nonionic. When added to

wastewater, can be used for charge neutralization for

emulsion-breaking, or as bridge-making coagulants, or

both. Can also be used as filter aids and sludge

conditioners.

270




Commercial Forms of Chemical Precipitation Chemicals

Chemical Commercial Characteristic

Alum

Alum is an off-white crystal that, when dissolved in water,

produces acidic conditions. As a solid, alum may be supplied in

lumps but is available in ground, rice, or powdered form.

Shipments range from 100-lb bags to bulk quantities of

4,000

Ib.

In

liquid form, alum is commonly supplied as a 50% solution

delivered in minimum loads of

4,000

gal. The choice between

liquid and dry alum depends on the availability of storage space,

the method of feeding, and economics.

Ferric chloride, or FeCl3, is available in either dry (hydrate or

anhydrous) or liquid form. The liquid form is usually 35 -45

FeCl3. Because higher concentrationsof FeCl3 have higher freezing

points, lower concentrations are supplied during the winter. It is

highly corrosive.

Lime can be purchased in many forms, with quicklime (CaO) and

hydrated lime (Ca(0H)z) being the most prevalent forms. In either

case, lime is usually purchased in the dry state,

in

bags, or in bulk.

Polymers may be supplied as a prepared stock solution ready for

addition to the treatment process or as a dry powder. Many

competing polymer formulations with differing characteristics are

available, requiring somewhat different handling procedures.

Manufacturers should be consulted for recommended practices

and use.

kck j

Lime

Polymer

271




Approximate Nutrient Composition

of

Average Sanitary Wastewater

Based on 120 gpcd (450 Uperson-day)

Parameter

After Biologically

Raw Settling Treated

Organic content, mg/L

Suspended solids

240 120 30

Biochemical oxygen demand 200 130 30

Nitrogen content,

mg/f as N

Inorganic nitrogen 22 22 24

Organic nitrogen 13

8

2

Total nitrogen 35 30

26

Phosphorus content, mg/L as

P

Inorganic phosphorus 4 4 3

Organic phosphorus 3 2 2

Total phosphorus 7 6

5

Courtesy

of


Approximate Composition of Average Sanitary Wastewater (mg/L)

Based on

120

gpcd

(450

Uperson-day)

After Biological

Parameter Raw Settlin g Treated

Total solids

800

680 530

Total volatile solids 440 340 220

Suspended solids 240

120

30

Volatile suspended solids

180 100

20

Biochemical oxygen demand 200 130 30

Inorganic nitrogen as N 22 22 24

Total nitrogen

as

N 35 30

26

Soluble phosphorus as P 4 4 4

Total phosphorus as P

7 6 5

COUrteSY

of


272




Grit

The volume

of

grit

removed using a vortex grit unit can be calcu-

lated as follows:

1) x

670

peak flow, rngd

average flow, rngd

grit, lb/mgd = (

Grit Concentrator

Grit

Grit Dewatering Screw

Grit Washing and Dewatering

Settled Grit

Pump

Grit Washer

Return Water

Mixer

Motor

Settled

Grit Chamber

N0TE:The vortex suspends organic solids while grit settles in the lower chamber

The grit pump removes settled grit to be dewatered and held in a dumpster prior

to disposal in a landfill.

Courtesy

of

Pearson Education

Inc.

S

E

orced

Vortex

Unit for Removing Grit

m

273




Typical Design Criteria for Primary Clarifiers

Average

Monthly

Flow Peak Flow

Overflow rates,

gpd/f?

USEPA

GLUMRB'

USEPA with secondary solids

Side water depth,

R

USEPA

GLUMRB

USEPA with secondary solids

Weir loading,

gpoYR

USEPA

GLUMRB

800-1,200 2,000-3,000

1,000 1,500

600-800 1 20l31,500

l l 3 1 3

7

13-1

6

10,000-40,000

10,000


Environmental Managers.

*

GLUMRB

=

Great Lakes-Upper MississippiRiver Board of State Public Health and

Typical Design Parameters for Primary Clarifiers

Surface Settling Rate,

d/n?.day (gal/dav.ftz)

Type of

Treatment Source Average Peak Depth,

m

(ff)

Primary settling USEPA 1975a 33-49 81-122 3-3.7 (1 l3 12)

followed by (800-1,200) (Z.OOC-3,OOO)

600

econdary

treatment GLUMRETen

States

Standards and Illinois

Minimum 2.1

(7)

EPA 1998

24-33 49-61 3.7 -4.6

Primary settl ing USEPA 1975a (600-800) (1,200-1,500) (12-15)

with waste-

activated

sludge

Ten States Standards, s41

(51,000)

561 (~ 1, 50 0) Minimum 3.0

return GLUMRB 1996

(10)

.Source:

Water and Wastewater Calculations Manual,

copyright 2001, The McGraw-

Hill Companies.

274




FILTERS

Anaerobic Aerobic

Filter

Med ium

Air

Dissolved

Oxygen

Organic

Matter

Products

nd Wastewater

Flow

Biological Layer Liquid Film

Courtesy

o f


Biological Process in a Filter Bed

Distributor Arms

Filter Medium

Cover

Blocks

of

Center Column Effluen t Channel

Feedpipe

Ventilation Riser Underdrains

Effluent Channel

$

&

5

Courtesy

of


Cut-Away View of Stone-Media Trickling Filter With Concrete Side Walls

275




biological oxygen - settled wastewater BOD

dem and (BOD ) loading

volume of filter media

Where:

B O D loading = poun ds of BO D applied per 1,000 ft /day

settled BO D

=

wastewater BO D remaining after primary

(g/n13 day)

sedim entation, in Ib/day (g/day)

vo lum e of media = volume of sto ne in the filters, in thousands

offt3

In3)

Q Q H

hydraulic loading =

Where:

hyd raulic loading = mil gal/acre/day (m3/1n2.day)

3

Q

=

wastewater flow, in mgd

(m

/day)

QR

= recirculation flow, in mgd (m /day)

A

=

surface area of filters, in acres (m )

2

R = - K

Q

Where:

R = recirculation ratio

QR

and

Q =

(same

as

above)

276




Typical Loadings for Trickling Filters With a 5-to-7-ft Depth of Stone or

Slag Media

High

Rate Two Stage

Biological oxygen demand loading

Ib/l ,000 ft3.day'

30-90 45-70

Ib/acre-ft.day

1,300-3,900 2,000-3,000

Hydraulic loading

mil gal/acredayt

10-30 10-30

SPW$

0.16-0.48 0.16-0.48

Recirculation ratio 0.5-3.0 0.5-4.0


* 1.O Ib/l ,000 ft3.day

=

16.0 g/m3.day.

t 1.Omil gavacreday

=

0.935 m3/m2.day.

Primary Direct Recirculation

Q n

a+an+aH

o,

settling

Treated

Final Wastewater

Combined

Sludge

to Digestion Trickling

Flow a Filter

Gravity

Humus

siudge Return and R~crrcu a on

Pro fil e of a s in gl e-stag e trickling filter show ing relat ed wastewater flow diagram s

including implant recirculation

General f low patterns:

Q =

wastew ater influent flow ; Q+ OH= nfluentplu s humus return

from the bottom o f the clarifier;and

Q

R OH=

low to th e filter with direction and

indirect recirculation

Courtesy

o f

Pearson Education Inc.

s

E

Single-Stage Trick ling Filter Plant

L

Q

-I

277




3UJ

6Y




Mixed Aeration Basin

DO' COn

DO

COn

;

nfluent Wastewater

B a % k u

New i

[

r g a r G r i i i t h

cT

zg l

Recycled cellular org anics

.

released by death and cell lysis Wastewater

Waste organics are incorp orated nto biolog ical floc

i

i

by bacterial synthesis and predatory protozoa

;

Settled biological loc returned in recirculation

'DO =dissolved oxygen.

.....................................................................

Effluent

Biological

Sludge

Courtesyof PearsonEducation, lnc.

Generalized Biological Process in Aeration (Activated-Sludge)Treatment

The following equation calculates the

F M

value as BOD

applied/day/unit mass of MLSS in the aeration

tank:

F -

Q x B O D

M V x M L S S

- _

Where:

F/M

= food-to-microorganism ratio, in lb BOD /day

per lb M LSS (g BOD/day per g M LSS)

3

Q

=

wastewater flow, in rngd

(m

/d)

BOD

= wastewater BOD, in mg/L (g/rn3)

V = liquid volume of aeration tank, in mil gal (m )

MLSS = mixed liquor suspended solids in the aeration

3

basin, in mg/L (g/rn3)

279




T h e following equa tion calculates sludge age on the basis of the

mass of

MLSS

in the aeration tank relative

to

the mass of SUS-

pen ded solids in the wastewater e flue nt an d waste sludge:

MLSSx

V

SSex Q, -I-SS,,

x W

sludgeage

=

Where:

sludge age = mean cell residence time, in days

Y

MLSS =

mixed liquor sus pend ed solids, i n mg/L (g/m )

3

V

=

volume of aeration tank, in mil gal (m )

SS,

= susp end ed solids in wastewater eflu ent, in mg/L

Qe =

quantity ofwastewater eflue nt, in mgd (m /day)

SS,

=

susp end ed solids in waste slud ge, in mg/L (g/m )

3

(g/m )

3

3

Qn quan tity ofw aste sludge, in mg d (m /day)

280




Summary

of

Loadings and Operational Parameters for eration Processes

Bio log ical Oxygen Food-to-

Demand BOD)

Mixed Liquor Microorganism

Loading, Suspended Solids

F/M)

Ratio,

b

BOD/day

MLSS), b

BOD/day Sludge A

Process

per

I OW

r mg/L

per

6

MLSS days

Conventional 20-40 1,000-3,000

0.2-0.5 5-1 5

Step aeration

40-60 1,500-3,500

0.2-0.5 5-1 5

Extended aeration

10-20 2,000-8,000

0.05-0.2 220

High-purity oxygen 2120 4,000-8,000 0.6-1.5 3-1

0

ourtesy of Pearson Education, Inc

1.0

lb/l,000

ft3

day = 16.0 g/m3 day

1 O b/day/lb

MLSS = O

g/day

g/MLSS

Wastew ater T rea tmen t




Extended

Aeration

(endogenous

growth)

Poor settleability

Approximate Relationship Between Activated-Sludge Settleabil ity and

Operating Food-to-Microorganism Ratio

Conventional

and Step

Aeralion High Rate

(declining (accelerated

growth) gowth)

Reaerationby

Free Board W'nd

Hlgh

Water

Level

Low Water Lev el

R

2 R


Facultative Stabil ization Pond Showing the Basic Biological Reactions

of

Bacteria and Algae

282




Minimum National Performance Standards for Publicly Owned

Treatment Works (Secondary Treatment and It s Equivalency)

Parameter Shall Not Exceed Shal l Not Exceed

30-Day Average 7-Day Average

Conventional Secondary Treatment Processes

5-day biochemical oxygen demand: BOD5

Effluent, mg L 30 45

Percent removalt 85


5-day carbonaceous BOD,' CBOD5

Percent removal+ a5

Effluent, mg L

30 45

Percent removat a5

Suspended solids

6.0-9.0 at all times

PH

Whole effluent toxicity Site specific

Fecal coliform,

M f N h O O

mL

200

400

5-day biochemical oxygen demand,. BOD5

Stabilization Ponds and Other Equivalent

of

Secondary Treatment


Percent removal+

65

-

5-day carbonaceous BOD,' CBOD5


Percent removalt 65

-

Suspended solids


Percent removal+ 65

6.g9.0 at all times

Fecal coliform, M f N l o o mL 200

400

*Chemical oxygen demand (COD) or total organic carbon TOG)may be substituted

for BOD5 when a long-term BOD5:COD or BOD5:TOC correlation has been

t Percent removal may be waived on a case-by-case basis for combined sewer ser-

Vice areas and for separated sewer areas

not

subject to excessive inflow and infil-

tration (111) where the base flow plus infiltration is

5120

gpcd and the base flow

-

PH

Whole effluent toxicity Site specific

-

E

m

demonstrated. E

PIUS fI is C275 gpcd.

m

MPN

=

most probable number.

283




SETTLING

Settling Zone

V

vo

V

vs

Inlet

Zone

H

Outlet

Zone

Source:

Water and Wastewater Calculations Manual

copyright

2001,

The McGra

w-Hill

Companies.

~~

Discrete Particle Settling in an Ideal Settling Tank

The

flow rate of wastewater

is

Where:

s

Q =

flow, in gpd (m /day)

A

=

surface area of the settling zone, in ft (rn

)

Vo = overflow rate or surface loading rate, in gal/(ft .d ay )

L

= width and length of the tank, in

ft m)

2 2

2

(ms/[m2*day])

284




Clear Water Region

\

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Discrete Settling Reg ion

Flocculanl Settling Region

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

\

Hindered (Zone) Se ttling Region

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - - -

Compression Region

Source:

Water and Wastewater Calculations Manual,

copyright

2007


Settling Regions for Concentrated Suspensions

Stationarv

(0

(u

-

2

E,

k

z

ot

4

iz

s

z

285 s

Time

.I .

m

Source:Water and Wastewater CalculationsManual, copyrigbt2001


&

4

m

Bacterial Density With Growth Time

4

v




Guidelines for Return-Activated Sludge Flow Rate

Type of Process

Conventional

Carbonaceous stage of separate-stage

nitrification

Step-feed aeration

Complete-mix

Contact stabilization

Extended aeration

Nitrification stage of separate-stage

nitrification

Percent

of

Design Average

Flow

Minimum Maximum

15 100

15 100

15 100

15 100

50 150

50

150

50 200

Typical Design Parameters for Secondary Sedimentation Tanks

Hydraulic loadin g, Solids loading:

Ib

solids/(daay.ff

'

al/ dayff

'

Type of Depth,

Treatment Average Peak Average Peak

f t

Settling following

400-600 1,000-2,000 0

0

10-12

tracking filtration

Settling following

air-activated sludge

(excluding extended

aeration)

Settling following

extended aeration

Settling following

oxygen-activated

sludge with primary

settling

400-800 1,000-1,200 20-30 50 12-15

200-400 800 20-30 50 12-15

40'3800 1,000-1,200 25-35

50

12-15

*gal/(day

ft )

x

0

0407

= m 3/ m 2

day), Ib/(day

ft )

x

4 883

=

kg/(day

m2)

t

Allowable solids loading area generally governed by sludge thickening

characteristics associated with cold weather operations

286




Recommended Design Overflow Rate and Peak Solids Loading Rate for

Secondary Settl ing Tanks Following Activated-Sludge Processes

Surface Loading

at Design Pea Peak Solids

Hourly

Flow, Loading

Rate,'

Treatment Process

gal/d.ft ' (m3/d-day ) Ib/d.ft2 (k g /( d d )

Conventional 1,200 (49) 50 (244)

Step aeration

Complete mix

Contact stabilization

Carbonaceous stage of

separate-stage nitrification

or

1,000 (41)

Extended aeration 1,000 (41)'

35

(171)

Single-stage nitrification

Two-stage nitrification 800

(33)

35 (171)

Activated sludge with 900 (37)§ As above

chemical addition to mixed

liquor for phosphorus removal

*Based on influent low only.

t For plant effluent TSS 620 mglL.

3

Computed on

the

basis of design maximum daily flow rate plus design maximum

5

When effluent P concentration of 1

.O

mglL or less is required.

return sludge rate requirements, and the design

MLSS

under aeration.

281




Recommended Chlorine Dosing Capacity for Various Types of Treatment

Based on Design Average Flow

Type

of

Treatment mg/L mg/L

Illinois

EPA

Dosage,

GLUMRB’

Dosage,

Primary settled effluent

Lagoon effluent (unfiltered)

Lagoon effluent (filtered)

Trickling filter plant effluent

Activated sludge plant effluent

Activated sludge plant with

chemical addition

Nitrified effluent

Filtered effluent following

mechanical biological treatment

20

20

10

10

6

4

4

10

8

6

6

* GLUMRB

=

Great Lakes-Upper Mississippi River Board of State Public Health and

Environmental Managers.

DIFFUSERS

So m e adv anta ges an d disadvantages of various fine pore diffusers

are listed in the following sections.

Advantages

Exh ibi t h igh oxygen-transfer efficiencies

Exh ibi t high aeration efficiencies (mass oxy gen transferred

C a n satisfy high oxygen dem ands

A r e easily adaptable

to

existing basins fo r plant upgrad es

R es ul t in lower volatile organic com po und emissions t h an

per

unit power p er unit time)

no np o ro us diffusers or mechanical aeration devices

Disadvantages

F i n e pore diffusers are susceptible to chem ical or biological

fou ling , wh ich may imp air transfer efficiency and gen erate

h ig h head loss.

As

a result, they require ro u ti ne cleaning.

(Alth oug h no t totally without cost, cleaning does not n ee d

to b e expensive

or

troublesome.)

288




Fine p ore diffusers may be susceptible to chemical attack

(especially perforated membranes). The refore, care must be

exercised in the pr op er selection of materials for

a

given

wastewater.

Because of the high efficiencies of fine por e diffusers at low

airflow rates, airflow distr ibution is critical

to

their perfor-

mance, an d selection o fp ro per airflow control orifices is

important.

requ ired airflow in an aeration basin (normally at the efflu-

en t en d ) may be dictated by mixing, not oxygen transfer.

Aeration basin design must incorporate a mean s to easily

dew ater the tank for cleaning. In small systems where no

redundan cy ofaeration

tanks

exists, an in situ, non-process-

interruptive method of cleaning must be considered.

Becau se of the high efficiencies of fine po re diffusers,

SEQUENCING

BATCH REACTORS

Som e advantages a nd disadvantages of sequencing batch reactors

(SBRs) are list ed in the following sections.

Advantages

Equal ization , prim ary clarification (in most cases), biologi-

cal treatment, an d seco ndary clarification can be achieved in

a sin gle reac tor vessel.

O pe ra tin g flexibility an d con trol

Minimal footprint

Potential capital cost savings by eliminating clarifiers and

other equipment

Disadvantages

A h ig h e r level of sophistication of timing units a nd controls

is req ui red (compared to conventional systems), especially

S

E

for la rg er systems

m

H ig her level of maintenance (compared to conventional

systems) associated with more sophisticated controls,

au to m at ed switches, and automated valves

4

a,

I=

&

z

4

m

4-

289 E




Potential ofdischarging floating or settled sludge dur ing the

draw or decan t phase with some

SBR

configurations

Potential plugging of aeration devices dur ing selected op er -

ating cycles, depending on the aeration system used by the

manufacturer

Potential requirement for equalization after the SBR,

SBR

manufacturers will typically provide a process guarantee

10

mg/L biological oxygen dem and

10 mg/L total suspended solids

5-8 mg/L total nitrogen

1-2

mg/L total ph osp ho rus

dep end ing o n the downstream processes

to p ro duce an efRuent of less than

Key Design Parametersfor a Conventional Load

Parameter

Municipal Industrial

Food to mass

(F:M) 0.1

5-0.4/day

0.1

5-0.6/day

Treatment cycle duration

4 hours 4-24 hours

Typically low water level mixed 2,000-2,500

mg/L

2,000-4,000 mg/L

liquor suspended solids

Hydraulic retention time 6 1 hours Varies

290




Case Studies for Several SBR Installations

Reactors Blowers

Flow, Volume,

mgd

No.

Size,

ff

milgal No.

Size,

hp

0.01 2 1 1 8 x 12

0.021 1 15

0.10 2 24

x

24

0.069 3 7.5

1.2 2

80 x

80

0.908 3 125

1

o

2 58

x

58 0.479 3 40

1.4 2 69

x

69 0.678 3 60

1.46

2

78

x

78

0.910 4 40

2.0 2 82

x

82 0.958 3 75

4.25 4 104

x 80

1.556 5 200

5.2 4 87

x

87

1.359

5

125

Source:

Courtesy of Aqua-Aerobic Systems, Inc.

NOTE:

hese case studies and sizing est imates are site specific to individual treatment

systems.

Installed Cost per Gallon of Wastewater Treated

Design

Flow

Rate,

mgd

Budget

Level

Equipment Cost,

/gal

0.5-1

.O

1.965.00

1.1 1.5 1.83-2.69

1.5-2.0 1.65-3.29

Source:

Courtesy of Aqua-Aerobic Systems, Inc.

291




INTERMITTENT SAND FILTERS

Pretreatment

Filter medium

Material

Effective size

Uniformity coefficient

Depth

Underdrains

Slope

Size

Type

Hydraulic loading

Organic loading

Pressure distribution

Pipe size

Orifice size

Head on orifice

Lateral spacing

Orifice spacing

Frequency

Volume/orifice

Dosing tank volume

Dosing

Typical Design Criteria for Intermittent Sand Filters

Item Design Criteria

Minimum level: septic tank or equivalent

Washed durable granular material

0.25-0.75 mm

<4.0

18-36 in.

Slotted

or

perforated pipe

0%-0.1%

3-4 in.

2-5 gal/ft*.day

0.0005-0.002 Ib/ft2,day

1-2 in.

V3--1/4 in

3-6 ft

1-4

ft

1-4 ft

12-48 times/day

0.1 5-0.30 gallorificefdose

0.5-1.5 flow/dav

292




Some advantages and disadvantages of intermittent sand fdters

(ISFs) are listed in the following sections.

Advantages

ISFs prod uc e a high-quality efUuent that can be used

for dr ip irrigation o r can be surface-discharged after

disinfection.

Drainfields can be small and shallow.

ISFs have low-energy requirements.

ISFs are easily accessible for monitoring an d d o not require

No

chemicals are required.

If san d is not feasible, othe r suitable media can be

Construction costs for ISFs are moderately low, and the

T h e treatment capacity can be expanded through modular

ISFs c an be installed to blend into the surround ing

skilled personne l to operate.

substitu ted and may be found locally.

labor is mostly manual.

design.

landscape.

T h e lan d area required may be a limiting factor.

Regular (bu t minimal) maintenance is required.

O d o r problem s could result from open-filter configurations

Ifap propriate filter media are not available locally, costs

Clogging of the filter media is possible.

an d may require buffer zones from inhabited areas.

could be

higher.

293




SEPTAGE

Some advantages and disadvantages of septage are listed in the

following sections.

Advantages

Use of treatment plants provides regional solutions to sep-

tage management.

Disadvantages

May need a holding facility du rin g periods of frozen or satu-

Need a relatively large, reniote land area for the setup

of

the

Capital and operation and maintenance costs tend to be

So m e limitations to certain m anagement options of

rated soil.

septic system.

high.

untreated septage include lack of available sites and poten-

tial odor and pathogen problems. T hes e problems can be

reduced by pretreating and stabilizing the septage before it

is applied to the land.

Septage treated at a wastewater treatment facility has the

potential

to

upset processes if the septage addition is no t

properly regulated.

294




Characteristicsof Septage Conventional Parameters’

Concentration

Parameter Minimum Maximum

Total solids 1,132 130,475

Total volatile solids 353 71,402

Total suspended solids

310 93,378

Volatile suspended solids 95 51,500

Biochemical oxygen demand

440 78,600

Chemical oxygen demand 1,500 703,000

Total Kjeldahl nitrogen

66 1,060

Ammonia nitrogen 3 116

Total phosphorus 20 760

Alkalinity 522 4,190

Grease

PH

208 23,368

1.5 12.6

Total coliform 107/100 L 109/1

0

mL

Fecal coliform

10

00 mL

IO /IOO

mL

*Measurements are in milligrams per liter unless otherwise indicated.

295




Sources of Septage

Description Rate Removal Pump-out Char

Septic tank

Cesspool

Privies/portable toilets

Aerobic tanks

2-6

years, but can vary with

location and local ordinances

Conc

meta

2-1

0

years

1 week to months

Months to

1

year

Holding tanks (septic tank with no drainfield,

typically a local requirement)

Dry pits (associated with septic fields)

Miscellaneous-may exhibit characteristics

of septage

Days to weeks

2-6 years

Private wastewater treatment plants Variable

Boat

pump-out station Variable

Conc

some

Varia

chem

Varia

solid

Varia

raw w

Varia

Sept

Porta

Grit traps

Grease traps

Variable

Weeks

to

months

Oil, g

Oil, g

Courtesy of Water Environment Federation.




Biosolids

At

the

end

of

every wastewater system

i s

the

residue of the process the biosolids. Disposal of

biosolids

i s

becoming a n environmental concern.

New treatments disinfection processes and

disposal methods are available to help systems

comply with increased regulations.

297




SLUDGE PROCESSING CALCULATIONS

Percent Solids and Sludge Pumping

T h e two basic equations used to calculate percent solids are

total solids,

g

sludge sample,

g

solids, lb/day

sludge, lb/day

% solids = x 100

% solids = x

100

The basic equation for sludge thickening and sludge volume

changes is

lb solids in unthickened sludge = Ib solids in thickened sludge

or

( unthickened )(%Solids)

= ( thickened

) % solids)

sludge, lb/day sludge, lb/day

Gravity Thickening

T h e two basic equations for determining gravity thickening are

flow, gpd

hydraulic loading rate, gpd/ft2

=

area, ft

solids, lb/day

area, ft

2

so lids loading rate, lb/day /f8 =

If the pounds-per-day solids is not given directly, it can be calcu-

lated using pounds-per-day sludge and percent solids. The for-

mula follows.

solids, lb/day x % solids

area, ft

2

ol ids loading rate, Ib/day/ft'

=

The basic equation

to

determine the proper wasting rates for

activated sludge processes to maintain

a

desired food-to-niirco-

organism F/M) ratio is

biological oxygen demand

entering the aeration tank, Ib

mixed liquor volatile suspended solids

under aeration, lb

F/M

=

298




Mean Cell Residence Time

T h e two basic equations for determining mean cell residence time

(MC RT) are

clarifier

rn

( s u s ~ ~ % ~ ~ l k ,otal suspended solidsb emuent suspended v

suspended solids, Ib

MCRT

= (

wastes, lb/day

(

solids, lb/day

mil gal x 8.34 x mg/L

mgd

x

8.34

x

mg/L

RAS

mil gal X 8.34 X

mgd

x

8.34

x

( MLSS

(

suspended solids

MCRT = (

suspended solids

(

suspended solids

Sludge Age

T h e basic equation for determining sludge age is

MLSS, lb

suspended solids added, lb/day

sludge age, days

=

or

Iudge

age,

=

days

aeration volum e, mil gal

x 8.34 x

M LSS, mg/L

mgd x 8.34 x mg/L primary efnuent suspended solids

Vacuum Fil ter Dewatering

Equations fo r determ ining filter loading rates, filter yield, and per-

cent solids recovery are

solids to filter, lb/h r

surface area,

ft

lb/hr

(cake,1oO

filter area,

ft

2

ilter loading rate, Ib/hr/ft2

=

( w e t cake flow,)

2

filter yield , lb /hr/f? =

( w e t cake flow,)

(

lb/hr cake,loo

lb/day

%

solids recovery =

(sludge

99




Volume

Reduction

Sludge Thickening

Sanitary

I

I

I Stabilization

I

I Land

I

I t

Source:Water and Wastewater Calculations Manual, copyright2007,

The

McGraw-Hill

Companies.

