Acid process, oxidation rates, 890 Activated complex, defined, 595

entropy of formation, 599 free energy of formation, 596 rate of decomposition, 596 rate of formation, 867 rate theory, 594

Activation energy, of reactions, 595 Activjty, defined, 564

In deal solutions. 636 in ionideal solutjons, 637. 641 in solutions, defined, 557

methods of measurement, 558 relation to free energy, 558 use of Gibbs-Duhem equation, 561 use of phase diagrams, 559

iron oxide in slag, 696, 708, 716, 718, 720, 724-727, 729

sulfur in li uid iron, 676 Activity coeJcient, aluminum in liquid

steel, 672 as measure of deviation from Henry's

law, 641 carbon in liquid iron, 644, 654, 655 defined, 558 nitrogen in liquid steel, 684 oxide ion in sla 723 oxygen in liquifliron, 654, 655

effect of chromium on, 665. 668 effect of vanadium on, 668

sulfur in liquid iron. 679

ore, see Ore spiegel, 181 see Alloying elements

Age hardening, relation to deoxidation. 509

Air, compressed, for fuel atomization, 86, 98-99, 832

for combustion, control during heat, 321 oxygen content of, 106 regulation of input, 104- 106

Air flow pattern, through port ends, 102- I n A

Activity concept, in slag constitution, 707, 719

~dd i t i on i ; bath, ferroalloys, 349-355, 359, 377, 387

bath, for correcting bath conditions, 317 thermal effects, 777

deoxidizing, to furnace, 54 exothermic types, 187 ferroboron, 184, 185 fer ro~hr~mium, 182 ferromanganese, 180 ferromolybdenum, 182 ferrophosphorus, 183 ferrosilicon, 181, 182 ferrotitanium, 184, 185 ferrovanadium. 184 - -

ladle, ferroalloys, 359, 360, 362, 377, 383, 387, 391

for k~lled steel. 54 for rimmed steel, 49

905

1"-

Air infiltration, 23 effect of draft control, 853 effect on checker temperature, 855 effect on efficiency, 108, 843, 850 effect on natural draft, 811 in furnace, defined, 841 through brickwork, 81 3

Air oxidation, during melting period, 876 during tapping and teeming, 356, 899 effect on inclusion count, 487 s

Air preheat temperature measurement, 147 Air requirements, for fuel combustion, 83,

84 Air uptakes, 6, 13, 21, 72 Alloying elements, addition of, 178-187

addition to bath, 52, 353, 359, 377, 387 addition to ladle, 52, 54, 359, 360, 362,

377, 383, 387, 391 aluminum, 185, 361 analvsis of bath for. 332 boron, 184, 185, 186 calculation of efficiencies, 370, 378, 383,

388, 391 charging practice, 272 chemical reactions in bath, 633 chromium, 182, 353, 359 co per, 185 e&ct on melting point of iron, 439, 629 effect on nitrogen solubility in iron, 625 effect on steel properties, 502 lead, 185 manganese, 180, 181, 353, 359, 360, 362 molybdenqn, 182 nickel, 185 oxidation during tapping, 900 phosphorus, 183 segregation cogfficient, 445, 632 silicon, 181, 182 standard free energy of solution in

liquid iron, 638

906 INDEX

Alloying elements (cont'd) '

titanium, 184, 185 vanadium, 184

Alloy steels, adding alloying elements, 52, 178, 353

melt test. 310 -~~ ~. - Alloys, of iron and carbon, freezing range,

112, 113 Alumina, in inclusions, 466, 469, 480,

48 1 -- -

in ingot scum, 477 in slag, sources of, 692

Alumina-calcium oxide-silica phase dia- gram, 765

Alumina-iron oxide-silica phase diagram, 463, 764

Alumina-magnesia-silica phase diagram, - 766 . --

Alumina-manganese oxide-silica phase dia- gram. 464, 767

Alumina-silica phase diagram, 763 Aluminum, activity coefficient in liquid

steel, 672 additions for grain-size . control, 361,

378, 383, 387, 505, 508 deoxidation with, chemistry of, 672 deoxidation, effect on inclusions, 468

effect on temperature, 900 in ladle, 360, 361, 362, 377, 383, 387 in mold, 363, 367, 391. 447 in rimmed steel, 349, 391 reaction rates, 868

effect on machinability, 5 19 effect on weldability of steel, 524 in liquid steel, reaction in bqth. 634 ladle addition, 185 oxidation, heat of reaction, 777 standard free energy of solution, in

liquid iron, 638 Analysis, ladle, 58

limits, rimmed steel, 345, 365, 366 range of components of slags, 692 sampling for, during refining, 47

during refining, sampling methods, - - - 333

Antimony, in steel scrap, 162 Arrhenius reaction-rate equation, 593 Arsenic, in steel scrap, 162 Artillery burners, 71, 72 Atomization, of liquid fuel, 16, 86, 95-99,

100-101, 832 of liquid fuel. atomizer performance. 98

dehned, 95 types of atomizers, 96, 97

Automatic reversal of firing direction, 129-

types of equipment, 131 Austenitic grain size, see Grain size

Backwall, construction, 4, 12, 67 sloping, 67 vertical, 67

Back-pouring of ingots, 498 Bank boils, 318 . Banks, preparation for charging, 39 Basic brick, in furnace construction, 10 Basic roof, see Roof, basic Basicity of slag, defined, 196, 704

effect on phosphorus, 232, 728 relation to carbon and iron oxide, 226 relation to chromium residual. 240, 241 relation to manganese residual, 238,

239, 740 relation to phosphorus reversion, 245 relation to slag-control, 246, 250 relation to sulfur removal, 247, 741 ree Slag basicity; V-ratio

Basket pouring, advantages, 431 Bath additions, thermal effects, 777 Bath composition, at end of refining, 49

at melt, 45 at various stages during typical heats,

44, 376, 377, 382, 383, 386, 387, 390

control of, 309 alloy steels, 310 carbon, 311 other elements, 332

first test, 309 methods of analysis, 47, 330 sampling techniques, 333, 335 uniformity, 495

Bath depth, 9 effect on carbon drop, 901 relation to chemical reactions, 10 relation to production rate. 901

Bath temperature, control of, 316 necessary ranges of, 112 relation to oreing rate 47, 300-303 relation to oxygen injection, 308

Bath temperature -measurements, 112-1 21 blowing tube pyrometer, 117-121 qualitative methods, 114- 11 5 rod-melting method, 114 spoon-pouring method, 114 thermocouple pyrometer, 11 5-1 17 vertical gradients. 117

137 - temperature-difference method. 13 5 Bauxite, as ilwing agent, 298 time method, 134 . Bessemer process, rates of reaction, 869 time-temperature method, 136 Bessemer steel, nitrogen content, 327

l N DEX 907

Bessemer-blown metal, defined, 34 troubles, 318, 885 in duplex practice, 323-329 caused by improper refractory repair, in open-hearth charges, 34-36, 259, 319

266 caused by lead, 319 in scrap and blown metal practices, 279 Bottom boils, 39, 76, 318 use as scrap, 165 effect on excess oxygen in bath, 880,

Blast furnace gas, as fuel, characteristics, 881, 885 82, 83, 91 effect on fuel input, 833

composition of, 83 relation to carbon oxidation, 884 Blast-furnace iron, for ingot mold produc- relation to insulation of bottom, 858

tion, 395 Bottom erosion, of hot-top molds, 413 see Hot metal Bottom pouring, advantages, 432

Blast-furnace practice, relation to slag con- ~~~~d energy, dehed, 550 trol, 242 Bloating of fireclay brick, effect on ladle Boundary conditions in diffusion, 612

life, 418 Breakouts, 319 Blocking, advantages, 350, 352 Brick, chrome, as refractory, 757

disadvantages, 352 chrome-magnesia, in basic roof, 759 killed steel, 248 mechanism of failure, 758

reaction rates, 868, 893 chrome-magnesite, as refractory, 62, 66, purpose of, 350, 893 67, 68, 70, 71, 72, 78

Blowholes, formation, 343, 344. 364-370 as 6°* 62, 67, 71, formation, caused by hydroget1 and ni- 73, 74

trogen, 625 in checkers, 765 in rimmed steel, 55, 451 in ladle, 417, 418, 768 in semikilled steel, relation to deoxida- in hot tops, 411

tion. 448 insulating, 62 Blowing iron, for duplex process, compo-

sition of, 324 Blowing-tube pyrometer, with photocell

receiver, 117-120- with total-radiation receiver, 120-1 21

Blown metal, see Bessemer-blown metal Boiling point, of common metals, 537 Bomb test method for oxygen in liquid

steel, 336 Boron, addition as ferroboron, 184, 185

as hardenability intensifier, 186 deoxidation with, 672

Bottle-top molds, design of, 402-404 ~ot t le- top steel, pourGg 368 Bottom; burned-in, 63

construction, 4, 6, 62 trend, 65

dolomite; characteristics, 754 drainage methods, 76 heat losses. 857 insulation of, 858 inverted arch, 63 maintenance, 22, 39, 75 monolithic, 62 penetration by lead, 65, 163, 319 plastic subhearth, 64 preparation for charging, 39 rammed, 64 rammed subhearth, 66 service conditions, 66

magnesia, 61, 751 in checkers, 767

refractory, manufacture of, 62 standard size. 62 types of, 61

silica, as refractory, 60, 68, 69, 71, effect of iron oxide. 762. 770 volume changes, 761, 770

use in furnace,,, 8 see Refractories

Bridgewall, furnace, 7 1 Brine11 hardness, relation to tensile

strength, 501 Bubble formation in open hearth bath, 618 Bubble forniation, mechanism of, 882 Burner, artillery, 71, 72

for fuel oil, 4, 16 liquid fuel, design of, 99-102 water-cooled, 71

Burner port, "doghouse,'! 71 relation to type of fuel used, 71

Burning-in of furnace bottom, 63 Burnt dolomite, see Dolomite Burnt lime, charging, 263, 267, 273

corrective addition for.slags, 243, 296 effect on V-ratio, 244

purpose of, 33 see Lime

908 INDEX

Calcination of dolomite, 159 Calcination of limestone, 34, 42, 155, 156,

158, 282, 284, 286, 288 limiting factors, 617, 870

Calcium molybdate, addition to bath, 182 Calcium oxide, substitution of, in silicate

network, 715 Calcium oxide-alumina-silica phase dia-

gram, 765 Calcium oxide-iron oxide phase diagram,

754 Calcium oxide-iron oxide-manganese ox-

ide phase diagram, 753 Calcium oxide-iron oxide-silica phase dia-

gram, 694, 698, 724, 725, 744, 755 Calcium oxide-magnesia phase dlagram,

752 Calcium oxide-magnesia-silica phase di-

agram, 758 Calcium oxide-silica phase diagram, 756 Calculation of additions and efficiencies,

370, 378, 383, 388, 391 Calorimeter, for measurement of energy

change, 542 Capped steel, advantages, 347

blowhole formation, 343, 364-369 chemically capped, 365 deoxidation, 343, 344. 364-369 ingot structure, 55, 339, 343, 344, 456,

457 -- . mechanically capped, 365, 367 mold design, 402 product yield, 346, 368 segregation, 456 slae control. 348 V-rYatio, 349' -

Carbide inclusions, origin, 473-474 Carbides, free energy o'i formation, 573

heat of formation, 548 Carbon, activity, in liquid iron, 643-646

activity coefficient, in liquid iron, 644, 654, 655

analysis of bath for, 330 boil, essential to hydrogen elimination,

315 content at melt, 244, 262, 299

aim, 43 effect of charge materials, 37

content, by magnetic methods, 331 effect on hardenability, 512 effect on machinability, 518 effect on slag oxidation, 225, 226 from fracture tests, 311, 330 in Bessemer-blown metal, 165 in hot metal, 166, 167

in iron scrap, 165 relation to grain-size control, 361 rimmed steel, 345, 365, 366, 367

control in charge, 37, 261, 262 relation to type of charge, 263

control in refining period, 3 1 1 effect on other elements, 312

control, recarburizing method, 31 1 use of reboil, 349

diffusivity, in austenite, 608 in liquid iron, 610, 61 1

drop, effect of bath depth, 901 effect of ore additions, 47, 301-304 effect of oxygen injections, 306 mechanism of diffusion, 613

effect on activity coefficient of sulfur, 678, 680

effect on melting point of iron, 1 12 effect on weldability of steel, 522 elimination, during refining, 44, 47, 48 equivalent of charge, calculating, 261,

263 - -- in liquid iron, standard free energy of

solution, 638, 645, 646 in liquid steel, reaction in bath, 634 ladle addition, 185 melt, effect of charge materials, 37 oxidation, and bottom boiling. 884

calculation in materials balance, 783 effect of limestone calcination, 87 1 effect on manganese oxidation, 887 heat of reaction, 777, 787 heat requirements, 774 limitations of, 881 mechanism of diffusion, 613 minimum rate of, 228 rate of, 602, 604, 613, 879-887 reactions of, 879 heat of reaction, 777, 787 relation to kinetics of process, 883 relation to slag control, 228 thermal effect of ore additions, 779-

782 use of gaseous oxygen, 177, 304-309

reaction in liquid iron, 643 reaction with iron oxide, 42 segregation, in rimmed steel ingot, 545 solubility, in liquid iron, 644 substitutes, in charge, 174, 273

Carbon-iron system, phase diagram, 578, 581

Carbon-oxygen equilibrium, 877 effect of pressure, 447, 65 1 effect of temperature, 653, 655 in liquid iron, 650-655

Carbon-oxygen product, open hearth values, 652

not a constant, 652 Carbon-oxygen reaction, during ingot

solidification, 341 importance of, 227 in ladle, 497 in rimming ingots, 56 relation to reaction rate theory, 602, 60.i relation to slag control, 225

Carbon-oxygen relation, compared with equilibrium with slag, 877

in steel bath, 358, 877 effect of pressure, 877 effect on iron oxide in slag, 226, 886 effect on manganese oxidation, 887 steady state condition, 877, 879

