beneficial uses of municipal wastewater residuals (biosolids) - final report

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Beneficial Uses of Municipal Wastewater Residuals -Biosolids

Canadian Water and Wastewater Association

Final Report

Prepared by:

Goce VasileskiSenior Environmental Researcher

34 Northview RoadOttawa, ON K2E 7E4

Tel: 613-421-1023E-mail: [email protected]

September 2007
mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. SUMMARY .. 3

2. INTRODUCTION 3

2.1 Objectives 3

3. METHODOLIGY . 4

4. FINDINGS ... 4

4.1 General Findings 4

4.2 Specific Findings 4

5. RECOMMENDATIONS . 5

6. CASE STUDIES . 5

6.1 Benefits 5

6.2 Potential Uses . 5

6.2.1 AGRICULTURAL LAND APPLICATION 6

6.2.1.1 Fertilizer/Soil Conditioner for Human Crops Production .. 6

6.2.1.2 Fertilizer for Animal Crops Production 7

6.2.2 NON-AGRICULTURAL LAND APPLICATION .. 7

6.2.2.1 Forestry 7

6.2.2.2 Land Reclamation .. 8

6.2.2.3 Mine Sites Reclamation 9

6.2.2.4 Horticulture and Landscaping .. 11

6.2.3 ENERGU RECOVERY - RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES 12

6.2.3.1 Thermal Energy Recovery Heat Generation .. 12

6.2.3.2 Fuel Production Oil from Sludge Process .. 13

6.2.3.3 Raw Material for Cement Production and Fuel Substitution in Kilns . 14

6.2.3.4 Energy Recovery Incineration .. 15

6.2.3.5 Energy Recovery Gasification .. 16

6.2.4 RECYCLING AND USE AS A CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL 17

6.2.5 COMMERCIAL USE OF BIOSOLIDS 18

6.2.6 OTHER PROJECTS, PROGRAMS AND STUDIES 20

7. CONCLUSIONS . 23

8. GLOSSARY 24

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1. SUMMARY

Biosolids are a by-product of municipal wastewater treatment. All municipal wastewater treatment plants producebiosolids, which are the stabilized residuals that settle from the water during the various treatment processes. Biosolidsare rich in both organic matter and essential plant nutrients and can be utilized in a variety of ways, directly as a soilamendment and fertilizer, and indirectly as a feedstock in the fabrication of value-added products.

This report summarizes examples, proposals and other issues relevant to the beneficial use of the municipalwastewater residuals. The findings have been tabulated and summarized in a way to attempt to identify the existingexamples/case studies of beneficial uses of biosolids. A database/spread sheet report of URLs found is composed andthe information on each URL provided.

2. INTRODUCTION

Sludges are formed in the sewage treatment plants and are the unavoidable result of treating the domestic sewageand industrial effluent. Failure to regularly remove the sludges from the sewage treatment works inevitably results inthe works failing, which then have an adverse effect on the receiving watercourse. Management of the sludgesrequires a secure outlet. Increasing legislation and environmental pressures on conventional sludge disposal has led to

the development of on high tech sludge processing and treatment solutions throughout Canada, Europe, USA,Australia, and rest of the world. In Australia stringent standards and increasing landowner concerns are influencingtreatment and disposal selection. This has resulted in consideration of overseas technology for the higher levels oftreatment, in order to find the best value triple bottom line solution.

Recycling sludges into biosolids is not a new management concept. For thousands of years, Chinese society returnedsewage sludges to farmland in an effort to maintain soil quality and conditions. In parts of Europe and elsewhere,biosolids have been applied on agricultural land for a century and longer. In the United States, biosolids recycling is asold as farm reclamation, even as old as power generation from wind, solar and hydro-power sources.

In general terms, the agricultural sector tends to promote use of manures and compost, but to date there appears to belittle information promoting use of biosolids as a complement to the traditional use of manures and fertilizers for theagricultural sector. New processes, technologies and waste management strategies mean that the wastes are moreenvironmentally acceptable, and threats to human health and the environment have been reduced or eliminated. Anumber of new and ongoing projects and initiatives related to the use of biosolids have prompted the need for a reviewof the existing policy, legislation, best management practices and guidelines (standards, objectives) in themanagement and beneficial use of biosolids. These activities also include sludge from industrial processes with highorganic contents (e.g. pulp and paper, food processing).

An important factor affecting the use of biosolids in all sectors (land application, reclamation, reforestation, thermalenergy recovery, production of soil enhancers, etc.) is public acceptance, particularly the acceptance of thecommunities in the area where the biosolids will be applied. There is still an overwhelming perception that productsgenerated from human waste have to be harmful either by causing odours and/or by containing toxic pollutants orpathogens. Common public concerns and the biggest issue identified with respect to the use of biosolids. Publicopposition has halted several planned biosolids projects. To address this perception the Canadian Water andWastewater Association (CWWA) decided to approach the issue by undertaking an extensive web-based search andliterature review of current and past examples of biosolids beneficial use practices. This project provides a link between

the municipal (urban), agricultural (rural) and industrial sectors in working towards sustainability.

2.1 Objectives

This project provides an overview of the beneficial uses of municipal wastewater residuals - biosolids - andmanagement practices available and used across the world. It illustrates the efforts in place for human andenvironmental protection and sustainable development. The project also aids in identifying where more work isrequired to gain public confidence in the beneficial use of biosolids.

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The project goals are to: compile the most comprehensive picture to date on use and disposal of biosolids, providing critical

information for CWWA and other agencies, producers, vendors and stakeholders; understand the breadth of the use of residual materials often considered wastes; build consumer confidence in use of these materials and the resulting products; establish a replicable document for future repetitions to improve homogeneity for analysis of trends and

strategies and assist in the identification of areas where additional guidance is needed; focus on areas where urban centers and agricultural communities can work in a mutually beneficial manner

and build a case for government support

3. METHODOLOGY

This project involved: A literature review to learn from data collection efforts and examples with references to management and use

of biosolids, septage, manure, sludge, organic residuals and compostable materials; A comprehensive on-line survey of biosolids regulation, quality, end use and disposal and individual

treatment works, including identification and compilation of relevant documents and development of anaccessible database;

Additional data collecting and comparison to data from other sources (national and international associations,clean water agencies, prior surveys, etc.);

Refinement of a working protocol for future data collecting efforts; Drafting interim and final reports including recommendations for next steps.

The on-line search and literature review included searches for agricultural and wastewater treatment associations,municipal wastewater treatment plants, disposal and removal sites and industrial and commercial facilities. Key wordsincluded but were not limited to: sewage sludge, septage, biosolids, beneficial use, incineration, disposal, compost,energy recovery, soil supplements, fertilizers, organic residues, (and specific ones pulp and paper, food processing).

4. FINDINGS

4.1 General Findings

- Terminology and the variety of definitions for one word which has same meaning (e.g. four for biosolids; three forbeneficial use, etc.) is extensive;

- The agricultural community acknowledges the use of biosolids; whereas, in some instances biosolids andsewage sludge are considered waste and treated so under legislation;

- The agricultural sector tends to promote the use of manures and compost, but to date there appears to be littleinformation promoting use of biosolids as a complement to the traditional use of manures and fertilizers;

- There is little publicly available information as to the case studies and benefits of using the products;- Sectoral associations could promote public awareness and understanding on websites, workshops,

demonstration, etc.