Sludge Processing Alternatives

Plate and Frame Filter Press Dewater ing

Sludge can be dewatered using a plate and frame filter press. It

works by pressing water out of sludge through the use of plates.

Sludg e flows in the space s between the plates an d water is pre sse d

out. The plates are then separated and the cake falls out into

a

h o p p e r

or

onto

a

conveyor belt.

The

equation s for determinin g the solids loading rate an d the

net filter yield o f a plate an d frame filter pre ss a re

%

solids

sludge, gp h x

8.34 lb.gal X

(-)

plate area, ft

so lids loading

100

2

rate, Ib/hr/ft2

-

Ib /hr filtration run time

X

net filt er yield,

lb/hr/ft2

-

f t2 total cyc le time




Plates

Clear

Filtrate

Inlet

Feed

of Slurry

Filter Cloth Captured

Particles

Source: Water and Wastewater Calculations Manual, copyrightZOO1,

The McGraw-HillCompanies.

Schematic Cross-Section of a Plate and Frame Filter Press Chamber

Area During Fil l Cycle

Belt Filter Press Dewatering

Sludge can be dewatered using a belt fdter press. T h e sludge is

pressed betw een belts into a cake. Th e cake is fed in to

a

hopper or

onto a conveyor belt.

T h e eq ua tio ns for determining the hydraulic loading rate and

the sludge feed rate o fa belt filter press are

flow, gprn

belt width, ft

hydraulic loading rate

=

sludge fed into press, lb/day

operating time, hr/day

sludge feed rate

=

volatile

lb/day

100

solids, = sludge, gpd

x 8.34 x

301




Digester Loading Rate

Sludge is sent

to

the digester to stabilize the organic (volatile) por-

tion of the sludge.

100

igester sludge, gpd X

8 34

X

loading =

rate

3 14 x r

x

r x sludge depth, ft

Volatile Acids/Alkalinity Ratio

The anaerobic digestion process requires an intricate balance

between the acid and alkalinity stages. Therefore, by determin-

ing

the volatile acidslalkalinity ratio, the digestion process can b e

tracked.

volatile acids, mg/L

alkalinity, mg/L

volatile acids/alkalinity ratio

=

Digester Gas Production

Gas produ ced d uring anaerobic digestion can be used as fuel for

heating the digesters and buildings, for driving gas engines, an d

so

forth. T h e volume

of

gas produced is an important indicator of the

progress

of

the sludge digestion process.

digester gas production

=

gas produced, ft /day

%

solids

gpd x

8 34

x

(-)

(% volyii solids

day

%

volatile solids reduced

100

302




Percent Volatile Solids Reduct ion

T h e percent volatile solids reduction is one

of

the best indicators

of

the effectivenessof the anaerobic digester process. T his reduc-

tion can be as high as

70

percent.

x

100

n

-

out

in

-

in

x

out)

volatile so lids reduction =

Settleable Solids

T h e basic equation for determining settleable solids in milligrams

per liter is

final

weight, mg - nitial weight, mg) x 1 000mL/L X 1,000mg/g

mL/sec

filtered

Total Solids and Volatile Solids

T h e basic equations for determining percent total solids, percent

volatile solids, and percent fixed matter are

mass

of

dry solids

M 3 M 1)

x

100

mass ofwet sludge

M 2 -M

1 )

mass

of

volatile solids

M 3 M 4 )

x

100

mass of dry solids

(M3 M 1

)

%

total solids

=

%volatile matter

=

mass

of

fixed matter

M 3

-

M

1

) x

100

mass of dry solids

M 3 -

M 1 )

%

fixed matter

=

Where:

All weights are in grams.

M1

= mass of the d ish

M2

= mass of the dish and wet sample

M 3

= mass of the dish and dry sample

M 4

=

mass of the dish and fixed matter

303




2-rn Grout

T , iaM* EIAuenI

Weir

MaximumWaler

Sultdce

I 3 m Minimum ~inuenl

aunder

Top

01

Tank

I ~ I I U B ~ I

anie

Dove

Cage

Gravity Thickener

GRA VITY THICKENING

Som e advantag es an d disadvantages of gravity thickening are listed

in

the

following sections.

Gravity thickening equipm ent is simple to operate and

Gra vity thickening ha s lower ope rating costs than other

maintain.

thickening meth ods such as dissolved a i r flotation

(DAF),

gravity belt, o r centrifuge thickening. For example, an effi-

cient gravity thickening opera tion will save costs incurre d i n

down stream solids handling steps.

In addition, facilities that land-apply liquid biosolids can benefit

from th ickening in several ways, as follows:

T ru c k traffic at the plant and the farm site can be reduce d.

Trucking costs can be reduced.

Exi st in g storage facilities can hold more days of biosolids

product ion .

Sm all e r storage facilities can be used.

304




Less time will be required to transfer solids to the applicator

vehicle and to incorporate o r surface-apply the thickened

solids.

C ro p nitrogen dem and can be met with fewer passes of the

rn

m

-

rn

applicator vehicle, reducing soil com paction.

Disadvantages 0

s

Scu m bu ildup can cause odors. T his buildup , which can

occu r because o flo ng retention times, can

also

increase the

torque required in the thickener. Finally, scu m buildup is

unsightly.

Grea se may build u p in the lines and cause a blockage. T h is

can b e prevented by quick disposal or a backflush.

Septic conditions

will

generate sulfur-based odors. T hi s

can b e mitigated by m inimizing detention times in the

collection system and

at

the plant, o r by using oxidizing

agents.

Supernatant does not have solids concentrations

as

low as

those produced by a DAF o r centr ihg e thickener. Belt thick-

eners may produce supernatant with lower solids concentra-

tions depending on the equipment and solids characteristics.

More lan d area is needed for gravity thickener equipment

than fo r a DAF gravity belt o r centrifuge thickener.

Sol id s concentrations in the thickened solids are usually

lower than for a DAF gravity belt or centrifuge thickener.

Maintenance Checklist

Weekly

C he ck all oil levels an d ensure the oil fill cap vent is open.

C he ck condensation drains and remove any accumulated

moisture.

Examine drive control limit switches.

Visually examine the skimmer

to

ensure that it is in proper

co nt ac t with the scum bame and the scum box.

Visually exam ine instrumentation and clean probes.




Performance of Conventional Gravity Thickening

Type

of

Solids

Feed, Thickened Solids,

%

total

solids

% total solids

Primary (PRI)

Trickling filter (TF)

Rotating biological contactor (RBC)

Waste-activated sol ids (WAS)

PRI + WAS

RPI +

TF

PRI

+

RBC

PRI + l ime

PRI + (WAS + iron)

PRI + (WAS

+

aluminum salts)

0.6-6

1-4

1-3.5

0.2-1

3-6

2-6

2-6

3-4.5

1.5

0.2-0.4

5-1 0

3-6

2-5

2-3

8-1 5

5-9

5 - 8

10-1

5

3

4 .54 .5

Anaerobically digested PRI + WAS 4 a

Adapted w ith permission from Water Environment Federation

(1 996)

Operation of

Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants,

5th ed.; Manual of Practice No.

11

;

Alexandria, Virginia.

Monthly

Inspect skimmer wipers for wear.

Adjust drive chains or belts.

Annually

Disassem ble the drive and examine

all

gears,

oil

seals, and

C heck oil for the presence of metals, which may be a warn-

Replace any part with an expected life o f le s s than 1 year.

bearings.

ing sign o f future problems.

306




Factors Affecting Gravity Thickening Performance

Factor

Effect

Nature of the solids feed

Freshness of feed solids

High volatile solids

concentrations

High hydraulic loading rates

Solids loading rate

Temperature and variation in

temperature of thickener

contents

High solids blanket depth

Solids residence time

Mechanism and rate of solids

withdrawal

Chemical treatment

Presence of bacteriostatic

agents or oxidizing agents

Cationic polymer addition

Use of metal

salt

coagulants

Affects the thickening process because some

solids thicken more easily than others.

High solids age can result in septic conditions.

Hamper gravity settling due to reduced particle

specific gravity.

Increase velocity and cause turbulence that will

disrupt settling and carry the lighter solids past the

weirs.

If

rates are high, there will be insufficient detention

time for settling. If rates are too low, septic

conditions may arise.

High temperatures will result in septic condlions.

Extremely low temperatures will result in lower

settling velocities. If temperature varies, settling

decreases due to stratification.

Increases the performance of the settling by

causing compaction of the lower layers, but it may

result in solids being carried over the weir.

An

increase may result in septic conditions.

A

decrease may result in only partial settling.

Must be maintained o

produce a smooth and

continuous flow. Otherwise, turbulence, septic

conditions, altered settling, and other anomalies

may occur.

Chemicals-such as potassium permanganate,

polymers, or ferric chloride-may improve settling

and/or supernatant quality.

Allows for longer detention imes before anaerobic

conditions create gas bubbles and floating solids.

Helps thicken waste-activated solids and clarify

the supernatant.

Improves overflow clarity but may have little

impact on underflow concentration.

307




Grav i ty Th icken ing Troub lesho ot ing Guide

Indic ators Probable Cause Check

or

M

Septic odor, rising solids

Thickened solids pumping rate is

too slow; thickener overflow rate

Check thickened soli

system for proper op

is too low.

check thickener colle

mechanism for prope

Thickened solids not thick

Overflow rate is too high;

thickened solids pumping rate is

through tank.

Heavy accumulation of solids;

mechanism: improper alignment

of mechanism.

Check overflow rate;

other tracer to check

enough too high; short-circuiting of flow circulation.

Torque overload of solids

collecting mechanism foreign object jammed in arms.

Probe along front of




Gravity Thickening Troubleshooting Guide (continued)

Indicators Probable Cause Check

or M

Surging flow Poor influent pump programming Pump cycling

Excessive biological growths

on surfaces and weirs

(slimes, etc.)

Oi l leak Oil seal failure

Oil

seal

Noisy or hot bearing or Excessive wear: improper Alignment; lubricatio

universal joint alignment; lack of lubrication

Pump overload

Fine solids particles in

eff bent

Adapted

with permission from Water Environment Federation (1996) Opefationof Municip

Inadequate cleaning program

3

Improper adjustmentof packing;

clogged pump pump.

Waste-activated solids

Check packing; chec

Portionof waste-act

(WAS) in thickener e

No.

11; Alexandria, Virginia.




DEWATERING

Act ivated

Variable

P0l mer Orifice

Bioso l idd

Residuals

Flow (1 4 )

Mixer

Ben

Wash

Slal ion

Gravlty

Zone

High Pressure Zone

Low Pressure

(Wedge) Zone

Ben

Wash

Slalion

Dewalered

Bioso l idd

Residuals(1

%-35%)

Courtesy o f Ashbrook

Simon-Hartley, Houston, Texas.

Operational Diagram and Photograph of a Belt Fil ter Press With

Two Continuous Belts for Gravity and Pressure Dewater ing With

Uniform-Diameter Rollers

310




Typical Data for Various Types of Sludges Dewatered on Belt Filter Presses

~~~ ~~ ~

Type

of

Wastewater Sludge

Raw primary

Raw waste-activated solids (WAS)

Raw primary +WAS

Anaerobically digested primary

Anaerobically digested WAS

Anaerobically digested primary

+

WAS

Aerobically digested primary

+

WAS

Oxygen-activated WAS

Thermally conditioned primary + W A S

~ ~ ~~

Total Feed Solids,

%

3-1 0

0.5-4

3-6

3-1 0

3-4

3-9

1-3

1-3

4-8

~ ~

Polymer, g/kg Total Cake Solids, %

1-5 28-44

1-10 20-35

1-10 20-35

1-5 25-36

2-1 0

2-8

2-8

12-22

18-44

12-20

4-1 0

15-23

0 25-50




Typical Operating Parameters for Belt Fil ter Press Dewatering

of

Polymer Floc

Type of Sludge % g p m h

eed Solids, Hydraulic loadin

Anaerobically digested primary only 4 - 6 40-60

Anaerobically digested primary plus waste activated

2-5 40-6 0

Aerobically digested without primary 1-3 30-45

Raw primary and waste activated

3-6 40-50

Thickened waste activated

3-5 40-50

Extended aeration waste activated

1-3 30-50

Courtesy

of


*

1

.Ogpm/m =

0.225

m3/m.hr

t 1 O Ib/m/hr

= 0.454

kg/m.hr

$

1

O

lb/ton

=

0.500

kg/tonne




Controlled Differential Head in Vent

by Restricting Rate

of

Drainage

Vent

Partition to Form Vent

Wedgewire Septum

Outlet Valve to Control

Rate

of

Drainage

Cross-Section of a Wedgewire Drying Bed

Unit

Elfluent

Recycle Flow

Sludge Removal Mechanism

Polymer

Feed

Sludge

Discharge

Recycle

Flow

Unit Slud ge

Feed

Bottom Sludge Collector

Unit Elfluent Thickened

Flotation Unit Discharge

Sludge

or plant efflu ent)

Recycle Flow

ecirculationPump

Retention Tank

(air d issolution)

Air Feed

Reaeration Pum p

Dissolved

Air

Flotation Thickener

313




Scum Layer

Supernatanl Layer

Active

Digestion

Sludge

ln le ls

Digested Sludge

Single-Stage Anaerobic Digester

Gas Removal

Supernatant

Outlets

Sludge

Outlets

Mixed

Digeslion

I t

U

supernatant

supernatant Layer Outlets

Digested Sludge

Sludge

0 lleIs

Fin1

Stage Second Stage

Completely

Mixed

Unmixed

Sludge

Tw-Stage Anaerobic Digester

Configuration of Anaerobic Digesters

Anaerobic

lagoons

So m e advantages an d disadvantages

of

anaerob ic lagoons are listed

in the follow ing sections.

Advantages

M o r e effective for ra pid stabilization of stro ng organic

wa stes, making higher influent o rganic loading possible

P ro d uc e methane, which can be used to heat buildings, ru n

en gin es, o r generate electricity, but m eth an e collection

increases operational problems

P ro d uc e less biomass pe r unit of organic material pro-

ce sse d. Less biomass prod uced equates to savings in s lud ge

h an d lin g an d disposal costs.

314




Do

not require additional energy, because they are not

Less expensive to construct and operate

Pon ds can be operated in series.

Disadvantage

aerated, heated, or mixed

T h ey require a relatively large area of land.

CENTRIFUGES

Range of Expected Centrifuge Performance

Polymer,

Feed, Ib/dry ton

Cake,

Type of Wastewater

Solids

%

total solids of solids % total solids

Primary undigested

Waste-activated solids (WAS)

undigested

Primary

+

WAS undigested

Primary + WAS aerobic digested

Primary + WAS anaerobic digested

Primary anaerobic digested

WAS aerobic digested

High-temperature aerobic

High-temperature anaerobic

Lime stabilized

4-8

1-4

2-4

1.5-3

2-4

2-4

1-4

4-6

3-6

4-6

5-30

15-30

5-1 6

15-30

15-30

8-1 2

20

20-40

20-30

15-25

25-40

16-25

25-35

16-25

22-32

25-35

18-21

20-25

22-28

20-28

v

v

.-

.-

a

315




Cove

DifferentialSpeed

Gear Box

Rotating Bowl

Centrate

Discharge

Main Drive Sheave

Feed Pip es

(sludge and

chemical)

Bearing

(Base Not Shown)

Rotating Conveyor

Sludge Cake

Discharge

Solid Bow l Scroll Centrifuge

Polymer

Skimmings

Feed

Knife

Cake

Cake

Imperforate Basket Centrifuge

316




MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

Management

1. Prepare and maintain a field management plan.

Storage

J

Field Storage (Stockpile) Checklist (involving dewatered cake, dried,

or

composted class A or class B biosolids)

2.

Train employees to properly operate the site according

to

plan; conduct

spill drills.

3.

Critical Control Point

1

Work with wastewater treatment plant

to

maximize biosolids stability, consistency, and quality; direct batches

to

appropriate sites.

4. Critical Control Point 2: Transportation; clearly mark site access routes

and stockpile areas; conduct spill drills.

5. Maintain accurate and well-organized records.

I

6.

Designatea competent public relations person; maintain communication

with stakeholders; notify agencies of reportable incidents; explain

actions taken to respond to citizens’ concerns or complaints.

Operations

1.

Us e biosolids that stay consolidated and nonflowing; shape stockpiles

whenever possible to shed water.

2. Minimize ponding and storage time to the extent feasible during hot,

humid weather; manage accumulated water appropriately.

3.

Inspect and maintain upslope water diversions.

4. Inspect buffer zones to ensure runoff is not moving out of bounds.

I

5.

Restrict public access and use temporary fencing to exclude livestock,

6. Clean all vehicles and equipment before they exit onto public roads.

where applicable; install signs; secure site appropriately.

I

. Train employees to use appropriate sanitation practices; inspect

for use.

8. Inspect for odors and conditions conducive to odors; apply chemicals

or Surface covering material to suppress odors if needed; consider the

meteorological conditions and the potential for off-site odors when

scheduling opening the storage pile and spreading of biosolids.

317




Key Design Concepts for Constructed Biosolids Storage Facili ties

Liquidilhickened,

DewateredlDry Biosoli

1 -12 solids 129640 olids/w50

Issue

lagoons Pads/Basins

Design Below-ground excavation. Above ground. Impermeable Roof

Impermeable liner of liner of concrete, asphalt, or enclo

concrete, geotextile, or compacted earth. conc

compacted earth. comp

Capacity Expected biosolids volume Expected biosolids volume, Expe

2 plus expected precipitation unless precipitation is

plus freeboard retained; then, biosolids

volume plus expected

precipitation plus freeboard

Accumulated

Pump

out

and spray-irrigate Sumps/pumps if facility is a

Roof

water or land-apply the liquid,

basin for collection of water enclo

management haul to wastewater for spray irrigation; land- diver

treatment plant

(WWrP),

or

mix with biosolids

apply or haul

to

WWTP




Key Design Concepts for Constructed Biosolids Storage Facilities (continued)

Liquidnhickened,

DewateredlDry Biosoli

1 -12 solids 12 -30 solids/>50

Issue

Lagoons Padsmasins

Runoff Diversions to keep runoff Diversions to keep runoff Enclo

management out of lagoon out of sight; curbs andlor diver

umps to collect water for

removal or downslope filter

strips or treatment ponds

W

Biosolids

consistency

Safely

Liquid or dewatered.

Removal with pumps,

cranes, or loaders.

Drowning hazard. Post Drowning hazard. Post Post

warnings; fence; locked warnings; fence; locked remo

gates and rescue gates and rescue gates

equipment on site. equipment on site.

If no side walls, material

must stack without flowing.

Mate

enou




Constructed Facilit ies Checklist

(involving

agoons, pads, or storage

tanks)

Operations

1.

Minimize ponding and storage time; manage accumulated water

2.

Inspect and maintain up- and downslope water diversion/collection

3.

Inspect and maintain tanks, ponds, curbs, gutters, and sumps used to

4.

Inspect buffer zones to ensure flow is not moving out of bounds.

properly.

systems.

collect runoff.

J

roject Management

1.

Prepare and maintain a storage site management plan with spill plan.

I

J

2. Critical Control Point

1:

Work closely with the wastewater treatment

plant on stability and consistency.

3.

Critical Control Point 2: Transportation-clearly mark site access routes

and unloading areas.

I

.

Train employees to properly operate the storage facility and

to

perform

inspections; conduct spill drills.

5. Maintain accurate and well-organized records.

I

6. Designate a competent public relations person; maintain

communications with stakeholders; notify agencies of reportable

incidents; explain actions taken to respond to citizens' concerns or

complaints.

5. Install signs and implement security measures to restrict public access1

6.

Inspect concrete, wood, earth, walls, foundation, and monitoring wells

7. Meet nutrient and hydraulic loading limits and statellocal requirements

8.

Clean a ll vehicles and equipment before they exit onto public roads.

9.

Train employees

to

use appropriate sanitation practices; ensure

PraCtiCeS are properly followed.

10.

f the characteristics of the biosolids have changed significantly during

Storage, retest nutrient and solids content prior

to

land application to

recalculate land-application rate of biosolids.

appropriately.

at constructed storage facilities.

when land-applying accumulated water from storage.

11.

Inspect for odors and conditions conducive to odors; mitigate

12.

Attend to site aesthetics.

320




Practices to Prevent Mud or Biosolids From Being Tracked Onto Public

Roadways

~~~~ ~~~~~~ ~

Vehicles transporting biosolids should be cleaned before they leave the

wastewater treatment plant.

equipment clean and make cleanup of drips or spills easier.

The storage facility should have provisions

to

clean trucks and equipment when

the need arises. Mud on tires or vehicles can be hand-scraped or removed with

a high-pressure washer or with compressed air (as long as this does not

exacerbate an existing dust problem).

v

=

v

.-

oncrete or asphalt

off

-loading pads at the storage facility will help keep

.-

m

All

vehicles should be inspected for cleanliness before leaving the site.

Use mud flaps on the back of dump trailers to preclude biosolids getting on tires

Install a temporary gravel access pad as necessary at the entrance/exit o avoid

Public roadways accessing the site should be inspected each day during

or undercarriage during unloading operations.

soil ruts and tracking of mud onto roads.

operational periods and cleaned promptly (shovel and sweep).

Minimizing Odor During Storage

Stabilize biosolids at wastewater treatment plant as much as possible.

Avoid use of polymers that lead to malodor.

Maintain proper pH during treatment.

Meet the vector attraction reduction requirements of the USEPA Part

503

Locate storage at remote sites.

Minimize duration of storage

Assess meteorological conditions before loading and unloading.

Ensure good housekeeping.

Biosolids Rule.

321




Prevention and Management of Odorous Emissions Associated With Biosolid

Stabilization and Potential Causes of

Processing Methods Odorous Emissions

Anaerobic diaestion

“Sour,” overloaded, or thermophilic digester;

Optimize

volatilization of fatty acids

and

sulfur

compounds

Low solids retention time; high organic

loading; poor aeration

Incomplete digestion of biosolids being dried

g Compost Poor mixing of bulking agent; poor aeration;

improperly operating biofikers

Aerobic digestion

Drying beds

N

Alkaline stabilization

Addition of insufficient alkaline material

so

pH drops below

9,

microbial decomposition

may occur with generation of odorous

compounds. Check compatibility of polymer

with high pH and other additives (e.g., FeC13).

High-temperature volatilization of fatty acids

hermal conditioning and

drying and sulfur compounds

Increase

lower org

Optimize

Mix bette

aeration

function.

Increase

grade of

better to

with bios

Use seco

primary

more od




Other Important Factors at the Wastewater Treatment Plant That Affect

the Odor Potentialof Biosolids

Periodic changes

in

influent characteristics (e.g., fish wastes, textile wastes, and

Type of polymer used and i ts susceptibility to decomposition and release of

other wastewaters with high-odor characteristics).

v

n

v

.-

intense and pervasive odorants such as amines when biosolids are heated or

treated with strong alkaline materials.

i

Blending of primary and secondary biosolids that may create anaerobic

conditions or stimulate a resumption of microbial decomposition.

Completeness

of

blending and mixing, and quality of products used for

stabilization (i.e., type of lime and granule size).

Effectiveness and consistency of vector attraction reduction

WAR

method, use of

USEPA Part

503

Biosolids Rule

VAR

options

1-8

(treatment at wastewater

treatment plant [wwrpl) versus

VAR

options

%lo

(at land application site).

Handling, storage time, and storage method when stabilized biosolids are held at

the WWTP prior to transport (e.g., anaerobic conditions developing in enclosed

holding tanks when material is held for several days during hot weather).

323




Practices to Reduce the Potentialfor Unacceptable Off-Site Odors

Ensure that the wastewater treatment plant has used processes that minimize

Minimize storage time

Monitor and manage any water to prevent stagnant septic water accumulations.

Avoid or minimize storage of biosolids during periods of hot and humid weather,

if possible. During warm weather, check for odors frequently. Use lime or other

materials to control odors before they reach unacceptable levels off-site.

Empty constructed storage facilities as soon as possible in the spring for

cleaning and inspection; keep idle until the following winter, if possible.

Select remote sites with generous buffers between sensitive-neighbor areas,

Consider weather conditions, prevailing wind directions, and the potential for Off-

site odors when scheduling and conducting cleanoutlspreading operations. For

example, operations on a hot, humid day, with an air inversion layer and wind

moving in the direction of a residential area on the day of the block party, greatly

increases the risk of odor complaints.

Conduct loadinglunloadingand spreading operations as quickly and efficiently as

possible to minimize the time that odors may be emitted. Surface crusts on

stored biosolids seal

in

odors, but they break during handling and odors can be

released.

Enclosed handling or pumping systems at constructed facilities may reduce the

potential for odors on a day-to-day basis, but these facilities still have the

potential for odors during

off

-loading operations when active ventilation is used.

Observe good housekeeping practices during facility loading and unloading.

Clean trucks and equipment regularly to prevent biosolids buildup that may give

rise

to

odors. If biosolids spills occur, clean them up promptly.

Provide local government and state agency representatives with a contact name

and number. Ask them to call the storage facility operator immediately if they

receive citizen questions, concerns, or odor complaints resulting from storage of

biosolids. Operator staff should politely receive citizen questions or complaints,

Collect the individual's name and phone number, conduct a prompt investigation,

undertake control measures, if necessary, follow up with the person who filed

the Complaint, and document the event and actions.

odor during processing.