Cast iron scrap, see Scrap iron Charge, components of, 33

functions of ore, 175 heat flow in, 829 metallic, see Metallic charge percent hot metal in, effect on melt-

down period, 291 proportioning, 154, 260, 262

basic principles, 262 sources of oxygen in, 34, 175 types of, 35, 36, 259, 262

conditions governing selection, 35, 36 effect on heat requirements, 785, 788 relation to carbon control, 263 relation to steel quality, 260 ore used. 175

Charge balance, 36-39, 154, 260, 262 basic principles, 262 carbon control, 37, 174 non-oxidizable elements, 38 oxidizable elements, 38 relation to heat balance, 782 slag-forming constituents, 38 variables affecting, 36, 261, 262

Charge ore, see Ore, charge ore Charging, alloying elements, 272

burnt lime, 263, 267, 274 cold iron, 268, 270, 275 duplex practice, 389 duplex process, dominant-pool practice,

328 single-heat practice, 325

equipment, 25, 255 equipment for, elevator system, 257 fifty-fifty practice, 275 general practice, 267 handling stock, 150 heat input during, 320 hot-metal, 35, 270, 275, 276, 277, 278

timing additions, 270-272 high hot-metal practice. 276. 375. 3 X 1 limestone, 41, 263, 267; 273,' 274, 276,

277, 278 ore, 268, 276, 277, 278 pig iron, 268, 270, 275 rate of, relation to thermal efficiency,

859 scrap, 268, 275, 276, 277, 278, 279 scrap and blown-metal practice, 279 scrap and coke practice, 35, 36, 273 scrap and cold-iron practice, 385 scrap and hot-metal practice, 274 scrap and pig-iron practice, 274 scrapping of bottom, 41, 267

Charging boxes, 25, 40 Charging buggies, relation to production

rates, 258 Charging period, 39-42

hot metal addition, 42 preparation of banks, bottom, and tap-

hole, 39-40 sequence of charging, 40 solid material, 40 time required, 42, 269

Charging-time, methods for decreasing, 258

normal, 257, 269 relation to production rate, 256

Checker chamber, construction, 73 elimination of division wall, 74

Checkers, chimney effect, 104, 138, 797 cleaning, 23, 80

relation to fuel efficiency, 855 construction, 7, 8, 18 depth of, relation to regenerator effi-

ciency, 844 gas flow through checkers, 803, 810 heat flow, 822 insulation, 858 optimum brick thickness, 825 refractories used, 765 size, 6, 18 temperature measurement, 132-134 temperatures, effect of air leakage, 855 see Regenerators

Checking of mold walls, influence on mold life, 412

Chemical analysis, methods, carbon, 330 methods, gases in steel, 335

other elements, 332 of slags, 192 sampling for, 333, 335

Chemical composition, analysis range of slag components, 692

910 INDEX

Chemical composition (cont'd) carbon oxidation, 47, 879 of bath, at end of refining, 49 effect of heat transfer rate, 617

at melt, 45 effect of temperature, 867 sampling for, 47 ladle reactions, 897 sampling techniques, 333, 335 manganese oxidation, 887, 890 variations, effect on properties, 491-

494 oxygen flow, slag to metal, 878 relation to furnace speed, 901

of deep-drawing steel, 504 silicon block, 893 of steel, effect on machinability, 518

effect on weldability, 522, 524 silicon oxidation, 889, 890

relation to hardenabilit~, 511, 514 slag-metal mixing, 869, 874 variations in last ingots, 496 sulfur and phosphorus control, 892

relation to steel properties, 500-504 surface-zone reactions, 871, 873 uniformity, 494-500 Talbot process, 869

effect of ladle additions, 495 volume-zone reactions, 871 effect of ladle reactions, 496 Chill zone, in ingot structure, 436, 446, effect of segregation, 499 448 reladling practice, 497 Chimney effect of checkers, 104, 138, 797 within furnace, 495 Chrome brick, as refractory, 757

Chemical compounds, see Compounds effect of iron oxide on, 70 Chemical elements, see Elements Chrome-magnesia brick, in basic roof, 759 Chemical reactions, absolute reaction rate mechanism of failure, 758

theory, 594 Chrome-magnesia refractories, 62, 66-68, activation energy, 595 70-72, 78, 757 carbon oxidation, 45, 634, 650 Chrome ore, as refractory, 60, 64, 66, 68, classical theory of reaction rates, 594 73, 74, 78, 756 deoxidation, 656 for frontwall repairs, 22 energy changes, 540 resistance to slags, 757 equilibrium, 562 sensitivity to iron oxide, 757 first-order reaction rate, 601 Chromium, adding to bath, 352, 359, 377, formation of activated complex, 597,

867 387

addition as ferrochromium, 182 f tee-energy change, 553 control, in bath, 313 heterogeneous equilibrium, 574 deoxidation with, chemistry of, 661-666 heterogeneous reactions, 872 effect on activity coefficient of oxygen homogeneous reactions, 872 in liquid iron, 665, 668 in liquid steel, 632-635 effect on nitrogen solubility in iron, 625 Le Chatelier principle, 566 effect on slag viscosity, 241 manganese oxidation, 45, 738-741 heat of fusion, 636 order of reaction, 600 in steel scrap, 162 oxygen gradients, 874 oxidation, relation to slag control, 241 phosphorus oxidation, 45, 728-738 recovery, from furnace additions, 352, precipitation reactions, 872 rapid rates, 868, 874

379, 388 residual, variables affecting, 240, 241

limiting factors, 870 standard free energy of solution, in reaction sequence with two slow steps,

602 liquid iron, 636, 638

reactions near equilibrium, rate, 603 Chromium-iron system, phase diagram,

refining, 632-635 577, 579

relation to bath depth, 10 Clapeyron equation, for vapor pressure-

silicon oxidation, 45, 745 temperature relation, 537

use of stoichiometry, 540 Classical theory, of reaction rates, 594 rates of, and bath control, 894 Clay-graphite stopper head, 422

Bessemer process, 869 thermal shock, 423

INDEX 91 1

Cleanness of steel, 346, 347, 353, 482-486 control of, 485 criteria, 483 see Inclusions

Cobalt, in steel scrap, 162 Coefficient, activity, see Activity coefficient Coke-oven gas, as fuel, characteristics, 82,

83, 87, 88, 91 as fuel, composition of, 83

handicaps, 88 heat of combustion, 83, 862

Cold additions, in refining period, for con- trolling bath conditions, 317

Cold shut, on ingot surface, cause of, 427 Cold iron, charging, 268, 270, 275

charging, timing additions, 272 effect on production rate, 268

Cold-metal practice, see Scrap and cold- iron practice

Collision theory, in gas reactions, 594 Colloidal fuel, usage in open hearth, 84,

8 5 Colorimetric method for steel, analysis

332 Columnar zone, in ingot structure, 436,

446 Combustion, heat of, 83, 860

of fuels, principles of, 860-865 Combustion air, control, 321

enrichment with oxygen, 106, 107, 281 oxygen, variation with ambient temper-

ature, 106 regulation of input, 104-106

Combustion temperature, theoretical, de- fined, 863

Compounds, defined, 532 dissociation pressures, 567 entropy, 552 free energy of formation, 567, 573 heat of formation, 547, 548

Compressed air, for fuel atomization, 86, 98, 99

Conservation of energy, 532 Constitution of slags, 707-717

liquid slags, 707 solidified slags, 710

Constitution of steel, relation to prop- erties, 490

Constriction of port ends, effect on air flow pattern, 103

Conversion factors, 5 36 Cooling rate, critical, defined, 505

critical, relation to hardenability, 512 Copper, activity, in liquid iron, 641

in steel scrap, 162, 163

standard free energy of solution, in liquid iron, 638, 641

Copper-iron system, phase diagram, 578, 579

Core zone, in ingot structure, 436, 446, 448

Corrugated wall contours, in mold design, 397, 404

Cristobalite, inversion temperature, 761, 770

Critical cooling rate, see Cooling rate Critical temperature level, in open-hearth,

836, 840 relation to fuel-air ratio, 841

Crystallization, of killed ingots, 437

Dalton's law, defined, 554 Decarbonization, by oxygen injection, 304-

309 Decomposition rate of activated complex,

596 Deep-drawing properties of steel, variables

affecting, 503 Defects, relation to steel quality, 524 Degrees of freedom, in Gibbs phase rule,

582 Density, of iron, high temperatures, 622

of open hearth fuels, 83 scrap, importance of, 257 slags, 704

Deoxidation, aluminum, 447, 672 aluminum, in ladle, 360, 361, 362, 377,

383, 387 in molds, 363, 367, 391 effect on grain size, 505, 508 effect on inclusions, 468 effect on tap temperature, 900 free energy, 672 reaction rates, 868

boron, 672 calculation of ferroalloy recoveries, 370,

378, 383, 388, 391 capped steel, 343, 344, 364-369 carbon-oxygen relation, 341, 447 chromium, 661

free energy, 663 classes of ingot structure, 54-57. defined, 654 deoxidation constant, 656

912 INDEX

Deoxidation (cont'd) reaction rates, 868, 893 effect on hydrogen content of steel, 686 solubility product, 659 effect on ingot structure, 339-344 source of inclusions, 459, 468 effect on steel properties, 501 titanium, 669 elements used for, 341, 654 free energy, 669

relative deoxidizing power, 671 vanadium, 666 ferroalloy addition to bath, 349-355, free energy, 668

359, 377, 387 zirconium, 670 ferroalloy addition to ladle, 359, 360, free energy, 67 1

362, 377, 383, 387, 391 Deoxidation period of heat, 339 furnace, 54 Desiliconization, of hot metal, 173 furnace block practice, 350-353, 359, Desulfurization, Sulfur removal

377, 387 advantages, 350, 352 Deviation from ideality, in solutions, 556, disadvantages, 352 558

furnace block, purpose of, 893 Diffusion, boundary conditions, 612 defined, 607 furnace versus ladle, 353

killed steel, 54, 55, 341 Fick's laws, 607 furnace block, 350-353, 377, 387 applied to carbon elimination in bath, grain-size control, 361, 378, 383, 387 61 3 ladle additions, 359, 360, 361, 377, penetration curve, 609, 611

383, 387 penetration into liquid iron, of variou5 ladle, 49, 54 elements, 610, 611

effect on composition uniformity, 495 relation to heat transfer, 615 ladle additions, 355-357, 360, 362, 377, Diffusion rates, relation to oxygen flow to

383, 387, 391 metal, 878 manganese, 656 Dilute solutions, 556

effect on inclusions, 468 physical chemistry of, 654-676

Direct-sight method,. of roof temperature measurement, 123-126 with aluminum, 672

with boron, 672 Direction of firing, automatic reversal of, with chromium, 661 129-137 with manganese, 656 Dirt in steel, see Inclusions with silicomanganese, 673 Dissociation constant, in basic slags, 730 with sll~con, 659 Dissociation pressures, measure of stabil- with titanium, 669 ity of compounds, 567 with vanadium, 666 of oxides, 568 with zirconium, 670

purpose, 51, 54 of sulfides, 568

reaction rates, 868, 891 Dissolved gases in bath, lee Gases limiting factors, 870 Distortion of steel, relation to grain size, slag-metal mixing, 869, 874 509

relation to age hardening, 509 Distribution coefficient, in heterogeneous relation to grain growth, 505, 508 systems, 574 rimmed steel, 54, 55, 344, 364-370, - ~ ~ ~ h ~ ~ ~ ~ . ~ burner port, 71

391 with aluminum, 349, 391 Dolomite, as refractory, 60, 64, 67, 75-77, with ferrotitanium, 349, 391 159

semikilled steel, 54, 55, 342, 447 bottoms, disintegration of, 754 furnace block, 350-353, 362 clinkered, 61, 77 in ladle, 362 composition, 159 in molds, 362, 363 effect of iron oxide, 754

silicomanganese, 673 for bottom repairs, 22, 39 silicon, 350, 360, 377, 383, 387, 659 preparation, 753

effect on inclusions, 468 size, 159, 160 free energy, 660 stabilizing with sllica, 755

INDEX

Dominant-pool practice, duplex process 324, 328

Doors, furnace, 12, 68 limitation on charging box size, 259 lining, rammed, 68

Doorframes, archless, 13, 68, 259 Draft, forced, 19, 20

natural, 19, 20 Draft control, 20, 137-144, 806

automatic, 111, 141 effect on air leakage, 139, 140, 853 effect on fuel efficiency, 108, 144 in refining, 322 manual, 140

, use of forced air equipment, 805 Dry-bottom practice, duplex process, 324,

325 Duplex practice, heat log of low-carbon

rimmed heat, 389, 392 Duplex process, 323-329

advantages, 323 composition of blowing iron, 324, 329 dominant-pool practice, 324, 328 ingot yield, 266, 323 nitrogen control, 327 production rates, 323 single-heat practice, 324-328 Southern slag practice, 329

Dusting, of furnace banks, 63

Effervescing steel, Jee Rimmed steel Electrical conductivity, slags, 703 Electronic recorder, for bath temperature

measurement, 115, 119, 120 for roof temperature measurement, 128

Elements, defined, 532 periodic table, 533 slag-metal distribution of, 161, 229 solubility in liquid iron, 621, 623, 629

Emissivity, of liquid steel, 113 Endwall, basic, 71, 72

repair, 78 End-quench test, for hardenability, 511 Energy, bound, defined, 550

changes of, calculating, 542 in reactions, 540 measuring units, 542

conservation of, 532 definition, 532 free, defined, 552

relation to activity, 558

relation to equilibrium, 563, 566 see Free energy

heat, described, 543 losses in gas flow, 799, 803

friction losses, 800 Enrichment, flame, with oxygen, 106, 107,

28 1 Enthalpy, defined, 543

of iron, high temperatures, 622 Entropy, defined, 550

gas reactions, 571 iron, high temperatures, 622 metals and compounds, 552 of formation of activated complex, 599 relation to, bound energy, 551

free energy, 553 Equation, defined, 538 Equ~librium, between flame gases and

bath, effect on steel, 876 carbon-oxygen, 877 defined, 562 heterogeneous, 574

Nernst distribution law, 574 importance in steelmaking, 562 in liquid steel, 633 Le Chatelier principle, 566 manganese d~stribution, slag and metal,