4.2 Specific Findings

- Municipal authorities promote a new wastewater treatment strategy and technology poop into profit where thetreated sewage is cleaned, baked and turned into marketable product (e.g. fertilizer pellets);

- The industrial sector tends to introduce the use of organic residuals as an essential component of the sustainabledevelopment through the utilization of biosolids as raw material (e.g. cement and energy/bio-gas production);

- Biosolids have been proven to be a very effective soil amendment for reclamation and/or restoration and civilengineering application (e.g. mine lands, sports and recreational facility, landscaping, construction of parks, etc.);

- The potential benefits of biosolids utilization, especially on mined lands, appears to far outweigh anyenvironmental risks;

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- A review of the pertinent case studies/examples shows that the long-term land, water and ground water qualityrisk from the application of any type of biosolids appears to be minimal.

5. RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Develop a standard approach and beneficial options for commercial sale, energy use and manufacturedproducts where appropriate2. Encourage the cross over between agriculture and municipalities of use of biosolids;3. Intensify the management strategies used to ensure biosolids are acceptable for land application, forestation,

reclamation, landscaping, energy production, etc.;4. Stimulate explicit acceptance and application by agriculture of biosolids as beneficial products with nutritive

and other mineral value for crops and as soil amendments;5. Incorporate the information on all organic residuals to reinforce the positive aspects of their beneficial use,

including information on environmental and human health impacts;6. Animate all the sectors involved as well as government to undertake additional studies/programs that

includes the following components:i) Educational programs focused on the value of beneficial use programs (using these products

as soil enhancers/additives, sources of nutrient, or as other beneficial products - raw material,biofuel production, etc.);

ii) Support of research in health safety and environmental matters concerning the collectionsystem, the selected beneficial use and treatment solutions;

iii) Expand source control program as required and contacts with business leaders, healthofficials and government agencies.

6. CASE STUDIES

6.1 Benefits

The benefits of biosolids are dependent on several factors. However, generally the benefits include: Valuable source of organic matter; Rich nutrient fertilizer; Sludge phosphorus is valuable on cropland; Good iron fertilizer better than commercial fertilizers for iron; Assists in the improvement of soil structure; Reduced landfill disposal; Ground water protection organic nitrogen in sludge is much less likely to cause ground water pollution than

chemical nitrogen fertilizers.

6.2 Potential Uses

There are many potential uses of biosolids and specific opportunities include: Agricultural land application

o Fertilizer/soil conditioner for human crops productiono Fertilizer for animal crop production pastures

Non-agricultural land applicationo Forest crops (land restoration and forestry)o Land reclamation (roads, urban wetlands)o Reclaiming mining siteso Landscaping, recreational fields and domestic use

Energy Recovery Energy Productiono Heat generation, Incineration and Gasificationo Oil and Cement Production

Commercial Uses

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6.2.1 AGRICULTURAL LAND APPLICATION

Treated and untreated human waste products have been applied to food crops in many cultures. Recycling toagricultural land completes natural nutrient cycles and enables farmers to improve the economics of crop production.

Also, recycling to land can make a contribution in reducing greenhouse gas emissions, compared with landfilling, andwill therefore make a contribution to the climate change policies. The enactment of regulation fosters a surging interest

in land application, not only of treated municipal wastewater and sludge, but also of all sorts of organic residues. Mostprograms for land application of residuals started as projects of wastewater renovation and alternative disposal forwastes rather than soil amendment projects.

6.2.1.1 Fertilizer/Soil Conditioner for Human Crops Production

The utilization of sewage waste on land for enhancement of crop production is an age-old practice. Prior to theinvention of chemical fertilizers to enhance crop production, farmers depended solely on various organic products andwastes. These organic wastes and products included farm animal litters and manures, household biodegradablewastes, sewage sludge and even human manure in some societies. Biosolids application to agricultural land has beenused for a number of years. Biosolids usually are applied at rates designed to supply crops with adequate nitrogen.They also contain other nutrients that reduce fertilizer requirements. Before the modern times, organic residuals were

usually applied directly to the land without processing, although some residuals may have been composted. After theinvention of mineral fertilizers, the utilization of organic residuals as soil amendments decreased. The following casestudies are most explicit examples of the beneficial land application of biosolids for human food production:

1. Montgomery County, Pennsylvania, USAThis small regional authority in Montgomery County, Pennsylvania, has had a long-standing recycling program withnearby farmers. The Upper Montgomery Joint Authority (UMJA) processes municipal wastewater and produces tworeusable products: tertiary treated effluent for recharge to the Green Lake Reservoir; and biosolids for agricultural use.By employing sewer use controls and aerobic digestion, UMJA maintains standards for high quality, Class B biosolids.UMJAs award winning biosolids recycling program has been growing for nine years.

Costs: The costs for each biosolids management method used by UMJA are shown below. These figures show thatagricultural use is the lowest cost option. Although varying amounts of biosolids are diverted to each option, we cancompare them directly by showing them on a cost per dry ton basis. :

Agricultural use on Crossley Farm $283/ dry tonOff site dewatering and land application $820/ dry tonOff site lime stabilization and agriculture use $869/ dry tonLandfill disposal $684/ dry tonThese costs include labor, maintenance, trucking, monitoring, reporting, supplies, electricity, tipping fees and limedelivery.URL: http://www.mabiosolids.org/news.asp?id=78and http://www.mabiosolids.org/docs/22601.pdf2. Mont De Marsan, FranceBiosolids have been managed via land application in this region for many years. Corn is an essential feed crop and theassociated soil maintenance and enhancement are vital. Over the years, biosolids proved to be a valuable resourceand the challenge was to determine what process and product would yield the most desirable and affordable results.Before 1997, there were no regulatory controls in France on spreading biosolids on agricultural land. In 1998, France

set biosolids standards for trace metals and trace organic compounds. Farmers in the South of France wanted to landapply biosolids that met a higher standard. The Mont de Marsan biosolids composting facility is designed to handle 44tones/ day (48.5 tons) of dewatered biosolids at 15 percent solids concentration and 50 tones/day (55 tons) of greenwaste. The Mont de Marsan compost facility will be the model for meeting the new French NFU 44-095 biosolidsregulations in other regions in France. The finished compost initially will be used on cornfields. The agriculturalprogram is expected to increase public confidence in biosolids products, eventually leading to its use in civil worksprojects.URL: http://www.jgpress.com/archives/_free/000372.html

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6.2.1.2 Fertilizer for Animal Crops Production

The main potential use for biosolids is as a fertilizer and/or soil conditioner to assist with the growth of animal cropproduction and to help improve and maintain the structure of the soil. Biosolids contain a range of valuable nutrientssuch as nitrogen, phosphorus, iron, calcium, magnesium and various other macro and micro nutrients which areessential for plant growth. Many of these nutrients are also essential components in the healthy diet of animals in order

to maintain growth and for food production. These are some of the more substantial examples of beneficial use ofbiosolids for animal crop production:

1. Paolo Alto , California, USAThe Regional Water Quality Control Plants (RWQCP) treatment process produces approximately 23 tons of dry sludgea day. The plant's incinerator reduces the dry sludge to approximately 4 tons of pathogen free ash. The RWQCPrecycles its ash for beneficial reuse. In 1981, the ash yielded a million dollars' worth of precious metals. Today, due tothe effective pretreatment programs, the ash from the RWQCP has very little metals content, but it is a low cost sourceof phosphate. Phosphate is one of the major nutrients for plant growth. The ash is currently used as soil amendment.URL: http://www.city.palo-alto.ca.us/environment/news/details.asp?NewsID=334&TargetID=65 andhttp://books.google.com/books?id=U_HeEC0x6egC&pg=PA413&lpg=PA413&dq=sewage+sludge+incineration&source=web&ots=D03g0zLJLC&sig=mnLKrYmqk9XI2ILtP96I4XSFX9M2. Goulburn and Canberra, Australia

A grazing experiment was carried out at Goulburn, NSW, in 1992 to assess the benefits and risks associated withrecycling sewage waste products on pastures. Dewatered biosolids (DWB) were applied at 0-120 dry t/ha to 3 types ofsoils in a sheep grazing trial at Goulburn and over a period of 1.5 years data were gathered on the surface andsubsurface movement of nutrients and metals in the runoff water and soil profile, respectively. Results showed thatsewage waste application increased yield of green dry matter and perennial grass content. Also, a field experimentwas conducted with lucerne on a strongly acidic and phosphorus deficient soil to determine the liming and phosphorusand nitrogen fertilizer value of an undigested, lime-treated sewage sludge.URL: http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/2006184_org_minelitreview.pdf

6.2.2 NON-AGRICULTURAL LAND APPLICATIONS

6.2.2.1 Forestry

A relatively new use of land-applied biosolids is for applications to forestland. This use had been difficult to achieve dueto technological limitations in spreading biosolids evenly through heavily forested areas. However, various residuals,including pulp and paper mill sludges, ash, industrial residues, sewage sludge and wastewater, are utilized to enhancegrowth in forest ecosystems. Some of the beneficial uses of biosolids case studies are listed bellow:

1. Campbell River, Brit ish Columbia, CanadaCampbell River is using wastewater biosolids to fertilize poplar trees. A 10-hectare plot adjacent to the Norm WoodEnvironmental Centre treatment plant was planted with 4,800 hybrid poplar trees. Turf grass was planted around theperimeter of the site to capture nutrients from the biosolids and reduce runoff. The trees that received the biosolidshave outgrown those planted in the buffer area by 300 percent, with an average growth of three meters in 16 months.Four wells were also installed to monitor groundwater quality. The City has reported no negative effects from theapplication of the biosolids. Not only is Campbell River saving the costs of transporting the biosolids, it is improving the

organic content of local soil and will recover other costs by selling the harvested timber.URL: http://sustainablecommunities.fcm.ca/files/Best_Practices/FCM-CH2M_BPG_2006.pdf2. King County, Washington, USAKing County's forestry projects are part of a unique program to protect and enhance forests and wildlife habitat alongthe scenic I-90 corridor east of Seattle. Biosolids make an excellent soil amendment and source of nutrients for trees.This has been shown by decades of research in western Washington forests and elsewhere in the U.S. In 1987, webegan fertilizing plantations on the Snoqualmie Tree Farm in east King County. The Greenway Biosolids Forestryagreement expanded the program in 1995 to include state forests in the county. The nonprofit Mountains to SoundGreenway Trust initiated this program which now includes several public and private partners: the state Department ofNatural Resources, King County, the Hancock Timber Resources and the University of Washington (UW).

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URL: http://dnr.metrokc.gov/wtd/biosolids/Forest.htm andhttp://www.biosolids.org/docs/18941.PDF3. New South Wales, AustraliaSince the early 1990s, State Forests of New South Wales have embarked on a number of trials using organic wastessuch as biosolids to assess the impacts such soil ameliorants may have on tree survival and growth. The earlier periodof research was focused on the use of biosolids on pine plantations in the central west and southern highlands ofNSW. More recently, research efforts have turned to using biosolids and other soil amendments on low rainfallhardwood plantations in the Upper Hunter Valley. In 1991, State Forests began applying biosolids to 120 hectares ofplantations in eleven sites across the southern tablelands and central west. Researchers were encouraged whenincreased growth rates of 30 per cent were achieved. Building on this success, in 1995, biosolids were incorporatedinto the soil prior to establishing the plantation. After five years of monitoring, it was found that tree height wasimproved by as much as 50 per cent and tree diameter by 85 per cent. Additionally, researchers found that the extragrowth achieved with biosolids had not impacted on timber density an important characteristic of timber quality anduse. Andrade et al (2000) applied biosolids to a planted area of E. grandis.URL: http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/2006184_org_minelitreview.pdf4. Valencia, SpainMost of the biosolids produced in the region of Valencia are disposed in landfills or used in agriculture. In this study thecosts have been assessed and technical limitations to the use of biosolids in reforestation of degraded Mediterranean

ecosystems. The degraded area in the inland of Valencia is selected for the pilot-project scale reforestation covering 2ha. Domestic biosolids are applied and planted one-year-old seedlings of Pinus halepensis and Quercus ilex ssp.ballota. The economic and technical performances of different application types are assessed and monitored survivaland growth of introduced seedlings. Application costs (excluding transport) ranged from 23.62 to 41.17 Euro Mg-1fresh weight and could easily be reduced to one third of this amount with simple technical improvements.URL: http://www.orbit-online.net/publications/01-04/abstract.htm5. Rabbit Island in Nelson, New ZealandBiosolids application on to a 1000 ha Pinus radiata plantation at Rabbit Island in Nelson is the first full-scale biosolidsland application operation in New Zealand. The biosolids were aerobically digested liquid (1-3% solids) and containedhigh concentrations of nitrogen (8-10% N). To investigate the effects of biosolids application on tree growth, nutrition,soil and ground water quality, an experimental research trial was established at the Rabbit Island. Biosolids wereapplied at three loading rates: 0 (control), 300 (standard, operational rate) and 600 kg N ha-1 (high) in 1997 then every

three years.URL:http://www.initrogen.org/fileadmin/user_upload/nanjing/abstract-concurrent_session.pdf

6.2.2.2 Land Reclamation

Biosolids have several characteristics that make them suitable for reclaiming and improving disturbed and marginalsoils. The organic matter in biosolids improves the soil physical properties by improving granulation, reducing plasticityand cohesion, and increasing water-holding capacity. Biosolids increase soil cation exchange capacity, supply plantnutrients, and buffer soil. The most important cost factor for using biosolids in land reclamation is the cost oftransporting the biosolids from the wastewater treatment facility to the reclamation site. There are many successfulbiosolids land reclamation stories, some of them are as follow:

1. Sierra Blanca, Hudspeth County , Texas, USA

A ranch near the West Texas town of Sierra Blanca in Hudspeth County is the site of a project designed to revegetatearid and semi-arid rangeland by recycling biosolids generated from wastewater treatment plants in New York City.Since June 1992, about 80 dry tons per day of New York City biosolids the treated byproduct of wastewatertreatment that can be beneficially reused have been transported to the 128,000-acre Sierra Blanca Ranch.URL: http://www.biosolids.org/docs/WestTX.pdf2. King County, Washington, USA,The Mountains to Sound Greenway Trust is applying GroCo biosolids compost to revegetate logging road scars andlandings in the foothills of the Cascade Mountains along the Interstate 90 corridor. The Mountains to Sound GreenwayTrust is a public-private partnership dedicated to maintaining a green belt for approximately 100 miles along Interstate90 from Ellensburg to Seattle.