324




Odor Remediation Measures for Use During Handling Operations

~~~

Immediately correct any poor housekeeping problems (such as dirty equipment).

Immediately treat any accumulated water that has turned septic with lime,

chlorine, potassium permanganate, or other odor-control product; remove the

rn

rn

e

.P

m

ater as quickly as possible to a suitable land application site.

If odors are arising from lime-stabilized biosolids, pH should be measured. If it

has dropped below

9.0, lime can be topically applied to dewatered material, or,

in

highly liquid systems, lime slurry can be blended into the biosolids by

circulation. The pH should be monitored and dosed with lime until the desired pH

has been achieved. Raising pH halts organic matter decomposition in the

biosolids that can generate odorous compounds.

For most types of biosolids (digested, lime stabilized, liquid, dewatered), applying

a topical lime slurry will raise surface pH levels, create a crust, and reduce

odors. Topical spray applications of potassium permanganate (KMn04) or

enzymatic odor control products to neutralize odorous compounds may also be

effective in some situations.

Cover biosolids with compost or sawdust.

If the odor i s due to the combination of wind and weather conditions (hot, humid)

and agitation and circulation of biosolids as part of unloading operations, it may

be advisable to cease unloading operations until weather conditions are less

likely to transport odors to sensitive off-site receptors

Spread and incorporate or inject odorous material as quickly as possible.

For enclosed storage faciliies, absorptive devices (charcoal or biofilters)

incorporated into a ventilation system may be a feasible option for reducing

odorous emissions.

Cause the wastewater treatment plant to change its processes to produce less

odorous biosolids.

325




Selected Odorous Compounds Observed in Association With Manure,

Compost, Sewag e Sludge, and Biosol ids With Corresponding Ranges of

Odor Threshold Values

Odor Threshold

Compound Odor Character W L P m

Nitrogenous compounds

Ammonia Sharp pungent

Butylamine Sour, ammonia-like

Dibutylamine Fishy

Diisopropylamine

Fishy

Dimethylamine Putrid, fishy

Ethylamine

Ammonical

Methylamine Putrid, fish

Triethylamine Ammonical, fishy

Trimethylamine

Ammonical, fishy

Nitrogenous heterocyclics

lndole Fecal, nauseating

Pyridine Disagreeable, burnt,

Skatole Fecal, nauseating

pungent

Sulfur-containing compounds

Ally1 mercaptan

Strong garlic, coffee

Amy1 mercaptan

Unpleasant, putrid

Benzyl mercaptan

Unpleasant, strong

Crotyl mercaptan

Skunk-like

Dimethyl disulfide

Vegetable sulfide

Dimethyl sulfide

Decayed vegetables

Diphenyl sulfide

Unpleasant

Ethyl mercaptan Decayed cabbage

Hydrogen sulfide

Rotten eggs

5.2' (150)

1.8' (6,200)

(0.01 6)

1.8' (1,300)

0.13 (470)

0.95' (4,300)

3.2' (2,400)

0.48 (0.42)

0.00044'

(0.00012-0.0015)t

0.17

(0.95)

(0.000355.001

2)'

(0.000005)t

(0.0003)t

(0.01 3)'

(1.00)t

(0.00000043)t

(0.0003-0.01 6)+

(0.0026)t

0.00076' (0.0000075)

8.1' (0.000029)

Table continuedon next page

326




Selected Odorous Compounds Observed in Association With Manure,

Compost, Sewage Sludge, and Biosolids With Corresponding Ranges of

Odor Threshold Values (continued)

Odor Threshold

v

E

Methyl mercaptan Decayed cabbage, 0.0016' (0.000024)

n-butyl mercaptan Skunk, unpleasant 0.00097 (0.000012)

Propyl mercaptan Unpleasant 0.0000025-0.000075

Compound Odor Character lrUL lrm -

sulfidy is

Sulfur dioxide Pungent, irritating

1.1'

(0.11)

Thiocresol Skunk, rancid

(0.0001)'

Thiophenol Putrid, garlic-like

(0.0001 4)'

Other chemicals

or

compounds

Acetaldehyde Pungent, fruity 0.050' (0.034)

Chlorine Pungent, suffocating

0.31' (0.0020)

m-Cresol Tar-like, pungent

0.0000494.0079 (37)

n-butyl alcohol Alcohol

0.84̂

*Microliters per liter

is

the odor threshold for dilutions in odor-free air, and micro-

grams per liter is the odor threshold; both units are equivalent to parts per million.

t

Converted from weight-by-volume concentration (milligrams per cubi meter)

to

micrograms per liter.

327




Nutr ient Content of Various Organic Materials

Percentage

Material

N

h o 5

K20

Ca

.2

pple pomace 2

Blood (dried) 12-1 5 3.0

Bone meal (raw)

3.5 22.0 22.0

Bone meal (steamed)

2.0 28.0 0.2 23.0

.

Brewers grains (wet)

Common crab waste

Compost (garden)

Cotton waste from factory 1.3

0.4

0.4

Cottonseed meal 6-7

2.5 1.5

0.4

Cotton motes

2.0

0.5

3.0

4.

Varies with feedstoc

owpea forage 0.4 0.1 0.4

Dog manure

Eggs

.0 10.0 0.3

2.1 0.4 0.2

gg shells

1.2

0.4

0.2




Nutrient Content of Various Organic Materials (continued)

Percent

Mate ia N

405

K20

Feathers

15.0

Fermentation sludges 3.5 0.5 0.1

Fish scrap (dried) 9.5 6.0

Fly ash

Coal 0.3 0.1

Wood 9.8

.7

Frittercake

.2

itric acid production

nzyme production 2.2

Garbage tankage 2.5 1.5 1

o

Greensand 1-2 5.0

air

1

2-1 6

Legumes 3.0 1.5 1 o

rass 0.8 0.2 0.2




Nutrient Content of Various Organic Materials (continued)

Percent

Material

N

p205

K20

Oak leaves 0.8 0.4 0.2

Oyster shell siftings

0.4

10.4 0.1

Peanut hull meal 1.2 0.5

0.8

PeaVmuck 2.7

Pine needles 0.5 0.1

Dissolved air flotation sludge

8.0

1.8 0.3

Potato tubers

0.4

0.2 0.5

Potato leaves and stalks 0.6

0.2

Potato skins, raw ash

0.2awdust 0.2

Sea marsh hay 1.1 0.2

0.8

Seaweed (dried)

0.7

0.8 5.0

Sewage sludge (municipal) 2.6

3.7 0.2

Shrimp waste 2.9 10.0

5.2




Nutrient Content

of

Various Organic Materials (continued)

Percenta

Material

N p205

K20

Soybean meal

7.0 1.2

1.5

oot from chimney

0.5-1 1

pent brewery yeast 7.0

0.4

Sweet potatoes 0.2

0.1 0.5

Tankage

7.0 1.5 3-1 0

extile sludge

2.8

2.1 0.2

Wood ashes 0.0

2.0 6.0

Wood processing wastes 0.4

0.2

Tobacco stalks, leaves

3.7-4.0 0.5-0.6 4.5-6.0

Tobacco stems

2.5 0.9 7.0

Tomatoes, fruit leaves

0.2-0.4 0.1 0.4

NOTE:

pproximate values are given. Have materials analyzed for nutrient content before u




Major Pathogens Potentially Present in Munic ipal Wastewater and

Manure'

Pathogen DiseaselSymptoms or Organism

Bacteria

Salmonella spp.

Shigella spp.

Yersinia spp.

Vibrio cholerae

Campylobacter ejuni

Escherichia coli

(enteropathogenic)

Poliovirus

Coxsackievirus

Echovirus

Hepatitis

A

virus

Rotavirus

Norwalk agents

Reovirus

Cryptosporidium

Enfamoeba histolytica

Giardia lamblia

Balantidium coli

Toxoplasma gondii

Helminth Worms

Ascaris lumbricoides

Ascaris suum

Trichuris trichiura

Toxocara canis

Taenia saginata

Taenia

solium

Necator americanus

Hymenolepis nana

Viruses

Protozoa

Salmonellosis (food poisoning), typhoid

Bacillary dysentery

Acute gastroenteritis (diarrhea, abdominal pain)

Cholera

Gastroenteritis

Gastroenteritis

Poliomyelitis

Meningitis, pneumonia, hepatitis, fever, etc.

Meningitis, paralysis, encephalitis, fever, etc.

Infectious hepatitis

Acute gastroenteritis with severe diarrhea

Epidemic gastroenteritis with severe diarrhea

Respiratory infections, gastroenteritis

Gastroenteritis

Acute enteritis

Giardiasis (diarrhea and abdominal cramps)

Diarrhea and dysentery

Toxoplasmosis

Digestive disturbances, abdominal pain

Can have symptoms: coughing, chest pain

Abdominal pain, diarrhea, anemia, weight loss

Fever, abdominal discomfort, muscle aches

Nervousness, insomnia, anorexia

Nervousness, insomnia, anorexia

Hookworm disease

Taeniasis

*Not a ll pathogens are necessarily present in all biosolids and manures, a i l the

time.

332




CornpostingBasics

During composting, microorganisms break down organic matter

in wastewater solids into carbon dioxide, water, heat, and com-

post. To ensure optimal conditions for microbial growth, carbon

and nitrogen must be present in the pro pe r balance in

the

mixture

being com posted. T h e ideal carbon-to-nitrogen ratio ranges from

25

to 35 parts carbon for each

1

part of nitrogen by weight. A

lower ratio can result in ammonia odors. A higher ratio wll not

create optimal conditions for m icrobial growth causing degrada-

tion to occur at a slower rate and temperatures to remain below

levels required for pathogen destruction. Wastewater solids are

primarily a source

of

nitrogen and must be mixed with a higher

carbon-containing material such as wood chips, sawdust, news-

paper, or hulls. In addition to supplying carbon to the composting

process, the bulking agent serves to increase the porosity of the

mixture. Porosity is important to ensure that adequate oxygen

reaches the com posting mass. Oxygen can be supplied

to

the com-

posting m ass through active means such as blowers and piping o r

through passive means such

as

turning to allow more air into the

mass. T h e p ro per amount of air along with biosolids and bulking

agent is imp ortant.

v

‘S

333




Comparison

of

Composting Methods

Aerated Static Pile Windrow

Highly affected by weather (can be lessighly affected by weather

(can

be lessened

by covering, but at increased cost)

Extensive operating history, both small and

large scale

Large volume of bulking agent required,

leading to large volume of material to handle

at each stage (including final distribution)

Adaptable to changes in biosolids and bulking

Wide-ranging capital cost

Moderate labor requirements

Large land area required

Large volumes of air to be treated for odor

control

w

3 agent characteristics

Moderately dependent on mechanical

equipment

Moderate energy requirement

by covering, but at increased cost)

Proven technology on small scale

Large volume of bulking agent required

leading to large volume of material to h

at each stage (including inal distributio

Adaptable to changes in biosolids and b

agent characteristics

Low capital costs

Labor intensive

Large land area required

High potential for odor generation durin

turning; difficult to capturekontain air f

treatment

Minimally dependent on mechanical

equipment

Low

enerav reauirements




REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS

Methods

for

Meeting

40

CFR 504 Pathogen Requirements

T h e USEPA 40 CFR 503 regulations, specifically 503.32(a) and

(b ), require biosolids intended for agricultural use to meet certain

pathogen and vector attraction reduction conditions. T he intent of

a Class

A

pathogen requirement is to reduce the level of patho-

genic organisms in the biosolids to below detectable levels. T h e

intent of the Class B requirements is to ensure that pathogens have

been reduced

to

levels that are unlikely to pose a threat to public

health and the environm ent under the specific use conditions. For

Class B material that is land applied, site restrictions are imposed

to

minimize the potential for human and animal contac t with the

biosolids for a period of time following land application until envi-

ronm ental factors have further reduced pathogens.

N o site

restric-

tions are required with Class

A

biosolids. Class

B

biosolids cannot

be sold o r given away in bags or other containers. T h e criteria for

meeting Class

A

requirem ents are show n in the table on page 336 ,

and the criteria for Class B are shown in the table o n page 336 .

v

8

i

m

335




Criteria for Meeting Class A Requirements

Parameter Unit Lim it

Fecal coliform or SalmoneNa MPN/g

TS'

1,000

MPNI4 g TS

3

AND one of the following process options:

Temperature/time based on % solids

Prior test for enteric virushiable

helminth ova

Composting Heat drying

Heat treatment Thermophilic aerobic digestion

Beta ray irradiation

Pasteurization

Alkaline treatment

Post-test for enteric virushiable helminth

Gamma ray irradiation

Process to further reduce pathogens

equivalent process

*Mos t probable number per gram dry weight of total solids.

Criteria fo r Meeting Class

6

Requirements

Parameter Unit Limit

Fecal coliform MPN or cfuig TS* z,ooo,ooo

OR

one of the followinq process options.

Aerobic digestion

Anaerobic digestion

Lime stabilization

Air-drying

~

Composting

Process to significantly reduce pathogens

eauivalent

*Most probable number or colony-forming units per gram dry weight of total solids.

336




Summary o f Requirements for Vector Attraction Reduction Options

Option

Requirement

Volatile Solids VS) Reduction

238% VS reduction during solids treatment

Anaerobic bench-scale test

Aerobic bench-scale test

Specific oxygen uptake rate (SOUR)

Aerobic process

4 7 % VS loss, 40 days at 30°-37 C (86O-99O

4 5 % VS reduction, 30 days at 20°C (68°F)

SOUR at

20°C (68°F)

is

11.5

mg oxygen/hr/g t

214

days at

>40T (104°F)

with an average

>

pH adjustment

212 measured at 25°C (77'F),' and remain at

2 hours and 21 1.5 for 22 more hours

Drying without primary solids

Drying with primary solids

275% Total Solids (TS) prior to mixing

290%

TS

prior

to

mixing




Sum mary of Requirements for Vector Attract ion Reduct ion Options (cont inu ed

Option Requirement

Soil injection

Soil incorporation

No significant amount of solids is present on th

1 hour after injection. Class A biosolids must b

8

hours after the pathogen reduction process.

6

hours after land application; Class A biosoli

applied on the land within

8

hours after being

the treatment process.

Daily cover at field site

Biosolids placed on a surface disposal site mus

with soil or other material at the end of each o

212 measured at 25°C (77°F); and remain at

30 minutes without addition of more alkaline m

pH adjustment of septage

*Or

corrected to

25°C




Ideal Operating Ranges for Methane Fermentation

Parameter Optimum Extreme

Temperature, C 30-35 25-40

6.g7.6 6.2-8.0

v

H

Alkalinity, mg/L as CaCO3 2,000-3,000 1,000-5,000 -

z

Volatile acids,

mg/L as acetic

acid 50-500 2,000 0

is

.-

Performance for Various Types of Domestic Wastewater Solids

Feed Total

Solids, %

ype of Wastewater Solids

Primary + waste-activated solids 3-8

WAS)

Primary + WAS + trickling filter

Primary +WAS + FeCl3 5-8

Primary +WAS

+

FeCl3 digested 6-8

Tertiary with lime 8

Tertiary with aluminum 4-6

6-8

Typical Cycle

Time,

hr

2-2.5

1.5-3

3-4

3

1.5

6

Cake Total

Solids,

%

45-50

35-50

40-45

40

55

36

339




Typical Design Criteria for Class

B

Alkaline Stabilization

Parameter Design Criterion

Alkaline dose

Retention time in mixer

Retention time in curing vessel

0.25

lbllb of wastewater solids at 20% solids

1 minute

30 minutes

Typical Biosolids Application Scenarios

Type

of

Sitel

Vegetation

Agricultural land

Corn

Small grains

Soybeans

Hay

Forest land

Range land

Reclamation sites

Application

Schedule Frequency Application Rate

April, May,

after harvest

March-June,

August, fall

April-June, fall

After each

cutting

Year round

Year round

Year round

Annually 5-1 0 dry tons/acre

Up

to

3 times

per year

Annually 5-20 dry tons/acre

Up

to

3

times

per year

Once every

2-5 years

Once every 2-60 dry tons/acre

1-2 years

Once 60-1

00

Urv tons/acre

2-5 dry tons/acre

2-5

dry tons/acre

5-1 00

dry tons/acre

34




General Requirements for Land Application o f Sewage Sludge

(a) No person shall apply sewage sludge to the land except in accordance with

(b)

No

person shall apply bulk sewage sludge that is nonexceptional quality for

USEPA

Part 503 Biosolids Rule land application requirements.

pollutants (i.e., subject

to

cumulative pollutant loading rates in

503.13(b)(2))

to

agricultural land, forest, a public contact site, or a

503.1 3(b)(2) have been reached.

(c) No person shall apply domestic septage

to

agricultural land, forest, or a

reclamation site during a 365-day period if the annual application rate in

503.1 3(c) has been reached during that period.

(d) The person who prepares bulk sewage sludge that is applied to agricultural

land, forests, areas where the potential for contact with the public is high

(i.e., public contact site), or a reclamation site shall provide the person who

applies the bulk sewage sludge written notification of the concentration of

total

nitrogen (as N on a dry weight basis) in the bulk sewage sludge.

(e)(l) The person who applies sewage sludge to the land shall obtain information

needed

to

comply with applicable Part 503 requirements.

(e)(2)(i) Before bulk sewage sludge that is subject to cumulative pollutant loading

rates (CPLRs) in 503.1 3(b)(2) is applied to the land, the person who

proposes to apply the bulk sewage sludge shall contact the permitting

authority for the state in which the bulk sewage sludge is being applied, to

determine whether bulk sewage sludge subject

to

the cumulative pollutant

loading rates in 503.1 3(b)(2) has been applied to the site since July 20,

1993.

(ii) If bulk sewage sludge subject

to

CPLRs has not been applied

to

the site

since

July

20, 1993, the cumulative amount of each pollutant listed in

Table 2

of

503.13 may be applied

to

the site in accordance with

503.1 3(a)(2)(i).

(iii) Ifbulk sewage sludge subject to CPLRs in 503.13(b)(2) has been applied to

the site since July 20, 1993, and the cumulative amount of each pollutant

applied to the site since that date is known, the cumulative amount of each

POllUtant applied to the site shall be used

to

determine the additional

amount of each pollutant that can be applied to the site in accordance with

503.1 3(a)(2)(i).

(iV) If

bulk sewage sludge subject to CPLRs in 503.13(b)(2) has been applied to

the Site since July

20,

1993, and the cumulative amount of each pollutant

applied

to the site since that date is not known, sewage sludge subject to

CPLRS may no longer be applied

to

the site.

Table continued

on

next page

rn

i

-

reclamation site if any of the cumulative pollutant loading rates in

3

341




General Requirements for Land Application of Sewage Sludge

(continued)

(9

A person who prepares bulk sewage sludge shall provide the person who

applies the bulk sewage sludge notice and necessary information

to

comply with applicable Part 503 requirements.

(9) When the person who prepares sewage sludge gives the material to

another person who prepares sewage sludge, the person who provides the

sewage sludge shall provide

to

the person who receives sewage sludge

notice and necessary information to comply with the applicable Part 503

requirements.

(h) The person who applies bulk sewage sludge

to

the land shall provide the

owner/leaseholder of the land on which the bulk sewage sludge is applied

notice and necessary information to comply with applicable Part 503

requirements.

(i) Any person who prepares bulk sewage sludge that is applied to land in a

state other than the state in which the bulk sewage sludge is prepared,

sha ll provide written notice, prior

to

the initial application of bulk sewage

sludge to the land application site by the applier,

to

the permitting authority

for the state in which the bulk sewage sludge is proposed

to

be applied.

The notice must include

(1) The location by either street address or latitude/longitude of each land

application site.

(2) The approximate time period in which the bulk sewage sludge will be

applied

to

the site.

(3) The name, address, telephone number, and National Pollutant

Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit number (if appropriate) for

the person who prepares the bulk sewage sludge.

(4) The name, address, telephone number, and NPDES permit number (if

appropriate) for the person who will apply the bulk sewage sludge.

0)

Any person who applies bulk sewage sludge subject to the

CPLRs

in

503.1 3(b)(2) to the land shall provide written notice, prior to the initial

application of the bulk sewage sludge to the application site by the applier,

to the permitting authority for the state in which the bulk sewage sludge

W i l l

be applied, and the permitting authority shall retain and provide access

to the notice. The notice must include

(1) The location, by either street address or latitude/longitude,

of

each land

application site.

2) he name, address, and NPDES permit number (if appropriate) of the

person who wil l apply the bulk sewage sludge.

342




Pollutant L imi ts or the Land Application

of

Sewage Sludge

Concentration Limits

Pollu tant Concentrations (PC)

(Table

3

of

40

CFR

503.13)

Monthlyeiling Concentrations

(Table

1

of

40

CFR

503.13),

Average,

v

=

ollutant

mg/kg (dry weight) mg/kg (dry weight) -

2

Arsenic 75 41

0

G

Cadmium 85 39

Chromium 3,000 1,200

Copper 4,300 1,500

Lead 840

300

Mercury 57

17

olybdenum' 75

Nickel

420 420

Selenium 100 36

Zinc

7,500 2,800

loadin g Rates

Cumulative Pollutant Loading Annual Pollutant

Rates (CPLRs) (Table 2 of

40 CFR 503.13)

Loading Rates (RPLRs)

(Table 4 of 40 CFR 503.13)

kg/ha/365-day Ib/acre3f -day

kg/ha (dry lb /acre (dry period (dry period

(Ury

Pollutant

weiah t) weiahtl weiah t) weight)

Arsenic 41 37 2.0 1.8

Cadmium

Chromium

Copper

Lead

Mercury

Molybdenum'

Nickel

Selenium

Zinc

39 35

3,000 2,677

1,500 1,339

300 268

17 15

420 375

100 89

2,800 2,500

1.9

150

75

15

0.85

21

5.0

140

1.7

134

67

13

0.76

19

4.5

125

*The pollutant concentration limit, cumulative pollutant loading rate, and annual

pollutant loading rate for molybdenum were deleted from Part 503 effectiveFeb-

ruary 19, 1994. USEPA will reconsider establishing these limits at a later date.

343




Exclusions From USEPA Part 503

Biosolids

Rule

Part

503

Does

Not

Include

Requirements

for:

reatment of Biosolids-Processes used to treat sewage sludge prior to final use or

disposal (e.g., thickening, dewatering, storage, heat drying)

Selection of Use or Disposal Practice-The selection of a biosolids use or disposal

practice

Incineration of Biosolids With Other Wastes-Biosolids co-fired in an incinerator with

other wastes (other than as an auxiliary fuel)

Storage of Biosolids-Placement of biosolids on land for 2

years or leSS (or longer when

demonstrated not to be a surface disposal site but rather, based on practices, constitutes

treatment or temporary storage)

Industrial Sludge-Sludge generated at an industrial facility during the treatment of

industrial wastewater with or without combined domestic sewage

:

Hazardous Sewage Sludge-Sewage sludge determined to be hazardous in accordance

with

40

CFR Part

261,

Identification and Listing of Hazardous Waste




Exclusions From

USEPA

Part

503 Biosolids

Rule (continued)

Part

503

Does Not Include Requirements for:

Sewage Sludge Containing PCBs 250 mg/kg-Sewage sludge with a concentration of

polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) equal to or greater than

50

mg/kg of total solids (dry

weight basis)

Incinerator Ash-Ash generated during the firing of biosolids in a biosolid incinerator

Grit and Screenings-Grit (e.g., sand, gravel, cinders) or screenings (e.g., relatively large

materials such as rags) generated during preliminary treatment of domestic sewage in a

treatment works

Drinking Water Sludge-Sludge generated during the treatment of either surface water

or groundwater used for drinking water

Certain Nondomestic Septage-Septage that contains industrial or commercial septage,

including grease-trap pumpings




Who Must

Apply

for a Permit?

Treatment works treating domest ic sewage (TWTDS)

required

to apply

for

a

permit

All generators of biosolids that are regulated by USEPA Part 503 Biosolids Rule

industrial facilities that

separate

treat domestic sewage and generate biosolids

All

surface disposal site owner/operators

All biosolids incinerator owner/operators

Any person (e.g., individual, corporation, or government entity) who changes the

quality of biosolids regulated by Part 503 (e.g., biosolids blenders

or

processors)’

Any other person or facility designated by the permitting authority as a TWTDS

TWTDS an d other persons not aufomatica//yequired t o apply for a permitt

Biosolids land appliers, haulers, persons who store, or transporters who do not

generate or do not change the quality of the biosolids

Landowners

of

property on which biosolids are applied

Domestic septage

pumpers/haulers/treaters/appliers

Biosolids packagers/baggers (who do not change the quality of the biosolids)

(including all publicly owned treatment works)

that are regulated by Part 503

*I f all t he biosolids received by a biosolids blender or composter are exceptional

quality (EQ) biosolids, then no permit will be required for the person who receives

or processes the EQ biosolids.

t

USEPA may request permit applications from these facilities when necessary to

protect public health and the environment from reasonably anticipated effects of

pollutants that may be present in biosolids.

346




Types

o f

Land

Onto Which Different

Types of

Biosolids May B e Applied

Biosolids Pathogen VARt Type of

Option' Class Options l an d Other Restrictions

CPLR

None

rn

v

EQ A 1-8

All'

PC

A 9 or 10

All

except lawn and Management practices .=

home gardens5

6

1-10

All

except lawn and Management practices

m

home gardenss and site restrictions

A 1-10 All except lawn and Management practices

home garden

6

1-10 All except lawn and Management practices

home gardeng* and site restrictions

APLR A 1-8

All,

but most likely Labeling management

lawns and home practice

gardens

.-

E l l = exceptional qualily; PC = pollutant concentration; CPLR = cumulative pol-

t

VAR

=

vector attraction reduction.

*Agricultural land, forest, reclamation sites, and lawns and home gardens.

§It is not possible to impose site restrictions on lawns and home gardens.

**It is not possible to track cumulative additions of pollutants on lawns and home

lutant loading rate; APLR

=

annual pollutant loading rate.

gardens.

Solids Concentrations and Other Characteristics

of

Various

Types o f

Sludge

Advanced Tertiary),

Primary, Secondary, Chemical Precipitation,

Wastewater Treatment Gravity Biological Filtration

Sludge

Amounts generated, 2.5-3.5 15-20 25-30

Urn3 of

wastewater

Solids content,

%

3-7

0.5-2.0 0.2-1.5

Organic content, % 6&80 5 C M O 35-50

Treatability, relative Easy

Difficult Difficult

Dewatered

by

belt filter

Feed solids, % 3-7 3-6

Cake solids, % 28-44 20-35

347




Summary

of

Class

A

and Class

8

Pathogen Reduction Requirements

Class

A

In addition to meeting the requirements in one of the six alternatives listed below,

fecal coliform or

SalmoneNa

sp. bacteria levels must meet specific density

requirements at the time of biosolids use or disposal, or when prepared for sale or

giveaway.

-

5:

.-

m

lternative

1

Thermally Treated Biosolids

Alternative 2: Biosolids Treated in a High pH-High Temperature Process

Alternative 3: For Biosolids Treated in Other Processes

Use one of four time-temperature regimens.

Specifies pH, temperature, and air-drying requirements.

Demonstrate that the process can reduce enteric viruses and viable helminth

ova. Maintain operating conditions used in the demonstration.

Demonstration of the process is unnecessary. Instead, test for pathogens-

Salmonella sp. or fecal coliform bacteria, enteric viruses, and viable helminth

ova-at the time the biosolids are used or disposed of, or are prepared for

sale or giveaway.

Biosolids are treated in one of the PFRPs (see the table titled Processes to

Further Reduce Pathogens-page 362).

Biosolids are treated in a process equivalent

to

one of the PFRPs, aS

determined by the permitting authority.

Alternative 4: Biosolids Treated in Unknown Processes

Alternative

5:

Use of Processes to Fulther Reduce Pathogens (PFRPs)

Alternative 6:

s e

of a Process Equivalent to PFRPs

Class

B

The requirements in one of the three alternatives below must be met.

Alternative 1 Monitoring of Indicator Organisms

Test

for

fecal coliform density as an indicator for all pathogens at the time of

biosolids use or disposal.

Biosolids are treated in one of the PSRPs (see the table titled Processes to

Significantly Reduce Pathogens-page 364).

Biosolids are treated in a process equivalent to one of the PSRPs, as

determined by the permitting authority.

Alternative

2:

Use of Processes to Significantly Reduce Pathogens (PSRPs)

Alternative 3: Use of Processes Equivalent to PSRPs

349




Summary

of

Vector Attraction Reduction Options

Requirements in one of the following options must be met:

Option 1 Reduce the m a s of volatile solids by a minimum of

38%.

Option

2:

Demonstrate vector attraction reduction (VAR) with additional

anaerobic digestion in a bench-scale unit.

Option

3:

Demonstrate VAR with additional aerobic digestion in a bench-scale

unit.

Option 4: Meet a specific oxygen uptake rate for aerobically treated biosolids.