738-741, 873 oxygen distribution, slag and metal,

717-728 phase diagram, see Phase diagrams phosphorus distribution, slag and metal,

728-741 relation to free energy, 563, 566 silicon distribution, slag and metal,

744-745 slag-metal, reaction rates, 873 sulfur distribution, slag and metal, 741-

744 Equilibrium constant, calculation, 566

carbon-oxygen, 650-655 effect of pressure, 447

change in cooling, source of inclusions, 460

defined, 564 deoxidation, 656

calculation from thermodynamic data, 669

solubility product of silica, 659 . dissociation constant in basic slags, 730 effect of temperature, 565 gas reactions, 571 of activated complex, 596 ' slag-metal reactions, manganese distri-

bution, 738, 741

914 INDEX

Equilibrium constant (cont'd) Fireclay refractories, 763 oxygen distribution, 718 effect of iron oxide, 764, 768 phosphorus distribution, 729, 732, effect of slag, 764, 768

733, 736 effect on phosphorus reversion in ladle, s~licon distribution, 745 768

van't Hoff equation, 565 in ladle nozzles, 419, 421 Excess base concept, applied to sulfur dis- use in checkers, 765

tnbution, 741, 742 use in ladle lining, 768 in slags, detined, 197, 741 Firecracking of mold walls, cause of, 413

Exogenous inclusions, origin, 459, 474- influence on mold life, 412 476, 487 Firing direction, automatic reversal, 129-

Exothermic additions, to steel, 187, 354 137 Exothermic material, for slag shaping, 245 Flame brightness, effect on thermal effi-

Expansion joints, in basic brick, 62, 71 ciency, 863 Flame enrichment, with oxygen, 106, 107, ,

281 F Flame temperature, effect of oxygen, 106

Failure under load, of refractories, 750 theoretical, 863

False walls, in slag pockets, 73 Flame-radiation pyrometer, 145

Feed ore, see Ore, feed ore Flames, heating value of luminous and non-luminous, 828, 834

Ferric-oxide, fee Iron Oxide luminosity of, 819 rerroalloys, bath additions, 349-355, 359, effect on foaming, 83 1

377, 387 relative radiation intensities, 829 calculations of additions and efficien- Flow pattern, of combustion air, effect of

cies, 370, 378, 383, 388, 391 port-end design, 102- 104 compound types, 185, 186, description of, 178-187 Flue, checker, 18, 80 ferroboron, 184, 185 Flue-gas analysis, for combustion control, ferrochromium, 182, 353 146 ferromanganese, 180, 350, 353, 359, Fluidity, relation to viscosity, 537

360, 362 Fluorspar, as fluxkg agent, 297 ferromolybdenum, 183 effect on slag fluidity, 205 ferrophosphorus, 183 use in slags, 178, 699 ferrosilicon, 181, 182, 350, 360, 362, ~ l ~ ~ h practice, charge ore, 276, 289

363 percent hot metal required, 275-279 ferrotitanium, 184, 185 Flush slag, sampling for analysis, 216 ferrovanadium, 184 weight, talculation of, 215 ladle additions, 359, 360, 362, 377, 383,

387, 391 Fluxes, burnt lime, 33

melting ranges, 187 function, 33

selection of, 179 limestone, 33 spiegel, 181 magnesia, 33

use in slags, 297 Ferrous oxide, see Iron oxide Fick's laws of diffusion, 607 Foaming, cause of, 300, 831

applied to carbon elimination in bath, Fold, in ingot surface, cause of, 426

613 Forced air, as aid to air metering, 105

Fifty-fifty practice, charging, 275 Forced tap, 319 ingot yield, 266 Forging of steel, effect on inclusions, 481 melting, 288 Formular weight, defined, 534

Finishing slag weight, calculation of, 215 Foundry coke, for carbon control in , Fireclay brick, as refractory, 60, 62, 67, charge, 175

71, 73, 74 Fracture tests, for estimation of bath car- use-in ladle lining, 417 bon, 311, 330

Free-cutting steels, 522 Free energy, defined, 552

gas reactions, calculations, 571 limestone calcination, calculations, 553 relation to activity, 558

Free energy of formation, standard, effect of temperature, 568-570

standard, measure of stability of com- pounds, 567

of activated complex, 596 of carbides, 573 of nitrides, 573 of oxides, 570, 573 of sulfides, 569, 573

Free energy of fusion, standard, relation to heat of fusion, 636

Free energy of ideal solute, standard, relation to free energy of pure metal, 636

Free energy of solution, standard, carbon in liquid iron, 638, 645, 646

standard, copper in liquid iron, 638, 641 chromium in liquid iron, 636, 638 ferrous oxide in liquid iron, 650 of various elements in liquid iron, 6 38

oxygen in liquid iron, 638, 647 silicon in liquid iron, 638, 640 sulfur in liquid iron, 678

Free energy, standard, relation to equilib- rium constant, 563, 566

Freezing of ingots, mechanism, 437, 451 Freezing range, for iron-carbon alloys,

112-1 13

Frontwall, basic, 12-22 construction, 67 replacement of, 77

Fuel, atomization, 16, 86, 95-99, 832 burner design, 99- 102 characteristics, 81-92 combustion, principles, 860-865 combustion of, heat of reaction, 862

relation to heat balance, 793 composition, 83 consumption, effect of engineering con-

trol, 107-110 effect of oxygen-injection practice, 309

normal, 22 typical daily shop report, 109 typical heat, 773

delivery system, 92-95

efficiency, calculation, 845 effect of air leakage, 108, 853 effect of clean checkers, 855 effect of draft control. 108 effect of excess air, 108 effect of flame brightness, 863 furnace control for, 853 fuel-air ratio, 856 relation to charsing rate, 859 see Regeneration, Regenerators

flame length variation, 320, 321 flame temperature, effect of oxygen en-

richment, 281 general types of, data on, 83

effect on port-end design, 82 heat of combustion, 83, 860 heat input, during charging, 320

during refining, 321 mixed gas, 82, 83

characteristics, 91 port design for, 15

products of combustion of, 83 storage facilities, 93 sulphur absorption, 234 theoretical air requirements for combus-

tion, 83, 84 theoretical combustion temperature, 863 thermal balance, simplified, 847 thermal cycles in furnace, 851 types of, 82

effect on furnace design, 70, 52, 808, 809

relation to port-end design, 71, 72, 102, 808

types requiring preheating, 82, 90, 91 Fuel-air ratio, automatic proportioning,

111 control, 144

Fuel-air ratios, 856 relation to critical temperature, 841

Fuel input, factors limiting, 833 Fuel oil, atomization, 86, 95-99

atomizer performance, 98 burner design, 99-102 characteristics, 82, 83, 85-87 composition of, 83 delivery system to furnace, 93-95 mixing with powdered coal, 84-85 products of combustion, 83, Y47 types of atomizers, 96, 97 viscosity, relation to temperature, 95, 97

Fuel rate, effect of oxygen enrichm-nt, 106, 107

Furnace, air leakage, 23

916 INDEX

Furnace (cont'd) air leakage, dehed, 841

effect on efficiency, 843, 850, 853 air uptakes, 6, 13, 21 auxiliary equipment, 24 backwall, construction, 4. 12. 67 bath depth, 9

relation to production rate, 901 bottom, l e e Bottom capacity, 3 charging, equipment, 25 charging sequence, 40 checkers, construction, 7, 8, 18

flow of heat in, 822 size, 6, 18

checker chambers, 73 checker depth, relation to regener~tor

efficiency, 844 construction, types of brick used, 7, 8,

62-74 control, for fuel efficiency, 853

fuel-air ratios, 144, 145, 856 critical temperature level, 840 design, effect of fuel, 70, 82, 208, 809

stationary, 4 doors, 12, 68 draft control, see Draft control draft systems, 19 ducts, air leakage, 813

air leakage, effect on natural draft, 81 1

different zones, 838 gas flow through different zones, 801 natural draft, 797 see Furnace, gas flow through ducts

efficiency, net efficiency, 836 end walls, 71, 72 flue system, 21 forced draft, 19, 20 frontwall, see Frontwall fuels, see Blast-furnace gas, Coke-oven

gas, Fuel, Fuel Oil, Natural gas, Tar, etc.

gas flow through ducts, 795 energy loss, 799, 803 incoming zone, 801 inertia etiects, 812 melting zone, 805 outgoing zone, 809 rates of flow, 812

heat flow, in melting chambers, 826 heat regeneration, 841

effect of air leakage, 850 effect of excess air, 849

heat zones, in idealized system, 838

high temperature zone, heat losses, 859 insulation, effect on air leakage, 854

effect on heat loss, 857 effect on refractories, 769 of bottom, 62 of roof, 69 of side and end walls, 72

Isley system, 19, 21 natural draft, 19, 20 oil burner, 4, 16 plant layout, 28-31 port design, 13-16 port-end design, relation to fuel used,

102 port-ends, 71 port side walls, 72 pressure, gradients, 139, 140

ideal, 138 unbalanced, 142. 143

pressure control, 20, 22, 137-144, 806 effect on air leakage, 853 in refining, 322

refractories, Jee Brick, Refractories repairs, 74, 79

banks and bottom, 22, 39 reversal, automatic, 22, 129-137 roof, basic, 10, 759

construction, 10, 68, 70 contour, 4 life, 23 patching, 78

size, trend, 3 slag pockets, 4, 17, 72 stationary, design, 4 structural work, 4, 6, 9 tap hole, 4, 6, 9, 40, 66

construction, 66 maintenance, 76

thermal balance, 846, 851 variables affecting, 849

thermal cycles, 851 uptakes, 72 walls, air leakage, 813

heat losses, 858 water cooling, 23

heat losses from, 864 Fumes, from oxygen injection in bath, 307

Gas, defined, 534 evolution, during steel solidification,

341-344, 364-370 from bath, 142, 145

flow of gas in furnaces, 795

INDEX 917

dir leakage, 81 3 chimney effect, 797, 811 different zones, 801 effect of air leakage, 81 1 effect of knuckle restriction, 808, 809 energy loss, 799, 803 incoming zone, 801 inertia effects, 812 melting zone, 805 natural draft, 797 oil versus natural gas fuels, 808 outgoing zone, 809 pressure gradients, 802, 809, 810 rates of flow, 812

properties of, 534 Gaseous fuels, see Fuels, Blast-furnace

gas, Coke-oven gas, Mired gas, Producer gas

Gases, composition, expressed as partial pressures, 5 54

dissolved in bath, control of, 313 sampling and analysis methods, 335

heat content, 786 heat transfer, from combustion gases,

818 coefficients, between gas and brick,

824 molar heat capacities, 861 solubility in iron, 623, 627

effect of alloying elements, 625 effect of temperature, 624, 628

solution of, described, '554 standard free energy of solution in

liquid iron, 638 Gas-law equation, 534 Gas reactions, calculation of equilibrium

constant, 571 collision theory, 594 entropy change, 571 free energy change, 571 heat of reaction, 571 thermodynamics, 569

Gibbs free energy equation, 553 Gibbs phase rule, 582 Gibbs-Duhem equation, for determining

activities. 561 Grain growth, relation to deoxidation,

505, 508\ Grain size, determination, McQuaid-Ehn

test, 506 effect on steel properties, 508 relation to hardenability, 505, 508, 513 variables affecting, 505

Grain size control, 507 killed steel, 361, 378, 383, 387, 898 mold additions, 497 theory of, 507

Gram-atom, defined, 532 Gram-molecule, defined, 532

Hanger cracks, cause of, 41 1, 414, 429 Hardenability, control, 513

effect of grain size, 505, 508, 513 intensifiers, 186, 5 13 relation to chemical composition, 5 1 1,

514 relation to critical cooling rate, 512 tests for, 510 variations in a heat, 515

Hardenability bands, 5 15 Hardness, effect on drawing properties,

504 relation to composition, 500, 501

Hearth, furnace,' see Bottom Heat and gas flow i" 'furnace, 795

fundamental laws, 835 furnace system, air excess and leakage,

841, 849 critical temperature level, 840

relation to temperature, 543 useful, in open-hearth process, 840

Heat balance, air versus ore oxidation, 779-782, 790

bath additions, calculations, 776 calculating, data required, 787 combustion of fuel oil, 846-851 combustion of gases over slag, 788 effect of amount of limestone, 791 effect of cold pig iron in charge, 789 effect of type of charge, 785, 788 factors affecting, 774 furnace net efficiency, 836 heat quantities involved in, 835 hot-metal versus cold-pig charge, 789 refining reactions, 782-788 relation to fuel combustion, 793 standard temperature, selection, 775 typical, for various charges, 785, 788 usefulness, 776

Heat capacity, defined, 543 effect of temperature, 544, 545, 548 equations, for various elements and

compounds, 541 of various gases, 861 relation to heat of reaction, 546

918 INDEX , Heat content, defined, 543 effect of amount of scrap, 780, 782

gases, 786 effect of blowing oxygen in bath, 792 high purity iron, 781 effect of cold iron, 268, 789 hot metal, 786 effect of limestone, 791 hot metal heats, 780 effect of ore addition, 545

effect of pig iron, 790 melting and refining, 774 of furnace additions, relation to heat of various charges, 785, 788

balance, 775 oxidation, air versus ore, 779-782 of liquid steel, 784, 786 heat balance, 777 pig iron, 781 relation to production rate, 791 slag, 778, 784, 786 Heat storage, in refractories, 852

Heat cycles, open-hearth system, 851 Heat time, effect of hot metal tempera- Heat effect of silicon additions to ladle, ture, 171

782 Heat transfer, by convection, 816 Heat energy, described, 543 by radiation, 817 Heat flow, by conduction, 815 coefficients, between gas and brick, 823

calculation, 819 effect of Aame radiation, 828, 834 by electrical analogue, 820, 824 effect of slag volume, 230 through furnace bottom, 820 effect of steam atomization, 100

effect of lime boil, 830 rate of, effect on reaction rates, 617 effect of reversal cycle periods, 851 to bath, 774, 815 heat transfer coeilicients, 824 relation to checker brick thickness, 825 in charging period, 829 relation to diffusion, 615 in refining period, 830 see Heat flow melting chamber, 826 Heat zones, high temperature, 836, 838, modes, 815 839 radiation from gases, 818 idealized furnace system, 838

effect of luminosity, 819 regenerator, 838, 839 rate of driving, 831 stack, 838 regenerators, 822 working zones, 836, 838, 839 see Heat transfer Heat of activation, 594