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URL: http://www.agecanada.com/land%20reclamation.htm3. Everett, Washington, USA

As part of a drainage maintenance project, the City of Everett, restored 1.25 acres of land to its previous wetlandcharacteristics by using biosolids, biosolids compost and yard debris compost. The nutrient-rich organic materialprovided an excellent growth medium for native wetland plant species, while stabilizing slopes. This successful venturemay lead the way for other wetland restoration projects in urban environments.URL: http://www.agecanada.com/land%20reclamation.htm

4. Auckland, New ZealandIn 40 years, tourists arriving in Auckland, world heritage city of volcanoes will be able to peer from their plane windowas they come into land, at the city's newest cone - Pooketutu. A mountain carefully moulded from human "biosolids,"into the shape of the original volcanic cone, destroyed 80 years earlier to provide fill for the airport runway. The projectsolves the problem of how to dispose of the 4.5 million tones or more of biosolids.URL: http://www.cwwa.ca/cbp-pcb/databases/beneficial_e.asp#newzealand andhttp://www.bvsde.paho.org/bvsaar/cdlodos/pdf/beneficialuse941.pdf6.2.2.3 Mine Sites Reclamation

The most widespread reclamation use of biosolids has been for repairing land damaged by mining. They have beenused to reclaim surface mined areas, abandoned mine lands, coal refuse piles, smelter wastes, and other disturbedlands. Amendment of mine soils with biosolids has been shown to increase soil organic matter, cation exchangecapacity, soil nutrient levels, and to promote soil ecosystem recovery. Depending on the amendments added, biosolidscan serve many purposes, including pH control, metal control, and fertilization. Their adaptability allows them toconform to the specific characteristics of any reclamation site. The following are success case studies of uses ofbiosolids as a reclamation amendment in mine reclamation:

1. Palmerton, Carbon County, Pennsylvania, USASince 1898 two smelters have produced zinc and other products resulting in 33 million tons of residuals at thePalmerton Superfund site in Carbon County, Pennsylvania. As a result of the heightened emissions more than 2000acres of land lost virtually all vegetation. Metal levels caused a stop in all microbial activity creating a biologicalwasteland. Trees that had been dead for more than 20 years could not decompose and 30 to 60 cm of topsoil eroded

from the site. Based on the levels of contamination at the site, EPA placed Palmerton on the National Priorities List in1982. Horsehead Industries, Inc., using biosolids revegetated nearly 1,000 acres of Blue Mountain on the Palmertonsite between 1991 and 1995.

Costs: Horsehead Industries Inc. were not required to report their costs to the EPA; however, they have estimated acost of approximately $10 million in revegetating approx. 1,000 acres.URL: http://www.mabiosolids.org/news.asp?id=70,http://www.epa.gov/superfund/programs/aml/tech/palmerton.pdf, andhttp://clu-in.org/download/studentpapers/biosolids.pdf2. Bunker Hill, Idaho, Pennsylvania, USAThe Bunker Hill site is located in Idahos Coeur dAlene River Basin. Mining and smelting were performed in the areafor more than 60 years leaving extremely high metal concentrations in the surrounding soil. As a result of various metal

deposits the site has low pH levels, a high susceptibility to erosion, low microbial growth, and diminished water holdingcapacity. Early restoration efforts involved the construction of terraces on slopes exceeding 50 percent, application oflimestone, and application of fertilizers proved unable to establish vegetation. For the past few years restoration effortsbegun using biosolids along with other amendments.

Costs: The cost of biosolids used averaged about $35 per wet ton including transportation and application.URL: http://clu-in.org/download/studentpapers/biosolids.pdf

3. Upper Silesia, Katowice, Poland

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The project, implemented in 1994, took place in the Upper Silesia region of southwestern Poland. Over 96 million tonsof mining wastes were deposited on the site during the 20th Century. The waste piles, on the site, are spread overseveral thousand acres and most are phytotoxic preventing revegetation. Because of the countrys economic situationat that time any remediation technique of the waste piles needed to be inexpensive. This is the reason biosolidsremediation came to the forefront as a treatment option. Biosolids are inexpensive and were available locally.URL: http://clu-in.org/download/studentpapers/biosolids.pdf4. Abbots ford, Brit ish Columbia, CanadaThe GVRD's Biosolids Recycling Program partnered with GVRD Regional Parks to begin transforming a 12-hectaregravel pit in Aldergrove Lake Regional Park into a park space complete with picnic area, concert bowl and canoeinglake. Biosolids, which are recovered from the GVRD's wastewater treatment plants, are treated organic solids thatcontain beneficial nutrients for plant growth. Operational reclamation of the gravel pit was initiated in 1999. Shortlybefore application, 930 bulk tones of GVRD biosolids and 3,918 bulk tones of compost were delivered to the site, andmixed with native soil at a volume ratio of 1:1:4 compost : biosolids : native soil. This mixture was applied to the minesite, incorporated to a depth of 0.15-0.30 m and seeded with a sports turf seed mixture. The reclamation of the mineincluded the establishment of a lake used for canoeing and providing habitat for waterfowl, amphibians and otherwildlife.URL: http://www.gvrd.bc.ca/sustainability/casestudies/biosolids.htm,http://www.gvrd.bc.ca/nutrifor/pdfs/PittoPark.pdf, andhttp://www.bvsde.paho.org/bvsaar/cdlodos/pdf/biosolidsuseingravel1077.pdf

5. Sunshine Coast, Brit ish Columbia, CanadaLocated on BCs Sunshine Coast, Construction Aggregates Limiteds Sechelt mine is the largest sand and gravel minein Canada, occupying in excess of 250 hectares and producing 5-7 million tones of product per year. After identifyingreclamation as a significant challenge and important component of their operation, the Sechelt mine explored theopportunity to use biosolids in their reclamation activities. Biosolids use at the Sechelt mine began in 1997. The initialresearch and demonstration project involved the application of biosolids and other residuals to retaining breams visiblefrom the town of Sechelt. The results of this demonstration project were two-fold. The project demonstrated to minestaff, the community and other stakeholders the benefits of biosolids use in improving physical and chemical propertiesof soil and subsequent vegetation establishment, and increased stakeholder support of the use of biosolids throughvisual evidence, education and awareness. The mine utilizes all regionally provided biosolids and can also use locallyproduced pulp and paper sludge and lime residuals in reclamation activities.URL: http://www.bvsde.paho.org/bvsaar/cdlodos/pdf/biosolidsuseingravel1077.pdf

6. New South Wales, AustraliaBiosolids have been used as an amendment prior to establishing seedlings, direct seeding or sowing pasture on thefollowing mines: Rix's Creek, Bloomfield, Camberwell mine, Bulga South Mine, Drayton's Colliery, Ravensworth east,Howick Mine, Coal and Allied, Bayswater Power Station and Narama Mine. Hunter Water Corporation has successfullyused biosolids in mine site rehabilitation in the Hunter Valley. Biosolids have been used for site rehabilitation, undertree and pasture, at South Bulga Colliery, Drayton Coal and Oceanic, Macquarie Coal CHPP. In 1999 biosolids werespread over an area at the Bulga open cut coal mine near Broke. In 2000, in conjunction with Macquarie Generationand the Natural Heritage Trust, a 40 hectare plantation was established at the Bayswater Power Station nearMuswellbrook to trial a variety of soil amendments including fly ash, biosolids and green-waste.