Option 5: Use aerobic processes at greater than

104°F (4OOC)

(average

temperatures 113°F

[45"C])

for

14

days or longer (e.g., during biosolids

composting).

Option 6: Add alkaline materials to raise the pH under specified conditions.

Option

7:

Reduce moisture content

of

biosolids that do not contain unstabilized

solids from other than primary treatment to at least

75%

solids.

Option

8:

Reduce moisture content of biosolids with unstabilized solids to at

least

90 .

Option

9:

Inject biosolids beneath the soil surface within a specified time,

depending on the level of pathogen treatment.

Option

10:

Incorporate biosolids applied to or placed on the land surface with in

specified time periods after application to or placement on the land surface.




Restrictions for the

Harvesting

of

Crops and Turf, Grazing of Animals,

and

Public Access on Sites

Where

Class B Biosolids Are Applied

Restrictions for the harvesting of crops and turf:

Food crops, feed crops, and fiber crops, whose edible parts do not touch the

rA

urface of

the

soil, shall not be harvested until 30

days

after biosolids

application. 0

3

-

Food crops with harvested parts that touch the biosolids/soil mixture and are

totally aboveground shall not be harvested until

74 months

after application

of biosolids.

remain on the land surface for

4

months or longer prior to incorporation into

the soil shall not be harvested until 20

months

after biosolids application.

remain on the land surface for

less

than 4 months prior to incorporation shall

not be harvested until

38

months

after biosolids application.

Turf grown on land where biosolids are applied shall not be harvested until

year

after application of

the

biosolids when the harvested turf is placed on

either land with a high potential for public exposure or a lawn, unless

otherwise specified by the permitting authority.

Animals shall not be grazed on land until 30

days

after application

of

biosolids to the land.

Food crops with harvested parts below the land surface where biosolids

Food crops with harvested parts below the land surface where biosolids

Restriction for the grazing of animals:

Restrictions for public contact:

Access

to

land with a high potential for public exposure, such as a park

or

ballfield, is restricted for

7 year

after biosolids application. Examples of

restricted access include posting with no-trespassing signs and fencing.

farmland) is restricted for 30 days after biosolids application.An example of

restricted access is remoteness.

Access to land with a low potential for public exposure (e.g., private

351




Examples

of

Crops Impacted by Site Restric tions

for

Class B Biosolids

Harvested Parts That

Usually Do Not Touch

Usually Touch the

Are

Below the

the

SoillBiosolids SoillBlosolids SoillBiosolids

Mixture

Mixture Mixture

Peaches Melons Potatoes

Apples Strawberries Yams

Oranges Eggplant Sweet potatoes

Grapefruit Squash Rutabaga

Corn Tomatoes Peanuts

Wheat Cucumbers Onions

Oats Celery Leeks

Barley Cabbage Radishes

Cotton Lettuce Turnips

Soybeans Beets

Procedure for the Applier to Determine the Amount of Nitrogen

Provided by the AWSAR Relative to the Agronomic Rate

Assum e that the an nual whole sludge (bioso lids) application rate

(AW SA R) for biosolids is 41

0

lb of biosolids p er 1,000 ft2 of land .

Ifbio sol id s were

to

be placed o n a lawn that ha s a nitrogen require-

nient

of

abou t

200

Ib* of available nitrogen p e r acre per year, the

following steps would determine the amo unt of

nitrogen p rov ided

by the AWSAR relative to the agronomic rate if the AWSAR was

used:

1.

T h e nitrogen content of the biosolids indicated on the label

is 1% total nitrogen and

0.4

available nitrogen the first

year.

2. T h e AWSAR is 41 0 Ib of biosolids per 1,000 ft2,which is

17 ,860 lb of biosolids p er acre:

410 lb

43 560 sq ft 17,860 Ib

X x

0.001

=

,00 0 sq ft acre acre

*

Assuniptions about crop nitrogen requirement, biosolids nitrogen

content,

and percent of that nitrogen that

is

available are for illustra-

tive

purposes

only.

352




3.

T h e available nitrogen from the biosolids is 71 Iblacre:

17,860 lb biosolids 71 lb

acre acre

XO.004 =

4.

Because the biosolids application will only provide 71 Ib

of

the total 200

Ib

of nitrogen required, in this case the

AWSAR

for the biosolids will no t cause the agronom ic rate

for nitrogen

to

be exceeded and an additional 129 Iblacre of

nitrogen would be needed from som e other source to sup-

ply the total nitrogen requirem ent of the lawn.

5

Frequency

of

Monitoring

for

Pollutants, Pathogen Densities, and Vector

Attraction Reduction

Amount

of

Biosolids,*

short

tons

metric tons

per Average Per

=-day

period

per Day

365

Days Frequency

>O to <290

SO to <0.85 >O to <320 Once per year

2290 to <1,500

0.85 o

<4.5

320

to 4 ,65 0 Once per quarter

(4 times per year)

21,500 to <15,000 4.5 to <45 1,650 to 4 6 , 5 0 0 Once per 60 days

(6 times per year)

(12 times per year)

Amounts

of

Biosolids,

215,000 245 216,500 Once per month

'Either the amount of bulk biosolids applied

to

the land or the amount of biosolids

received by a person who preparesbiosolids or Sale or giveaway in a bag or other

container fo r application o the land (dry weight basis).

353




USEPA Par t

503

Biosol ids Rule Land Application General Requirements

For Exceptional Qualtiy (EQ) Biosolids

None (unless set by USEPA or state permitting authority on a case-by-case basis

for bulk biosolids to protect public health and the environment).

For Pollutant Concentration (PC) and Cumulative Pollutant Loading Rate

(CPLR) Biosolids

The preparer must notify and provide information necessary to comply with the

Part 503 land application requirements

to

the person who applies bulk biosolids to

the land.

The preparer’ who provides biosolids to another person who further prepares the

biosolids for application

to

the land must provide this person with notification and

information necessary to comply with the Part 503 land application requirements.

The preparer must provide written notification of the total nitrogen concentration

(as N on a dry weight basis)

in

bulk biosolids to the applier of the biosolids

to

agricultural land, forests, public contact sites, or reclamation sites.

The applier of biosolids must obtain information necessary to comply with the Part

503 land application requirements, apply biosolids to the land

in

accordance with

the Part

503

land application requirements, and provide notice and necessary

information to the owner or leaseholder of the land on which biosolids are applied.

Out-of-State Use

The preparer must provide written notification (prior to the initial application of the

bulk biosolids by the applier)

to

the permitting authority in the state where biosolids

are proposedto be land-applied when bulk biosolids are generated in one state and

transferred to another state for application to the land. The notification must

include a ll of the following:

application site

the location (either street address or latitude and longitude) of each land

the approximate time period the bulk biosolids wil l be applied

to

the site

the name, address, telephone number, and National Pollutant Discharge

Elimination System (NPDES) permit number for both the preparer and the

applier

of

the bulk biosolids

additional information or permits

in

both states, if required by the permitting

authoritv

able

continued on next page

354




USEPA Part 503 Biosolids Rule Land Application General Requirements

(continued)

Additional Requirements for CPLR Biosolids

The applier must notify the permitting authority in the state where bulk biosolids

are to

be applied prior to the initial application of the biosolids. This is a one-time

notice requirement for each land application site each time there is a new applier.

The notice must include each of the following:

v

8

-

m

the location (either street address or latitude and longitude) of the land

the name, address, telephone number, and NPDES permit number (if

application site

appropriate)

of

the person who will apply the bulk biosolids

The applier must obtain records (if available) from the previous applier, landowner,

or permitting authority that indicate the amount of each CPLR pollutant in biosolids

that have been applied

to

the site since July 20, 1993. In addition

When these records are available, the applier must use this information o

determine the additional amount of each pollutant that can be applied to the site

in accordance with the CPLRs in the table titled Pollutant Limits (page 343).

amount of

each pollutant he or she is applying

to

the site.

available, biosolids meeting CPLRs cannot be applied

o

that site. However,

EQ

or

PC biosolids could be applied.

If biosolids meeting CPLRs have not been applied to the site in excess of the limit

since July

20,

1993, the CPLR limit for each pollutant in the table titled Pollutant

Limits (page 343) will determine the maximum amount of each pollutant that can

be applied in biosolids

if

the following are true:

The applier must keep the previous records and also record the additional

When records of past known CPLR applications since July 20, 1993, are not

all applicable management practices are followed

the applier keeps a record of the amount of each pollutant in biosolids applied

to any given site

The applier must not apply additional biosolids under the cumulative pollutant

loading Concept to a site where any of the CPLRs have been reached.

*The preparer is either the person who generates the biosolids or the person who

derives a material from biosolids.

355




USEPA Part 503 Biosolids Rule Land Application Management Practice

Requirements

For

Exceptional Quality (EQ) B ioso lids

None (unless established by USEPA or the state permitt ing authority on a case-by-case

basis for bulk biosolids

to

protect public health and the environment).

For Pollu tant Concentration and Cumulative Pollutant Loading Rate Biosolids

These types of biosolids cannot be applied

to

flooded, frozen, or snow-covered

agricultural land, forests, public contact sites, or reclamation sites in such a way that the

biosolids enter a wetland or other waters of the United States (as defined in 40 CFR Part

122.2, which generally includes tidal waters, interstate and intrastate waters, tributaries,

the territorial sea, and wetlands adjacent

to

these waters), except as provided in a permit

issued pursuant

to

Section 402 (National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System permit)

or Section 404 (Dredge and

Fill

Permit) of the Clean Water Act, as amended.

These types of biosolids cannot be applied to agricultural land, forests, or reclamation

sites that are 33 ft (10 m) or less from US waters, unless otherwise specified by the

permitting authority.

If applied to agricultural lands, forests, or public contact sites, these types of biosolids

must be applied at a rate that is equal to or less than the agronomic rate for nitrogen for

the crop t o be grown. Biosolids applied to reclamation sites may exceed the agronomic

rate for nitrogen as specified by the permitting authority.

These types of biosolids must not harm or contribute to the harm of a threatened or

endangered species or result in the destruction or adverse modification of the species'

critical habitat when applied to the land. Threatened or endangered species and their

critical habitats are listed in Section 4 of the Endangered Species Act. Critical habitat is

defined as any place where a threatened or endangered species lives and grows during

any stage of its life cycle. Any direct or indirect action (or the result of any direct o r

indirect action) in a critical habitat that diminishes the likelihood of survival and recovery

of a listed species is considered destruction or adverse modification of a critical habitat.

For Annu al Pollution Loading Rate (APLR) Biosolids

A label must be affixed to the bag or other container or an information sheet must be

Provided

to

the person who receives APLR biosolids in other containers.At a minimum,

the label o r information sheet must contain the following information:

the name and address of the person who prepared the biosolids for sale or

a statement that prohibits application of the biosolids

to the

land except in

an annual whole sludge (biosolids) application rate, or annual whole sludge

the nitrogen content

giveaway in a bag or other container

accordance with the instructions on the label or information sheet

application rate, for the biosolids that do not cause the APLRs to be exceeded

There is no labeling requirement for EQ biosolids sold or given away in a bag or other

container.

356




Record-Keeping and Reporting Requirements

Type of

B oso ds

Records That Must Be Kept

Exceptional quality

(EQ)

Pollutant concentrations

Pathogen reduction certification and description

Vector attraction reduction (VAR) certification and description

Pollutant concentration Pollutant concentrations

(PC)

Management practice certification and description

Site restriction certification and description (where class

B

pathogen requi

Pathogen reduction Certification and description

VAR certification and description

Cumulative pollutant Pollutant concentrations

loading rate (CPLR)


Site restriction certification and description (if class

6

pathogen requireme






Record -Keep ing and Repor t ing Requ i rem ents (con t inued)

Type

of

Biosol ids ecords That Must Be Kept

Other information.

.

.

.

w

l

.

Certification and description of information gathered (information from th

applier, landowner, or permitt ing authority regarding the existing cumulati

at the site from previous biosolids applications)

Site location

Number of hectares

Amount of biosolids applied

Cumulative amount of pollutant applied (including previous amounts)

Date of application

Annual pollutant loading Pollutant concentrations

rate (APLR)




The annual whole sludge application rate for the biosolids

*Reporting responsibilities are only for publicly owned treatment works (POTWs) with a design flow

t The preparer certifies and describes VAR methods other than injection and incorporation of biosolids

$Records that certify and describe injection or incorporation of biosolids into the soil do not have to b

5Some of this information has

to

be reported only when 90% or more of any of the CPLRs is reached

sludge management facilities.

ration of biosoiids into the soil.




Management Practices for Surface Disposal Sites

Biosolids placed on a disposal unit must not harm threatenedor endangered

species.

The active biosolids unit must not restrict base flood flow.

The active biosolids unit must be located in a geologically stable area:

must not be located in an unstable area

must not be located in a fault area with displacement in Holocene time (unless

allowed by the permitting authority)

if

located in

a

seismic impact zone, must be able

to

withstand certain ground

movements

The active biosolids unit cannot be located in wetlands (unless allowed in a permit).

Runoff must be collected from the surface disposal site with a system capability

to

handle a 25-year, 24-hour storm event.

Only where there is a liner, leachate must be collected and the owner/operator

must maintain and operate a leachate collection system.

Only where there is a cover, there must be limits on concentrations of methane gas

in air in any structure on the site and in air at the properly line

of

the surface

disposal site.

The owner/operator cannot grow crops on site (unless allowed by the permitting

authority).

The owner/operator cannot graze animals on site (unless allowed by the permitting

authority).

The owner/operator must restrict public access.

The biosolids placed in the active biosolids unit must not contaminate an aquifer.

359




Pathogen and Vector Att raction Reduction Requi rements for Surface

Disposal Sites

Pathogen Reduction Requirements

Options (must meet one of these):

Place a daily cover on the active biosolids unit.

Meet one of six class

A

pathogen reduction requirements (see the table

titled Summary of Class A and Class B Pathogen Reduction

Requirements-page

349)

Meet one of three class B pathogen reduction requirements, except site

restrictions (see the table titled Summary of the Three Alternatives for

Meeting Class

B

Pathogen Requirements-page

362)

Vector Attraction Reduction Requirements

Options (must meet one of these):

Place a daily cover on the active biosolids unit.

Reduce volatile solids content by a minimum of

38% or

less under specific

laboratory test conditions with anaerobically and aerobically digested

biosolids.

Meet a specific oxygen uptake rate.

Treat the biosolids in an aerobic process for a specified number of days at

Raise the pH of the biosolids with an alkaline material to a specified level

Meet

a

minimum percent-solids content

Inject or incorporate the biosolids into soil

a specified temperature.

for

a

specified time.

360




The Four Time-Temperature Regimes for Class A Pathogen Reduction Under A

Regime Applies to: R

A

Biosolids with 7% solids or greater (except those

covered by regime B) 20 minutes or longer

Biosolids with 7% solids or greater in the form

of

warmed gases or an immiscible liquid

Biosolids with less than 7% solids

Temperature of biosoli

B

Temperature of biosoli

small particles and heated by contact with either 15 seconds or longer

C

Heated for at least 15

30 minutes

D

Biosolids with less than 7% solids

Temperature of sludge

30 minutes or longer c

* D = time in days; t = temperature in degrees Celsius.




Processes to Further Reduce Pathogens Listed in Appendix B of 40 CFR

Part 503

Composting

Using either the within-vessel composting method or the static aerated pile composting

method, the temperature of the biosolids is maintained at 55°C or higher for 3 days.

Using the windrow composting method, the temperature of the biosolids is maintained at

55°C or higher for 15 days or longer. During the period when the compost is maintained

at 55°C or higher, the windrow is turned a minimum of five times.

Biosolids are dried by direct or indirect contact with hot gases to reduce the mOiStUre

content of the biosolids

to 10%

or lower. Either the temperature of the biosolids particles

exceeds

80°C

or the wet bulb temperature

of

the gas in contact with the biosolids as the

biosolids leave the dryer exceeds 80°C.

Liquid biosolids are heated

to

a temperature

of

180°C or higher for 30 minutes

Liquid biosolids are agitated with air or oxygen

to

maintain aerobic conditions, and the

mean cell residence time of the biosolids is 10 days at 55 -60 C.

Heat Drying

Heat Treatment

Thermophilic Aerobic Digestion

Beta Ray Irrad iation

Biosolidsare irradiated with beta rays tiom an accelerator at dosages of at least 1

O

Mrad

at room temperature (ca. 20°C).

Biosolids are irradiated with gamma rays from certain isotopes, such as Cobalt

60

and

Cesium 137, at room temperature (ca. 20°C).

Gamma Ray Irradiation

Pasteurization

The temperatureof the biosolids is maintained at 70°C or higher for

30

minutes or longer.

Summary

of

the Three Alternatives for Meeting Class

B

Pathogen

Requirements

Alternative 1: The Monitoring of Indicator Organisms

Test for fecal coliform density as an indicator for all pathogens. The geometric mean of

seven samples shall be less than 2 million most probable numbers per gram per total solids

or less than 2 million colony-forming units per gram of total solids at the time of use or

disposal.

Alternative

2

Biosolids Treated i n Processes to Significantly Reduce Pathogens (PSRPS)

Biosolids must be treated in one of the

PSRPs

(see the table titled Process to Significantly

Reduce Pathogens Listed in Appendix 8

of

40

CFR

Part 503).

Alternative 3 Biosolids Treated in a Process Equivalent o a PSRP

Biosolids must be treated in a process equivalent to one of the PSRPs, as determined by the

permitting authority.

362




Site Restrictions for Class B Biosolids Applied to the Land

Food Crops With Harvested Parts That Touch the Biosolids/Soil Mixture

Food crops with harvested parts that touch the biosolids/soil mixture and are

totally above the land surface shall not be harvested for

14

months after

application of biosolids.

Food crops with harvested parts below the surface of the land shall not be

harvested for 1 months after applicationof the biosolids when the biosolids

remain on the land surface for 4 months or longer prior to incorporation nto the

soil.

Food

crops with harvested parts below the surface of the land shall not be

harvested for 38

months

after application of biosolids when the biosolids remain

on the land surface for less than 4 months prior to incorporation into the soil.

rn

rn

P

m

-

Food Crops With Harvested Parts Below the Land Surface

.-

Food Crops With Harvested Parts That Do Not Touch the Biosolids/Soil

Mixture, Feed Crops, and Fiber Crops

Food crops with harvested parts that do not touch the biosolids/soil mixture,

feed crops, and fiber crops shall not be harvested for

30

days after application

of biosolids.

Animal Grazing

Animals shall not be grazed on the land for 30 days after application of

biosdids.

Turf Growing

Turf grown on land where biosolids are applied shall not be harvested for 1 year

after application of the biosolids when the harvested turf is placed on either land

with a high potential for public exposure or a lawn, unless otherwise specified

by the permitting authority.

Public access to land with a high potential or public exposure shall be restricted

for year after application of biosolids.

Public access

to

land with a low potential for public exposure shall be restricted

for

30

days after application of biosolids.

Public Access

363




Processes to Signif icantly Reduce Pathogens Listed in Appendix B

of

40 CFR Part

503

Aerobic Digestion

Biosolids arc agitated with air or oxygen

to

maintain aerobic conditions for a

specific are mean cell residence time (MCRT) at a specific temperature. Values

for the

MCRT

and temperature shall be between

40

days at

20°C

and

60

days

at 15°C.

Air Drying

Biosolids are dried on sand beds

or

on paved or unpaved basins. The biosolids

dry for a minimum of

3

months. During

2

of the 3 months, the ambient average

daily temperature is above

0°C.

Anaerobic Digestion

Biosolids are treated in the absence of air for a specific MCRT at a specific

temperature. Values

for

the

MCRT

and temperature shall be between

15

days

at 35°C to 55°C and 60 days at 20°C.

Composting

Using either the within-vessel, static-aerated pile, or windrow-composting

methods, the temperature of the biosolids is raised to

40°C

or higher and

maintained for

5

days. For

4

hours during the 5-day period, the temperature n

the compost pile exceeds

55°C.

Lime Stabili zation

Sufficient lime is added to the biosolids to raise the pH of the biosolids to

12

after

2

hours of contact.

364




Summary

of

Biosolids Sampling Considerations

Factors to Consider

in

Developing a Sampling Program

Who must sample?

What must be sampled?

Preparer, land applier, surface disposer, or incinerator of biosolids

Biosolids:

v

v

E

m

-

etals (land application, surface disposal, incineration)

Pathogens and vector attraction reduction (land application and surface disposal Sites

Nitrogen (land application only)

Total hydrocarbons (or carbon monoxide), oxygen, temperature, information needed

to

only)

Biosoiids Incinerator emissions:

determine moisture content, and mercury and beryllium, when applicable

Other:

Methane gas in air (surface disposal sites only)

How often should sampling

be

done?

From once per year to once per month, depending on the amount of biosolids used or

disposed.

Take either:

How should sampling be done and how many samples should be taken?

Grab samples' (individual samples) for pathogens and percent volatile solids

Composite samples' (several grab samples combined) for metals.

No

fixed number of individual samples required (except for clas

B

pathogens, alternative

1,

take seven samples). Enough material must be taken for the sample to be

representative. Take a greater number of samples if there is a large amount of biosoiids

or i f characteristics of biosolids vary significantly.

determinations, or

When to sample?

Before use or disposal. If biosolids are used

or disposed before sampling results are

available. and the results subsequently show that a regulatory limit is exceeded, the

responsible person will be in noncompliance with USEPA Part 503 Biosolids Rule.

Usually at site of preparer (e.g., treatment works). Sometimes samples must be collected at

land application or surface disposal sites.

Sample from moving biosolids when possible to obtain a weli-mixed sample. If you must

Sample from a stationary location, the sample should represent the entire area. Appropriate

Sampling points differ for liquid or dewatered biosolids (see the table titled Sampling Points

for Biosolids (page 366).

See the table tit led Proper Conditions for Biosoiids Sampling (page 367).

Part

503 requires that specific analytical methods be used for different types of Samples.

Where to collec t samples?

What size

of

sample, sample equipment, storage times?

What methods should be used to analyze samples?

For guidance only; not a Part 503 rule requirement.

365




Sampling Points for Biosolids

Biosolids Type

Anaerobically digested

Aerobically digested

Thickened

Heat treated

Dewatered, dried,

composted, or

thermally reduced

Dewatered by belt

filter press, centrifuge,

vacuum fil ter press

Dewatered by

biosolids press (plate

and frame)

Dewatered by drying

beds

Compost pi les

Sampling Point

Collect sample from taps on the discharge side of

positive-displacementpumps.

Collect sample from taps on discharge lines from

pumps. If batch digestion is used, collect sample directly

from the digester. Cautions:

1.

If biosolids are aerated during sampling, air entrains

in

the sample. Volatile organic compounds may be

purged with escaping air.

2. When aeration is shut

off,

solids may settle rapidly.


positive-displacement pumps.


positive-displacement pumps afterdecanting. Be careful

when sampling heat-treated biosolids because of

1. High tendency for solids separation

2. High temperature of sample (temperature >60 C as

sampled) can cause problems with certain sample

containers due to cooling and subsequent

contraction of entrained gases.

Collect sample from material collection conveyors and

bulk containers. Collect sample from many locations

within the biosolids mass and at various depths.

Collect sample from biosolids discharge chute

Collect sample from the storage bin; select four points

within the storage bin, collect equal amount of sample

from each point, and combine.

Divide bed into quarters, grab equal amounts of sample

from the center of each quarter, and combine

to

form a

composite sample of the total bed. Each composite

sample should include the entire depth of the biosolids

material (down to the sand).

Collect sample directly from front-end loader while

biosolids are being transported or stockpiled within

a

few davs of use.

366




Proper Conditions

for

Biosolids Sampling

Parameter

Wide-Mouthed

Container'

Preservative+

Metals

Solid and semisolid samples

P,

G

Cool, 4°C

Liquid (mercury only)

P, G

HNO3 to pH <2

Liquid (all other liquid metals)

P , G

HNO3 to pH <2

Pathogen Density and Vector Att raction Reduction

Pathogens

G. P, B. SS

1.

Cool

in ice and water

to

<lO°C if a

delayed

21

hour, or

2.

Cool

promptly to

< 4 T , or

3. Freeze and store samples

to

be an

for viruses at 0°C

Vector attraction reduction Varies$

* P = plastic (polyethylene,polypropylene,polytetrafluoroethylene);G = glass (nonetched, heat-resis

t

Preservativesshould

be

added

to

sampling containers prior to actual sampling episodes. Storage tim

.t

Varies with analytical method. Consult

40

CFR

Parts

136

and

503.

5Reduced at the laboratory in -300-mL samples.

** Do not freeze bacterial or helminth ova samples.

SS

=stainless steel (not steel- or zinc-coated).

ping of preserved samples to the laboratory may be, but is generally not, regulated under

US.

Dep




Discharge and

Disinfect on

Thefinal

ischarge of wastewater requires

compliance with regulations. Profier treatm ent is

cri tical o r the disinfection of wastewater and for

