BASIC AND ADVANCED AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT

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The Atmosphere

Percentage of Gases

An air pollutant can be considered as a substance in the air that, in high enough concentrations, produces a detrimental environmental effect.

An environmental effect is defined as a measurable or perceivable detrimental change resulting from contact with an air pollutant.

Ambient air is the air to which the general public has access, i.e. any unconfined portion of the atmosphere.

The two basic physical forms of air pollutants are• Particulate Matter • Gases

Particulate Matter includes small solid and liquid particles such as dust, smoke, sand, pollen, mist and fly ash.

Gases include substances such as carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NO2), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs).

A primary pollutant is one that is emitted into the atmosphere directly from the source of the pollutant and retains the same chemical form.

A secondary pollutant is one that is formed by atmospheric reactions of precursor or primary emissions. Secondary pollutants undergo a chemical change once they reach the atmosphere.

Primary and Secondary Pollutants

Sources of Pollutants in Ambient Air

Natural Sources (Biogenic)• Volcanoes• Wind Storms• Forest Fires• Pollen• Natural Decomposition• Natural Radioactivity

Man Made Sources (Anthropogenic)

Mobile Sources• Automobiles• Trains• Aeroplanes

Stationary Sources (Non Moving Sources)• Power Plants • Industrial Facilities

Point SourceA point source refers to a source at a fixed point

Area SourceAn area source refers to a series of small sources that together can affect air quality in a region.

Criteria pollutants • common • detrimental to human welfare

These criteria pollutants are• Carbon Monoxide (CO)• Sulfur Oxides (SOx) • Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)• Ozone (O3) • Lead (Pb)• Particulate Matter (PM)

Criteria Pollutants

Carbon Monoxide• colorless odorless gas• formed when fuel is not burnt completely

Sources• 50-60% produced by motor vehicles• Heavy construction equipment• max at heavy traffic congestions• forest fires (Natural)• Industrial processes• Gas stoves, wood stoves, heaters, cigarettes

Criteria Pollutants

Sulfur Oxides (SOx)• colorless gases • formed by burning sulfur• fuel, oil or gas containing sulfur is burnt• SO2 criteria pollutant• SO2 dissolves in water to form acids• SO2 interacts with other gases & particles to form sulfates (harmful)

Sources• Power Plants running on furnace oil rich in sulfur• Industrial facilities• Oil refineries• Large ships, non road diesel equipment

Criteria Pollutants

Nitrogen Oxides (Nox)• mostly colorless, odorless• NO, NO2, N2O• NO2 criteria pollutant• highly reactive gases• play an important role in the formation of ozone • formed when fuel is burnt at high temp.• NO2 along with other particles forms a brownish layer

Sources • Motor vehicles• Industrial activities• Electric utilities

Criteria Pollutants

Ozone (O3)• gas composed of three oxygen atoms• colorless gas, electric discharge type odor• secondary pollutant• not emitted directly into the air• at ground level, created by a chemical reac. b/w Nox and VOCs in sunlight and heat

Good Ozone• Stratospheric ozone protects us from harmful ultraviolet radiations

Bad Ozone • ground level ozone harmful to humans and environment

Criteria Pollutants

Factors affecting Ozone concentration

• concentration of VOCs• concentration of NOx• local weather conditions• intensity of sunlight

Criteria PollutantsParticulate Matter (TSP, PM10, PM2.5)• mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets• includes dust, soot, smoke and liquid droplets• can be primary as well as secondary pollutant• can remain suspended in air for long period of time

PM10• all particles less than or equal to 10µm in diameter (one seventh the dia. Of human hairPM2.5• all particles less than or equal to 2.5µm in dia

Criteria PollutantsLead (Pb)• metallic element• found naturally in environment

Sources• vehicular emissions• industrial processes• lead batteries• leaded gasoline• battery manufacturers• metal refineries• iron and steel producers

Table 1:  Sources, Health and Welfare Effects for Criteria Pollutants.

Pollutant Description Sources Health Effects Welfare Effects

Carbon Monoxide (CO) Colorless, odorless gas Motor vehicle exhaust, indoor sources include kerosene or wood burning stoves.

Headaches, reduced mental alertness, heart attack, cardiovascular diseases, impaired fetal development, death.

Contribute to the formation of smog.

Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) Colorless gas that dissolves in water vapor to form acid, and interact with other gases and particles in the air.

Coal-fired power plants, petroleum refineries, manufacture of sulfuric acid and smelting of ores containing sulfur.

Eye irritation, wheezing, chest tightness, shortness of breath, lung damage.

Contribute to the formation of acid rain, visibility impairment, plant and water damage, aesthetic damage.

Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) Reddish brown, highly reactive gas.

Motor vehicles, electric utilities, and other industrial, commercial, and residential sources that burn fuels.

Susceptibility to respiratory infections, irritation of the lung and respiratory symptoms (e.g., cough, chest pain, difficulty breathing).

Contribute to the formation of smog, acid rain, water quality deterioration, global warming, and visibility impairment.