Costs: One of the most important cost considerations when using residuals is transport cost. Transporting organics forlong distances of 250km can cost up to $20-25 per product tone. This is a conservative figure based on periodic back-

loading. The application of wastes has the associated costs of appropriate spreading equipment and incorporation intothe soil. Hire of spreading equipment may cost around $12 per tone of product (including labor). Other equipmentneeded, such as tractors and front-end loaders would generally also be used or available for a normal mineralfertilizer/topdressing operation. For example, in some parts of NSW dewatered cake is currently applied free of chargeby authorities such as Sydney Water. The net cost to Sydney Water is $45-$55 per tone 18% solids, which includestransport, spreading, site permitting and monitoring. Some rehabilitation has been undertaken by using biosolidsprivate contractors at Swan bank at a cost or $25-$38 product tone.URL: http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/2006184_org_minelitreview.pdf

6.2.2.4 Hort icul ture and Landscaping

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The use of biosolids for horticulture and landscaping is similar to land application and agricultural application, but with adifferent intent. The biosolids product, often compost, is used for soil conditioning rather than as a replacementfertilizer. Generally the biosolids product is sold in smaller bags from the treatment facility, through municipal outlets, orthrough retail establishments. Alternately, the material is used in bulk by consumers or by the municipality itself.Biosolids improve the manageability, water retention, and tilth of troublesome soils. Landscaping and horticultural usesof biosolids products often relate to maintenance of athletic or recreational facilities such as golf courses. Compost isperhaps the most popular biosolids-based product for landscaping uses, as compost is primarily a soil conditioner, nota fertilizer.

1. Tacoma and Bremerton, Washington, USATacoma and Bremerton, Washington, collaborated to apply Exceptional Quality biosolids to a new golf course, helpingenable it to open several months earlier than planned and with better grass vitality.URL: http://www.agecanada.com/land%20reclamation.htm2. Vancouver, Brit ish Columbia, CanadaThe GVRD uses the nutrients and organic matter in its biosolids to supplement nutrient-poor soils and developlandscaping soil. Blending biosolids with carbon (e.g. woodchips) and mineral (e.g. sand) products creates a highquality landscaping soil. The GVRD and its member municipalities use this soil in projects such as the next examples:1. East Hoy Habitat Restoration, Coquitlam, B.C.;

2. Highway 99 Green Gateways, Delta, B.C3. Vancouver Landfill Naturescaped Garden, Delta, B.C.4. Lower Seymour Conservation Reserve, North Vancouver, B.C.5. City of White Rock Gold LEED Operations Works Yard, White Rock, B.C.6. City of Vancouver Gold LEED Works Yard, Vancouver, B.C.URL: http://www.gvrd.bc.ca/nutrifor/recycling.htm3. San Antonio, Texas, USAComposted manure makes up about half of the compost used in Texas road projects statewide, followed bycomposted yard trimmings and biosolids (organic sewage matter treated and processed for fertilizer). Projects in San

Antonio use yard trimmings and composted biosolids produced by the city.URL: http://www.tfhrc.gov/pubrds/04mar/03.htm

4. Sydney, AustraliaAustralian Native Landscapes Pty. Ltd. used composted material, including 72,000 cubic meters of composted sewagesludge, for landscaping at Sydney Airport (Biocycle 1995).URL: http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/2006184_org_minelitreview.pdf5. Perth, Australia

A two year project on the viability of composting biosolids combined with green waste has been completed at theInstitute for Environmental Science. One of the main objectives was to produce compost that complied with theNational Standard for Compost, Soil Conditioners and Mulches, as well as the National Biosolids Guidelines developedby the Agricultural Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand (ARMCANZ). These guidelines coverall products that contain biosolids for beneficial reuse. The Biosolids guidelines list restrictions on metals, pathogensand pesticides and classify the products in three overall categories: restricted, landscaping and unrestricted, while forpathogens only the product is classified as either Class A or B. The Biosolids/Greenwaste mix was composted using

the FABCOM System developed by Biowaste Environmental Technology. The different runs produced on severaloccasions complied fully with both standards. The resultant compost was distributed to various potential future marketssuch as market gardens, St John of God Hospital (Murdoch), plant nurseries and domestic use.URL: http://wwwscience.murdoch.edu.au/centres/ies/WAste.html

6.2.3 ENERGY RECOVERY RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES

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Biosolids contain organic material and thus have a fuel value that potentially can be realized. Harnessing the fuel valueof biosolids requires construction and operation of a combustion unit. The ability to control emissions and to generateelectricity from the combustion and heat recovery from biosolids presents a strong argument for the consideration ofbiosolids combustion as a beneficial use of the material. The advantages of biosolids combustion include: reduction ofvolume of solids for disposal, pathogen destruction and oxidation of toxic organics, immobilization of heavy metals,sustainable technology, cost-effectiveness, and efficient air quality protection.

6.2.3.1. Thermal Energy Recovery - Heat Generation

Utilization of unused energy such as industrial waste heat is one of important measures to save energy consumptionfor global warming mitigation and to reduce domestic and industrial heat waste. Thermal energy of raw or treatedsewage is used for air conditioning of buildings in sewage treatment plants and for regional air conditioning. This is toutilize the characteristic that sewage is warmer in winter and cooler in summer than outdoor air temperature. Thewaste heat from sewage sludge incineration and melting facilities can be also used for heating facilities and buildings.Moreover, the excess heat from the incineration of sludge can be used to produce steam for electricity generation.Many treatment plants throughout the world anaerobically digest their sludge, producing methane to generate powervia gas engines or turbines. The increased cost of power and increased interest in renewable energy sources ismaking this approach more attractive to water authorities.