environmental firotection.

369




CHLORINE

Reaction With Ammonia

Chlorairiines are formed in three successive steps, as shown in the

following equations:

NHj + HOCl

-+

NHzCI

+

H20

(ammonia) (hypochlorous (monochloraniine)

acid)

NHzCI

+

HOCl -+ NHCIz + H20

(monochlorainine) (hypochlorous (dichloranline)

acid)

NHClz +

HOCl -+

NCI:j +

HzO

(dichloranline) (hypochlorous (trichloramine)

acid)

Reaction With Hydrogen Sulfide

When chlorine is used to reiiiove hydrogen sulfide (HzS), one of

two reactions can occur, depending on the chlorine dosage:

CI: +

H2S

-+

2HC1 + s

(chlorine) (hydrogen sulfide) (hydrochloricacid) (sulfur)

or

4C12 + H2S + 4Hy0

-

8HC1

f H z S 0 4

(chlorine) (hydrogen (water) (hydrochloric

(sulfuric

sulfide) acid) acid)

Available

Chlorine in

NaOCl

Solution

Percent Available Chlorine,

Available Chlorine Ib/gal

10.0

0.833

12.5 1.04

15.0

1.25

370




When added to water, Ca OC1)2 reacts as follows:

Ca OC1)Z + 2 H z 0 2HOC1 + Ca 0H)y

calcium water) hypochlorous lime)

hypochlorite) acid)

Sodium hypochlorite reacts with water to produce the desired

HOCl as follows:

NaOCl + 2 H z 0

-+ HOCl

+

NaOH

c

sodium

water) hypochlorous

sodium .I

I

rn

.-

hypochlorite) acid) hydroxide)

.-

.-

n

Residual

A

basic equation for desired chlorine residual:

n

371




Amounts of Chemicals Required to Obtain Various Chlorine Concentrations in 1

5%

Available Chlorine

10%

Available Chlorin

Desired Chlorine

Sodium Hypochlorite Req

Concentration

Required

i

Ill.*,,.

I ..1.r

mg/L

Ib

ks)

gal L) gal

N

2

1.7

(0.8) 3.9

(14.7)

2.0

(7.6)

10

8.3

(3.8) 19.4 (73.4) 9.9 (37.5)

50

42.0 (19.1)

97.0 (367.2)

49.6 (187.8)

'Amounts

of

sodium hypochlorite are based on concentrations

of

available chlorine

b y

volume For eith

storage of chemicals may cause a loss of available chlonne

w

2

Amounts

of

Chemicals Required to Obtain Various

Chlorine Concentrations in 2

Volume of Chlorine

Water Required

gal

L)

Ib ks)

10 (37.9)

0.02 (9.1)

50 (189.3)

0.1

(45.4)

100 (378.5)

0.2 (90.7)

200

(757.1)

0.4 (181.4)

Sodium Hypochlorite Req

5%

Available Chlorine

10%

Available Chlorin

gal

L)

gal

N

0.04 (0.15)

0.02 (0.08)

0.2

(0.76) 0.1 (0.38)

0.4 (1.51)

0.2

(0.76)

0.8 (3.031

0.4 (151)

* Amounts 01sodidm nypochlorite

are

DaSedo concenlrallons

of

available chlorlne by

volume

For eith

storage

1

cnemicals may cause a ass

of

available chlorlne




Number of

5 9

Calcium Hypochlorite Tablets Required for Dose

of 25

mg/L'

length

of Pipe Section, f t

m)

Pipe Diameter

513

(4.0) 18 (5.5)

20

(6.1)

30 (9.1)

40

12.2)

in. mm) Number of 5-g Calcium Hypochlorite Tablets

4 (100)

1

1 1 1 1

6 (150) 1 1 1 2 2

8 ZOO) 1 2

2 3 4

10 (250) 2 3

3

4 5

12

(300)

3

4

4

6

aY

S

v)

.-

.I-

.-

.-

n

6

(400) 4 6

7

10 13

2

higher integer. m

F

Based on 3.25-9 available chlorine per tablet; any portion

ot

tablet rounded to

the

next

aY

Cylinder Vent Line

Filter

Yoke Valve Rate Valve

Clamp

Valve Inlet Manually Adjusted

Flow Rate

Indicator

Lead

Gasket

Regulating

Diaphragm

Ch lorine Assembly Water

Gas Supply

Chlorine

Liquid

b

r

cn

.-

n

Vacuum Line

Ejector Assembly

With Check Valve

Ejector

Discharge

Gas Chlorinator

373




0

10

20

50

60 2

70

$

+

._

80

90

100

4

6 7

8

9 1 0 1 1

DH

Relationship Among Hypochlorous Acid, Hypochlorite Ion, and pH

Chlorine Required to Produce 25-mg/L Concentration in 100

ft

(30.5 m)

of

Pipe by Diameter

Pipe

Diameter

100

Chlorine

1 Chlorine

Solution

in.

mm)

b

( I)

gal

L)

4

(1

00)

,013

(5.9)

.16 0.6)

6

(1 50)

030 (13.6)

36 (1.4)

8 (200) ,054

(24.5)

.65 (2.5)

10

(250)

,085

(38.6)

1.02 (3.9)

12 (300) ,120

(54.4)

1.44 (5.4)

16 (400) ,217

(98.4)

2.60 9.8)

374




3

4

I

Combined Residual

Chlorine Added

Breakpoint Chlorination Curve

Sleeve or Opening Near Ceiling

PE Gas Insect

Vacuum Line Screen

Gas

PE Vent Tubing Cylinder

Chlorination

to Outside

storage

Gas Cylinder Weighing

Exhaust Fan Scales

Scale Pit

Well

Pump

With

Check Solution Coping

Valve Outlet Angles

Regulator

Line Cabinet for

Emergency

Union Ejector Breathing

Apparatus

Emergency Scale

Overflow

pi

Diffuser Water

Pressure

Gauge Tubing Drain

in Pipeline

Booster

Pump

Centrifugal Strainer

Typical Deep-Well Chlorination System

375




To

Remote Chlorine

Flowmeter

Diaphragm

0-Ring Seat

From

Vacuum

Regulator

No.

1

Ejector

Toggle Assembly

Vacuum Tubing

Remote

Flowmeter

Vacuum

Regulator

No.

1

From

Vacuum

Regulator

No. 2

Automatic

Switchover

Module

Gas Gas

Cylinder Cylinder

No.

1

No. 2

Vacuum Regulator

No.

2

Vacuum Tubing

Vent

Typical Chlorinator Flow Diagrams

376




Poured-Type

FusiblePlug

Fusible Metal

of

Plug

Fusible Plug

Threads

Fusible Metal

of

Plug

Stem

Packing Nut

Valve Packing Gland

Outlet Cap

(Special Straight

Threads)

Valve Seat

Gasket

Valve Body

Valve Inlet

Valve Inlet Threads

Broken-Off Valve

Screwed-Type

Fusible Plug

100 150 lb

Cylinders

NOTE: Valve closes by turning clockwise; there are about

1

turns between

wide-open and fully closed positions. All threads are right-hand threads.

Valve lnlel

Stem

Packing Nut

Valve Packing

Outlet Cap

Gasket

06

Valve Seat

Valve Inlet Threads

Broken-Off Valve

I Ton Container

Courtesy o f Chorine Specialties, InC.

Standard Chlorine Cylinder Valves

S

Q

S

v)

U

la

Q

m

v)

.-

-

.I

.-

a

P

5

n

-

377




Pump

AC

Power Supply

WARNING: When hazardous chemicals are pumped against positive pressure

at point of application, use rigid pipe discharge line.

Courtesy of

US

Fi/ter/Wallace

&

Tiernan

Typical Hypochlorinator nstallation

Summary of General At tributes

of

Chlorine Dioxide, Peracetic Acid, and

UV Radiation

Attribute

GI02

Peracetic uv

Acid Radiation

Stability Moderate

Persistent residual Moderate

Potential by-product formation Yes

Reacts w i th ammonia No

pH dependent Moderate

Ease of operation Moderate

Temperature dependent Moderate

Contact t im e Moderate

Safety concerns High

Effectiveness as bactericide High

Effectiveness as viricide High

Likelihood of regrowth None

Low

None

No

No

No

Complex

Complex

LOW

High

High

High

None

High

None

No

No

No

Simple

to complex

Simple to complex

Low

Low

High

High

High

378




Recommended Chlorine Dosing Capacity for Various Types of Treatment

Based on Design Average Flow

Il linois EPA

GLUMRB'

Type

of

Treatment Dosage, mg/L Dosage, mg/L

Primary settled effluent 20

Lagoon effluent (unfiltered) 20

Lagoon effluent (filtered) 10

Trickling filter plant effluent 10 10

Activated sludge plant with chemical

S

Q

S

v)

=

S

.-

Activated sludge plant effluent 6

8

addition

Nitrified effluent 6

.c

.-

.-

n

Filtered effluent following mechanical 4 6 m

biological treatment

Q

*Great Lakes-Upper Mississippi River Board of State Public Health and Environ-

$

v)

.-

ental Managers

n

Acute Values for Chlorine Toxicity in Aquatic Species

Species Mean Acute Value, g/L

Freshwater

Daphnia magna 27.66

Fathead minnow 105.2

Brook trout

Bluegill

Sa twa e

r

117.4

245.8

Menidia 37

Mysid 162

379




Wastewater Characteristics Affecting Chlorination Performance

Wastewater Characteristic

Ammonia


Hardness, iron, nitrate

Nitrite

PH

Effects on Chlor ine Disinfection

Forms chloramines when combined with chlorine

The degree of

interference depends on their

functional groups and chemical structures

Minor effect, if any

Reduces effectiveness of chlorine and results in

trihalomethanes

Affects distribution between hypochlorous acid and

hypochlorite ions and among the various

chloramine species

Shielding

of

embedded bacteria and chlorine

demand


ULTRAVIOLET

LIGHT

Ultraviolet (UV) light rays cause dea th of microorganisms by oxi-

datio n o f their enzymes. T h e most effective wavelength is 2,650

D

1

D =

10 ' m). T h u s , rays with a wavelength <3,100

D

are effec-

tive.

The

mercury vapor lamp is an economical method of pr od uc -

ing UV light of 2,537

D.

For disinfection with UV light, water

should be clear, colorless, and shallow

(3-5

in. deep)

to

allow

effective penetration of rays. These requirements as well as no

residual effect an d cos t of application limit th e use of this m eth od

to

very sm all water supp lies.

S o m e advantages an d disadvantages of UV ligh t are listed i n the

following sections.

Advantages

U V disinfection is effective at inactivating m ost viruses,

sp ore s, a nd cysts.

UV

disinfection is a physical process rathe r than a chemical

disin fecta nt, which eliminates the need

to

generate, hand le,

tran spo rt, o r store toxicfliazardous o r corrosiv e chemicals.

T h e r e is no residual effect that can be harmful to hu m an s or

aq u at ic life.

380




UV disinfection is use r friendly for operato rs.

UV disinfection has a sho rter contact time wh en conipared

with o th er disinfectants (approximately 20 30 seconds with

low-pressu re lamps).

methods.

UV disinfection equip me nt requires less sp ace than other

r

.-

Lo w dosage may no t effectively inactivate som e viruses,

spore s, an d cysts.

2

*g

n

Orga nism s can sometimes repair an d reverse t he destructive

effects o f UV thro ugh a “repair m echanism,” know n as

ph o to reactivation, o r in the absence oflight know n as “dark

,-

m

repair.” Q,

P

5

fouling of tubes.

.-

n

A preven tive maintenance progra m is necessary to control

T ur bi di ty an d total susp ende d solids (TSS ) in the waste-

v)

water c an render UV disinfection ineffective. U V disinfec-

tion

with

low-pressure lamps is no t as effective for

secondary emuen t with

TSS

levels above

30 mg/L.

UV disinfection is no t as cost-effective as chlorination, bu t

costs a re competitive w hen

chlorination-dechlonnation

is

used

and

fire cod es are met.

381




Flow

UV Horizontal Lamp

Module With

Support Racks

Automatic

Level Control

Flap Gate

Level Control

UV Bank

1

UV Bank 2

Flow

UV Vertical Lamp

Module With

Support Rack

NOTE:

A UV bank is composed of a number of UV

isometric Cut-Away Views of Typical UV Disinfection Systems

Wastewater Characteristics Affecting UV Disinfection Performance

Wastewater Characteristic

Effects on

UV

Disinfection

Minor effect, if anymmonia


BOD)

Hardness

Humic materials, iron

Nitrate

Nitrite

PH


Minor effect, i f any. If

a large portion of the

BOD

is

humic and/or unsaturated of conjugated)

compounds, however, then UV transmittance may

be diminished.

Affects solubility of metals that can absorb UV

light. Can lead

to

the precipitation of carbonates on

quartz tubes.

High absorbency of

UV radiation



Affects solubility of metals and carbonates

Absorbs UV radiation and shields embedded

bacteria

382




Mechan isms of Disinfection Using UV, Chlorine, and Ozone

uv

Chlorine

1.

Photochemical damage to 1. Oxidation

RNA

and DNA (e&,

2, Reactions with

available chlorine

ormation of double

bonds) within the cells of

an organism. 3. Protein precipitation

microorganisms are the wall Permeability

most important absorbers

5.

Hydrolysis and

O the energy O light in

the wavelength range of disruption

240-280 nm.

carry genetic information

for reproduction, damage

of these substances can

effectively inactivate the

cell.

2, The nucleic acids in

4. ModificationOf

Ce l l

mechanical

3.

Because DNA and RNA

Ozone

1. Direct oxidation/

destruction

of

cell wall

with leakage of

cellular constituents

outside of cell

2. Reactions with radical

by-products of ozone ,=

Q

c

rn

.-

decomposition

..

constituentsof the

.-

and pyrimidines)

5

v

.

Damage to the

.-

nucleic acids (purines

4. Breakage of carbon-

ca

nitrogen bonds s

r

rn

eading to

depolymerization a

.-

m

3 A

5

20 40 60

80

100 120

140

Dose rnW.sec/crn2

Copyright 1998 from Wastewater Reclamation

and

Reuse,edited by Takashi Asano.

Reproduced by permission of Routledgelraylor 8 Francis Group,

LLC.

Typical Log Survival Versus Dose Curve of MS2 Coliphage Developedas

Part

of

a

Bioassay

for

the Measurement of UV

Dose

Within

a

UV Reactor

383




L

o

g

S

u

r

v

v

a

l

o

N

t

N

o

/

i1

i

n

t

e

n

s

t

y

r

n

W

c

nZ

L

L

N

T

m

n




Comparison of Impact of Wastewater Characteristics on UV Chlorine and Ozo

Wastewater

Characteristic

Disinfection Chlorine Disi

Ammonia

Biochemical oxygen

demand BOO),

chemical oxygen

demand COO), etc.

Hardness

Humic materials

Iron

Nitrate

Nitrite

PH

Total Suspended solids

No

or minor effect

No or minor effect, u n l w humic materials

comprise a large portion of the BOD

Effects solubility of metals that may absorb

UV light. Can lead to the precipitationof

carbonates on quartz tubes.

Strong adsorbers of

UV

light

Strong adsorber of UV light

No or minor effect

No or minor effect

Can effect solubility

of

metals and

carbonates

UV absorption and shielding of embedded

bacteria

Combines with chlorine to

Organic compounds that c

and COO can exert a chlor

degree of interference dep

functional groups and thei

structure.

No or minor effect

Reduces effectiveness of c

No or minor effect

No or minor effect

Oxidized by chlorine

Effects distribution betwee

acid and hypochlorite ion

Shielding

of

embedded ba

Disch




Typical Low-intensity G64T5L UV Lamp Parameters and Performance

Range

Parameter

Standard Lamp Performance

Units Design Range

Nominal length' Inches

64

NA+

Arc

length Inches

58

NA

Lamp wattage

Watts

65

NA

Lamp input current Amperes

4.25

x lo-

3.C-5.25

x

lo-'

253.7

nm*

(hours)'

UV

output per lamp at Watts

26.7 15.4-32.0

Lamp life: guaranteed Hours

8,760 4,000-1 3,000

* A 36-in. lamp is also available, although it is seldom used in designs.

t NA =

not applicable.

*Range

of UV

output is a function of lamp current and water temperature.

§Lamp manufacturer guarantees

8,760

hours; lamp life in field depends on lamp

current and predetermined end of lamp life

UV

output intensity. The lower the

operating current, the sooner the lamp will reach end

of

lamp life, typically

defined as

65%-70%

of new lamp intensity.

Suggested Rates

of

WastewaterApplication

Soil Texture

minhn. minhn) g p u f t Uday/n?)t

Gravel, coarse sand

<1

(<0.4)

Not suitable

Coarse to medium sand

1-5 (0.4-2.0) 1.2 (0.049)

Fine to loamy sand

6-1 5 (2.4-5.9

0.8

(0.033)

Sandy loam to loam

1&30 (6.3-1 1.8) 0.6 (0.024)

Loam, porous silt

31430 (12.2-23.6) 0.45 (0.018)

Silty Clay loam, clay loam

61-120 (24.0-47.2)

0.2

0.008)

Clay, colloidal clay

>120 (>47.2)

Not suitable

Percolation rate,, Application Rate,

*min/in.

x 0.4

= min/cm

t gpd/ft2

x 40.8 =

Uday/m2

386




MA RINE DISCHARGE

Domestic Industrial

Wastewater Wastewater

Pretreatment

Biological Treatment outfall Pipeline

With Chlorination

Sampling Point

lor Eflluent

Shoreline

Treatment

Plant

Profile

Ocean

Sampling Stations lor

Water Quality Objectives

Shore Zone S

Sampling for

Water Contact Zone of

Recreation Initial Dilution

.-

c

S

v)

.-

.-

ca

Pipeline Diffuser

Schematic

Plan

and Profile Diagrams of Marine Discharge

Effluent Quality Limits of Major Wastewater Constituents for Ocean

Discharge to Protect Marine Aquatic Life

Parameter (30-day average) (7-day average) (at any time)

Suspended solids , mg/L

Settleable solids, mUL 1 o 1.5 3.0

Turbidity, n u 75 100 225

PH

Acute toxicitv.

TUa*

1.5 2.0 2.5

Monthly Weekly Maximum

Grease and

oil, mg/L 25

40

75

60 with a minimum removal

of

75%

Within limits

of

6.0-9.0 at all times

100

96-hour LC 50

*TUa =

Where:

TUa = toxicity units acute

LC = lethal concentration50%




Abbreviations

and Acronyms

In th e wastewater industry as

n

otherfields and

discifilines, m any names, titles, firograms,

organizations, legislative acts, measurements,

and activities are abbreviated to reduce the

volume

of

words and to si m fi l j communications.

In

his section,

common

abbreviations and

acronyms used

in the

wa ter and wastewater

industries-not only n th is guide-are listed

for easy reference.

389




A

AACE

AADF

AAS

A A S H T O

ABPA

ARS

AC

A-C

ACM

acre-ft

ACS

ADA

ADF

AES

AHM

A.hr

AIChE

AIEE

AMWA

ANOVA

ANPRM

ANSI

AOC

APHA

APLR

APWA

ASCE

ASDWA

ASME

ASSE

ASTM

atm

avdp

or a1

AWRA

AWSAR

AWWA

AwwaRF

angstrom

ampere

American Association

of

Co st Engineers

annual average daily flow

atomic absorption spectrophotom etry

American Association of State Highway and

Am erican Backflow Prevention Association

alkylbenzene sulfonate; acrilonitrile butadiene sty rene

alternating current

asbestos cement

asbestos-containing material

acre-foot

American Chernical Society

Am ericans with Disabilities Act

average daily flow

atomic emission spectroscopy

acutely h azardo us material

ampere-hour

American Institute

of

Chemical Engineers

American Institute

of

Electrical Engineers

Association of M etropolitan W ater Agencies

analysis ofvariance

Advanced Notice of Prop osed Rulemaking

American National Standards Institute

assiinilable organic ca rbon

American Public Health A ssociation

annual pollutant loadin g rate

Am erican Public Works Association

American Society of Civil Eng ineers

Association of State Drinking Water Adm inistrators

American Society

of

Mechanical Engineers

American Society o f Safety Enginee rs; Association of

American Society for Testing an d Materials

atmosphere

ioir. avoirdupois

Am erican Water Resources Association

annual w hole sludge (biosolids) application rate

Am erican Water Works Association

Awwa Research Foundation

Transporta tion Officials

State Sanitary Engineers

390




BAT

bbl

BDOM

BC

BEAC

BeV

bgd

bhP

bil gal

BNR

BOD

BOM

bPh

bPS

Bq

BSA

Btu

bu

BV

C

C

C X

To rCT

CAA

CBO D

ccf

C C L

CCR

cd

C D C

CERCLA

C F

h

C F R

cfs

CfU

CGPM

Ci

CI

best available technology

barrel

biodegradable organic matter

BaumC

biologically enhanced activated carbon

billion electron volts

billion gallons per day

brake horsepower

billion gallons

biological nutrient removal

biochemical oxygen dem and

o r

biological oxygen

background organic matter; biodegradable organic

barrels per hou r

binary digits (bits) per secon d

becquerel (metric equivalent of curie)

bovine serum albumin

British thermal unit

bushel

bed volume

demand

matter

degrees Celsius

coulomb

disinfectant conce ntration X time

Clean Air Act

carbonaceous biochemical oxygen de mand

100

cubic feet

Contaminant C andid ate List

consum er confidence repo rt

candela

Ce nters for Disease C ontro l and Prevention

Coinprehensive Environmental Re spon se,

conventional filtration

cub ic feet per minute

Code of Federal Regulations


colony-forming unit

General Conference on Weights and M easures

curie

cast iron

Co mpensation, and Liability Act

391




CIPP

C/kg

cm

CMMS

C O D

Co-Pt

CPLR

cpni

C P P

CPS

CPSC

CPU

CPVC

CSA

C T

C T o r C X

CTS- PE

CUR

CWA

cws

cu

d

D

d a

DAF

dB

DBCP

DBP

D C

DCS

DCV

DCVA

D/DBP

D D T

DE

DI

diam.

DIPRA

dL

DO

cured in place pro du ct or pipe

coulom bs per kilogram

centimeter

com puteriz ed maintenance management system

chemical oxygen dem and

chloroplatinate

cumulative pollutant loadin g rate

counts per m inute

concrete pressure pipe

cycles per second ( 1 cps 1

Hz)

Con sum er Prod ucts Safety Commission

chloro platina te units

chlorin ated polyvinyl chlorid e

Canadian Standards Association

con tact time

disinfectant concentration

X

time

copper tubing size polyethylene

colo r unit; cubic

activated carb on usage rate

Clean W ater Act

com mu nity water system

degree

dalton

darcy

dissolved air flotation

decibel

dibrornochloropropane

disinfection by-p roduct

direct current

distribu ted control system

double check valve

double ch eck valve asseinbly

disinfectant/disinfection

by-product

dichlorodiphenyltricldoroethane

diatomaceous earth (filtration)

ductile iron

diameter

Ductile Iron Pipe Research Association

deciliter

dissolved oxygen

day

392




D O C

D O T

DPD

d r

DSP

D T S

DWCCL

DWV

E B C T

EC

ED

EDB

EDR

EDTA

EGL

EIS

ElCD

emf

EPA

EPCRA

EJC

EPDM

EPI-DMA

EQ

e d L

ES

ESA

ESWTR

eV

F

F

tbm

FEMA

FIFRA

oz

FM

F/M

f p s

FRP

dissolved organic carbon

Departm ent of Transportation

N N diethyl 8 phenylenediamine

dram

disodium phosphate

dry ton of solids

Drinking Water Contam inant Ca ndid ate List

drain, waste, and vent (pipe)

empty-bed conta ct time

electrical conductivity

electrodialysis

o r

effective diameter

ethylene dibromide

electrodialysis reversal

ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid

energy grade line

Environmental Impact Statement

Engineers Joint Cou ncil

electrolytic conductivity d etec tor

electromotive force

Environm ental Protection Agency

Emergency Planning and Com munity

ethylene propylene diene monomer

epichlorohydrin dimethylamine

exceptional quality

equivalents per liter

effective size

Endangered Species Act

Enhanc ed Surface Water Treatment Ru le

electron volt

Right-to-Know Act

degrees Fahrenheit

farad

board feet (feet board measure)

Federal Emergency M anagement Agency

Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Ro dentic ide Act

fluid ounce

Factory Mutual Engineering Corporatio n

food-to-microorganism ratio

foot per second

fiberglass-reinforced plastic

m

m

393




ft

ft/hr

ftlinin

ft/sec

ft/sec/ft

ft/secL

ft'lsec

ft'

7

sq ft

ftY/sec

ft /hr o r cu ft/lir

ft /inin o r cu ft/inin

ft'/sec or c u ft/sec

ft

OT U ft

ft-lb

ftu

FY

g

GAC

gal

gal/flush

gal/ft'

GAO

GC

GC-ECD

CC-MS

G H T

GIS

GL

G L U M R B

feet

feet per h our

feet pe r m inute

feet per

second

feet per secon d per foot

feet per second squared

feet squared p er second

squa re foot

cubic feet pe r secon d

cub ic feet

cubic feet per hour

cubic feet per minu te


formazin tu rbidity unit

fiscal year

foot-pound

gram

granular activated carbon

gallons pe r flush

gallons per squa re foot

General Accounting office

gas chromatography

gas chromatography-electron capttare detector

gas chromatography-inass spectro tnetry

garde n hose thread

geographic information system

gigaliter

Great Lakes-Upper Mississippi River Board of St ate

Public H ealth and Environruental Managers

( Ten States Standards )

gallon

gallons per capita per day

gallons per day

gallons per day p er square foot

grains p er gallon

gallons per hou r

gallons per minute

gallons pe r m inute per square foot

gallons per second

global positioning system

gallons per year

394




gr

GRP

gsfd

GWUDl

GY

H

ha

HAA

HAA5

HAN

HAV

H D P E

HDXLPE

H F

H G L

H G L E

HIV

hL

H P C

hp.hr

H P L C

hr

H R T

H T H

HVAC

Hz

hP

IBCC

IBWA

I CP

ICR

I D

IEEE

Imp

in.

in.&

in./min

in./sec

in.2

o r

sq in.

gram

glass-reinforced polyester

gallons per square foot pe r day

groundw ater und er the direct influence of

gray

surface water

henry

hectare

haloacetic acid

sum of five HA As

Moacetonitrile

Hepatitis A virus

high-density polyethylene

high-density, cross-linked polyethylene

hydrogen fluoride

hydraulic grade line

hydraulic grad e line elevation

human immunodeficiency virus

hectoliter

horsepower

heterotrophic plate co unt

horsepower-hour

high-performance liquid chromatography

hour

hydraulic retention time

High Test Hypochlorite

heating, ventilating, and air conditioning

hertz

instrumentation a nd contro l

International Bottled W ater Association

inductively coupled plasma

Information Collection Rule

inside diameter

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

Imperial

inch

inch-pound

inches

per

minute

inches per second

square inch

m

395




in:’ 1 cu in.

1 o c

i P

IPS

IPS-PE

I P T

I RC

ISA

ISF

I S 0

IWRA

kB

kHz

kin

kin2

kPa

kV

kVA

kvar

kW

kW.iir

kg

kJ

L

lb

lb/day

lbf

lb/ft2

f i m

LC

LIN

lin ft

LLE

lm

L/tnin

LOAEL

L/day

cubic inches

inorganic contaminant

iron pipe

iron pipe size

iron pipe size polyethylene

iron pip e thread

international Research Ce nter

Instrument Society of America

intermittent sand filter

interna tional O rganization for S tandardization

interna tional Water Resources Association

joule

kelvin

kilobyte

kilogram

kilohertz (kilocycles)

kilojoule

kilometer

square kilometers

kilopascal

kilovolt

kilovolt-ampere

kiloreactive volt-ampere

kilowatt

kilowatt-hour

liter

pound

pound s per day

pound

force

pou nds per square foot

pound mass

liquid chromatography

liters per day

liquid nitrogen

linear feet

liquid-liquid extraction

lumen

liters per minute

lowest-observed-adverse-effect evel




LOX

LPG

LSI

LULU

lx

m

M

m

m

m

mADC

max.

MB

MBAS

MCL

MCLG

M C R T

MDL

MDPE

meq

meq/L

MeV

M F

MFL

mg

MG

mgd

%/L

mhP

MHz

Pg

Pg/L

Pan

P M

kmhos

p n h o / c m

PS

PW

pW-sec/cm'

mi

liquid oxygen

liquefied petroleum gas

Langelier saturation index

locally unacceptable la nd use

l UX

meter

molar

squa re meters

cubic m eters

milliampere

milliampere direct curren t

maximum

megabyte

inethylene blue active sub stan ces

maximum conta minant level

maxim um contaminant level goal

mean celled residence time

method detectio n limit

medium-density polyethylene

milliequivalent

milliequivalents per liter

million electron volts

membrane filter; microtiltration

million tibers

per

liter

milligram

million gallons


milligrams per liter

motor horsepower

megahertz (megacycles)

micron

microgram

micrograms per liter

micrometer

microniolar

micromhos

micromhos per centimeter

microsiemens

microwatt

microwatt-seconds pe r squa re centimeter

mile

rn

E

a

U

S

m

397




mi I sq nri

mil

mil gal

1nl.l

min

inin.

mJ

MJ

MKS

mL

ML

MLSS

MLVSS

mm

ln

rnmol

In 1

In01 Wt

MPC

MPN

' PY

MRDL

MRDLG

s

MS

MSDS

mlseclm

MSL

M T D

M T F

MTZ

MUD

MW

MWCO

mW-sec

IIlOl/L

I 1 l ~ h

N

NA

NAS

N I

square t ides

million

million gallons

millimicron

minute

minilnuin

millijoule

megajoule

meter/kdograin/second

milliliter

megaliter o r million liters

mixed liquo r suspend ed solids

mixed liquor volatile suspen ded solids

millimeter

niillimolar

millimole

mole

molecular weight

moles pe r liter

maximum permissible concentration

miles per hour

most probable num ber

mils per year

maxim um residual disinfectant level

maxim um residual disinfectant level

goal

millisiemens

mass spectrometry

material safety data sheet

meters per second p er m eter

mean sea level

maxiinally tolerated dose

multiple-tube fermentation

mass transfer zon e

municipal utility district

molecular weight

molecular weight cutoff

megawatts pe r second

newton

not applicable; not analyzed

not applicable

National Academy

of Science

398




NAWC

ND

NDWAC

NDWC

NEC

NEMA

NEPA

NESHAP

NEWWA

N F

NFPA

NGWA

NH

n d L

NIOSH

NIPDWR

nm

NOAEL

NOM

NPDES

NPDWR

NPS

NPSH

NPSHR

NPSM

N P T

NRWA

NSDWR

NSFC

N S T

N T N C

ntu

NWA

NWRA

National Association

ofWater Com panies

not detected

National Drinkin g Water Advisory Co unc il

National Drin king Water Clearinghouse

National Electrical Co de

National Electrical Manufacturers Association

National Environmental Policy Act

National Emission S tandards

for Hazardous w

Pollutants

New England W ater Works Association

nanofiltration

National Fire Protection Association

nanograms per liter

National Grou nd Water Association

American standard fire hose coupling thread (National

National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health

National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulation

a

nanometer

S

natural organic matter

National Primary Drinking W ater Regulation

v

5

c

ose thread)

m

S

m

5

m

no-observed-adverse-effect level v

National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System

nominal pipe size; American standard straight pipe

.

.I

.

thread

net positive suction head; American standard straight

pipe

for

hose couplings (National pip e straight

hose)

net positive suction head rate

American standard straight pipe thr ead for free

American standard taper thread pipe (National pipe

National Rural W ater Association

National Secondary Drinking Water Regulation

National Sm all Flows Clearinghouse

American standard fire hose coupling thread (National

nontransient noncommunity

nephelometric turbidity unit

National Water Alliance

National Water Resources Association

mechanical oints

tapered)

standa rd thread)

399




O%M

OD

ODM

R

O R P

OSHA

O U R

ozf-in.

O

Pa

P-A

PAA

PAC

PAH