Heat input, during charging, 320 Heat of combustion, coke oven gas, 83, during refining period, 321 862 effect of engineering control, 107 fuels, 83, 860 to bath, factors, affecting, 831 of fuel oil, 83, 847

H~~~ intensity, steelmaking temperatures, relation to theoretical combustion tem- 836 perature, 863

H~~~ logs, illustrating tgpical open-hearth Heat of formation, carbides, silicates, and practices, 372-392 nitrides, 548

Heat lbss, high temperature zone, 859 oxides and sulfides, 547

through walls, 821, 857 relation to heat of reaction, 546 Heat of fusion, defined, 538 Heat quantities, involved in heat balance, of chromium, 636 836

Heat regeneration, 841 of common metals, 539

effect of air leakage, 850 relation to free energy of fusion, 636

effect of checker depth, 845 Heat of reaction, defined, 546 effect of excess air, 849 effect of high temperature, 548 efficiency of, 842 carbon-iron oxide reaction, 550

limiting efficiency of, 842 for various gas reactions, 571 in fuel combustion, 862

Heat requirements, air versus ore oxida- in refining, 777 tion, 779-782, 790 relation to equilibrium constant, 565

carbon oxidation, 774 relation to free energy, 553

relation to heat capacity, 546 relation to heat of formation, 546 silicon addition in ladle, 782,

Heat of vaporization, defined, 5 37 Heating rate, of roof brick, 147 Heating ..value, luminous and non-lumi-

nous flames, 828, 834 Henry's law, defined, 556

application of .activity coefficient, 641 relation to activity of solutions, 639,

640, 641 Herty viscosimeter, 204, 243, 701 Heterogeneous chemical reactions, 872 Heterogeneous equilibrium, 574 Heterogeneous systems, described, 554 Homogeneous chemical reactions, 872 Homogeneous systems, described, 554 Hot metal, addition, effect on slag compo-

sition, 693 and Bessemer-blown-metal practice, 35,

323-329 charge, effect of cold pig, 789

heat balance, 788 charging, timing additions, 270-272 composition, 166, 279, 324

carbon, 166, 167 manganese, 166, 169 nitrogen, 327 phosphorus, 166, 167 silicon, 166, 168 sulfur, 166, 167

defined, 34 desiliconization, 173

effect on manganese, 173 desulfurization, 174 heat content, 786 in metallic charge, 34, 35, 42, 263,

264 kicker, in duplex practice, 325, 328 manganese, effect on manganese resid-

ual. 238. 239 , . percentage, effect on melting period,

291 for flush practice, 275-279

silicon, effect on manganese residual, 238, 239

relation to phosphorus removal, 232 relation to slag control, 242, 243

temperature, effect on heat time, 171 relation to composition, 168, 169,

171, 172, 173 temperature loss in transfer ladles, 173

Hot metal practice, 35, 274-279, 288-291 charging, 276

\

effect on bath composition, 311 heat content, effect on cold pig, 790 heat log of Type 1020 steel, 381-385 heat log of Type 4340 steel, 375-381 ingot yield, 266 melting, 288

Hot-metal and scrap practice, 40-42, 274, 288

heat log of Type 1020 steel, 381-385 heat log of Type 4340 steel, 375-381

Hot tops, design, 411 killed steel, 342, 360 volume, relation to ingot volume, 411

Hot-top mold, bottom erosion, 413 design of. 404-41 1 - .

Hydrogen, content, in steel, 492 dissolved in bath, control of, 314

sampling and analysis methods, 335 effect on steel properties, 492 in liquid steel, 685

effect of deoxidation, 686 solubility in iron, 623

effect of silicon, 626 effect of temperature, 624

standard free energy of solution, in liquid ire?, 638, 642, 643

Hydrogen pick-up, effect of moisture, 315 Hydrogen-sulfur equilibrium in iron, ef-

fect of temperature, 679

Ideal solutions. 556 Immersion thermocouple pyrometer, 115-

117 Inclusions, behavior during solidification,

477-481 classes of, 459 composition, 459 detection, 482

macroscopic methods, 484 microscopic methods, 483

effect of, air oxidation, 487 mechanical working, 481 pouring practice, 486 sulfur, 486

effect on drawing properties, 504 formation during freezing, 480 formation in silicon-killed steel, 659 identification methods, 460 origin, 459, 466-482

ladle additions, 496 of carbide inclllsions, 473, 474 of ingot scum, 476 of nitride inclusions, 472, 473

920 INDEX

Inclusions (cont'd) of oxide inclusions, 459, 467-470 of refractory uslusions, 460, 474-476, 487

of silicate inclusions, 476, 481 of sulfide inclusions, 470-472

precipitation of, effect of cooling rate, 479

relation to machinability, 520 relation to phase diagrams, 461-465 solubility in liquid steel, 477-481

Indigenous inclusions, origin, 459, 466- 474

Infiltration, air, 23, 138, 139, 807, 814 Ingot crack, cause of, 428 Ingot defects, hanger cracks, cause of,

411, 414 Ingot molds, see Molds Ingot pouring, 57, 416-432

good practice, 429 Ingot production, annual, 5 Ingot scum, 476 Ingot solidification, 54-57, 339-345, 434 Ingot structure, capped steel, 55, 339, 343,

344, 456, 457 classification, 339 effect of deoxidation, 339, 344 killed steel, 55, 339, 341, 435-446

mechanism of crystallization, 437 segregation, 440

relation to freezing rate, 439 rimmed steel, 55, 339, 344, 448-455

effect of gas evolution, 451 segregation, 45 3

segregation, 334, 345, 440-446, 448, 45 3-45 5

coefficient of, 444, 632 selection, factors governing, 345 semikilled steel, 55, 339, 342, 446-441

effect of gas evolution, 446 segregation, 448

Ingot surface defects, caused by pouring practice, 425-430

Ingot volume, relation to hot top volume, 41 1

Ingot weight, relation to segregation, 444 Ingot width-thickness ratio, in mold de-

sign, 396 Ingot yield, 266

duplex practice, 323 effect of iron in charge, 266

Ingots, black-pouring, 498 big-end-down, mold design, 395

big-end-up, mold design, 404 basket pouring, 430, 431 bleeding, cause of, 343 bottom pouring, 431, 452 freezing rate, relation to structure. 439

relation to thickness solidified, 438 mechanism of freezing, 437, 451 shape of, see Mold design stripping, 30, 57 variation in hardenability, 5 15

Injection of gaseous oxygen in bath, 304- 309

equipment for, 304 Instrumentation, in open hearth shop,

110-151 Insulation, in high temperature zone, 859

of checker chambers, 73 of end walls, 72 of furnace bottom, 62 of furnace roof, 769 of main roof, 69 of port roof, 71 of regenerators, 854 to reduce air infiltration, 814 to reduce heat losses, 857-859

Interstitial diffusion. 607 Inversion points, of silica brick, 759, 760,

770 Ion fractions, slag components, calculation

of, 722 Ionic dissociation, in slags, 713 Ionic solutions, 561 Ionization concept, in slag constitution,

713, 721 Iron, density, high temperature, 622

enthalpy and entropy, 622 expansion, high temperature, 622 high-purity, crystal structure, 621

heat content, 781 liquid, see Liquid iron melting point, effect of added elements,

629 physical constants, high temperature,

622 properties, high temperature, 622 proportion in charge, effect on ingot

yield, 266 steel mill definition, 34 thermal conductivity, 622

Iron-carbon system, phase diagram, 578, 58 1

Iron-chromium system, phase diagram, 577. 579

Iron-copper system, phase diagram, 578, 579 - . -

Iron-manganese-sulfur system, 465 Iron-molybdenum system, phase diagram,

578, 579 Iron-nickel. system, phase diagram, 577,

579 Iron-oxygen system, phase diagram. 580,

583 Iron-silicon system, phase diagram, 578,

579 Iron-sulfur system, phase diagram, 578,

579 Iron ore, source of oxygen, 34, 37, 38, 46,

175 see Ore

Iron oxide, amount formed, during m-It- ing, 289, 290

amount formed, variables affecting, 283 content in refining slag, 44 content of slags, determination, 195 effect on, checker chambers, 73

chrome brick, 70 chrome ore, 757 chrome-magnesia brick, 758 dolomite, 754 fireclay refractories, 764, 768 silica brick, 762, 770 silica roof, 69

from melting Scrap, 34, 37, 46 in liquid steel, effect on sulfide inclu-

sions, 479 in slag, acid process, 891

activity, 696. 708, 716. 718. 720, 724:727, 729

as ferric iron, 194, 195, 219

variation in composition, 693 liquid, oxygen pressure, 875, 876 reaction with carbon, 42 reaction with refractories, 250, 749 solubility in liquid iron, 627 sources of, in open hearth process, 34,

37, 38, 175 standard free energy of solution, in

liquid iron, 650 variation in slag, 194

Iron oxide-alumina-silica phase diagram, 463, 764

Iron oxide-calcium oxide phase diagram, 754

Iron oxide-calcium oxide-manganese oxide phase diagram, 753

Iron oxide-calcium oxide-silica phase dia- gram, 694, 698, 724, 725, 744, 755

.Iron oxide-magnesia phase diagram, 577, 752

Iron oxide-magnesia-silica phase diagram, 588

Iron oxide-manganese oxide-silica phase diagram, 462

Iron oxide-manganese oxide-iron sulfide- manganese sulfide system, 465

Iron oxide-silica phase diagram, 586, 762 Iron scrap, see Scrap iron Iron sulfide, cause of red shortness, 471 Isley furnace control, 19, 21 Isobaric phase rule, 584

as ferrous iron, 194, 195, 219 as oxygen carrier, 224, 877 Jet device, for oxygen injection in bath, behavior in acid slags, 718 305

early refining period, 699 Jominy end-quench test, for hardenability, effeit of cari;oi reaction, 886 511 effect of oxidizing power, 706 effect on chromium residual, 240,

241 K

effect on dissolving lime, 697, 698 effect on manganese residual, 237 expressing iron oxide content, 195 in rimmed steel production, 349, 390 relation to bath carbon, 225, 226, 25i) relation to color, 206 relation to phosphorus removal, 232 relation to slag control, 246, 250 relation to V-ratio, 206, 226 relation to V-ratio and residual phos-

phorus, 737 sources of, 692 variation during refining, 44 -

Killed steel, advantages, 346 amount of oxidation, 247 blocking, 248

reaction rates, 868, 893 blocking practice, 350-353, 359. 377,

387 heavy block, 350 short block, 352

deoxidation, 341 additions to bath, 350-355, 359, 377,

387 additions to ladle, 359, 360, 361,

377, 383, 387

INDEX-

: ~ i l l e d steel (cont'd) effect of aluminum on temperature, 900

effect on steel properties, 502 grain-size control, 361, 378, 383, 387

furnace deoxidation, 54 heat log of Type 1020 steel, 381-385 heat log of Type 4340 steel, 375-381 heat log of Type 8640 steel, 385-389 hot tops, 360 ingot structure, 55, 339, 341, 435-446

crystallization, 437 ladle additions, 52, 54, 359-361, 377,

383. 387 , - manganese reversion, 353 mold design, 404-41 1 phosphorus control, 245, 737 phosphorus reversion, 348 pipe in, 342, 404

effect on machinability, 520 pouring practice, 360, 378, 383, 387 product yield, 346 segregation, 440

macrosegregation, 442 microsegregation, 442 relation to ingot weight, 444

slag control, 247, 348, 376, 382, 386 slag-metal reaction rates, in ladle, 897 tapping temperature, 358, 383 V-ratio, 245, 248, 348, 376, 382, 386

Kilns, for lime burning, 158 Kinetics of reactions, 592 Knuckle, roof, definition, 70

Ladle additions, 355-357, 360, 362, 377, 383, 387, 391

killed steel, 52, 54, 359-361, 377, 383, 387

relation to composition uniformity, 495 rimmed steels: 49 silicon, thermal effects, 782

Ladle design, 25, 26, 416, 417 "Ladle linings, 25, 26, 416, 768 Ladle nozzles, 418

deformation during pouring, 419 method of replacement, 422 size, 26 types of refractories used, 419, 421, 422

Ladle practice, reladling, 356 Ladle reactions, 357

cause of, 897 effect on uniformity of composition of

steel, 496 ladle boil, 898

Ladle rigging, 417, 424 Ladle stopper-rod assembly, 417, 419, 422 Ladle test, for heat analysis, 58 Ladles, teeming, 26, 416-424

transfer, 25 L:~nce, for oxygen injection in bath, 304 Lead, cause of bottom troubles, 319

effect on machinability, 519 presence in furnace bottoms, 163

Le Chatelier principle, 566 Life of furnace roof, 23, 78-79 Life period, of activated complex, 596 I.~me, addition to bath, thermal effects,

777 1 1 1

, burnt, as replacement for limestone, 155, 263, 265, 274

composition, 158 in charge, 263, 265, 267, 274 preparation, 158

corrective addition for slags, 296, 297 effect on V-ratio, 244 time of, 243

for phosphorus removal, chemistry of, -232,- 729

for sulfur removal, chemistry of, 684, 742 --

in slag, sources of, 692 pickup from bottom, 243 presence in ingot scum, 477 solution in slag, effect of fluorspar, 699

effect of fluxing oxides, 697, 698 effect of temperature, 697, 698, 699 effect on melting point, 697, 698

Lime boil, 282, 284, 286, 288, 289 effects of, 284 effect on excess oxygen in bath, 880,