Ozone (O3) Gaseous pollutant when it is formed in the troposphere.

Vehicle exhaust and certain other fumes.  Formed from other air pollutants in the presence of sunlight.

Eye and throat irritation, coughing, respiratory tract problems, asthma, lung damage.

Plant and ecosystem damage.

Lead (Pb) Metallic element Metal refineries, lead smelters, battery manufacturers, iron and steel producers.

Anemia, high blood pressure, brain and kidney damage, neurological disorders, cancer, lowered IQ.

Affects animals and plants, affects aquatic ecosystems.

Particulate Matter (PM) Very small particles of soot, dust, or other matter, including tiny droplets of liquids.

Diesel engines, power plants, industries, windblown dust, wood stoves.

Eye irritation, asthma, bronchitis, lung damage, cancer, heavy metal poisoning, cardiovascular effects.

Visibility impairment, atmospheric deposition, aesthetic damage.

Perfect CombustionFuel(hydrocarbons) + Air (oxygen +

nitrogen)

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) + Water(H2O) + Unaffected Nitrogen

Typical Engine CombustionFuel(hydrocarbons) + Air (oxygen

+nitrogen)

Unburned Hydrocarbons + Nitrogen Oxides(NOx) + Carbon Monoxide(CO) +

Carbon Dioxide(CO2) + Water(H2O)

Mobiles Sources• responsible for more than half of the air pollution• cars are primary source• vehicles produce 75-90% less pollution for each mile driven than their 1970 counterpart• no. of vehicles have increased immensely

Mobile Sources Pollutants• 45% VOC emissions• 50% NOx emissions• 60% CO emissions• 50% hazardous air pollutants in urban air

Air Quality IndexThe Air Quality Index (AQI), also known as the Air Pollution Index (API) or Pollutant Standard Index (PSI) is an index for reporting daily air quality

How does the AQI work?Think of the AQI as a yardstick that runs from 0 to 500. The higher the AQI value, the greater the level of air pollution and the greater the health concern

An AQI value of 100 generally corresponds to the national air quality standard for the pollutant, which is the level EPA has set to protect public health

Air Quality IndexLevels of Health Concern

NumericalValue

Meaning

Good 0-50Air quality is considered satisfactory,

and air pollution poses little or no risk.

Moderate 51-100

Air quality is acceptable; however, for some pollutants there may be a

moderate health concern for a very small number of people who are

unusually sensitive to air pollution.

Unhealthy for Sensitive Groups

101-150Members of sensitive groups may

experience health effects. The general public is not likely to be affected.

Unhealthy 151-200

Everyone may begin to experience health effects; members of sensitive groups may experience more serious

health effects.

Very Unhealthy 201-300Health alert: everyone may experience

more serious health effects.

Hazardous > 300Health warnings of emergency

conditions. The entire population is more likely to be affected.

To convert from concentration the equation

is used, where:I = the (Air Quality) index, C = the pollutant concentration, Clow= the concentration breakpoint that is ≤ C, Chigh= the concentration breakpoint that is ≥ C, Ilow= the index breakpoint corresponding to Clow, Ihigh= the index breakpoint corresponding to Chigh.

For example, suppose a monitor records a 24-hour average fine particle (PM2.5) concentration of 12.0 micrograms per cubic meter. EPA's table of breakpoints for PM2.5 is:

The equation above results in an AQI of:

corresponding to air quality in the "Good" range.If multiple pollutants are measured at a monitoring site, then the largest or "dominant" AQI value is reported for the location

Clow Chigh Ilow Ihigh Category

0 15.4 0 50 Good15.5 40.4 51 100 Moderate

40.5 65.4 101 150Unhealthy for

Sensitive Groups65.5 150.4 151 200 Unhealthy

150.5 250.4 201 300 Very Unhealthy250.5 350.4 301 400 Hazardous350.5 500.4 401 500 Hazardous

Particulate Matter Sampling

Filter Preparatio

n

Numbering of filtersFilter drying and

conditioning (200C, 50% R.H), 24 hrs

Weighing (before) by balance

Sampling

Filter setting to the samplerPerform Sampling 24 hrsRemove and collect the

filter sample

Sample Measurement

Sample drying and conditioning (200C, 50%

R.H), 48 hrsWeighing (after) by

balanceCalculate the concentration

and store the sample

Calculations

Initial wt. of filter paper Wi= ----- g

Wt. of filter paper + particulate matter Wf= ------ g

Wt. of Particulate matter W= (Wf – Wi) X 106 µg

Avg. flow rate over the entire duration of sampling period Qavg= ----- L/min

Duration of the sampling period t= ----- min

Total sample volume V= Qavg X t X 10-3 m3

Concentration of particulate matter PM 10/2.5

C = W / V = ----- µg/m3

Sample Preparation for Metal Analysis of HV Filter Samples

HCl (1+1) 30mLH2O2 (30%) 5mL

120 C, 1Hr in a draft chamber

Funnel / Whatman 41 Filter Paper

soon before dry upHNO3 (2+98)

after coolingHNO3 (2+98)

Polyethylene Bottle

Calculation of Lead Concentration in Air (AAS)

C= (c1-cb) X v X (S/s) / Vo (µg/m3)

wherec1: Pb concentration in the solution of samplecb:Pb concentration in the solution of blank filter (µg/mL)v: Sample solution volume (25 mL)S/s: Ratio of Sampled filtered area by the analyzed areaVo: Sampling air volume at standard cond.