Pa.sec

PB

PC

PCB

PCE

pCi

pCi/L

PCU

PE

P F

PFRP

pE

i’fu

Pg

P%lD

PID

opera tions and maintenance

outside diameter

maximum outside diameter

ohm

oxidation-reduction potential

Oc cupa tional Safety and He alth A dniinistration

oxygen uptake rate

ounce

ounce-inch

pascal

presence-absence

peracetic acid

pow dered activated carbon

polyaroniatic hydrocarbon

pascal-second

polybutylene

pollutant concentration

polychlorinated biphenyl

tetrachloroethylene (perch loroeth ylene )

picocurie

picocuries p er liter

platinum-cobalt color unit

oxidation-reduction (redox ) poten tial

polyethylene

power factor

process to further reduce pathogens

plaque-forming unit

picogiam

process and instrumentation drawing

proportional integral derivative control;

peck

point ofentry

publicly owned treatment work s

poin t of use

polypropylene

parts per billion

personal protective equipm ent

par ts pe r million

parts per trillion; parts per thou sand

practical qnantitation level

photoionization detecto r




PRI

PRV

PS

psi

psia

PSRP

Pt-Co

P T F E

PVC

PVDF

PW D

PWL

PWS

Psig

r

rad

radlsec

RAS

RBC

RCRA

RDL

reg neg

rem

RMCL

RMP

RO

Tpm

Tps

RPZ

R T D

R T O

R T P

RTU

S

SARA

SBR

primary

pressure-regulating valve

picosecond

pounds per square inch

pound s per sq uare inch absolute

pound s per square inch gauge

process to significantly reduc e pathog ens

platinum-cobalt

polytetrafluoroethylene

polyvinyl chloride

polyvinylidene difluoride

pub lic water district

pum ping water level

pub lic water system

quality assessment

quality contro l

quart

roentgen

radian

radians per second

retu rn activated sludge

rotating biological contactor

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act

reliable detection level

regulatory negotiations

roentgen equivalent, mammal

recom mende d maximum contaminant level

risk managem ent program

reverse osmosis

revolutions per minute

revolutions per second

reduced pressu re zone

resistance temperatu re detector

regenerative thermal oxidizer

reinforced therm oset plastic

remote terminal unit

siemens

Sup erfund A mendments and R eauthorization Act

sequencing batch reactor

401




SCADA

SCBA

SCD

SCFM

S/cm

SDI

SDR

SDWA

sec

sec

SEM

SI

SMCL

S O C

S O U R

SP gr

sp ht

SQL

sr

S S F

SUVA

sv

SVI

SWD

SWL

SW P

S W T R

t

T

T C

T C E

T C L P

T C R

T D S

T F

T F E

T H M

T H M F P

T N C W S

tcu

supervisory control and data acquisition

self-contained breathing ap paratu s

streaming current detecto r

standard cubic feet pe r m inute

siemens per cen timeter

sludge density index

standard dimen sion ratio

Safe D rinking W ater Act

second

inverse seconds

scann ing electron microscope

S y s t h e International d’UnitCs (International System

secon dary maximum con taminant level

synth etic organic chemical

specific oxygen uptake rate

specific gravity

specific heat

Structured Q uery Language

steradian

slow sand tiltration

specific ultraviolet absorbanc e

sievert

sludge volume index

side water dep th

static water level

State Water Plan

Surface Water Treatm ent Rule

of Units)

metric ton

o r

tonne

tesla

thermocouple

trichloroethylene or trichloroethene)

toxic characteristic leaching pro ced ure

Total Coliform Rule

true co lor unit

total dissolved solids

trickling filter

tetratluoroethylene

trihalomethane

trihalornethane formation potentia l

transient, noncommunity water system

402




T O C

T O N

T O X

T P I

TS

T S C A

TSP

T S P P

T S S

TT

T T H M

w s s

T W T D S

uc

UF

U F W

UL

UPS

U R T H

USEPA

USPHS

uv

V

VA

VAC

VAR

V D C

VFD

voc

vol.

vs

VSD

VSR

W

WAS

wb

W E F

W ERL

W F P

total orga nic carbon

threshold od or number; total organic nitrogen

total organic halogen

threads per inch

total solids

Toxic Sub stances Con trol Act

trisodium phosphate

tetrasodium pyrophosphate

total susp ende d solids

treatment technique

total trihalomethanes

transient voltage surge sup pressio n

treatment w orks treating dom estic sewage

uniformity coefficient

ul rafil tration

unaccounted-for water

Underw riters Laboratories

uninterruptible power sup ply

unreasonable risk to health

US Environmental Protection Agency

US Public Hea lth Service

ultraviolet

volt

volt-ampere

volts alternating cur ren t

volt-ampere-reactive; vector attraction reduction

volts direct cu rrent

variable-frequency drive

volatile organic com pound

volume

volatile solids

variable-speed drive

volatile solids reduction

watt

waste-activated sludge

weber

Water Environm ent Federation

Water Engineering Research L aboratory

Water For People

rn

E

Y

U

S

m

403




W H O

WHPA

WHPP

WIDB

WITAF

w hp

WY

wy1c

Wt

W T P

W W T P

Xe

vd

yd' or sq yd

yd3

World

He alth O rganization

water horsepow er

wellhead protec tion area

wellhead protection program

Water Industry Data Base

Water Ilidustry Technical Action Fund

Water Quality Association

Water Quality Information Center

weight

water treatment plant

wastewater treatment plant

xenon

yard

squa re yards

cubic yards

zeta potential




Glossary

From

A

to

Z,from

absolute pressure to zone

of saturationand evevthing in between, many

term s used in

the

basic science-as well as the

practical application

of

water and wastewater

Processes and technologies-are uniq ue to the

wastewater industry.

For

quick reference in the

field, here is a com pilation of wastewater quantity,

qual ity , anabs is, an d useage terms, along with

environmental and human-health-reluted terms

commonly

used

in

wastewater treatment.




abso lute pr es su re T h e total pressure in a system, including both the pres-

sure of water and the pressure of the atmosph ere (about

14.7

psi at sea

level). Co mpare with gauge pressure.

An y substance that releases hydrogen ions (H') when it is mixed into

water.

acid

acidic solution

aerobic

alkaline solution

alkalinity

ammete r

anaerobic

an imal ( an d poult ry ) ma nure

an io n A negative ion.

ann ual average daily f low

a r i thme t i c me a n

ar i thm etic scale

A solution that conta ins significant num bers of H' ions.

Living or active in the presence of oxygen. Refers especially to

A solution that contains significant numbers of

OH-

A measurement of water's capacity to neutralize an acid. Corn-

An instrument

for

measuring amperes.

microorganisms and/o r decom position of organic matter.

ions. A basic solution.

pare

p H .

Living or active in the absence of oxygen (e.g., anaerobic micro-

Animal excreta, including bedding, feed,

organisms).

and o th er by-products of animal feeding and hou sing operations.

T h e average daily flow calculated using 1 year

ofdata .

A m easurement of average value, calculated by sum ming

all term s and dividing by the num ber of terms.

A scale is a series of intervals (marks or lines), usually

marked along the side and botto m of a graph, that represents the range

of

values o f the data. Wh en the marks or lines are equally spaced, it is called

an arithmetic scale. Com pare with logarz'thmz'c

scale.

T h e sm allest particle o fa n element that still retains the characteristics

of that element.

a t o m

a to m ic n u m b e r

a tomic we igh t

average da i ly f low

T h e num ber of protons in the nucleus of an atom.

T h e sum of the number of protons and the number of neu-

trons i n the nucleus of an atom.

A measurement

of the amount of water treated by a

plant eac h day. It is the average o fthe actual daily flows that occu r within a

pe rio d of time, such as a week, a m onth, or a year. Mathematically, it is the

sum

of

ll daily flows divided by the total nu rnber ofd aily flows used.

T h e average of the instantane ous flow rates over a given

per io d of time, such as a day.

average flow rate

bacteria Single-celled microscopic organisms lacking chlorophyll. Some

caus e d isease and som e d o not. Som e are involved in performing a variety

of beneficial biological treatment processes including biological oxida-

tion, so lid s digestion, nitrification, and denitrification.

A chemical equation is balanced w hen, for each element in the

eq ua tio n, as many atoms are shown on the right s ide of th e equation as are

sh ow n o n the left side.

ba lanced




base

in water.

basic so lut ion

bat tery

Any substance that releases hydroxyl ions (O H )

when it dissociates

A

solution that contains significant num bers of O H ions.

A device for producing DC electric current from a

chemical reuc-

tzon.

In a storage battery, the process may be reversed, with cu rren t flow-

ing into the battery, thus reversing the chemical reaction and recharging

the battery.

bicarbonate alkalinity

biochemical oxygen dema nd

Alkalinity caused by bicarbonate ions ( H C O j ).

T h e quantity of oxygen used in the biologi-

cal and chem ical oxidation (decom positio n) of organic m atter in a speci-

fied time, at a specified temp erature (typically 5 days at

68°F

[2O CJ), and

unde r spe cified conditions. A standardized biochemical oxygen demand

test is use d in assessing the am oun t of organic matter in wastewater.

The aerobic degradation of organic substances by

microorganisms, ultimately resulting in th e prod uction of carbo n dioxide,

water, microbia l cells, and intermediate by-products.

T h e organic solids produ ct of municipal wastewater treatment

that can b e beneficially utilized. Wastewater treatment sol ids that have

received p rocesses to significantly reduce pathogens

or

processes to fur-

ther redu ce pathogens treatment,

or

their equivalents, acco rding to the

Part 5 0 3 ru le to achieve a class A o r class

B

pathogen status. The sol-

ids:liquid con ten t of the prod uc t can vary: liquid biosolids,

1 -4

sol-

ids; thickened liquid biosolids,

4 -

12% solids; dewatered biosolids,

12%-45% solids ; dried b iosolid s, >50% solids (advanced alkaline stabi-

lized, compost, thermally dried). In general, liquid biosolids and thick-

ened liquids can be handled w ith a pum p. Dew atered/dried biosolids are

handled w it h a loader.

biological ox idatio n

biosolids

2

3

bond See chemical bond

brake horsepow er

buffer

bu lkdens i ty

T h e power supplied to a pum p by a m otor. Compare

with

wat er horsefiower

and m otor

horsefiower.

A substance capable in solution of resisting a reduction in pH as

acid is add ed .

T h e weight per standard volume (usually in pound s per

cubic foot) of material as it would be shipped from the supplier to the

treatment plant.

A secondary or additional product; something produced in

the course of treating

or

manufacturing the principal prod uc t.

by-product

cake D ew ate red biosolids with a solids concentration high enough (212%)

to permit handling as a solid material.

(NOTE

some dewatering agents

might s t i l l c au se slumping even with solids contents high er than 12%).

A par t of the total im pedance of an electrical circu it tending to

resist the

flow

of current. Capacitance can be added to cance l the effect of

inductance . I t is expressed

in

units of farads.

capacitance

capacity

The flow rate that a pum p is capable ofp rod ucing .

carbo nate a k l i n i t y Alkalinity caused by carbonate ions (C03

.

407




cation exc ha nge cap acity A measure of the soil’s capacity to attract and

retain plant nutrients that occur in positively charged ionic form. Cation

exchange capacity (C EC ) is a focus of interest because fertilizers supp ly

positively charged cationic plant nutrien ts, wh ich are attracted to nega-

tively charged anion ic

soil

particles, including

soil

organic matter. Organ-

ically amended

soils

typically have a hig her C E C (i.e ., a h igher capacity

for

attracting and retaining plant nutrients) than unamended or low

organ ic soils.

cation

A

positive ion.

chem ical bo nd T h e force that holds atoms together within molecules. A

chem ical bond is formed w hen a chemical reaction takes place. Tw o types

ofchernical bond are ionic bon ds an d covalent bon ds.

A sho rthand way, using chemical formulas,

of

writing

the reaction that takes place when chemicals are brought together. The

left side of the equation indicates the chemicals brought together (the

reactants ), the arrow indicates in which d irection the reaction occu rs, and

the li gh t side of the equation indicates the results (the products) of the

chem ical reaction.

chemical equ at ion

chemical form ula Seeforinula

chemical reaction

A process that occurs w hen atoms of certain elements

are bro ug ht together and com bine to form molecules, or when molecules

are bro ke n d ow n into individual atoms.

A device that functions b oth as a curr en t overload protec -

tive dev ice and as a switch.

T h e distance measured arou nd the outside edge of a circle.

T h e accelerated decom position of organic matter by microor-

gan isms, which is accompanied by tem peratu re increases above arnbie nt;

for biosolid s, com pos ting is typically a m anaged ae robic process.

Tw o or more elements bonded together by a chernical reaction.

In chemistry, a measurement of how inuch solute

is

con-

tained in a given amount of solution (commonly measured in milligrams

per liter).

A substance that permits the flow of electricity, especially one

that co nd uc ts electricity with ease.

A desirable characteristic o f biosolids that allows

the m aterial to be stacked and remain nonflowing w hen stored.

c ircuit b reake r

c ircumference

c ompos t ing

c o m p o u n d s

concentra t ion

c onduc to r

con solid ated (biosolids)

conver ter

cova len t b o n d

cr it ica l co nt ro l point

cross mult ipl ica t ion

Generally, a D C generator driven by an A C m otor.

A type of chemical bond in which electrons are shared.

Co m pare with

ioni

bond.

A

location, event,

or

proce ss poin t at which specific

m on itor ing an d responsive management practices shou ld be applie d.

A method used to determine if two ratios are i n pro-

po rt io n. In this method , the nu merator of the first ratio is inultiplied by

the de no m in ato r of the second ratio. Similarly, the denominator o f the

first ratio is multiplied by the numerator of the second ratio. If the




prod ucts of both multiplications are the same, the two ratios are in pro-

portion to each other.

A

device that automatically hold s electric cur rent within

certain limits.

T h e “flow rate” of electricity, measured in amperes. Compare with

potential.

current regulator

current

daily flow

demand me te r

denitrification

denomina tor

density

design poin t

T h e volume of water that passes throu gh a plant in

1

day

(24 hours). More precisely called daily flow volume.

An

instrum ent that m easures the average power of a load

du ring s om e specilic interval.

T h e conversion of nitrogen com poun ds to nitrogen gas or

nitrous ox id e by microorganisms in the absence of oxygen.

The part of a fraction below the line.

A

fraction indicates

division o f th e num erator by the denom inator.

T h e weight of a substance per a unit of its volume (e.g., po unds

pe r cubic foot o r pounds per gallon).

T h e mark o n

the

H-Q

(head-capacity) curve of a pum p char-

acteristics curve that indicates th e head and capacity at which the pum p is

intend ed to opera te for best efficiency in a particular installation.

T h e average length of time a dro p o fw ate r or a suspended

particle rem ains in a tank

or

chamber. Mathem atically, it is the volume of

water in th e tank divided by the flow rate through the tank. T h e units of

flow rate us ed

in

the calculation are d epen den t o n wh ether the detention

time is to b e calculated in minutes, h ours, or days.

The solid residue (12% total solids by weight

or

greater) remaining after removal of water from a liquid biosolids by

drainin g, pre ssing, filtering, or centrifuging. Dewatering is distinguished

from thickening in that dew atered biosolids may be transported by solids

handling procedures.

T h e ength of a straight line measured through the center of a cir-

cle from

one

side to the other.

T h e decomposition of organic m atter by m icroorganisms with

consequent volume reduction. Anaerobic digestion produces carbon

dioxide a n d methane, whereas aerobic digestion prod uces carbon dioxide

and water.

digit Any o n e of the

1

arabic numerals 0 hrough 9) by which all num-

bers may

be

expressed.

dra wd ow n T h e amount the water level in a well dro ps once pumping

begins. Draw down equals static water level minus pumpin g water level.

dynamic disch arge head

The difference in height measured from the

pu m p ce n te r line at the discharge of the pum p to the point on the hydrau-

lic grade l in e directly above it.

de ten t ion t ime

dewa te redb ios o l ids

diameter

digestion

dynamic hea d

dynamic s u c t io n head

See

total dynamic head.

T h e distance from the pum p cen ter line at the suc-

tion of the p u m p

to

the p oin t of the hydraulic grade line directly above it.




Dy nam ic suction head exists only when the p um p is below the piezoniet-

ric surface of the water at the pum p suction. W hen the pump is above the

piezom etric surface, the equivalent measurem ent is dynamic suctio n lift.

T h e distance from the p um p center line at the suction

of the pump to the point on the hydraulic grade line directly below it.

Dynam ic suction lift exists only when the p um p is above the piezometric

surface of the water at the pum p suction. Wh en the pum p is below the

piezometric surface, the equivalent measurement is called dynam ic suc-

tion hea d.

T h e description of a water system when w ater is

moving through the system.

dynam ic suct ion l if t

dynam ic water system

effective he ig ht

efficiency T h e ratio of the total energy ou tpu t to the total energy inp ut,

expressed as percent.

ele ctro m ag ne tics T h e study of the combined effects of electricity and

magnetism.

el ec tr on On e of the three elementary particles of an atom (along with pro-

ton s a n d neu trons). An electron is a tiny, negatively charged particle that

orbits around the nucleus o fan atom. T h e num ber of electrons in th e out-

erm ost shell is on e of the most impo rtant characteristics of an atom in

determining how chemically active an element will be and with what

othe r elements o r compounds it will react.

Any

of more than

100

fundamental substances that consist of

at om s ofonly one kind and that constitute all matter.

T h e energy possessed per unit w eigh t of a fluid becau se of

its elevation above som e reference point (called the reference datum). E le-

va tio n head is also called position head

or

pote ntial head.

(Sometimes called energy gradie nt line

or

energy line.)

A

li ne join ing the elevations of the energy heads; a line drawn abo ve the

hy dra ulic grade line by a d istance equivalent to the velocity head of the

flow ing water at each section along a stream, channe l, or conduit.

T h e weight of an element o r com po un d that, in a given

chem ical reaction, has the same combining capacity as 8 g ofoxygen

or

as

1 g of hydrogen. T h e equivalent weight

for

an element

or

compound may

vary w ith the reaction being considered.

A natural

or

artificial process of nutrient enrichment by

w hic h a water body becomes highly turbid, d epleted in oxygen, an d over-

g ro w n with undesirable algal blooms.

Exceptional quality biosolids meet class A

pathogen reduction; vector attraction reduction standards

1-8;

and Part

503, Table 3, high-quality pollutant c onc entration standards.

An expo nen t indicates the number of times a base num ber is to

be multiplied to ether For example, a base num ber o f 3 with an expon ent

of5

is written 3. .T h is indicates that the base nu m ber is to be m ultiplied

to get her five times: 35= 3 x

3 x 3 x 3 x 3 .

T h e total feet of head against which

a

pu m p m ust work.

e lement

elevation head

e ne rgy g r a d e l ine

equ ivale nt weight

e u t r oph ic a t ion

exce ption al quali ty biosolids

e x p o n e n t

:.

41

0




fecal coliform

T h e type of coliform bacteria p rese nt in virtually all fecal

material produced by mammals. Since the fecal coliforms may not be

pathogens, they indicate the potential presence

of

hum an disease organ-

isms. See also indicator organisms.

A

member

of

a g rou p of gram-positive bacteria known

as

Enterococci,

previously classified as a subgro up o f

Strefitococcus.

The y

are found i n feces of huma ns, animals, and insects o n pla nts often not in

association wi th fecal contamination. See

indicator organisms.

A

temporary

or

seasonal storage area, usually located at the

application site, which holds biosolids destined for use on designated

fields. Sta te regulations may

or may not make distinctions between stag-

ing, stockpiling, or field storage. In add ition , the time limits for the same

material to b e stored continuously on site before it mu st b e land-applied

range from 24 hours to 2 years.

A

measurement of the volume of water flowing

upward (backward) through a unit

of

filter surface area. Mathematically, it

is the backwash flow rate divided by the total filter area.

A measurement of the volume of water applied to each

unit of filter surface area. Mathematically, it is the flow rate into the filter

divided by th e total Glter area.

Eq uip m ent used near the end of the solids production process

at a w astew ater treatment facility to remove liquid from biosolids and pro-

du ce a sem isolid cake.

A measure of the volume of water moving past a given point in a

given pe rio d of time. Com pare instantaneousflow rate and averageflow

rate.

formula we ight See

mokcular weight.

formula

fecal

Stre tococcus

field storag e

f i l te rbackwashra te

fil ter loading r at e

filter pre ss

s

r

flow

ra te

U sing the chemical symbols for each element, a formula is a short-

hand way o f writing what elements are presen t in a molecule and how

many a t o m of each element are present in each of the molecules.

Also

called a chem ical formula.

T h e head lost by water flowing in a strea m

or

conduit as

the result o f (1) the disturb ance set u p by the contact betw een the moving

water and i t s containing conduit and (2) intermolecular friction.

A protective device that disconnects equipment from the power

source wh e n current exceeds a specified value.

friction be ad

loss

fuse

gauge pres sure

T h e water pressu re as measured by a gauge. Gauge pres-

sure is not the total pressure. Total water pressure (absolute pressure)

also includes the atmospheric pressure (about

14.7

psi at sea level)

exerted on the water. Gauge pressure in pounds per square inch is

expressed

as

‘‘psig.”

A

piece of equipment used to transform rotary motion (for

example, the output

of

a diesel engine) to electric current . Also, a person

or org anization w ho changes the biosolids characteristics either through

treatment, mixing, or any other process.

generator

411




good man agem ent practices

Schedules of activities, opera tion and main-

tenance procedures (including practices

to

contro l odor, site runoff, spill-

age, leaks,

or

drainage), prohibitions, and other management practices

found to be highly effective and practicable in the safe, community-

friendly use of biosolids and in p reven ting or red ucing discharge of pol-

lutants to waters of the United States.

g roups

head loss

head

T h e vertical columns of elements in the periodic table.

T h e am oun t of energy used by water in moving from on e loca-

tion to another.

(1)

A measure of the energy possessed by water at a given location in

the wa ter system, expressed in feet. (2) A measure of the pressure

or

force

exert ed by water, expressed in feet.

he lm in th an d he lm in th ova Parasitic worms (e.g., roundworms, tape-

worms,

Ascaiis,

Necator, Tamia and

Eichuris)

and ova (eggs) of these

worms. Helminth ova are quite resistant to chlorination and can be

passed out in the feces of infected humans and organisms and ingested

with food

or

water. One helminth ovum is capab le of hatching and grow-

ing w he n ingested.

A term used to describe a substance with a uniform struc-

ture

or

com position throughou t.

Amount of water

or

liquid biosolids applied to a

given treatment process and expressed as volume per unit time,

or

vol-

um e p e r unit time per surface area.

homogeneous

hydraul ic loading ra tes

hydroxy l alkalinity

ind ica tor o rgan isms

Alkalinity caused by hydroxyl ions (O H -).

Microorganisms, such as fecal colifonns and fecal

streptococci (enterococci), used as surrogates for bacterial pathogens

when testing biosolids, manure, compost, leachate, and water samples.

Tests for the presence of the surrogates are used because they are rela-

tively easy, rap id, and inexpensive compared to tho se required for pa tho-

gens s uc h as

Salmonella

bacteria.

An electrical pro per ty by which electrical energy is stored in a

m agn etic field. It is analogous to inertia in a hydrau lic system. Inductio n

has t h e effect of resisting changes in cu rren t flow. It is measured in he nrys

or

m ete rs squared kilograms per second sq uared pe r ampere squa red.

in fil tra tio n T h e rate at which water enters the soil surface, expre ssed in

in ch es p er hour, influenced by both permeability and moisture conte nt o f

the soi l.

A flow rate of water measured at one particular

ins tan t, such as by a metering device, involving th e cross-sectional area

of

the channe l

or

pip e an d the velocity

of

the water at that instant.

A substan ce that offers very great resistance, or hindrance, t o the

flow

of

electric current.

A technique used to determine values that

fall

between the

m ark ed intervals on a scale.

i nduc ta nc e

ins t a n ta ne ous flow ra te

insu la tor

in te rpo la t ion

412




ion

An atom that is electrically unstab le because it has more or fewer elec-

trons than protons. A positive ion is called a cation.

A

negative ion is

called an an ion.

A type of chemical bond in which electrons are transferred.

Compare with

covalent bond.

Atom s of the same element, but containing varying numb ers

of

neutrons in the nucleus. For each element, the most common naturally

occurring iso top e is called th e princip al isotope of that element.

ionic bon d

isotopes

kill

lagoon

T h e destruc tion of organisms in a water supply.

A

reservoir or pond built to contain water, sediment, and/or

manu re usually containing

4

to

12

solids until they can be removed

for application to land.

T h e spreading

or

spraying of biosolids o n to the surface

of land, the direct injection of biosolids below the soil surface, or the

incorporation into the surface layer of

soil.

Also applies to manure and

oth er orga nic residuals.

Liquid that has come into contact with or percolated through

materials being stockpiled or stored; contains dissolved or suspended

particles a n d nutrients.

Biosolids

or

animal manu re containing

suffi-

cient water (ordinarily more than 88 ) to permit flow by gravity

or

A

scale is a series of intervals (marks

or

lines),

usually ma rked along the side and bottom of a graph, th at represents the

range ofv al ue s of the data. W hen the marks or lines are varied logarithmi-

cally (an d ar e therefore no t equally spaced), the scale is called logarith-

mic, or

log,

scale. Co mp are with

arithmetic scale.

land applicat ion

leachate

liquid

biosolids or

manure

pumping.

logarithmic scale (log scale)

mercap tam

A

group of volatile chemical compounds that are one of the

breakdown products of sulfur-containing proteins. Noted for their dis-

agreeable od o r.

Bacteria, fungi (molds, yeasts), protozoans, helminths,

and viruses. The terms

microbe

and

mierobial

are also used to refer to

micro organisms, some of which cause disease, and ot he rs are beneficial.

Parasite

a n d

parasitic

refer to infectious protozoans and helminths.

Microorg anism s are ubiq uitous, possess extremely high grow th rates, and

have the ability to degrade all naturally occurring organic compounds,

including those in water and wastewater. They use organic matter for

food.

T h e process by which elements com bined in organic form

in living or dead organisms are eventually reconverted into inorganic

forms to be m ad e available for a new cycle of growth. T h e m ineralization

of

organic c om po un ds occurs through oxidation and metabolism by liv-

ing microorganisms.

microorganism

mineralization

41

3




minor he a d