881 effect on heat transfer to bath, 830 relation to heat input, 321, 871

Lime-alumina-silica phase diagram, 765 Lime-iron oxide phase diagram, 754 Lime-iron oxide-manganese oxide phase

diagram, 753 Lime-iron oxide-silica phase diagram, 694,

698, 724, 725, 744, 755 Lime-magnesia phase diagrams, 753 Lime-magnesia-silica phase diagram, 758 Lime-silica phase diagram, 756 Lime-silica ratio, 168

change during refining, 44 see V-ratio

1-imestone, amount used, relation to slag control, 242, 243

calcination, 34, 42, 155, 156, 158, 276, 282, 284

effect on heat input, 321

INDEX

limiting factors, 617, 870 free energy change in, 553

charging, 263, 267, 273, 274, 276, 277, 278

duplex practice, 325 composition, 156 corrective addition for slags, 155, 165,

296 effect on heat balance, 791 formation, 155 purpose of, 33 size, 156 solution rate in slag, 157 source of oxygen, 34, 223 usage, effect of hot metal silicon, 168

Liquid, composition, expressed as mole fractions, 555

defined, 536 metals, vapor pressure of common, 537

Liquidus line, in phase diagrams, 576 Liquid iron, activity of carbon, 643-646

activity of copper, 641 activity of nickel, 635, 637 activity of silicon, 639 carbon-oxygen equilibrium, 650-655 diffusivity in, of various elements, 610,

611 elements in solution in, standard free

energy of solution, 636, 638 melting point, effect of added elements,

629 oxygen dissolved in, reaction with car-

bon monoxide, 649 reaction with steam and hydrogen, 646 solubility of gases in, 623, 627

effect of alloying elements, 625 effect of temperature, 624, 628

solubility of metals in, 621, 623, 629 solvent powers, 621

Liquid slags, properties of, 700-704 Liquid steel, carbon-oxygen equilibrium,

650-655 carbon-oxygen relation, 877 chemical reactions in bath, 632-635 deoxidation, physical chemistry, 654-

676 see Deoxidation

heat content, 784, 786 hydrogen in, 685 . - manganese distribution, metal and slag,

738-741 nitrogen removal, 684 oxygen distribution, metal and slag,

717-728

oxygen pressure, 875, 876 oxygen, supersaturation with, 880 phosphorus distribution, metal and slag,

728-741 reaction with oxide refractories, 675 silicon distribution, metal and slag, 744-

745 solubility of inclusions in, 477-481 sulfur distribution, metal and slag, 741-

744 sulfur reactions,in, 676-684

Logs of heats, illustrating typical open- hearth practices, 372-392

Luminosity of flame, effect on radiation, 819

Machinability of steel, criteria, 517 effect of chemical composition, 518 effect of inclusions, 520 effect of segregation and pipe, 520 free-cutting steels, 522 relation to grain size, 5 10 relation to macrostructure, 521 variables affecting, 517 .

Macroscopic detection of inclusions, 484 Macrosegregation, 499

in killed steel ingots, 442 Macrostructure, relation to machinability,

521 Magnaflux test, for inclusion detection,

485 Magnesia, for sulfur removal, chemistry

of, 684 in limestone, 156 in open-hearth slag, 197, 219 in slag, sources of, 692 refractories, reaction with liquid steel,

676 use in checkers, 767 resistance to slags, 751

Magnesia brick, spalling, 751 Magnesia-alumina-silica phase diagram,

766 Magnesia-calcium oxide phase diagram,

753 Magnesia-calcium oxide-silica phase dia-

gram, 758 Magnesia-iron oxide phase diagram, 577, -

753 Magnesia-iron oxide-silica phase diagram,

588

924 INDEX

Magnesia-silica phase diagram, 586, 587 Magnesite, as refractory, 59, 63, 64, 66,

67, 74-77, 160 composition, 159 dead burnt, 61, 63 refractories, in ladle nozzles, 422 sea-water, 59

Magnetic methods, of carbon analysis, 331 Magnetic properties, slags, 704 Manganese, adding to bath, 52, 350, 352,

359, 377, 387 adding .to bath, as ferromanganese and

splegel, 350, 352, 359, 377, 387 adding to ladle, 52, 359, 362, 377, 383,

x01 *,- addition as ferromanganese, 180 analysis of bath for, 332 balance, typical heat, 236 calculating slag weight from, 215 content in steel, effect on hardenability,

513 content, rimmed steel, 345, 365, 366,

367 control, in bath, 312 deoxidation with, chemistry of, 656 deoxidation, effect on inclusions, 468 diffusivity in liquid iron, 610, 611 distribution, metal and slag, acid proc-

ess, 891 slag and metal, 236, 313, 738-741,

887 slag and metal, variables affecting,

741 effect on deoxidation with silicon or

aluminum, 674, 675 effect on machinability, 518 effect on solubility of manganese sulfide

in liquid metal, 683 elimination, during refining, 44, 48 in hot metal, 166, 169

effect on manganese residual, 238, 239

effect on sulfur removal, 681 relation to sulfur, 170

in liquid steel, reaction in bath, 634 in steel scrap, 162 oxidation, effect of carbon-oxygen rela-

tion, 887 effect of silicon oxidation, 888-892 heat of reaction, 777, 787 in ladle reaction, 496 rates of oxidation, in acid process,

890 rates of oxidation, 873, 887, 890 relation to slag control. 236

phase equilibria, 575 recovery, from ladle additions, 359

from furnace edditions, 350, 352, 359, 360, 379, 388

residual, in non-flush practice, 219 in scrap and coke practice, 274 variables affecting, 237-240

reversion, 2 37 in killed steel. 353

slag-metal distribution, see Manganese, distribution

standard free energy of solution, in liquid iron, 638

Manganese-oxygen equilibrium, 658 Manganese oxide, deoxidation product, 54

for sulfur removal, chemistry of, 684 in slag, sources of, 692

Manganese sulfide, solubility in liquid metal, effect of manganese, 683

Manganese-iron-sulfur system, 465 Manganese oxide-alumina-silica phase dia-

gram, 464, 767 Manganese oxide-calcium oxide-iron oxide

phase diagram, 753 Manganese oxide-iron oxide-silica phase

diagram, 462 Manganese oxide-iron oxide-manganese

sulfide-iron sulfide system, 465 Mass action law, 564 Mass diffusivity, relation to thermal dif-

fusivity. 615 Materials balance, calculation of, 782

for manganese, 236 for phosphorus, 231 for silica, 230 for sulfur, 234 oxygen balance, 784 relation to heat balance, 782 used in calculating slag weight and

analysis, 214 Matter, defined, 531 McQuaid-Ehn test for grain size, 506 McKune gas ports, 14, 15 Measurement of bath temperature, 112-

121 Measurement of checker temperature. 132-

134 Mechanically capped steel, see Capped

steel Mechanical properties, see Properties Mechanism of roof failure, 121 Melt, carbon content, 262, 284, 299

slag appearance, 207 slag condition. 295 time of, effect of hot metal percentage

in charge. 291

INDEX '925

Melt carbon, aim, 43, 229, 244, 260-262, 299

effect of charge materials, 37, 261 Melting, air oxidation, 876

beginning of, 280 critical temperature, 840 early melting period, 280

end of, 282 effect of limestone charge, 282

effect of excess air on melting rate, 856 fifty-fifty practice, 288 hard melt, 286 heat flow during, 829 high hot-metal practice, 288, 376, 382 lime boil, 282, 284, 286, 288, 289 mechanism of slag flush-off, 289 of refractories, 750 orc boil, 284, 289 oxidation, during lime boil, 284

during melting, 222, 283, 286-290 oxidation rate, effect of excess air, 876 oxygen gradients, 875 run-off slags, 289-290 scrap and coke practice, 286 scrap and cold-iron practice, 386 scrap and hot-metal practice, 188 scrap and pig-iron practice, 286 silicon oxidat~on, 229

effect on manganese oxidation, 888- 892

slag composition, 287, 290 slag formation, 693, 696

effect of charge ore, 696 soft melts, 284 thermochemist~~ of, 773-794 use of oxygen, for cutting scrap, 281

for flame enrichment, 107, 281 Melting point of iron, effect of added ele-

ments, 629 MelLng points of metals, 539

relation to heat of fusion, 538 of ferroalloys, 187

Melting range, of silica roof brick, 112, 113, 122

Metallic charge, composition, 34 effect on melt carbon, 37, 261 fundamental types, 35, 259

Metallic systems, phase diagrams, 579 Metals, entropy, >52

heat capacity equations, 541 solubility in liquid iron, 621, 623, 629

Metastable liquid, defined, 576 ..

Microscopic examination of slags, 212, 710

Microsegregation, 499 in'killed steel ingots, 442

Mill scale, source of oxygen, 177 Mineral compositions, in solidified slags,

710 Mixed blast-furnace and coke-oven gas,

as fuel, 82, 83, 91-92 port design for, 15

Mixer lining, 25 Mixer size, 24 Moisture, as source of hydrogen pick-up,

315, 685-687 Molar entropy, defined, 55 1 Molar heat capacity, defined, 544

equations, for various elements and com- pounds, 541

of various gases, 861 Mold additions, capped steel, 364, 367-

369 effect on steel, 498 for grain size control, 497 rimmed steel, 364, 370 semikilled steel, 362, 363

Mold buggies, 27 Mold coatings, 414

effect of mold life, 415 effect. of mold temperature, 415

Mold design, 394-41 1 allowance for ingot shrinkage, 398 bottle-top molds, 402-404 factors in design, 394, 404 hot tops, 411 hot-topped molds, 404-41 1

bottom contour importance, 406 taper, 407

mold heieht relation to ingot height, 398,205

- -

mold-wall contour selection, 397, 407 molds for billet oroduction. 400 open-top molds, '395-402 ratio of mold weight to ingot weight,

409 rimmed steel, ingot width to thickness

ratio, 396 mold height limitations, 395

slab molds, 395 taper, 398

stools, 412 thickness of mold wall, 398, 408 tv~ical cross sections, 397 , A

Metering, of combustion air, 105 Mold life, factois governing,, 412-414 Mica window, use in flame-radiation m old^, 395

pyrometer, 146 inspection of, 414 Microscopic detection of inclusions, 483 preparation, 27, 414

Molds (cont'd) stools, 27 types, 27

Mole, defined, 532 Mole fraction in solutions, defined, 555

relation to vapor pressure, 555 Mole fractions, slag components, calcula-

tion of, 720, 731 Molecular association conc.ept of slag con-

stitution, 708, 712, 729 Molecular weight, defined, 534 Molecularity, relation to order of reac-

tion, 600 Molybdenum, addition to bath, 183

in steel scrap, 162 Molybdenum-iron system, phase diagram,

578, 579 Molybdic oxide, addition to bath, 182

Natural draft, in furnace ducts, 797 in furnace ducts, effect of air leakage,

81 1 relation to temperature, 798

Natural gas, as fuel, characteristics, 82, 83, 87, 91

as fuel, composition of, 83 Nernst distribution law, 574 Nickel, activity, in liquid iron, 635, 637

in steel scrap, 162 Nickel-iron system, phase diagram, 577,

579 Nitride inclusions, origin, 472, 473 Nitrides, free energy of formation, 573

heat of formation, 548 Nitrogen content, of raw materials and

finished steel, 327 of steel, 314, 492

Nitrogen, control, in duplex practice, 327 dissolved in bath, control of, 314 effect on machinability, 519 effect on steel properties, 492 in liquid steel, removal of, 684

removal of, effect of various elements, 685

solubility in iron, 623 effect of alloying elements, 625 effect of temperature, 624

standard free energy of solution, in liquid iron, 638, 642

Non-metallic inclusions, see Inclusions Notch impact strength, relation to grain

size, 509 Nozzle erosion, 768 Nozzles, for ladles, see Ladle nozzles Nucleation, of gas bubbles, 618

Off heats, cause, 372 Oil burners, 4, 16 Open steel, see Rimmed steel Open-top molds, design of, 395-402 Optical pyrometer, in measurement of tap

stream temperatures, 113 readings, departure from true temper-

ature, 121 Ore, charge ore, characteristics, 175

charge ore, composition, 176 effect on early slag composition, 696 for flush practice, 276, 289 function, 175 heat penetration, 271 metallic recovery from, 276

charging, 268, 276, 277, 278 feed ore, characteristics, 175

composition, 177 effect on oxygen supersaturation, 880,

88 3 effect on heat flow, 831 function, 175 thermal effects, 779-782

Ore additions, advantage of, 262 effect on, carbon drop, 47, 301-304

excess oxygen in bath, 880, 883 heat requirements, 545 slag, 244, 296, 300 bath temperature, 47, 300, 303

rate of adding ore, 301-304 Ore boil, 284, 289

steady state, 615 Oreing practice, 46, 299 Oreing rate, 301-304

relation to bath temperature, 47 Oxidation, acid process, rate of, 890

acid process, slags formed, 891 air, during tapping, 356

during tapping and teeming, 899 air versus ore, heat balance, 779-782,

790 aluminum, heat of reaction, 777 amount of iron oxide, in killed steels,

246, 248 in rimmed steels, 246, 249, 250 in semi-killed steels, 246, 248 produced, 696

carbon, calculation in materials balance, 783

during refining, 44, 47, 48 effect of limestone calcination, 871 effect on iron oxide in slag, 886 effect on manganese oxidation, 887 heat of reaction, 777, 787

INDEX 927

heat requirements, 774 limitations, 881 rate of, 879-887 rate of, steady state condition, 877,

879 reactions, 879 reactions, slag-metal, 886 relation to bottom boils, 884 relation to kinetics of process, 883 relation to slag control, 228

chemistry of, 45 chromium, relation to slag control, 241 during lime boil, 284 during melting period, 34, 37, 38, 42,