1. Los Angeles, California, USAThe Terminal Island Renewable Energy Project (TIRE) is a pioneering and groundbreaking green initiative led by theCity of Los Angeles with Terralog Technologies and in collaboration with the US Environmental Protection Agency. Thedemonstration project will adapt existing petroleum industry technology in an innovative way to convert the constantand growing supply of biosolids into a new source of alternative energy that helps to reduce the greenhouse gases thatcontribute to climate change. The City of Los Angeles and Terralog Technologies in collaboration with the USEnvironmental Protection Agency and with research support from the US Department of Energy and the NationalScience Foundation will demonstrate an innovative technology to convert biosolids into clean energy by deep wellinjection and geothermal biodegradation. The project construction will occur at the Citys Terminal Island TreatmentPlant, located in San Pedro, CA.URL: http://www.lacity.org/san/biosolidsems/TIRE.htm

2. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USAAt the Philadelphia location, gasification, and the thermal energy output, is coupled with a direct contact dryer. Thissingle coordinated system reduces the sludge feed to approximately one tenth of the weight of the input. Driedbiosolids product is fed into the gasified, which converts the biosolids feed into thermal energy and recyclable ash. Theoutput thermal energy from the gasifier is directed into the biosolids dryer, which is sufficient in energy to dry the input.In other words, the inherent and residual calorific energy contained in the dried product is sufficient to dry the productwithout the addition of auxiliary fossil fuel. The dry ash, or super heat dried biosolids, discharged from the gasifier isbiologically inert, odor free, disease free and potentially a soil supplement with less than one tenth of the weight of theinput wet sludge and returned to the host sludge plant to be blended with a compost product.URL: http://www.primenergy.com/Projects_detail_Philadelphia.htm3. Morioka City, Iwate, JapanThe west area of Morioka Railway Station in Iwate applied district air conditioning using thermal energy of sewage.

Energy consumption, CO2 emission and NOx emission were reduced by 30%, 60% and 50% respectively.URL: http://nett21.gec.jp/GESAP/themes/themes3_3.html4. Leeds, Yorkshire, United KingdomNominated for the British Construction Industry Awards 1998, this project arose due to increasing environmentalpressure on sludge disposal outlets from Knostrop STW and the requirement, under the Urban Waste Water TreatmentDirective, to cease disposal of sewage sludge at sea. The incinerator itself burns 3.3tds/h of sludge cake. The cake isdischarged into a 15t bed of sand fluidized by hot air, which evaporates the remaining water and incinerates the sludgeto an inert ash at a temperature in excess of 850oC. Heat is recovered from the hot flue gases: to preheat thecombustion air and to generate steam, which is used to pre-dry the feed sludge in order to avoid supplementary fueluse, and to reheat the flue gases to prevent a visible plume. Knostrop was the first UK sewage sludge incinerator to

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generate electricity by means of a steam turbine. A series of sophisticated processes including an adsorption stage forthe removal of mercury from the flue gases, make the Knostrop incinerator one of the most advanced in the world interms of emission standards.URL: http://www.earthtech.co.uk/generic/documents/Knostrop_000.pdfandhttp://oldweb.northampton.ac.uk/aps/env/Wasteresource/1999/Mar99/99mar41.htm5. Makuhari, Chiba Perfecture, JapanMakuhari area in Chiba applied the district air conditioning in its high-tech business area of 49ha. They supplies warmwater of 47C and cold water of 7C to clients. The amount of sewage used for this system was about 58,000m3 / dayin FY2004.URL: http://nett21.gec.jp/GESAP/themes/themes3_3.html6. Tokyo, JapanTokyo Metropolitan Government developed the district air conditioning in Sinsuna and Koraku area of Kouto Wardusing thermal energy of sewage and waste heat from sewage sludge incineration plant.URL:http://nett21.gec.jp/GESAP/themes/themes3_3.html7. Hamburg, Germany

At Hamburg's Khlbrandhft WWTP the demand for external energy supply is minimized by state of the art sludgetreatment. The sludge is subjected to thickening, anaerobic digestion, dewatering, drying and incineration. The sludge

incineration also produces steam, which is also used in the steam turbine that follows the gas turbine. The turbinesproduce electricity partially expanded steam is used for the sludge drying process. Heat from the condensation ofvapours from sludge drying is used to heat the anaerobic digesters. The overall process requires no external heat orfuel and produces 60% of the WWTP's electricity demand.URL: http://lequia.udg.es/lequianet/WatSciTech/04604/0397/046040397.pdfandhttp://www.iwaponline.com/wst/04604/wst046040397.htm

6.2.3.2 Fuel Production Oil from Sludge Process

Conversion of sludge, which is heavily contaminated by heavy metals or toxic chemicals, to oil is technically feasible.Capital and running costs of oil from sludge process are high.

1. Perth, AustraliaThe worlds first full-scale oil from sludge demonstration facility was operated at the Subiaco Wastewater TreatmentPlant in Perth, Australia. The commercial demonstration pyrolysis facility was operated for a 15-month period fromSeptember 2000 to December 2001. The EnerSludge pyrolysis system, developed by Environmental SolutionsInternational (ESI) cost 23 Million Dollars (Austalian). Operations and maintenance costs were in excess of 1.3 MillionDollars per year. The facility is designed to treat undigested sludge at a capacity of 25 dry tons per day and produce150 to 300 liters of oil per tone of sludge processed. The process converts the dry biosolids into char and a syngas,which, if desired, can be condensed to produce oil, non-condensed gas (NCG) and reaction water (RW). In summary,the facility demonstrated that all of the energy in the biosolids is recovered in the conversion products and that theintegrated facility was a net exporter of energy.URL: http://www.wef.org/NR/rdonlyres/7DA581D9-C0D3-4E5C-B127-AC68B7ABA6DD/0/Bridle_Paper.pdfandhttp://www.gvrd.bc.ca/sewerage/pdf/ReviewAlternativeTechnologiesForBiosolidsManagement_Sep05.pdf

2. Ube City , JapanEnerTech successfully demonstrated the SlurryCarb technology on a commercial scale with the construction andthree year operation of a 20 ton per day facility in Ube City, Japan. EnerTech's SlurryCarb process is anenvironmentally sound method for achieving 100% beneficial reuse of biosolids and other high-moisture feedstocks.The process chemically converts biosolids into a high-energy, renewable solid fuel, solution for biosolids recycling aswell as an opportunity to protect our environment by replacing fossil fuel consumption with a renewable energy source.URL: http://enertech.com/services/sitedevelopments/ucjf.html

3. Rialto, California, USA

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EnerTech Environmental, Inc. announced that construction of its first full-scale SlurryCarb facility in Rialto, Californiais underway. HDR Design-Build, Inc. began construction on April 2nd, 2007. HDR has worked closely with EnerTechthroughout the design of the Rialto facility, which is expected to be fully operational by the third quarter of 2008.EnerTechs SlurryCarb process economically produces a renewable fuel, called E-Fuel, from biosolids and otherhigh-moisture wastes. The Rialto SlurryCarb facility will produce approximately 145 tons of renewable E-Fuel frombiosolids supplied by five municipalities in the Los Angeles region. The E-Fuel will be used by a local cement kiln asa renewable alternative to coal.URL: http://www.californiagreensolutions.com/cgi-bin/gt/tpl.h,content=343andhttp://www.pwmag.com/industry-news.asp?sectionID=760&articleID=547650

6.2.3.3 Raw Material for Cement Production and Fuel Substitution in Kilns

The use of biosolids in cement kilns is generally driven more by a desire for green credits than financial reward. Carefulattention has to be paid to the composition of the biosolids to ensure that, the emissions are kept under control and thecontaminant content does not adversely affect the cement product. In some cases the need for additional treatment ofgas emissions, for contaminated biosolids, can make this option less economic.