loss

T h e energy losses that result from the resistance to flow as

water passes through valves, fittings, inlets, and outlets of a piping system.

mitigation T he act or state of red ucing th e severity, intensity, or harshness

of som ething ; to alleviate, dim inish, or lessen, as to mitigate heat, cold, or

odor.

mixture Two or more elements, compo unds,

or

both, mixed together with

no chemical reaction (bonding) occu rring.

m olality A measure ofconcentration defined as the num ber ofnioles ofsol-

Ute per liter

of

solvent. Not commonly used in wastewater treatment.

Com pare with molarity.

A measure o f concentration defined as the num ber of moles of

solu te pe r liter of solution.

The sum of the atomic weights of all the atoms in the

compound.

Also

called formula weight.

molarity

m olecu lar weight

molecu le

mos t p roba b le num be r

Two or more atom s oin ed together by a chemical bo nd .

A statistical approximation of the number of

microorgan isms pe r unit volume or mass of sample. O ften used to rep ort

the num be r of coliforins per 100 mL wastewater or water, but applic able

to ot h er microbial grou ps as well.

m oto r ho rse po w er T h e horsepower equivalent to the watts of electric

power supplied to a motor. Compare with brake horsefiower and water

horseflower.

Household and commercial water discharged into

municipal sewer pipes; contains mainly human excreta and used water.

Distinguished

from

solely industrial wastewater.

mu nic ipa l wastewater

neutra l iza t ion

water.

neutralize See neutrulizatioii.

ne u t r on

T h e proces s of mixing an acid and a base to forin a salt and

An uncharged elementary particle that has a mass approximately

equal to that of the proton. Neutrons are present in all known atomic

nucle i ex cept the lightest hydrogen nucleus.

T h e biochemical oxidation of ammonia nitrogen to n itrate

nitro gen , which is readily used by plants and microorganisins as a nutrient .

A graph in w hich three

or

more scales are used to solve mathe-

matical problems.

Human-made or

human-induced alteration of

the chemical, physical, biological,

or

radiological integrity of water o r air,

origin ating from any source othe r than a point source.

Any source, other than a point so urce, discharging pol-

lut ant s into air

or

water.

A method ofexpressing the concentration of a solution. It is the

n um b er of equivalent weights of solute per liter of solution.

The center of an atom, made up of positively

ch arg ed particles called protons and uncharged particles called ne utron s.

ni t r i f ica t ion

n o m o g r a p h

n o n p o h t s o u rc e p ollu tio n

nonpo in t sou r c e

no r ma l i ty

nucleus (plura l : nucle i)

414




numera tor

nutr ient man agem ent plan

T h e pa rt of a fraction above the line.

A

fraction indicates divi-

sion of the n ume rator by the denom inator.

A series of good management practices aimed

at reducing agricultural nonpoint source pollution by balancing nutrient

inputs with cro p nutrient requirements.

A

plan includes soil testing; anal-

ysis of organic nutrient sources such as biosolids, compost,

or

animal

manure; utilization of organic sources based on their nutrient content;

estimation of realistic yield goals; nutrient recommendations based on

soil test levels and yield goals; and optim al timing and method of nutrient

applications.

Any substance that is assimilated by organisms and promotes

growth; generally applied to nitrogen an d p hosphorus in w astewater bu t

also

other essential trace elements

or

organic compounds that micro-

organisms, plants, or animals use for their growth.

nutr ient

odor cha rac te r

T h e sensory quality of an odorant, d efined by one

or

more

descrip tors , suc h as fecal (like manure), sw eet, fishy, hay, woody resinous,

musty, earthy.

A dimensionless unit expressing the

strength of an odor. An od or requiring

500

binary (twofold) dilutions to

reach the detection threshold has a D/T of 500. An od or with a D/T of

500

would b e stronger than an o do r with a

D/T

of

20.

A measure of the perceived strength of an odor. This is

determined by comparing the odorous sample with “standard” odors

com prised o f various concen trations of n-butanol in odor-free

air.

Persistence of an odor; how noticeable an o doran t is as

its conc entratio n changes; determ ined by serially diluting the odor and

measu ring intensity at each dilution.

odor th res ho ld Detection-the minimum concentration of

an

odorant

that, on average, can be detec ted in odor-free air. Recognition-the mini-

mum concentration of an odorant that, on average, a person can distin-

guish by it s definite characte r in a diluted sample.

Storage of biosolids at locations away from the wastewater

treatment plant

or

from the point ofgeneration. Several terms encompass

various types of storage: staging, stockpiling, field storage, and storage

facility.

Ohm’s law A n equation expressing the relationship betw een the potential

E )

n volts, the resistance (R) in ohms, and the current

(I)

in amperes for

electricity passin g through a metallic conducto r. Ohm’s law is

E =

x

R.

odor d i lu t ions t o th reshold or D/T

odor in tens i ty

odor pe rvas iveness

off-site storage

o rgan ic c om pou nd s

organics See

org nic

comfiounds.

overland flow

pathogen

per capita Per person.

Generally, com pou nds con taining carbo n.

Refers to the free movement of water over the ground surface.

A

disease-causing organism, including certain bacteria, fungi,

helminths, protozoans, or viruses.

41

5




percent

per imeter

perio dic table

per iods

permeability

p H

T h e fraction of

the whole expressed as parts per one hu ndre d.

T h e distance around the outer edge of a shape.

A chart showing

all

elements arranged accord ing to similari-

ties o f chemical prope rties.

T h e horizontal rows of elements in a periodic table.

T h e rate of liquid m ovement through a unit cross section of

satu rate d soil in unit time; comm only expres sed in inches per hour.

A measurement of how acidic

or

basic a substance is. The pH scale

runs from 0 (most acidic) to

14

(most basic). T h e center of the range

(7)

indica tes the sub stance is neutral, ne ither acidic

or

basic.

Any substance having a toxic or poisonous effect on Idant

growth. Immature

or

anaero bic compost can c ontain volatile fatty acids

that a re phytotoxic to plants. Soluble salts can also be phytotoxic in addi-

tion to toxic heavy metals and toxic organ ic com po unds .

Any discernable, confined,

or

discrete conveyance from

w hi ch pollutants are

or

may be discharged, includ ing, but not limited to,

any p ipe , d itch, cha nnel, tunnel, cond uit, well, stack, container, rolling

stock , c onc entrated animal feeding opera tion, o r vessel

or

other floating

craft.

pole

polymer

phyto tox in

po in t sou r c e

O n e end of a magnet ( the north or south pole).

A compound composed of repeating subun its used to aid in floc-

culating suspended particulates in wastewater into large clusters. This

floccu lation aids solids removal and enha nces the removal of water from

bio so lids during dewatering processes.

T h e “pressu re” of electricity, measured in volts. Co mpare with

current.

T h e measure

of

the amount of work

do ne in a given period of time. T h e rate of do in g work. M easured in watts

or

horsepower.

potent ia l

power

(in

hydraulics or electricity)

pow er ( i n mathematics) See

exfionent.

pr e s su r e he a d

pressure

pr inc ipal isotopes See isotofies.

process

to

fur the r reduce pathogens

A measurement of the amount of energy in water due to

T h e force pushing on a unit area. Normally pressure can b e mea-

water pressure.

sured in pascals, pou nds per squ are inch, or feet of head.

The process management protocol

prescrib ed in USEPA Part 503 used to achieve clas s A biosolids in wh ich

pathogens are reduced to undetectable levels. Composting, advanced

alkalin e stabilization, chemical fixation, and d ryin g

or

heat treatmen t are

some

of

the processes that can be used to meet Part 503 requirements for

class

A.

T h e process management pro-

tocol prescribed in USEPA Part 503 used to achieve class B biosolids in

w hi ch pathogen num bers are significantly redu ced but are still presen t.

Additional restrictions on the use and placement of class R biosolids

ensure a level

of

safety equivalent to class A. Aerobic and anaerobic

process to significantly reduce pathogen s

416




digestion,

air

drying, and lime stabilization are types of processes used to

meet the class

B

pathogen density limit of less than 2,000,000 fecal

coliforms/gram dry weight of total solids.

T h e results o fa chemical reaction. T h e pro ducts o fa reaction are

shown on th e right side of a chemical equatio n.

W hen the relationship between two numbers

in a ratio is th e same as that between

two

othe r num bers in an other ratio,

the two ratios are said to be in proportion, o r proportionate.

O ne o f the three elementary particles of an atom (alon g with neu-

trons and electron s). T h e proto n is a positively charged particle located in

the nucleus o f an atom. T h e num ber of proto ns in the nucleus of an atom

determines th e atonuc number

of

that element.

Single-celled microorganisms, many species of which can infect

humans and cause disease. The infective forms are passed as cysts or

oocysts in th e feces of hum ans and animals and accumulate in flocculated

solids. T h e y are quite resistant to disinfection processes, suc h as chlori-

nation , tha t eliminate most bacteria bu t are susceptib le to destruction by

drying.

produc ts

proport ion (proport ionate)

proton

protozoa

pu mp cen te r

line

pu m p character is t ics curve

An

imaginary line through the center of a pum p.

A curve

or

curves showing th e interrelation of

speed, dynam ic head, capacity, b d e horsepower, and efficiency of a

The water level measured when the pump is in

P-P.

operation.

umping w ate r leve l

radicals

radius

ratio

Groups of elements chemically bonded together and acting like

T h e d istance from the cen ter of a circle to its edge. One half of the

A

relationship between two numbers. A ratio may b e expressed usin g

single at om s or ions in their ability to form other compo unds.

diameter.

colon s (for example,

1:2 or 3:7),

or it may be expressed a s a fraction (e.g.,

12 or

y/7).

reactance

reactants

retent ion

time

T h e com bined effect of capacitance and indu ctance .

T h e chemicals brought together in a chemical reaction. T h e

chemical reac tants are shown o n the left side o fa chemical equation.

T h e period of time that wastewater or bioso lids take to p ass

through

a

particu lar part of a treatment process, calculated by d ividing

the vo lum e of processing unit by the volume

of

material flowing pe r un it

time.

A quantitative measure of the probability of the occur-

rence

of

a n adverse health

or

environmental effect. Involves

a

multistep

process th a t inclu des hazard identification, exposu re assessment, dose-

resp on se evaluation, an d risk characterization. T h e latte r combines this

information so

that risk is calculated: risk

=

hazard

x

exposure.

risk

assessment

417




risk, po ten tia l Refers to a description of the pathways and considerations

involved in the o ccurrence of an event or series

of

events) that may result

in an adverse health or environmental effect.

The rule states that the flow Q) that enters a system

must also be the flow that leaves the system. Mathematically, this rule is

generally stated as

QI

Q

or

(because

Q

=

At‘), A V = AYVZ.

T h at par t of the precipitation that runs off the surface of a drainage

area when it is no t abso rbed by the soil.

ru leofcont inu i ty

runoff

safety facto r

Salmonella

T h e percentage above which a rated electrical device canno t

be operated without damage

or

shortened life.

Rod-shaped bacteria of the genus Salmonella many of which

are patho genic , caus ing food poisoning, typhoid, and paratyphoid fever

in human beings; or

causing other infectious d iseases in w arm-blood ed

animals. Can cause allergic reactions in susceptible humans, and sick-

ness, includ ing severe diarrhe a with discharge o f blood.

C om po un ds resulting from acid-base mixtures.

A

method by which any num ber can be expressed as a

nu m be r between 1and 9 multiplied by a power of 10.

Domestic sewage (liquid and solids) removed from septic tanks,

cesspools, portab le toilets, and m arine sanitation devices; not commercial

or indu strial wastewater.

Residual liquids and solids

from

households conveyed

in munic ipa l wastewater sewers; distinguished from wastewater carried in

ded icated industrial sewers.

T he dep th

of

water measured along a vertical interior

wall.

Failure of a stockpile to retain a conso lidated shape, usually du e

to in sufficien t dewatering of the biosolids. Slu mpin g may result in biosol-

ids m ovem ent beyond the boundaries of a designated stockpile area

or

may create handling difficulties when the materials are scooped u p and

loade d into spreaders.

In water and wastewater treatment, any dissolved, suspended,

or

volatile subs tance contained in or removed from water o r wastewater.

T h e substance dissolved in a solution. C onipare with

soltent.

sa l ts

scientif ic no tation

septage

sewage, dom estic

s ide w a te r de p th

s lumping

solids

solute

solut ion

A

liquid containing a dissolved substance. The liquid alone is

called th e solvent, the dissolved substan ce is called th e solute. To gether

they a r e called a solution.

solvent

specif iccapaci ty

A

measurement of the well yield per unit (usually per

foot)

of

drawdown. Mathematically, it is the well yield divided by the

drawdown.

T h e ratio of the density of a substance

to

a standard den-

sity. For sotids and liquids, the density is compared with the density of

water (62.4 lb/ft’)). For gases the density is com pa red with the den sity

of

air (0.075 lb/ft’).

T h e liquid used to dissolve a substance. S ee

solutiom.

specific grav ity

41

0




stability

T h e characteristics o f a material that contribu te to its resistance to

decomposition by microbes and to generation of odorous metabolites.

T h e relevant characteristics include the degree of orga nic matter decom-

position, nu trien t, moisture, and salts con tent, pH, and temperature.

For

biosolids, compost,

or

animal manure, stability is a general term used to

describ e the quality of the m aterial taking into account its origin, process-

ing, and int en de d use.

T h e co ncurre nt delivery and application of bioso lids, allowing for

the transfer o f biosolids from tran spo rt vehicles to land application equ ip-

ment. Dewatered materials may be off-loaded from delivery vehicles to

temporary stockpiles to facilitate the load ing of spread ing equ ipm ent.

solution with an accurately known concentration,

used in th e

lab

to determine the prop erties of unknown solutions.

T h e difference in height between the p um p center

line and th e level of the disch arge free water surface.

T h e difference

in

elevation between the pump center

line and the free water surface of the reservoir feeding the pump. In the

measure ment o f static suction head, the piezometric surface of the water

at the suc tion side of the pu m p is higher than the pum p; otherwise, static

suction

li t

is measured.

T h e difference in elevation between the p um p center line

of a pump and the free water surface of the liquid being pumped. In a

static su ct io n lift measurement, the piezometric surface of the water at the

suction sid e of the pu m p is lower than the pump; otherwise, static suction

head is measured.

T h e holding of biosolids at an active field site long enough to

accum ulate sufficient material to com plete the field application.

An area of land or con structed facilities comm itted to ho ld

biosolids u n ti l the material may be land-applied at on-

or

off-site locations;

may be u se d to store biosolids for up to

2

years. However, most are man-

aged so th at biosolids come and go on

a

shorter cycle based on weather

con ditions, crop rotations, and land availability, equ ipm ent availability,

or

to ac cum ulate sufficient material for efficient spreading operations.

Plac em ent of class A

or

class

B

biosolids in designated locations

(oth er t h an the w astewater treatment plant) until material is land applied;

referred t o a s field storage. See also of- site storage.

A m easurement of the amount of w at er leaving a sed-

im en tat ion tank p er unit of tank surface area. Mathematically, t is the

flow

rate fr om t h e tank divided by the tank surface area.

A device to manually disconnect electrical equipment from the

power source.

staging

s tandard so lu t ion

static discha rge head

s t at ic suc t ion he a d

sta t ic

suction

if t

stockpiling

storage facil i ty

storage

surface overf lo w rate

swi tch

threshold

odor

See

odor threshold.

th rus t b lock

A mass of concrete, cast in place between a fitting to be

an ch or ed against thrust and the undisturbed soil at the side or bottom o f

the pipe trench.

419




th ru st A force resulting from water und er pressure and in motion. T hr us t

push es against fittings, valves, and hyd rants and can cause couplin gs to

leak

or

to pull ap art entirely.

T h e combined effect of hydroxyl alkalinity (O H

),

carbon-

ate alkalinity

( C O ; ) ,

nd bicarbonate alkalinity (HCO y

).

T h e difference in height between the hydraulic grade

line

(HGL)

on the discharge side of the pu m p and the HGL on the suc-

tion side of the pump. This head is a measure of the total energy that a

pu m p m ust imp art to the water to move it from on e point to another.

T h e total height that the pu m p m ust lift the water w hen

moving it ho m one point to another. T h e vertical distance from th e suc-

tion free water surface to the d isch arge free water surface.

Certain organic compounds, sometimes formed when

water co ntainin g natural organics is chlorin ated. S om e trihalornethanes,

in large en oug h conc entrations, may be carcinogenic.

Irregular atmospheric motion especially characterized by

up-a nd-dow n curren ts. Increasing turbulence results in dilution of

odors.

The electrons in the outermost electron shells. These

electrons are one of the most important factors in determining which

atom s will comb ine with oth er atoms.

O n e

or

more numbers assigned to each element, indicating the

ability of the element to enter into chemical reactions with oth er elemen ts.

A process for reducing the attractiveness of

bioso lids to vectors in ord er to reduc e the potential for transmitting dis-

eases from pathogens in biosolids.

An agent su ch as an insect, bird, or animal that is capable of trans-

porting pathogens.

A m easurement of the amoun t of energy in water du e to its

velocity,

or

motion.

A

microscopic, nonfilterable biological unit, technically not living

but c ap ab le of reproduction inside cells ofo th er living organisms, includ-

ing bacteria, protozoa, plants, and animals.

A substance that vaporizes at ambient temperature.

Above-average hea t can increase the volatilization (vaporization) rate an d

a m o u n t

of

many volatile substances.

total alkalinity

tota l dynam ic head

total stati c head

t r iha lomethanes

turbulence

valence electrons

valence

vector a t t rac t io n reduc t ion

vector

velocity h e ad

virus

volat ile co m po un d

vol tme te r

was tew ate r t rea tment

An instrum ent for measuring volts.

The processes commonly used to render water

safe

for

discharge into a US waterway: (1) Preliminary treatment

in clu de s removal of screenings, grit, grease, an d floating solids;

(2)

Pri-

mary treatment includes removal of readily settleable organic solids.

Fifty t o sixty percent suspend ed solids are typically removed al on g with

25 -40 biochemical oxygen demand

(BOD); (3)

Secondary treat-

men t involves use of biological processes along wi th settling;

85 -90

O fB O D and suspended solids are removed du ring secondary treatment;

420




(4) Tertiary treatment involves the use ofa dd itiona l biological, physical,

or chemical processes to remove more

of

the remaining nutrients and

suspend ed solids.

The potentially damaging slam, bang,

or

shudder that

occurs in a pipe when a sudden change in water velocity

(usually

as a

result of too rapidly starting a pu m p or opera ting a valve) cre ates a great

increase in wate r pressure.

water ho rse po w er T h e portion of the power delivered to a pum p that is

actually used to lift water. Compare with

brake horseflower and

motor

horseflower.

wattmeter

weir overflow ra te

water ham me r

A n

instrument

for

measuring real power in watts.

A measurement of the flow rate of water over each foot

of weir

in

a sed imentation tank or circular clarifier. Mathematically, it is

the flow rate over the weir divided by the total length of the weir.

A n y of the natural num bers, suc h as 1,2,3, etc.; the nega-

tive of these numbers, such as -1,

-2,

-3, etc.; and zero.

Also

called

integers or counting num bers.

T h e ratio of the total power inp ut (electric cur-

rent expres sed as m otor horsepower) to a m otor and pu m p assembly, to

the total po w er ou tpu t (water horsepower); expressed a s a percent.

whole numb ers

wire-to-water efficiency

work

T h e operat ion

of

a force over a specific distance.

421




INDEX

Index Terms Links

NOTE: Abbreviations and

acronyms are listed on pages 390

glossary terms on pages 406

and units of measure on pages 14

and accordingly are not cited

individually in this index.

A

Abbreviations and acronyms 390

Aeration

biological process in 279 loadings and operational

parameters 281

and sludge age 280

Algae

basic biological reactions

in ponds 282

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Algae (Cont.)

clean water varieties 75

estuary polluting varieties 79

filter- and screen-clogging

varieties 73

freshwater polluting varieties 74

growing on surfaces 77

plankton 76

surface water varieties 76

taste- and odor-causing

varieties 72

varieties in wastewater

treatment ponds 78

Ammonia oxidation 67

Amperage 186

Anaerobic digesters 314

Anaerobic lagoons 314

Annual whole sludge application

rate 352

Area

conversions (US units) 30

formulas 5



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Index Terms Links

Average daily flow 120

Average flow 120

Average hourly flow 121

AWSAR. See Annual whole sludge

application rate

AWWA C900 149

B

Backfill

highway loads 143

impact factors for highway

loads 145

loads on 8-in. circular pipe in

trench installation 136

Backflow preventers 162Bacteria


in ponds 282

and corrosion 166

density with growth time 285

Ball-bearing-type pumps 212



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Baylis curve 167

Bingham plastic model 188

Biological oxygen demand 264 265

correcting removal efficiency 278

loading 276

Biosolids 297

avoiding tracking onto public

roadways 321

composting 333 334

constructed facilities checklist 320

major pathogens in municipal

wastewater and uianure 332

minimizing odor during storage 321

nutrient content of various

organic materials 328

odorous compounds and odor

threshold values 326

and odorous emissions 321

performance for various types

of domestic wastewater solids 339

regulatory requirements.



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Index Terms Links

Biosolids (Cont.)

See USEPA 40 CFR

503 regulations

sampling 365

storage 317

storage facility design concepts 318

typical application scenarios 340

See also Sludge

BOD. See Biological oxygen demand

Boiler horsepower 51

Brake horsepower 8

C

Carbon monoxide exposure effects 107

Centrifugal pumps 185 211horizontally mounted 211

vertically mounted 211

Centrifuges

imperforate basket type 316

range of expected performance 315

solid bowl scroll type 316



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Index Terms Links

Chemicals

compounds common in

wastewater treatment 59

used in water and wastewater

treatment 66

Chemistry

key formulas 61

periodic table of elements 54

Chlorine and chlorination

amounts to produce 25-mg/L

concentration in pipe 373 374

available chlorine in sodium

hypochlorite solution 370

breakpoint curve 375

calcium hypochlorite reaction

in water 371

chemical amounts required to

obtain various chlorine

concentrations 372

chlorinator flow diagrams 376

deep-well systems 375



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Chlorine and chlorination (Cont.)

dosing capacity for various

treatment types 288 379

gas chlorinator 373

gas exposure effects 107

hypochlorinator installation 378

mechanisms of disinfection 383

reaction with ammonia 370

reaction with hydrogen sulfide 370

relationship among hypochlorous

acid, hypochlorite ion, and pH 374

residual equation 371

sodium hypochlorite reaction

in water 371

standard cylinder valves 377

toxicity in aquatic species 379

wastewater characteristics

affecting performance of 380 385

weight of chlorine, in pounds 12

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Index Terms Links

Circles

area formula 6

circumference formula 6

sector area, length, angle,

and radius formulas 6

Collection system

gravity 132

grinder pumps 132

holding tanks 132

low-pressure 132

pigs 133

pressure mains 132 134

schematic of low-pressure system 134

schematic of vacuum system 135

vacuum 135

Composting 333

methods 334

Concentration formulas 61

Conductivity 62

conversion factors 62

Cone volume and surface area formulas 7



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Index Terms Links

Confined space entry 83 85 87

permit 87

Consumption averages, per capita 10

Conversions

application rate 44

area 41

area measurenient (metric units) 35

area measurement (US units) 30

atmospheric pressure 50

circular measurement (US units) 30

concentration 42

cubic feet/gallons 51

cubic feet of natural gas/pounds

of steam 51

discharge 43

factors (US to metric) 41

flow measurement (metric units) 37

flow measurement (US units) 32

flows 10 222 252

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Index Terms Links

Conversions (Cont.)

square inch 51

force 45

fractions to decimal equivalents 48

gallon of oil/pounds of steam 51

gallon/pounds 51

grade (US units) 31

grains per gallon/parts per million 51

grains per gallon/pounds

per 1,000 gallons 51

infiltration or exfiltration rates

from gal/in. diameter/mi/

day to gph/100 ft 172

length 41

linear measurement (metric units) 35

linear measurement (US units) 30

mass and density 46

parts per million/pounds

per 1,000 gallons 51

pound of coal/pounds of steam 51

pounds per hour/gallons per hour 51



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http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/



Index Terms Links

Conversions (Cont.)

power 47

power measurement (US units) 33

pressure 45

pressure measurement (metric units) 36

pressure measurement (US units) 31

slope 43

temperature 47

temperature (Celsius/Fahrenheit) 49

time 42

ton of refrigeration/Btu 51

unit weight 42

velocity 43

velocity, acceleration, and

force measurements

(metric units) 40

velocity measurement (US units) 34

viscosity 46

volume 41

volume measurement (metric units) 36

volume measurement (US units) 30



http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/



Index Terms Links

Conversions (Cont.)

water column 50

water pressure 50

weight 42

weight measurement (metric units) 37

weight measurement (US units) 31

work 47

work, heat, and energy

measurements (metric units) 39

work measurement (US units) 33

Cooling tower makeup 51

Corrosion

bacterial 166

and Baylis curve 167

concentration cell 165

crown 158

and dissolved gases 166

and dissolved solids 166

factors affecting 166

galvanic 165

indices 167



http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_05c.pdf/

http://13865_05c.pdf/

http://13865_05b.pdf/

http://13865_05b.pdf/

http://13865_05c.pdf/

http://13865_05c.pdf/

http://13865_05c.pdf/

http://13865_05b.pdf/

http://13865_05c.pdf/

http://13865_05c.pdf/

http://13865_05b.pdf/

http://13865_05c.pdf/

http://13865_05c.pdf/

http://13865_05c.pdf/

http://13865_05b.pdf/

http://13865_05b.pdf/

http://13865_05c.pdf/

http://13865_05c.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/