46, 222, 223, 283, 286-290 during refining, 34, 38, 46, 223

see Oreing practice, Oxygen injec- tion in bath

during tapping, effect on inclusion count, 487

effect of oxygen pressure, 161 loss, in typical charge, 783 manganese, during refining, 44, 48

heat of reaction, 777, 787 in ladle reaction, 496 rates of, 873, 887, 890 relation to slag control, 236

of charge elements in slag, 229 phosphorus, during melting and refin-

ing, 231 during refining, 44, 48 rate of, 892

relation to slag control, 222 silicon, during melting and refining,

229 during refining, 44, 48 heat of reaction, 777, 787 in ladle reaction, 496 rates of, 889, 890

source of inclusions, 459, 487 sulfur, during refining, 44, 48

rates of, 892 use of oxygen gas, thermal effects, 792 see Melting, refining - -

Oxide association concept of slag constitu- tion, 708, 712, 729

Oxide inclusions, effect of deoxidizers, 468

origin, 459, 467-470 phase diagrams of oxides, 461-465

Oxide scum, formation, 900 Oxides, dissociation pressures, 568

free energy of formation, 570, 573 heat capacity equations, 541 heat of formation, 547

relation to grain size control, 507 slag-forming, classification, 704

definition of acid and basic oxides, 705

Oxidizing power, of slags, 706 Oxygen, amount absorbed by charge, 222

balance, typical heat, 784 content of bath, during refining, 44, 49

relation to carbon content, 49 dissolved in bath, sampling and analysis

methods, 335 dissolved in metal, 224 distribution, between slag and carbon-

free bath, 717-728 slag and metal, 878

flow, from gas to metal, 224 from gas to metal, effect of slag vis-

cosity, 228, 248 from slag to metal, 33, 46, 224, 878

for flame enrichment, 106, 107, 281 amount used, 107 during meltdown period, 107 effect on flame temperature, 106 effect on fuel rate, 106, 107

gaseous, effect on bath temperature, 244, 308

for carbon elimination, 177, 304-309 for direct oxidation, thermal effect,

792 for melting scrap, 281 relation to slag control, 244

gradients, in melting, 875 in refining, 876 relation to slag-metal reactions, 886

in combustion air, variation with ambi- ent temperature, 106

in flue gas, continuous analysis of, 146 in liquid iron, activity coefficient, effect

of chromium on, 665, 668 activity coefficient, effect of vanadium

on, 668 reaction with carbon monoxide, 649

in liquid steel, activity coefficient, 654, 655

effect on sulfide inclusions, 479 equilibrium with carbon, 650-655 form of, 224 reaction with alloying elements, 633 reaction with carbon, relation to slag

control, 225 supersaturation, 880 supersaturation of, effect of furnace

conditions, 880 injection in bath, 304-309

economic aspects, 309 effect on carbon drop, 306

Oxygen (cont'd) effect on steel quality, 308 effect on temperature, 308 equipment, 304 fuming and splashing problem, 307

mechanism of transfer from gas to metal, 224

pressure, effect on oxidation, 161 effect on steel bath, 875, 876 effect on slag surface, 875, 876 in bath during meltdown, 693 in furnace gases, 693 in melting chamber, 875, 876

pressure ratio, bath and gases, 876 requirement, of charge, calculating, 261 solubility in liquid iron, 627

effect of temperature, 628 solubility in steel, relation to inclusion

formation, 467 sources of, during melting, 222, 223

during refining, 34, 38, 46 from charge materials, 34, 38

standard free energy of solution, in liquid iron. 638. 647 . .

Oxygen-ion activity coefficient, in slags, 722, 723

Oxygen-iron system, phase diagram, 580, 583

Overheating, of silica roof, 69, 122, 123

Pancake method of slag-control, 209 Peeling, of basic roof, 71 Phase diagrams, alumina systems, 467,

464, 763-767 application to open hearth slags, 694 described, 575 Gibbs phase rule, 582 inclusions, 461-465

oxides, 461-465 sulfides, 465

iron oxide systems, 462, 463, 465, 577, 586, 588, 694, 698, 724, 725, 744, 752.755, 762, 764

lime systems, 694, 698, 724, 725, 744, 752, 754-758, 765

manganese oxide systems, 462, 464, 465, 752. 767

magnesia systems, 577, 587, 752, 753, 758, 766

metallic systems, 579 metastable liquids, 576 one-component systems, 57 5 pure metals, 575

silica systems, 462-464, 694, 698, 724, 725, 744, 755-758, 762-767

three-component systems, 584 triple point, 576 two-component systems, 576 undercooling, 576 use in calculating activities, 559

Phase rule, 582 isobaric, 584

Phosphorus, addition as ferrophosphorus, 183

analysis of bath for, 332 balance, typical heat, 231 calculating slag weight from, 2 15 control, in bath, 312 diffusivity in liquid iron, 610: 611 distribution between slag and metal,

728-741 effect on hardenability, 514 effect on rnachinability, 519 in Bessemer-blown metal, 165 in charge, sources of, 231 in hot metal, 166, 167 in steel scrap, 162 oxidation, rates of, 892

relation to slag control, 231 removal, during refining, 44, 48

effect of basicity, 232 effect of iron oxide, 232 effect of temperature, 233 relation to slag control, 245 variables affecting, 728, 736-738

residual, in low-silica charge, 232 relation to slag basicity and iron

oxide content, 737 reversion, 167

in acid slag, 696 in ladle, 768 killed steel, 348 relation to V-ratio, 245 semikilled steel, 348

slag-metal distribution, 2 19 Photocell receiver, in blowing-tube pyrom-

etry, 119, 120 in roof pyrometry, 124, 125, 127, 128

Physical properties of steel, see Properties Pig iron, as corrective addition to bath,

317 charging, 268, 270, 275 composition, 166 heat content, 781 in metallic charge, 34, 35, 36, 263,

2 64 effect on production rate, 268

use as charge material, 166

INDEX

Pipe, effect on machinability, 520 in killed steel, 55, 342 in rimmed steel, 368, 451 in semikilled steel, 363

relation to deoxidation, 447 Pitch, as mold coating, 415 Plant layout, six furnaces, 28-31 Platinum to platinum-rhodium thermo-

couple bath pyrometer, 115-1 17 Porosity, effect of hydrogen and nitrogen,

62 5 rimmed steel ingots, 345

Port, movable, McKune, 14, 15 movable, Rose, 15, 16

Port design, 13-16 Port side walls, 72 Port-end, construction, 71

construction, basic brick, 72 Port-end design, effect of fuel, 82

effect on air flow pattern, 102-104 Powdered coal, as fuel, characteristics, 82,

84 mixing with fuel oil, 84, 85

Pouring basket, use as intermediate pour- ing vessel, 431

Pouring-pit refractories, 74, 767 Pouring practice, air oxidation, 900

back-pouring, 498 bottom pouring, 431, 432 described, 56, 57, 416-432 details of good practice, 429 for rimmed steel, 365, 391 for semikilled steel, 363 killed steel, 360, 378, 383, 387 ladle refractory behavior, 416-424 manipulation of stopper, 425 nozzle erosion, 768 optimum pouring rate, 427 reladling, 497 relation to inclusions, 486 relation to surface defects, 425-430 tundish or basket pouring, 430, 431

Precipitation reactions, rates of, 872 Preheat air, temperature measurement.

147 Preheating of air, contribution to useful

heat, 835 effect of furnace reversal, 104

Preheating of fuels, 82, 90, 91 Pressure gradients in furnace laboratory,

139. 140 Producer gas, as fuel, characteristics, 82,

83, 88-91 as fuel, composition of, 83

manufacture, 89 Product yield, effect of deoxidation prac-

tice, 346, 368 Production rates, effect of cold iron, 268

effect of number of charging buggies, 258

effect of oxygen-injection practice, 309 effect of scrap-charging time, 256 of duplex process, 323 relation to depth of bath, 901 relation to heat requirements, 791

Products of combustion, of open hearth fuels, 83

Properties, of liquid slags, 700-704 Properties of steel, deep-drawing charac-

teristics, 503 effect of alloy content, 502 effect of chemical composition, 491-494 effect of deoxidation, 501 effect of grain size, 508 effect of hydrogen, 492 effect of mold additions, 498 effect of nitrogen, 492 effect of refining variables, 494 effect of segregation, 503 effect of tin, 493 hardenability, 5 10 killed steel, 502 machinability, 517 quality, 525 relation to chemical composition, 500-

5 04 relation to constitution, 490 rimmed steel, 501 tensile strength, 500 uniformity, variables affecting, 494-500

see Chemical composition, uniformity weldability, 522

Pyrometer, aspirating, for preheat air, 147 bath, blowing-tube, 117-121

thermocouple, 11 5-1 17 flame-radiation, 145 optical, 113, 121 roof, effect of flame reflection, 113, 125,

126 for refractory protection, 123-129

INDEX

Quality of steel, defined, 525 effect of oxygen-injection practice, 308 relation to defects, 524 relation to soft melts, 285 relation to type of charge, 260

Quartz, inversion temperature, 761 Quench cracking, relation to grain size,

509 Quick - immersion thermocouple pyrom-

eter, 115-117

Radiation receiver, in blowing tube py- rometry, 120-121 .

in checker pyrometry, 133, 134 in roof pyrometry, 124, 125, 127, 128

Raoult's law, application to acid slags, 718 defined, 555 deviation from, 558 negative deviation, 637

Raoult's Law of solutions, relation to ac- tivity of solutions, 635. 637

Reaction order, in chemical reactions, de- fined, 600

Reaction rate constant, 597, 598, 599 Reaction rates, activated complex theory,

594 activated complex reaction rate equa-

tion, 597, 598 Arrhenius equation, 593 classical theory, 594 effect of heat transfer rate, 617 first order reaction, 601 order of reaction, 600 reaction with two slow steps, 602 reactions near equilibrium, 603 see Chemical reactions, rates

Reactions, see Chemical reactions Reboil, use for shaping slag, 349 Recarburization, method of carbon con-

trol, 311 Recorder, electronic, use in bath tempera-

ture measurement, 115, 119, 120 electronic, use in roof temperature

measurement, 128 Refining, 42-51

alloy additions, 52 air versus ore oxidation, thermal effects,

779-782 aims of, 294 bank and bottom boils, 318 bath additions, thermal effects, 776

bath composition at end of, 49 bath composition at melt, 45 bath control and reaction rates, 894 bath composition control, 309 beginning of, 42, 294 carbon content at melt, 244, 299 carbon control, 311 carbon drop, effect of bath depth, 901

effect of ore additions, 301-304 effect of oxygen injection, 306

carbon elimination, 44, 47, 48 carbon, oxidation, relation to kinetics

of process, 883 change in slag composition, 44, 693 chemical reactions, surface-zone reac-

tions, 871, 873 volume-zone reactions, 871

chromium control, 313 cold additions, use in controlling bath

conditions, 3 17 combustion air control. 321 critical temperature, 836, 840 determination of bath composition, 330-

336 determination of gases dissolved in

bath, 335 dissolved gases, control of, 313 draft control, 322 duplex practice, 323-329 duplex process, single-heat practice, 326 end of, bath conditions, 347, 377, 383,

386, 390 composition of bath, 495

finishing slag, 348 fuel, air and draft practice, 320 fumes from oxygen injection in bath,

707 - - . hardenability control, 5 13 heat balance, air versus ore oxidation,

779-782, 790 standard temperature selection, 775

heat content of slag, 778 heat flow, 827 heat input, factors governing, 320 heat transfer to bath, 774 hitting the carbon content, 311 kinetics of, relation to carbon oxidation,

883 killed steel, bath condition, 376, 382,

386 low-carbon steel, 43 manganese, distribution, slag and metal,

738-741 elimination, 44, 48 rate of oxidation, 887, 890

INDEX

manganese control, 312 nitrogen, dissolved in bath, control of,

314 nitrogen control, in duplex practice,

327 ore additions, 46

effect on oxygen content in bath, 880, 883

thermal effects, 779-782 types of, 175

oreing practice, 299 oxygen, distribution, slag and metal.

717-728 oxygen changes, 44, 49 oxygen gradients, 876

relation to slag-metal reactions, 886 oxygen injection in bath, 304-309 phosphorus, distribution, slag and

metal, 728-741 elimination, 44, 48 oxidation, rate of, 892

phosphorus control, 312 reversion of, 245

physical chemistry, bath reactions, 633 purpose of, 34 reactions, heat balance, 782-788 reaction rates, 869, 873 recarburizing heats, 3 11 rimmed steel, bath condition, 390 roof failure, 319 sampling of bath, 47 shaping up slag, 294 silicon, distribution slag and metal,

744-745 silicon elimination, 44, 48 slag, effect of burnt lime and limestone,

2 96 fluxes used, 297 use of silica, 299

slag composition at end of, 49 slag composition at melt, 45 slag condition, 693, 699

use of reboil, 349 variables affecting, 295

slag control, killed steel, 247 rimmed steel, 249 semikilled steel, 248

sulfur, distribution, slag and metal, 741-744

sulfur control, 312 sulfur ek~inat ion, 44, 48 sulfur reactions, rate of, 892 temperature, levels available, 112, 836,

840 temperature control, 316

thermal effects, bath additions, 776 ore versus air oxidation, 779-782

thermochemistry of, 773-794 time-composition relations, 43 troubles, 318

Refractories, backwall, 67 bank maintenance, 76, 77 basic, 62, 66-72, 78 bottom maintenance, 76, 77 causes of failure of, 749 checker chambers, 73 checker construction, 765

optimum brick thickness, 825 chrome-magnesia, 757 chrome ore, 60, 64, 66, 68, 73, 74, 78

sensitivity to iron oxide, 757 classification of, 59 clay-graphite, in stopper heads, 422 dolomite, 60, 64, 67, 75, 76, 77, 159,

753 clinkered, 61, 77 effect of iron oxide, 754 preparation, 753 stabilizing with silica, 755

door linings, 68 effect of iron oxide on, 250 effect of slag on, 270 failure, by melting, 750

under load, 750 fireclay, 60, 62, 67, 71, 73, 74, 763

effect of iron oxide, 764, 768 in ladle lining, 417 in ladle nozzles, 419, 421

flow at high temperatures, 750 frontwall, 67 furnace bottoms, 62 heat storage, 852 heat transfer coefficients, 823 hot tops, 41 1 importance of, 59 insulating, 62, 67, 69, 72, 73, 769 ladle, 416 magnesia, 751 magnesite, 59, 61, 63, 64, 66, 67, 74-

77. 159 in ladle~nozzles, 422

manufacture, 60 mechanical breakage, 751 melting, 750 nozzle erosion, 768 physical chemistry of, 749-772 port ends, 71, 72 pouring-pit refractories, 74, 767 preparation of raw material, 60