1. Copenhagen, DenmarkBioCrete is an ongoing project supported by the EU-LIFE Environment Programmme. The objective of the project is toremove technical barriers for the utilization of wastewater sludge incineration ash (bio ash) in the production ofconcrete, and at the same time reduce the amount of waste for disposal. The bio ash can be added to concrete tosupplement or in some cases even substitute Portland cement. Research projects indicate that concrete with bio ashhas acceptable strength and that heavy metals of the ash will be immobilized to such an extent that it isenvironmentally acceptable to use bio ash in concrete. Convenient equipment for the handling of dry bio ash has beeninstalled at two Danish wastewater treatment plants and at 3 ready-mixed concrete production plants, and 1100 tons ofbio ash was reused for the production of concrete in 2006. Bio ash is mainly used as a partly substitution for fly ash inconcrete recipes, and 50% seems to be a maximum. Bio ash and fly ash are quite different materials and bio ash hasless pozzolanic effect than fly ash. Aluminium based bio ash seems to be better for the production of concrete than ironbased bio ash with respect to color as well as strength.URL: http://www.biocrete.dk/english/2. Kyoto, Japan

Kyoto Prefectural Government provides 32% of its sewage sludge as raw materials for cement production. TheKawasaki Plant of DC CO., LTD, which is one of leading companies of the cement industry in Japan, receives all ofsewage incineration ash and sludge from drinking water treatment from Kawasaki Municipal Government. TaiheiyoCement Corporation, which is also one of leading companies, developed "Eco Cement", whose main raw materials aresolid waste incineration ash and sewage sludge.URL: http://nett21.gec.jp/GESAP/themes/themes3_3.html andhttp://nett21.gec.jp/JSIM_DATA/WASTE/WASTE_6/html/Doc_540.html3. Lucerne Valley, California, USAThe Mitsubishi Cement Corporations Cushenbury plant underwent long-term testing and eventual adoption of thebiosolids injection process in 1994 and 1995 and is still in operation today. The company estimates that 20-30 per centof NOx emissions are reduced when injecting biosolids at the rate of approximately 50 wet tonnes per day. The effectof biosolids injection on CO emissions varies between notable increases and no change at all. In all cases, with

biosolids injection, CO concentrations remained well within regulatory standards thus demonstrating that NOxreductions are not obtained at the expense of increasing CO levels. In addition, full stack emission tests on HazardousAir Pollutants (HAPs) indicated that biosolids injection did not cause any significant changes in either metal HAP ororganic HAP emissions.URL: http://www.gvrd.bc.ca/sewerage/pdf/ReviewAlternativeTechnologiesForBiosolidsManagement_Sep05.pdf4. Siggnethal, SwitzerlandThe Holcim Cement works at Siggnethal, is one of several based in Switzerland that uses biosolids as a part of theirfuel source. Traditionally, the sources of fuel for the kiln are oil and coal. However, the use of this more traditionalsource has decreased as other wastes have been utilized. The ratio of energy sources for the kiln energy requirements

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are now approximately oil 35%, coal 35%, biosolids 10%, animal meal 5%, car tyres 5%, organic solvent waste, etc.10%. Some cement works use 100% alternative fuels (e.g. not oil or coal).URL: http://www.recycledwater.com.au/uploads/File/documents/BiosolidTour.pdf5. Chiba, JapanEco-cement is a new type of Portland cement being developed not only to solve the municipal and industrial wasteproblem caused by limited availability of landfill sites, but also to contribute to the protection of the environment byproviding a complete recycling system of wastes that would otherwise be dumped. This new cement is designed to usemunicipal waste incinerator ash as up to 50% of raw materials. Eco-cement consists of the same main components asnormal Portland cement and process a complete recycle system for municipal and industrial wastes. The recentlyconstructed Eco-cement plant, in Ichihara, Japan, will use incinerator ash from 26 cities and municipalities, and has aproduction capacity of about 350 metric tonnes per day using the Eco-cement process.

Costs: The official construction cost of this plant is 12.6 billion yen (USD$10million) and the managing cost is about 40thousand yen (USD$325) per metric tonne of incinerated ash. The local government, who is responsible for managingthe urban waste, pays this managing cost. The second Eco-cement plant, now in the final stage of design, is to beowned by an association of 31 cities and municipalities in the Tokyo Metropolitan Area with a total population of 3.8million inhabitants.URL:http://www.wbcsd.org/plugins/DocSearch/details.asp?MenuId=MTcw&ClickMenu=&doOpen=1&type=DocDet&ObjectId

=NjEz,http://nett21.gec.jp/GESAP/themes/themes3_3.html andhttp://www.icett.or.jp/techinfo.nsf/b289c6c99ff5f3e449256cfc003cb64d/0a3679d4ec8aeea249256cfc003d6f32?OpenDocument

6.2.3.4 Energy Recovery Incineration

Incineration of biosolids can be carried out by a range of technologies including rotary kilns, fixed hearth, movinghearth, circulating fluidized bed, etc. The most common technology for mono-incineration of biosolids is the fluidizedbed sewage biosolids incinerator, FBSSI. In a typical FBSSI biosolids are combusted in a fluidized bed of hot sand, ina vertical cylindrical combustion chamber.

1. Waldwick, New Jersey, USAThe Northwest Bergen County Utilities Authority operates the wastewater treatment facility in Waldwick, New Jersey,which serves the Borough and seven surrounding towns. They have been using fluid bed incineration as their sludgedisposal option for over thirty years. The plant has a design capacity of 11.5 mgd on an annual average and a peakthirty day capacity of 16.8 mgd. It currently operates at an average of approximately 8.5 mgd. Sludge dewatering is viabelt press to about 23% dry solids and the incinerator combusts a 50:50 mix of primary and activated sludge. Sludge isprimarily municipal with less than 0.1% from industrial sources. Septage is also accepted but it constitutes a minimalamount of the total waste combusted.URL: http://www.infilcodegremont.com/images/pdf/Session_15A.pdf2. Pickering, Ontario, CanadaDurham Region currently employs two primary methods of sludge and/or biosolids management, as follows:

Agricultural land application of liquid biosolids, and incineration of dewatered sludge (undigested) and biosolids at the

Duffin Creek WPCP in Pickering, with ash recycling to a cement plant. Landfilling in a municipal waste landfill has beenconsidered a contingency measure.URL: http://www.region.durham.on.ca/departments/works/sewer/biosolidsstudy/execsumm101904.pdf,http://www.durhamregionwaste.ca/departments/works/sewer/biosolidsstudy/newsletter4.pdfandhttp://www.region.durham.on.ca/works.asp?nr=/departments/works/duffincreek/whatandwhere.htm&setFooter=/includes/duffinFooter.txt3. Paris, FranceSeine Centre is set in an urban environment, in the town of Colombe, in the western suburbs of Paris. This plant treatsthe wastewater discharged by a million inhabitants. The plant cost $350 million USD to build and employs the mostmodern technologies, both in terms of wastewater treatment and the treatment of sludge and flue gases. The sludge