Vo = V X 298 / T (m3)V: Sampling air volume at present state (m3)T: Average Temperature during sampling (K)

Proton Induced X-ray Emissions (PIXE)

Proton Induced X-ray Emissions (PIXE)

Sample Chamber in PIXE

Acid Rain / Acid DepositionAcid deposition occurs when emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere react with water, oxygen, and oxidants to form acidic compoundsThese compounds fall to the earth in either dry form (gas and particles) known as Dry Deposition or wet form (rain, snow, and fog) known as Wet Deposition

Duration of the reactionIt takes days or weeks for atmospheric SOx and NOx to be converted to acids and deposited on the earth's surface, acid deposition occurs in a multistate scale hundreds of miles away from its sources

Acid Rain

Effects of Acid RainDegradation of Monuments

Effects of Acid Rain

Green House Gases

Ozone Depletion

SmogSmog is thick, choking, dangerous. It happens when tiny particles of dust, smoke and dangerous gases like sulfur dioxide mix with water vapor. And it’s no accident: it is all carefully manufactured by one species – human beings!

Green Buildings

The Concept of Green Cars

EPA launches GREENPAISA

Dispersion of Air Pollutants

Dispersion of Air Pollutants

ConingA coning plume occurs under essentially neutral stability, when environmental lapse rate is equal to adiabatic lapse rate, and moderate to strong winds occur. The plume enlarges in the shape of a cone. A major part of pollution may be carried fairly far downwind before reaching ground.

Dispersion of Air Pollutants

LoopingUnder super-adiabatic condition, both upward and downwind movement of the plume is possible. Large eddies of a strong wind causes looping pattern. Although large eddies tend to disperse pollutants over a wide region, high ground level concentrations may occur close to the stack.

Dispersion of Air Pollutants

FanningA fanning plume occurs in the presence of a negative lapse rate when vertical dispersion is restricted. The pollutants disperse at the stack height, horizontally in the form of a fanning plume.

Dispersion of Air Pollutants

LoftingWhen the stack is sufficiently high and the emission is above an inversion layer, mixing in upper layer is uninhibited, but downward motion is restricted. Such lofting plumes do not result in any significant concentration at ground level. However, the pollutants are carried hundreds of kilometers from the source.

Dispersion of Air Pollutants

FumigationWhen the emission from a stack is under an inversion layer, the movement of the pollutant in the upward direction is restricted. The pollutants move downwards. The resulting fumigation can lead to a high ground level concentration downwind of the stack.

Stability Classifications

Inversion Layer

In meteorology, the atmospheric layer in which the usual temperature gradient—warm air below cold air—is reversed, preventing the mixing of warm and cold air as the warmer air rises. This traps dangerous concentrations of pollutants in the cool air below, sometimes causing dense smog over urban areas.

Inversion Layer

NEQS for Ambient Air

Standards for the minimum ambient air quality needed to protect public health and welfare which are applicable to the ambient air all over Pakistan

National Environmental Quality Standards NEQS for Ambient Air

Pollutants Time-weighted average

Concentration in Ambient Air

Effective from 1st January, 2009

Sulfur Dioxide Annual Average24 hour

80 µg/m3

120 µg/m3

Oxides of Nitrogen as NO

Annual Average24 hour

40 µg/m3

40 µg/m3

Oxides of Nitrogen as NO

Annual Average24 hour

40 µg/m3

80 µg/m3

Ozone 1 hour 180 µg/m3

Suspended Particulate Matter

SPM

Annual Average24 hour

400 µg/m3

550 µg/m3

Particulate Matter PM10

Annual Average24 hour

200 µg/m3

250 µg/m3

Particulate Matter PM2.5

Annual Average24 hour1 hour

25 µg/m3

40 µg/m3

25 µg/m3

Lead (Pb) Annual Average24 hour

1.5 µg/m3

2.0 µg/m3

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

8 hour1 hour

5 mg/m3

10 mg/m3

Attainment Area / Non-Attainment Area

Attainment AreaAn area considered to have air quality as good as or better than the National Environmental Quality Standards as defined in the draft by Pak-EPA.

Non-Attainment AreaAn area that does not meet one or more of the National Environmental Quality Standards as defined in the draft. An area may be an attainment area for one pollutant and a non-attainment area for others.

Tunnels concentrate Air Pollution by upto 1,000

times

Air Pollution Control

Health effects of Air Pollution in Developing Countries of Asia: A Literature Review

Studies of Air Pollution and Health in Asia 1980-2003

Aerosol Index

Transboundary Effects

Transboundary Effects

Transboundary Effects

Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS)

BANGLADESHCase Study

Case Study: Bangladesh

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