932 INDEX

Refractories (cont'd) raw materials, 59 reaction with iron oxide and slag, 749 reaction with liquid steel, 675 relation to fuel input control, 320 roof behavior, 769 roof failure, 319 silica, 60, 68, 69, 71, 72, 760, 769

effect of iron oxide, 762, 770 slag pockets, 72 spalling, 750 taphole. 66, 77

' tapping spout, 74 thermal conductivity, 816

Refractory brick, see Brick '

Refractory inclusions, 460, 474-476, 487 Refractory mixes, 62 Regeneration of heat, limiting efficiency,

842 I in open-hearth process, 841

~e~enera to r s , absolute efficiency of, 843 efficiency, 842

effect of excess air, 849 effect of reversal time cycle, 130 relation to checker depth, 844 relation to thermal cycles, 851 limit, 843

insulation of, 854 purpose of, 17 refractories used, 765 see Checkers

Reladling, purpose, 356 Reladling practice, for composition uni-

formity, 497 Residual elements, effect on hardenability,

515 Reversal of firing direction, automatic,

129-137 a u t o m a t i c, temperature-difference

method, 135 time method, 134 time-temperature method, 136

effect on air preheat, 104 effect on regenerator efficiency, 130 time required, 130

Richards' rule, for heat of fusion, 538 Rimmed steel, advantages, 347

amount of oxidation, 249, 250 blowhole formation, 344, 364-370, 451 carbon content, 345, 365, 366, 367 composition limit& 345, 365, 366 carbon segregation, 455 deoxidation, 344, 364-370, 391

effect on steel properties, 501

heat log of typical practice, 389-392 ingot porosity, 345 ingot, structure, 55, 339, 344, 448-455

effect of gas evolution, 451 ladle additions, 49 manganese content, 345, 365, 366, 367 mold design, 395-402 mold height restrictions, 395 phosphorus control, 245 pipe in, 368 pouring practice, 365, 391 product yield. 346 slag control, 249, 348

,iron oxide content, 349, 390 slag-metal reaction rates, in ladle, 897 segregation, 453 sulfur segregation, 455 surface defects, cause of, 426 V-ratios, 245, 249, 250, 349

Rimming action, effect of ingot height, 395

in ladle, 497 in molds, 345, 364-370, 391 promoting, by artificial means, 345, 366

Rod-melting, for estimate of bath tem- perature, 11 4

Roof, basic, 10, 70, 759 brick thickness, 69 ' construction, 10, 68, 70

bonded arch, 11, 69 ribbed arch, 11, 69 ring arch, 11, 69

contour, 4 design, 70 failure, 69, 71, 319 insulation, 69 0

knuckle, 69 life of, 23, 79 patching, 78 silica, glazing surface, 770

volume changes, 761, 770 sprung arch, 69 suspended, 68, 70, 74 temperature measurement, 12 1- 129

direct-sight method, 12 3-126 roof-block method, 126-128

unit roof life, defined 79 Roof brick, heating rate, 147 Roof pyrometer, effect of flame reflection,

113, 125, 126 for refractory protection, 123-129

Rolling of steel, effect on inclusions. 481 Rose gas port, 15. 16 Rust, on scrap, source of sulphur, 235

INDEX

S industrial. 164

Sampling of bath, during refining, 47 for dissolved gases, 335 rapid methods, 333

Sampling of slag, precautions in, 193 Scabs, cause of, 425 Scale, formation, rate of, 616

mill scale, effect on slag, 244 use as oxidizing addition, 177

source of oxygen, 4 , 38 Scrap, charging, see Charging

contamination of, 163 density, importance of, 257 in metallic charge, 34, 35, 36, 41, 263 liquid steel scrap, 165 melting characteristics, 160 physical form, effect on oxidation, 37

effect on production, 37 preparation, importance of, 258 proportion used in charge, 154, 263 see Charge

Scrapping of bottom, in charging, 267 Scrap practice, nitrogen content, 327 Scrap. and blown-metal practice, 35, 36

charging, 279 ingot yield, 266

Scrap and cold-iron practice, heat log of Type 8640 steel, 385-389

ree Scrap and pig-iron practice Scrap and coke practice, 35, 36

charging, 273 ingot yield, 266 melting, 286

Scrap and hot-metal practice, 35, 36, 40 charging, 274 heat log of Type 1020 steel, 381-385 heat log of Type 4340 steel, 375-381 ingot yield, 266 melting, 288

Scrap and pig-iron practice, 35, 36 charging, 274 ingot yield, 266 melting, 286

Scrap iron, composition range, 165 source of, 165

Scrap steel, antimony in, 162 arsenic in, 162 chemical composition, 161

effect on slag and b:~th, 162 chromium in, 162 cobalt in, 162 contamination of, 163 copper in, 162. 163 dirt in, 163 home scrap, 163

lead in, 162 manganese in, 162 molybdenum in, 162 nickel in, 162 phosphorus in, 162 physical form, 160 purchased scrap, 162 silicon in, 162 sulfur in. 162. 163 , - tin in, 162 tungsten in, 162 zinc in, 162

Segregation, capped steel, 456 coefficient of, elemtnts d~ssolved in

iron, 445, 632 definition of, 440, 499 degree of segregation, 444 dendritic, 499

relation to banding, 499 effect on machinability, 520 killed steel, 440

macrosegregation, 442 microsegregation, 442 negative segregation, 441 positive segregation, 441

macrosegregation, 499 microsegregation, 499 negative, 344, 345, 441 positive, 345, 441 relation to effect of alloying elements

on melting point of iron, 439, 630 relation to ingot weight, 444 relation to steel properties, 503 rimmed steel, 453

core zone, 455 negative segregation, 454 rim zone, 454

semikilled steel, 448 types of, 499

Semikilled steel, additions, to bath, 350, 362

additions, to ladle, 362 to mold, 362, 363

advantages, 347 amount of oxidation, 248 bleeding ingots, 343 deoxidation, 342, 447

furnace block, 350-353, 362 in ladle, 362 in molds, 362, 363

furnace deoxidation, 350, 362 ingot structure, 55, 339, 342, 446-448

effect of gas evolution, 446 ladle deoxida tion, 249 mold deoxidation, 249 mold design, 395-404

934 INDEX

Semikilled steel (cont'd) phosphorus control, 245 phosphorus reversion, 348 pipe in, 363 pouring practice, 363 product yield. 346 segregation, 448 slag control, 248, 348 V-ratio, 245, 348

Shepherd P-F test, for hardenability, 51 1 Side walls, of furnace port, 72 Sieverts' law of gas solubility in metals,

62 3 Silica, balance, typical heat, 229

deoxidation product, 54 for stabilizing dolomite bottoms, 755 in slag, acid process, 891

by refractory erosion, 218 sources of, 50, 229, 692

in steel saap, 163 inversion temperatures, 759, 760, 770 refractories, 10, 60, 68, 69, 71, 72, 760,

770 crystal forms in, 761, 770 effect of iron oxide, 762, 770 in furnace, effect on slag, 771

use in slag control, 299 Silica brick, as refractory, 10, 60, 68, 69,

71, 72 Silica roof, effect of iron oxide on, 69

limiting temperature, 112, 11 3, 122, 126

overheating of, 69 spalling of, 69, 70

Silica-alumina phase diagram, 763 Silica-alumina-calcium oxide phase dia-

gram, 765 Silica-alumina-iron oxide phase diagram,

463, 764 Silica-alumina-magnesia phase diagram,

766 . - -

Silica-alumina-manganese oxide phase dia- gram, 464, 767

Silica-calcium oxide phase diagrams, 756 Silica-calcium oxide-iron oxide ~ h a s e dia-

Silicate inclusions, origin, 476, 481 Silicate network, in slag ionization con-

cept, 713 Silicates, heat of formation, 548 Silicomanganese, deoxidation with, 673

for blocking killed heats, 350, 351, 359, 377 - . .

Silicon, activity, in liquid iron, 639 addition as ferrosilicon, 181, 182, 350,

360, 378, 383, 387 addition to bath, 50, 350, 377, 387

as ferrosilicon, 350, 387 addition to ladle, 52, 360, 362, 378,

383, 387 as ferrosilicon, 360, 362, 378, 383,

387 thermal effects, 354, 360, 782

addition to molds, 363, 367 block, reaction rates, 893 deoxidation, chemistry of, 659

effect of manganese, 674, 675 effect on inclusions, 468 reaction rates, 868, 893 relation to grain growth, 505

diffusivity in liquid iron, 610, 611 distribution, metal and slag, 744, 745

metal and slag, acid process, 891 effect on activity coefficient of sulfur,

678, 680 effect on hardenability, 514 effect on hydrogen solubility in iron,

62 6 effect on machinability, 519 effect on weldability of steel, 524 elimination, during refining, 44, 48 in Bessemer-blown metal, 165 in hot metal, 166, 168

effect on limestone usage, 168 effect on manganese residual, 238,

239 effect on refining, 168 relation to phosphorus removal, 232 relation to slag control, 242, 243 relation to sulfur, 169, 171-173 relation to temperature, 168, 169,

171-173 - . - - - gram, 694, 698, 724, 72% 744, 755 removal of, 173

Silica-calcium oxide-magnesia phase dia- in iron scrap, 165 gram, 758 in liquid steel, reaction in bath, 633

Silica-iron oxide phase diagram, 586, 762 in steel scrap, 162

Silica-iron oxide-magnesia phase diagram, oxidation, during melting, 229

588 effect on manganese oxidation, 888-

Silica-iron oxide-manganese oxide phase 892 diagram, 462 heat of reaction, 777, 787

in ladle reaction, 496 Silica-magnesia phase diagram, 586, 587 rates of, 889, 890 Silicate crystalline structure, 714, 715 rates of, in acid process, 890

INDEX

recovery, from ladle additions, 360 standard free energy of solution, in

liquid iron, 638, 640 Silicon-iron system, phase diagram, 578,

579 Silicon-oxygen equilibrium, 661 Silicon steel, reladling, 356 Single heat practice, duplex process, 324-

328 Sinter, source of oxygen, 38, 177

use as bath addition, 177 Skewbacks, function of, 70

movable, 71 Slab molds, design of, 395

design of, taper, 398 Slag, acid process, 891

acid slags, iron oxide behavior, 718 amount in ladle, effect on ladle reac-

tions, 898 appearance in furnace, 207 at melt, condition of, 295 basicity, by chemical methods, 192

by microscopic methods, 212 by pancake method, 209-212 by pH method, 201 by slag color, 206 by slag viscosity, 204 by specific conductance method, 202 by spectrographic analysis, 199 by X-ray diffraction, 201 defined, 196, 704 excess base concept, 197 expressed as V-ratio, 196

bauxite, use in slag, 298 burnt lime, use in slags, 296 chemical analysis of, 192

proper sampling, 193 color, relation to V-ratio, 206

use in slag control, 205 composition, at melt, 45

calculation, 2 17 calculation, compared with actual

weight, 220 calculation, from silica balance, 218 change during refining, 44 components, 692 corrective additions, 243, 296 early slags, 287 effect of charge ore, 696 effect of hot metal addition, 693 estimating from pancakes, 207-212 estimation from charge materials, 217 importance of, at tap, 693 in duplex practice, 326, 327, 329 of h ishing slag, 348 range of analysis for components of,

692 run-off slags, 290

Southern duplex practice, 329 use of phase diagram, 694

constitution, 707-717 activity concept, 707, 719 calculation of mole fractions, 720 ionization concept, 71 3, 72 1 molecular association concept. 708,

712, 729 of liquid slags. 707 of soiidified -slags, 710

corrective additions, precautions, 299 density, 704 early slags, mineral composition, 710 effect of ore additions, 244, 296, 300 effect of silica drip, 771 effect on fireclay refractories, 764, 768 electrical conductivity, 703 finishing slag, mineral composition, 710 fluidity, effect of fluorspar, 205

relation to V-ratio, 205 fluorspar, use in dissolving lime, 699

use in slag, 297 flush slag, analysis of typical, 290

calculating weight of, 696 sampling for analysis, 216

flush-off, see Slag flush fluxing agents, 297 foaming, cause of, 300

effect on heat flow, 830 foamy, in high hot-metal practice, 289

in scrap and coke practice, 286 function of, 190, 691 fundamental composition, 33 heat content, 778, 784, 786

effect of lime, 778 initial, composition, 693 iron content, estimation, 219

total, 194, 195, 219 variation in, 194

iron oxide. analvsis for. 195 as transfer agent for'oxygen to metal

bath, 224 effect on fluxing lime, 697. 698 . .

in acid process,-891 methods of expressing, 195 relation to bath carbon and slag

basicity, 226 relation to V-ratio, 206 sources of, 692

iron oxide activity, 708, 716, 718, 720, 724-727, 729

in acid slags, 718 in basic slags, 724-727, 729

limestone, use in slags, 296 magnesia content, 197 magnetic properties, 704 manganese distribution, metal and slag,

738-741

INDEX

Slag (cont:d) melt, condition of, 207 melting point, effect of dissolved lime,

697, 698 oxides in, classification of, 704

definition of acid and basic oxides, 705

oxidizing power, 224, 226-227, 706 oxygen distribution, metal and slag,

717-728 oxygen flow, to metal, 224, 878 oxygen pressure, at surface, 875, 876 oxygen-ion activity coefficient, 722, 723 phase diagrams, 694, 698, 724, 725, 744 phosphorus content, in Southern slags,