Index Terms Links

Corrosion (Cont.)

and Langelier saturation index 167

localized or pitting 165

marble test 167

physical 165

Ryzner index (stability index) 168

stray current 165

and temperature 166

types 165

uniform 165

Cylinders

elliptical cylinder volume and

surface area formulas 7

right cylinder volume

(cubic feet and gallons) 9

surface area formula 7

volume formulas 7

D

Darcy–Weisbach formula 11 223

Demand/day 10



http://13865_05c.pdf/

http://13865_05b.pdf/

http://13865_05c.pdf/

http://13865_05b.pdf/

http://13865_05c.pdf/

http://13865_05b.pdf/

http://13865_05c.pdf/

http://13865_05b.pdf/

http://13865_05b.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_07a.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_07a.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_05b.pdf/

http://13865_05b.pdf/

http://13865_05c.pdf/

http://13865_05b.pdf/

http://13865_05c.pdf/

http://13865_05b.pdf/

http://13865_05c.pdf/

http://13865_05b.pdf/

http://13865_05c.pdf/



Index Terms Links

Densities 63

Design average flow 120

Design peak flow 120

Detenton time 8

Dewatering

belt filter press 310

belt filter press dewatering

(equations) 301


of polymer flocculated sludges 312

dissolved air flotation thickener 313

plate and frame filter press

dewatering (and equations) 300 301

types of sludges dewatered on

belt filter presses 311

vacuum filter dewatering

equations 299

wedgewire drying bed 313

Diffusers 288



http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_05a.pdf/

http://13865_05a.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_09.pdf/

http://13865_09.pdf/

http://13865_09.pdf/

http://13865_09.pdf/

http://13865_09.pdf/

http://13865_09.pdf/

http://13865_09.pdf/

http://13865_09.pdf/

http://13865_09.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_09.pdf/

http://13865_09.pdf/

http://13865_09.pdf/

http://13865_09.pdf/

http://13865_09.pdf/

http://13865_09.pdf/

http://13865_09.pdf/

http://13865_09.pdf/

http://13865_09.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_05a.pdf/

http://13865_05a.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/



Index Terms Links

Dilution

equation 65

rectangle method (dilution rule) 65

Discharge

land 386

marine 387

Disinfection

chlorine dioxide, peracetic

acid, and UV radiation

compared 378

UV, chlorine, and ozone

compared 383 385

See also Chlorine and

chlorination, Ultraviolet light

Dissolved-oxygen concentration

as function of temperature

and barometric pressure 70

as function of temperature

and salinity 68

Dosage, mg/L 9



http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_10.pdf/

http://13865_10.pdf/

http://13865_10.pdf/

http://13865_10.pdf/

http://13865_10.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_10.pdf/

http://13865_10.pdf/

http://13865_10.pdf/

http://13865_10.pdf/

http://13865_10.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/



Index Terms Links

E

Electrical conductivity 62

conversion factors 62

Electrical measurements 186

Electrical safety 102

Elements

list of 55

oxidation numbers 65

periodic table 54

Ellipse area formula 6

Elliptical cylinder volume

and surface area formulas 7

Emergency rescue 83

EPA. See USEPA 40 CFR 503regulations

Equivalent flow rate 266

Equivalent weights 61

Exfiltration 171 172

F

Feed rate, lb/day (formula) 12



http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_06a.pdf/

http://13865_04.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_04.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_05c.pdf/

http://13865_05c.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_05c.pdf/

http://13865_05c.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_04.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_04.pdf/

http://13865_06a.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/



Index Terms Links

Filters

backwash rate 9 266

biological process in bed 275

loading rate 266

See also Intermittent sand

filters, Trickling filters

Fire types and extinguishers 102

Fittings 164

Flanges, gasket and machine

bolt dimensions for 150

through contracted rectangular

weirs 237

Flow

conversions 10 222 252

conversions (metric units) 37


determining cross-sectional area of 123

in ductile-iron pipe 227

formula 123

key conversions 222



http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_04.pdf/

http://13865_05b.pdf/

http://13865_05a.pdf/

http://13865_07a.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_07a.pdf/

http://13865_07b.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_05a.pdf/

http://13865_07a.pdf/

http://13865_05a.pdf/

http://13865_07a.pdf/

http://13865_07a.pdf/

http://13865_05a.pdf/

http://13865_07a.pdf/

http://13865_05a.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_07b.pdf/

http://13865_07a.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_07a.pdf/

http://13865_05a.pdf/

http://13865_05b.pdf/

http://13865_04.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/



Index Terms Links

Flow (Cont.)

key formulas 223

nozzle discharge (1½–6-in.

diameters) 255

nozzle discharge ( –1⅜ -in.

diameters) 255

in open channels (Q = AV) 226

through Venturi tube (formula) 225

See also Palmer-Bowlus flumes,

Parshall flumes, Weirs

Flow rate

equivalent 266

formula 12 284

for miscellaneous facilities 126

nomograph for Venturi meter 125

rule of continuity 12

for selected plumbing, household,

and farm fixtures 259

Flumes. See Palmer-Bowlus

flumes, Parshall flumes



http://13865_07a.pdf/

http://13865_07b.pdf/

http://13865_07b.pdf/

http://13865_07a.pdf/

http://13865_07a.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_05a.pdf/

http://13865_05a.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_07b.pdf/

http://13865_07b.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_05a.pdf/

http://13865_05a.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_07a.pdf/

http://13865_07a.pdf/

http://13865_07b.pdf/

http://13865_07b.pdf/

http://13865_07a.pdf/



Index Terms Links

Food-to-microorganism ratio 279

related to sludge settleability 282

Formulas

actual leakage 11

area 5

boiler horsepower 51

brake horsepower 8

chlorine weight, lb 12

detenton time 8

dosage, mg/L 9

electrical measurements 186

feed rate, lb/day 12

filter backwash rate 9 266

filter loading rate 266

food-to-microorganism ratio 279

force 266

gallons per capita per day 9

gallons per day of water

consumption (demand/day) 10

gallons per minute 51

head loss from friction 11 223



http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_06a.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_07a.pdf/

http://13865_07a.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_06a.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/



Index Terms Links

Formulas (Cont.)

hydraulic loading rate 265

organic loading rate 265

parts per million 9

percent element by weight 9

pipe diameter 11

pounds per day 9

pounds per mil gal 9

pumping 186

recirculation flow ratio 265

rectangular basin volume


right cylinder volume


sludge age 280 299

supply (in days) 10

surface area 7

surface overflow rate 9

theoretical water horsepower 8

velocity 11 122 223

volume 7



http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_06a.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_09.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_05a.pdf/

http://13865_07a.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_07a.pdf/

http://13865_05a.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_09.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_06a.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/



Index Terms Links

Formulas (Cont.)

weir detention time 264

weir overflow rate 9 264

weir surface overflow rate 264

40 CFR 503 regulations. See

USEPA 40 CFR 503 regulations

Friction loss

factors ( 12-in. pipe) 153

of water (in ft per 100-ft

length of pipe) 155

G

Gallons per capita per day 9

Gallons per day of water consumption

(demand/day) 10

Gases, dangerous 108Gauges 163

Glossary terms 406

Grade conversions (US units) 31

Gravity thickening

advantages and disadvantages 304

equations 298



http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_05b.pdf/

http://13865_05b.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_04.pdf/

http://13865_05b.pdf/


http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_09.pdf/

http://13865_09.pdf/

http://13865_09.pdf/

http://13865_09.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/


http://13865_05b.pdf/

http://13865_04.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_05b.pdf/

http://13865_05b.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/



Index Terms Links

Gravity thickening (Cont.)

factors affecting performance 307

maintenance checklist 305

performance 306

troubleshooting guide 308

Grinder pumps 132

H

Hazard classification 106

Hazardous locations 104

Hazen–Williams formula

and friction loss 155

and head loss 187 224

Head formulas 266

Head loss formulas 11 223Horsepower. See Brake

horsepower, Boiler

horsepower, Theoretical water

horsepower

Hydraulic loading rate 265

Hydrogen sulfide exposure effects 106



http://13865_09.pdf/

http://13865_09.pdf/

http://13865_09.pdf/

http://13865_09.pdf/

http://13865_05a.pdf/

http://13865_04.pdf/

http://13865_04.pdf/

http://13865_05b.pdf/

http://13865_06a.pdf/

http://13865_07a.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_07a.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_04.pdf/

http://13865_04.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_07a.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_07a.pdf/

http://13865_06a.pdf/

http://13865_05b.pdf/

http://13865_04.pdf/

http://13865_04.pdf/

http://13865_05a.pdf/

http://13865_09.pdf/

http://13865_09.pdf/

http://13865_09.pdf/

http://13865_09.pdf/



Index Terms Links

I

Incline screw pumps 215

Infiltration 172

Intermittent sand filters 292

L

Langelier saturation index (LSI) 61 167

M

Manholes 147

precast concrete 148

Manning formula 224

Marble test 167

Marine discharge 387

Maximum daily flow 120

Maximum hourly flow 121

Maximum pipe velocity 11

Meters. See Orifice meters

Venturi meters

Methane fermentation 339



http://13865_06c.pdf/

http://13865_05c.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_05c.pdf/

http://13865_05a.pdf/

http://13865_05a.pdf/

http://13865_07a.pdf/

http://13865_07a.pdf/

http://13865_05c.pdf/

http://13865_10.pdf/

http://13865_05a.pdf/

http://13865_05a.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_09.pdf/

http://13865_09.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_05a.pdf/

http://13865_05a.pdf/

http://13865_10.pdf/

http://13865_05c.pdf/

http://13865_07a.pdf/

http://13865_05a.pdf/

http://13865_05a.pdf/

http://13865_05c.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_05c.pdf/

http://13865_06c.pdf/



Index Terms Links

Metric system. See SI units

mg/L 61

Mg/L total solids 61

Microorganisms

concentrations in raw wastewater 117

waterborne disease–causing 114

Minimum daily flow 120

Minimum flushing velocity 11

Minimum hourly flow 120

Molarity 61

Moles 61

N

National Electric Manufacturers

Association (NEMA), pump enclosure standards 191

Nitrification reaction 67

Nitrite oxidation 67

Nitrobacter 67

Nitrosomonas 67

Nonclog pump with open impeller 212



http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_04.pdf/

http://13865_04.pdf/

http://13865_05a.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_05a.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_06a.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_06c.pdf/

http://13865_06c.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_06a.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_05a.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_05a.pdf/

http://13865_04.pdf/

http://13865_04.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/



Index Terms Links

Nonemergency ingress/egress 83

Normality 61

O

Ohms 186

Organic loading rate 265

Orifice meters 249

nomographs 249

Oxidation numbers 65

Ozone



affecting performance of 385

P

Palmer-Bowlus flumes 245

Parallelogram area formula 5

Parshall flumes 241

nomograph and corrections graph 243

overhead view 241

side view 241

using nomographs 241



http://13865_04.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_06a.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_07b.pdf/

http://13865_07b.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_10.pdf/

http://13865_10.pdf/

http://13865_07b.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_07b.pdf/

http://13865_07b.pdf/

http://13865_07b.pdf/

http://13865_07b.pdf/

http://13865_07b.pdf/

http://13865_07b.pdf/

http://13865_07b.pdf/

http://13865_07b.pdf/

http://13865_07b.pdf/

http://13865_07b.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_07b.pdf/

http://13865_10.pdf/

http://13865_10.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_07b.pdf/

http://13865_07b.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_06a.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_04.pdf/



Index Terms Links

Part 503 regulations. See

USEPA 40 CFR 503 regulations

Parts per million 9

Pathogens. See USEPA 40 CFR

503 regulations,

Waterborne diseases

Peak hourly flow 120

Peracetic acid 378

Percent element by weight 9

Percent strength by weight 61

Periodic table of elernents 54

pH scale 62

Pipes and piping

air testing 169

area of partly filled circular pipes 122

and AWWA C900 149

cleaning method limitations

and effectiveness 175 176

cleaning methods 173

color coding 82

crushing strength requirements



http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_05a.pdf/

http://13865_10.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_05c.pdf/

http://13865_05a.pdf/

http://13865_05a.pdf/

http://13865_05c.pdf/

http://13865_05c.pdf/

http://13865_05c.pdf/

http://13865_04.pdf/

http://13865_04.pdf/

http://13865_05c.pdf/

http://13865_05c.pdf/

http://13865_05c.pdf/

http://13865_05a.pdf/

http://13865_05a.pdf/

http://13865_05c.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_10.pdf/

http://13865_05a.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/



Index Terms Links

Pipes and piping (Cont.)

for vitrified clay pipe 145

diameter formula 11

drop joints 161

flanges 150

flexible 129

friction loss factors (12-in.pipe) 153

friction loss of water (in ft per

100-ft length of pipe) 155

inspection techniques and

limitations 176

joint breaks 161

joint types 160

jump joints 161

maximum velocity 11

nonpressure 129

outside diameters of small

pipes and tubes 152

plastic pipe types 151

pressure pipe 149

rigid 129



http://13865_05a.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_05b.pdf/

http://13865_05a.pdf/

http://13865_05a.pdf/

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http://13865_05b.pdf/

http://13865_05c.pdf/

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http://13865_05b.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_05a.pdf/

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http://13865_05b.pdf/

http://13865_05a.pdf/

http://13865_05a.pdf/

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http://13865_05a.pdf/

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Index Terms Links

Pipes and piping (Cont.)

rodding tools and uses 177

Schedule 40 149

Schedule 80 149

SDR categories 149

smoothness coefficients for

various materials 152

standard dimension ratio (SDR) 149

strength requirernents for

reinforced concrete pipe 146

Pollutants. See USEPA 40

CFR 503 regulations

Ponds

algae varieties in 78


of bacteria and algae in 282

formulas 265

Positive-displacement pumps 185

Pounds per day 9

Pounds per mil gal 9

Power conversions (US units) 33



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http://13865_05a.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_06a.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_02.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_01.pdf/

http://13865_06a.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_08.pdf/

http://13865_03.pdf/

http://13865_05a.pdf/

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Index Terms Links

Pressure



requirements 12 222

Progressive cavity pumps 215

Propeller pumps 213

Pumps and pumping

cast-in-place lift stations 219

centrifugal turbine pumps 185 211

duplex pump station with

fiberglass-reinforced

plastic enclosure 218

duplex submersible pumping

station 217

dynamic head 192

electric motor lubrication 193

enclosures 191 218

flexibly coupled, horizontally

mounted centrifugal pumps 211

flexibly coupled, vertically

mounted centrifugal pumps 211



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Index Terms Links

Pumps and pumping (Cont.)

formulas 186

grinder pumps 132

horizontal nonclog wastewater

pump with open impeller 212

horsepower and efficiency 189

incline screw pumps 215

load current and fuse size

required by AC and

induction motors 190

low-voltage switch ratings 197

maintenance checklist 197

mechanical seal 210

North American standard

nominal voltages 196

North American standard

system voltages 195

positive-displacement pumps 185

power loss due to motor

and pump inefficiency 189

progressive cavity pumps 215



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Index Terms Links


propeller pumps 213

pump performance curve 189

single-phase alternating

current motor 187 190

sludge head loss 187

split packing box 210

static head 192

submersible pump in wet well 216

submersible wastewater pumps 214

three-phase alternating


three-phase magnetic starter 194

troubleshooting guides

(electric motors) 206 209

troubleshooting guides

(pumps) 200 205

two-phase alternating


types of pumps 211

velocity pumps 185



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http://13865_06a.pdf/

http://13865_06a.pdf/

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http://13865_06a.pdf/

http://13865_06c.pdf/

http://13865_06a.pdf/

http://13865_06a.pdf/

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Index Terms Links


vertical ball-bearing-type

wastewater pumps 212

vertical turbine pumps 185

visual inspection of

contact points 193

wire-to-water efficiency 189

Pyramid volume formula 7

R

Recirculation flow ratio 265

Rectangle area formula 5

Rectangle tank volume formula 7

Rectangular basin volume

(cubic feet and gallons) 9Rectangular solid volunie and

surface area formulas 7

Refrigeration tonnage 51

Regulations. See USEPA 40

CFR 503 regulations

RI. See Ryzner index



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Index Terms Links

Right cylinder volume


Right-angle triangle area formula 6

Roadway safety

good work practices 97

portable manhole safety enclosure 98

traffic barricade placement 90

Rodding tools and uses 177

Rule of continuity 12

Ryzner index 168

S

Safety

booster cables 100

confined space entry 83 85 87dangerous gases 108

electrical 102

emergency rescue 83

fire types and extinguishers 102

hand signals in sewer cleaning 99

hazard classification 106



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Index Terms Links

Safety (Cont.)

hazardous locations 104

nonemergency ingress/egress 83

pipeline color coding 82

portable manhole safety enclosure 98

roadway work practices 97

toxin exposure effects 106

traffic barricade placement 90

trench shoring 88

ventilation nomograph 103

SBRs. See Sequencing batch reactors

Schedule 40 pipe 149

Schedule 80 pipe 149

SDR. See Standard dimension ratio

SDR/14 149

SDR/18 149

SDR/21 149 150

SDR/25 149

SDR/26 149 150

SDR/35 150

SDR/41 150



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Index Terms Links

Septage


characteristics of conventional

parameters 295

sources 296

Sequencing batch reactors


for carbon oxidation plus

phosphorus and nitrogen

removal 269

case studies 291

installed cost per gallon of

wastewater treated 291

key design parameters 290

Settling

design overflow rate and peak

solids loading rate for secondary

settling tanks following

activated-sludge processes 287

in ideal tank 284

regions for concentrated



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Index Terms Links

Settling (Cont.)

suspensions 285

tank design parameters 286

Sewer cleaning

effectiveness of methods 176

hand signals 99

limitations of methods 175

methods 173

rodding tools and uses 177

Sewers

cleanout types and locations 131

control points for construction 129

minimum slopes for

various pipe diameters 121

rehabilitation techniques 181

See also Collection systems

SI units

base units 2

derived units 4

derived units with special names 3

prefixes 2

supplementary units 3



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Index Terms Links

Slope, minimum, for various

sized sewers 121

Sludge

and anaerobic digesters

and lagoons 314


(equations) 301

calculating age 280 299

and centrifuges 315

dewatering 299 310

digester gas production (equation) 302

digester loading rate 302

examples of microbial

pathogen concentrations in 118

flow rate (return-activated sludge) 286

gravity thickening 298 304

head loss 187

mean cell residence

time equations 299

percent solids and sludge

pumping (equations) 298



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Index Terms Links

Sludge (Cont.)

percent volatile solids reduction

(equation) 303

plate and frame filter press

dewatering (and equations) 300 301

pollutant limits for land

application of sewage sludge 343

processing alternatives 300

processing calculations 298

requirements for land application

of sewage sludge 341

settleability related to


settleable solids (equation) 303

solids concentrations and other

characteristics 347

total solids and volatile solids

(equations) 303

vacuum filter dewatering

equations 299

volatile acids/alkalinity



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Index Terms Links

Sludge (Cont.)

ratio (equation) 302

See also Biosolids

Smoothness coefficients 152

Specific gravity 63

of various solids, liquids

and gases 64

Sphere volume and surface

area formulas 7

Square area formula 5

Stability index 168

Standard dimension ratio 149

Submersible pumps 214

duplex station 217

in wet wells 216

Supply (in days) 10

Surface overflow rate 9

Suspended solids loading 264

Système International. See SI units



http://13865_09.pdf/

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http://13865_01.pdf/

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http://13865_05c.pdf/

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Index Terms Links

T

Tastes and odors (algae sources) 72

Theoretical water horsepower 8

Three-edge bearing test 145 146

Total alkalinity 61

Total solids 61

Total suspended solids 61

Toxin exposure effects 106

Traffic barricade placement 90

Trapezoid area formula 6

Treatment

aeration 279

bacterial density with

growth time 285 basic biological reactions of

bacteria and algae in

ponds 282

biological oxygen

demand loading 276

biological process in



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Index Terms Links

Treatment (Cont.)

filter bed 275

calculating biological

oxygen demand 264 265

calculating sludge age 280

calculating suspended solids

loading in primary clarifier 264

chemicals used 270

chlorine dosing capacity for

various treatment types 288

combined biological nitrogen

and phosphorus removal

processes 268

composition of average

sanitary wastewater 272

contactor formulas 265

conventional plant schematic 267

correcting BOD removal

efficiency 278

diffusers 288

filter backwash rate 266



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Index Terms Links

Treatment (Cont.)

filter loading rate 266

filtration formulas 265


force formula 266

forced vortex unit for

removing grit 273

head formulas 266

intermittent sand filters 292

minimum national performance

standards 283

nitrification process 267

nutrient compositiori of

average sanitary wastewater 272

PhoStrip II process for

phosphorus and nitrogen

removal 269

pond formulas 265

primary clarifier design

criteria and parameters 274

relationship between



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Index Terms Links

Treatment (Cont.)

activated-sludge settleability and


return-activated sludge flow rate 286

SBR advantages and

disadvantages 289

SBR case studies 291

SBR design parameters 290

SBRs and installed cost per

gallon of wastewater treated 291

sedimentation tank design

parameters 286

septage 294

sequencing batch reactors 269 289

settling in ideal tank 284

trickling filters 275

unit processes for wastewater

reclamation 262

weir overflow formulas 264

Wuhrmann process for

nitrogen removal 269



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Index Terms Links

Treatment works treating

domestic sewage 346

Trenches and trenching

bedding classes 141

grade control using batter

boards 138

grade control using

fixed-beam laser 139

grade pole for pipe laying 138

power bucket machines 142

shoring 88

sloping or benching systems 140

Triangle area formula 6

Trickling filters 275

loadings 277

plants 277 278

Trough volume formula 7

TWTDS. See Treatment works

treating domestic sewage



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Index Terms Links

U

Ultraviolet light 380


attributes 378

average intensity within

2-by-2 lamp array 384

log survival versus

dose curves 383 384

low-intensity parameters

and performance range 386


typical systems 382


affecting performance of 382 385 Units of measure 14

US Environmental Protection

Agency. See USEPA 40

CFR 503 regulations



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Index Terms Links

USEPA 40 CFR 503 regulations 335

biosolids sampling 365

Class A pathogen

requirements 335 349 353

360

Class B pathogen requirements 335 349 353

360

crops impacted by site restrictions

for Class B biosolids 352

design criteria for Class B alkaline

stabilization 340

determining AWSAR nitrogen

amount relative to agronomic

rate 352

exclusions from Biosolids Rule 344

meeting Class A requirements 335 348 361

meeting Class B requirements 336 348 362

364

meeting pollutant limits 348

and methane fermentation 339

monitoring frequency re



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Index Terms Links

USEPA 40 CFR 503 regulations (Cont.)

pollutants, pathogen

densities, and vector

attraction reduction 353

pollutant limits for land

application of

sewage sludge 343

record-keeping and

reporting requirements 357

reducing pathogens listed in

Appendix B 364

requirements for land

application of sewage

sludge 341 355 356

restrictions on land use

where Class B biosolids

are applied 351 363

and surface disposal sites 359

time–temperature regimes for

Class A pathogen reduction

(Alternative l) 361



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Index Terms Links

USEPA 40 CFR 503 regulations (Cont.)

treatment works required

to apply for permit 346

types of land onto which

different biosolids may

be applied 347

vector attraction reduction 335 360

vector attraction reduction

options 337 348 349

V

Valves

eccentric (open, closing, and

closed positions) 163

types and resistance to flow 164Vector attraction reduction 335

See also USEPA 40 CFR

503 regulations

Velocity


formulas 11 122 223



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Index Terms Links

Velocity head 266

Velocity pumps 185

Ventilation safety 103

Venturi meters 246

corrections graph 247

monographs 125 246

Venturi tubes, flow

through (formula) 225

Vertical turbine pumps 185

Volts 186

Volume



formulas 7

W

Wastewater

characteristics of selected

industrial wastewaters 128

marine discharge 387

suggested rates of application

to different soil types 386



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Index Terms Links

Waterborne diseases 113

examples of microbial

pathogen concentrations

in raw wastewater and

sludge 118

infectious doses of selected

pathogens 117

major pathogens in municipal

wastewater and manure 332

microorganism concentrations

in raw wastewater 117

organisms causing 114

pathogen survival times 116

removal of microbial pathogens

by conventional treatment

processes 118

Weight



Weirs

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http://13865_04.pdf/

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http://13865_04.pdf/

http://13865_04.pdf/

http://13865_04.pdf/

awwa wastewater operator field guide-american water works association (awwa) (2006)

Documents