329 phosphorus distribution, metal and

slag, 728-741 phosphorus r e v e r s i o n, relation to

V-ratio, 245 properties, 700-704 reaction with refractories, 250, 749 removal from slag pockets, 79 resistance of chrome ore to, 757 resistance of magnesia to, 7 5 1 runoff slag, Jee Slag, flush slag; Slag

flush shaping up, 294

reaction rates, 894 use of reboil, 349 with exothermic materials, 245

silica, in acid process, 891 use in slag, 299 content. from refractories. 218

silicon distribution, metal' and slag, 744, 745

solution of limestone in, 157 specific heat, 704 spectrographic analysis of, 193, 197 splashing, effect of oxygen injection in

bath, 307 sulfur distribution, metal and slag,

741-744 thermal conductivity, 703 vapor pressure, 702 viscosity, 204, 700

coefficient of, 700, 701 relation to rate of oxygen transfer,

228, 248 relation to temperature, 701 variables affecting, 702

volume, defined, 229 effect on heat transfer, 230 of duplex practice, 326 relation to sulfur control, 235, 247

weight, calculation, 2 13 calculation, from manganese balance,

215

calculation, from phosphorus bal- ance, 215

change during refining, 44 relation to residual element of bath,

229 sample calculation, 2 16

Slag control, acid process, 891 aim of, 191, 221 calculating composition, 217 capped steel, 348 corrective additions, 296 duplex practice, 326, 327, 329 excess base concept, 197 expressing basicity, 196 expressing iron oxide content, 195 function of, 190 industry-wide practice, 246, 250 killed steel, 247, 348, 376, 382, 386 limitations, 220, 221 methods, appearance in furnace, 207

chemical analysis, 192 chemical analysis, proper sampling,

193 color method, 205 microscopic, 2 12 pancakes, 209 pH method, 201 p H method, relation to V-ratio, 202 specific conductance method, 202 specific conductance method, relation

to V-ratio, 203 spectrographic analysis, 193, 197 viscosimeter, 204 X-ray diffraction method, 20 1

objectives, 220 phosphorus balance, 231 phosphorus control, 221, 231 reaction rates, 894 relation to, basicity, 246, 250

blast-furnace practice, 242 carbon oxidation, 228 carbon-oxygen reaction, 225 chromium, 241 iron oxide, 246, 250 manganese, 236 oxidation, 222 oxygen gas, 244 phosphorus, 245 sulfur, 246

rimmed steel, 249, 348 selection of technique, 192 semikilled steel, 248, 348 silica balance, 229 sulfur balance, 234 sulfur control, 221, 233 use of exothermic materials, 245 use of reboil, 349

Slag flush, mechanism of, 289

INDEX

minimum ore requirement for, 265 purpose of, 696 relation to, limestone charge, 265

manganese recovery, 2 37-240 phosphorus balance, 2 3 1 silica balance, 230 sulfur control, 235 time of hot metal addition, 271

Slag-metal distribution, of charge ele- ments, 229

of manganese, 219, 236, 738-741, 887 of oxygen, 225, 717-728 of phosphorus, 219, 728-741 of silicon, 744-745 of sulfur, 234, 741-744

Slag-metal equilibria, acid process, 891 manganese distribution, 219, 236, 738-

741, 887 oxygen distribution, 225, 717-728 phosphorus distribution, 219, 728-741 silicon distribution, 744-745 sulfur distribution, 234, 741-744 use in determining slag constitution,

708 Slagmetal reactions, chemistry of, 717-745

rates of, in ladle, 897 reaction rates, 869, 873

Perrin process, 869, 874 relation to equilibria, 873 relation to oxygen gradients, 886

Slag pancakes, composition versus V-ratio, 207-212

described, 209-2 12 Slag pockets, 4, 17, 813

construction. 72 methods of cleaning. 79

Slag thimbles. 26 Soft melts, described, 284

relation to steel quality, 285 Solid, properties of, 537 Solidification of ingots, 434

mechanism, 437, 451 Solidification of steel, gas evolution dur-

ing, 341-344, 364-370 Solidus line, in phase diagrams, 576 Solute, ideal, selection of standard state,

636 ideal, standard free energy of, relation

to free energy of pure metal, 636 Solution rate, of limestone, effect of

fluorspar, 178 of limestone, in slag, 157

Solutions, activity, 557 activity, Gibbs-Duhem equation, 561

measurement of, 558 use of standard state, 558

Dalton's law for gases, 554 defined, 554 dilute solutions, 556 Henry's law, 555 ideal solutions, 556 ionic solutions, 561 mole fraction, 555 principles of solidification, 439 Raoult's law, 555 simplest type, 554

Southern slag practice, duplex process, 329

Spalling, of basic roof, 71 of magnesia brick, 751 of refractories, 750 of roof brick, effect of heating rate,

149 of silica roof, 69, 70

Spar, as fluxing agent, see Fluorspar Specific heat, defined, 543

fuels, products of combustion, 83 iron, high temperatures, 622 products of combustion of fuel oil, 848 slags, 704 see Heat capacity

Spectrographic analysis, of bath composi- tion, 330

of slags, 193, 197 comparison with chemical analysis,

199, 200 Spectrometer, for analysis of bath compo-

sition, 330 Spiegel, as bath addition, 181

for blocking killed heats, 350 use in reboil, 349

Standard state, solution, use of, 558 State, standard, defined, 564

standard, of gases, 642 of ideal solute, 636 of nonideal solute, 640, 641

Steam, for fuel atomization, 17, 86, 98- 101, 832

Steel scrap, see Scrap steel Steel production, annual, 5 Step-down test, for inclusion detection,

484 Stock handling, of charge, 255 Stoichiometry, defined, 540 Stokes' law. 481, 487 Stool inserts, 412 Stools, for molds. 27. 412 Stopper manipulation, effect on surface

defects, 425-430 Stopper-rod assembly, in bottom pour

ladle, 417, 419, 422 stopper head design, 419-424 use of clay-graphite stopper head, 422

l N DEX

Strain aging, effect of nitrogen, 492 Stripper, ingot, 30, 57 Structure, ingots, see Ingot structure Sulfide inclusions, ,effect of oxygen con-

tent of steel, 479 origin, 470-472 phase diagrams of sulfides, 465 solubility in liquid steel, 477

Sulfides, dissociation pressures, 568 free energy of formation, 569, 573 heat of formation, 547

Sulfur, absorption by bath from furnace atmosphere, 681

absorption from fuel, 234 activity, in liquid iron, 676 activity coefficient, in liquid iron, 679

in liquid iron, effect of added ele- ments on, 678

analysis of bath for, 332 diffusivity in liquid iron, 610, 611 distribution between slag and metal,

234, 741-744 controlling reactions, 742, 743

effect on inclusion count, 486 effect on machinability, 519 effect on weldability of steel, 523 in Bessemer-blown metal, 165 in burnt lime, 158 in dolomite, 159 in hot metal, 166, 167

relation to manganese, 170 relation to silicon, 169, 171-173 relation to temperature, 169, 171-173 removal of, 173

in limestone, 156 in liquid steel, chemistry of, 676-684 in slag, sources of, 692 in steel scrap, 162, 163 oxidation, rate of, 892 removal, by basic oxides, 683

by various elements, 681 during refining, 44, 48 from hot metal. 174 from hot metal, effect of manganese, 68 1

mechanism of, 892 relation to excess base, 742, 743 relation to slag control. 233, 246

reversion, in ladle, 897 segregation, in rimmed steel ingot, 455 standard free energy of solution, in

liquid iron, 638, 678 Sulfur balance, typical heat, 231 Sulfur-control, in bath, 312

mechanism, 233 Sulfur-hydrogen equilibrium in iron, ef-

fect of temperature, 679

Sulfur-iron system, phase diagram, 578, 5 79

Sulfur-iron-manganese system, 465 Superheating of steel, amount required,

112, 113 Surface defects, caused by pouring prac-

tice, 425-430 effect on drawing properties, 504

Surface-zone reactions, 871, 878 manganese oxidation, 887 oxygen flow, slag to metal, 878 phosphorus removal, 893 silicon oxidation, in acid process, 890 speed of, 873

Systems, defined, 554 Gibbs phase rule, 582 heterogeneous systems, 554 homogeneous systems, 554 one-component systems, 575 three-component systems, 584 two-component systems, 576

Talbot process, rates of reaction, 869 Taphole, construction, 66

location, 4, 9 maintenance, 6, 9, 40, 76

effect on quality, 355 preparation for charging, 40

Tapping, air oxidation during, 899 heat, 355-357 illustrated, 53 killed steel, 355, 377, 383, 387 rimmed steel, 390 spout, 74

Tar, as fuel, atomization, 86 as fuel, characteristics, 82, 83, 85-87

composition of, 83 as mold coating, 415

Teeming, see Pouring Temperature, air preheat, measurement of,

147 bath, blowing tube pyrometer, 117-121

effect of ore additions, 300, 303 effect of oxygen injection, 244, 308 effect on phosphorus removal, 233 measurement of, 112-121 necessity for, 112 qualitative methods, 114-1 15 relation to manganese residual. 237, 239, 240

relation to oreing rate, 47 rod-melting method, 114 spoon-pouring method, 114 thermocouple pyrometer, 11 5-1 17

INDEX 939

checker, measurement of, 132- 134 control, in refining period, 316 conversion chart, 535 critical, in open hearth process, 129,

840 effect of silicon addition to ladle, 782 effect on, equilibrium constant, 565

free energy of formation, 568-570 gas solubility in iron, 624, 628 manganese equilibrium constant, 741 phosphorus equilibrium constant, 733, 736

reaai'bn rates, 867, 868, 870, 871 gradient, in open hearth bath, 117 hot metal, effect on heat time, 171

relation to composition, 168, 169, 171-173

ingot molds, effect on mold coating, 415

limiting range, of silica roof, 10, 112, 113, 122, 126

loss, during tapping, 11 3 in hot metal transfer ladles, 173 in ladle, 358

ranges, in steelmaking, 112, 113 relation to, bound energy, 551

heat, 543 heat of reaction, 548 molar heat capacity, 544, 545, 548

roof, measurement and control of, 121- 129

roof brick, during heating-up, 147 slag, effect on lime solution, 697-699

relation to viscosity, 701 tap, effect of aluminum deoxidation,

900 killed steel, 358, 383

tapping range, for iron-carbon alloys, 112, 113

zones, in furnace, 836, 838 Tensile properties, effect of alloying ele-

ments, 502 effect of segregation, 503 relation to, composition, 500

deoxidation practice, 501 Brinell hardness, 501

Thermal balance, in refining, 782, 794 open-hearth furnace, 846-851

variables affecting, 849 Thermal conductivity, iron, 622

refractories, effect of temperature, 816 relation to diffusion, 615 slags, 703

Thermal cycles, open-hearth system, 851 Thermal diffusivity, relation to mass dif-

fusivity, 61 5

Thermal effect, of ore additions, 47 Thermal efficiency, calculation, 847

effect of, charging rate, 859 excess air, 856 flame brightness,'863

heat loss, through walls, 857-860 through water cooling, 864

Thermal energy, defined, 5 5 1 Thermal expansion, of basic brick, 70

of silica brick, 69 Thermal zones, in open-hearth furnace,

836, 838 Thermochemistry, air leakage, 841, 850

air versus ore oxidation, 779-782 critical temperatures, 840

. excess air, 841, 849 fuel efficiency, 853

calculation, 845 fuel-air ratio, 856 fundamental concepts, 540-550, 837 heat balances, in refining, 782-794

typical heats, 785, 788 heat loss, 857-860 heat regeneration, 841 lime addition to bath, 777 melting and refining, 773-794 oxidation reactions, 779-782 silicon addition to ladle, 782 theoretical combustion temperature, 863 thermal balance, 846-851 thermal cycles, 851

Thermocouple, use in checker pyrometry, 132

Thermocouple pyrometer, for bath tem- perature measurement, 115-1 17

Thimble method of sampling bath, 334 Tilting open hearths, for duplex process,

323 Time cycle of furnace reversal, effect on

regenerator efficiency, 130 Tin, effect on steel properties, 493

in steel scrap, 162 Titanium, addition as ferrotitanium, 184,

185 deoxidation with, chemistry of, 669 for grain-size control, 362 nitrogen removal with, chemistry of,

684 Transition-state method, rate theory, 594 Transmission coefficient, in activated com-

plex rate theory, 598 Tridymite, inversion temperature, 761 Triple point, in one-component systems,

576

940 l N DEX

Tundish, use as pouring vessel, 431 killed steel, 245, 2.48, 348, 376, 382, Tungsten, in steel scrap, 162

Undercooling, defined, 576 Unit roof life, definition, 79 Uptake design, 72

Vacuum fusion method of gas analysis, 3 35

Vanadium, addition as ferrovanadium, 184 deoxidation with, chemistry of, 666 effect on activity coefficient of oxygen

in liquid iron, 668 effect on nitrogen solubility in iron, 625

van't Hoff equation, effect of temperature on equilibrium constant, 565

Vapor pressure, common metals, 537 relation to temperature, 537 slag, 702 solutions, Raoult's law, 555

relation to activity, 557 Viscosimeter, for slag control, 204, 243 Viscosity, of fuel oil, relation to temper-

ature, 95, 97 of various liquids, 539 relation to fluidity, 537 slag, 700

effect of chromium, 241 effect on rate of oxygen transfer, 228.

248 measuring for slag control, 204, 243 relation to ionic conductance, 703 relation to temperature, 701 variables affecting, 702

Volume changes, in silica brick, 761, 770 Volume-zone reactions, 871

silicon oxidation, 889 sulfur elimination, 892

V-ratio, and slag iron oxide, effect on residual phosphorus, 737

capped steel, 349 change during refining. 44 defined, 196 effect of lime addition, 244 estimation of, ree Slag basicity

386 method of expressing, 196 relation to, chromium residual, 240-241

color of slag, 206 fluidity of slag, 205 iron oxide and carbon, 226 iron oxide in slag, 206 manganese residual, 238, 239 manganese, slag and metal, 741 phosphorus, 232, 245 phosphorus slag and metal, 737

rimmed steel, 245, 249, 250, 349 semikilled steel, 245, 348

Walls, heat loss and thermal gradients, 857-860

Water cooling, heat losses from, 864 Water extracts of open hearth slags, use

in slag control methods, 201 Wedge mold method for sampling oxy-

gen, 335 Weldability of steel, effect of chemical

composition, 522-524 Well block, use in ladle, 422 Wingwalls, furnace, 71 Worm holes, in silica roof, 69

X-ray diffraction method of slag control, 201

Yield, ingot, for various types of charges, 266

ingot, from duplex practice, 323 semifinished product, 346

Zinc, in steel scrap, 162 Zinc oxide, deposit in regenerators, 162 Zirconium, deoxidation with, chemistry

of, 670 nitrogen removal with, chemistry of,

684