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by-product (60 to 350 t/day of dry matter or 270 to 1300 m3/day of limed sludge is discharged via barge or truck to bereused in agricultural applications or incinerated in Pyrofluid incinerators. Pyrofluid incinerators have biosolids injectedinto a fluidized bed of sand that ensures a maximum reduction in the volume of residual sludge. The fly ash from thisprocess is recovered in a solid form, enabling it to be used for road engineering or as a mixture in the production ofcement. Today in France, the reuse of fly ash is regulated by a Circular (10 January 1996).URL: http://www.recycledwater.com.au/uploads/File/documents/BiosolidTour.pdf4. Abbey Wood, United KingdomHistorically, and until very recently, the sludge from the treatment works was disposed of by daily boats in the NorthSea. To comply with a change in EC regulation and to make use of the sludge, Thames Water built a Sludge PoweredGenerator (SPG). This has been running since 1998 and can produce up to 5Megawatts about of the siteselectricity requirement. The Sludge Power Generator is accredited to the international environmental standardISO14001. Sludge incineration takes place in two streams fed by the sludge silos. The incineration process usesfluidized bed technology. The process is started up using natural gas burners and lances and once the incinerator is upto temperature, these are shut down and the process is self-sustaining.URL: http://www.thameswater.co.uk/en_gb/Downloads/PDFs/Wastewater_Crossness_260606.pdf5. St. Petersburg, RussiaThe combined Vodokanal Sludge Incineration Project is a joint implementation project developed between the RussianFederation and the investor countries and companies of the Baltic Sea Region Testing Ground Facility (Iceland,

Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland and Germany, DONG Naturgas, Fortum, Kymppivoima, Kerevan Energia, Gasum,Outukumpu, Vapo and Vattenfall) and the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) for theaccount of the Netherlands. The project developer and owner is the State Unitary Enterprise Vodokanal of StPetersburg, the city owned water company and the statutory water undertaker in the city. The project proposes toinstall two wastewater sludge incineration plants. The project will reduce GHG emissions by reducing methanereleases at two existing sludge lagoons.URL: http://www.nefco.fi/documents/tgf/projects/Vodokanal_PP.pdf

6.2.3.5 Energy Recovery Gasification

Co-incineration with municipal solid waste (MSW) has been proven as a good solution. Issues have arisen at facilitiesdue to failure to meet dioxin standards and other emissions due to the MSW component of the waste. Plasma

gasification presents significant environmental benefits over conventional thermal technologies due to its conversionefficiency and the concentrated syngas stream that is produced. Due to the high combustion temperature of thegasification reactor and the high temperature of the exit gas, there is virtually no reforming of combustion by-productsto form organic compounds of environmental concern such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, dioxin/furans orphenols. As the concentrated syngas exits the gasifier, a variety of proven technologies are available to removeimpurities or sequester compounds of interest.

1. Balingen, GermanyThe sewage works of Balingen cleans the wastewater of the town and of the surrounding cities and villages. It isdesigned for a connecting capacity of 125.000 inhabitants and treats about ten million cubic meters of wastewaterannually. With the goal of making the sewage work energetically independent, a block type heat-power station wasinstalled, a solar sludge drying plant was erected and a turbine was built into the runoff water pipe of the plant. In 2003,the gasification plant processed the total product of the solar drying unit at Balingen. The heat and the major part of the

electricity produced were delivered to the sewage works. Overnight the plant also ran without any problems, andtherefore fully automatic operation is envisioned for the future.URL: http://www.kopf-ag.de/download/kopf-sewage-sludge-gasification-8.pdf2. Mihama and Mikata, JapanCommercial application of plasma gasification has been in operation since 2002. Japan's Hitachi Metals, Ltd. UsesWestinghouse Plasma Corporation's technology has been used in two Japanese facilities that transform municipalsolid waste (MSW), automobile shredder residue and sewage sludge into steam and electricity. In December 2002, thetwin cities of Mihama and Mikata, Japan commissioned a MSW and sewage sludge treatment plant. Hitachi Metals Ltd.designed and installed this plant. It processes 24 ton/d1 of MSW and 4 ton/d of sewage sludge.URL: http://biomass.ucdavis.edu/reports.htmland

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http://biomass.ucdavis.edu/materials/reportsandpublications/2003/2003_Solid_Waste_Conversion.pdf

6.2.4 RECYCLING AND USE AS A CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL

1. Winneconne, Wisconsin, USA

Minergy Corp. has successfully commercialized technologies for recycling high-volume wastes, including municipalsludge, paper mill sludge, and contaminated sediment and soils, into reusable, inert glass. Minergys approach totreating contaminated soils, sediments and sludges is to focus on the glass formation process, recognizing that anancillary benefit of the processs high temperature and residence time effectively destroys organic contaminants andproduces an inert, usable product. Converting wastes into glass aggregate through the process of vitrification providesa permanent disposal solution while eliminating future liabilities.URL: http://www.environmental-expert.com/STSE_resulteach.aspx?cid=18768

2. Osaka, JapanIncinerated Ash Recycling Plant in Ono treatment Plant is making Water Permeable Brick from sewage incinerationash. The reclamation site for sludge disposal is physically limited. Accordingly, a technology has been developed torecycle incinerated ash and produce water-permeable brick. Incinerated ash is first mixed with clay and aggregate, andthen formed and fired to produce a brick with superior water permeability. By using as paving stone, the brick madefrom incinerated ash is expected to contribute to storm water runoff control. The production of this fired brick was fullylaunched in 1998.URL: http://nett21.gec.jp/GESAP/themes/themes4_6.html and http://www.osakacity.or.jp/en/journal/issues/40.pdf3. Osaka, JapanSewage sludge melting technology is considered to be effective solutions for life extension of landfill sites andtransforming hazardous substances into harmless and stable matters without component elusion. Melted slug is usedfor materials for road bed, concrete aggregate, asphalt aggregate and backfill materials. Thermal energy which isproduced at the production process of melted slug is utilized for heating of melting furnace, production of steam andelectric power generation.URL: http://nett21.gec.jp/GESAP/themes/themes3_3.html and http://www.osakacity.or.jp/en/journal/issues/40.pdf4. Tokyo, JapanEnvironmental problems are a worldwide concern. So recycling with a zero-emission objective is being pursued. For

this purpose, a melting process whereby sludge was converted into slag has been developed and commercialized.Glass ceramics technology was studied to produce crystallized glass from sewage sludge. The technology wasresearched and developed jointly with the Tokyo Metropolitan Government in pursuing the basic study and pilot plantstudied from 1991 to 1995. As a result, there is successfully commercialized technology to convert sewage sludge intoa resource as stone-like products, followed successfully by a long pilot operation. Now the commercialized plant of 150ton-cake/day was installed and has been producing stone products from sewage sludge since 1996.URL: http://www.nwbiosolids.org/Bulletin/Aug07BiosolidsBulletin.pdf5. Fukuoka, Japan

Anaerobic digestion supernatant contains high level of phosphorous and nitrogen which is usually returned towastewater treatment process and becomes big burden to receiving water bodies. Therefore phosphorus recovery inwastewater treatments contributes to both alleviation of eutrophication in receiving water bodies and savingphosphorus resources. In Japan the crystallization of Magnesium Ammonium Phosphate (MAP) was developed as an

effective phosphorus recovery method. This kind of phosphorus recovery process is adopted in four sewage treatmentplants in Fukuoka City, Japan. Fukuoka City recycled 96.7% of sewage sludge and incineration ash generated fromsewage treatment plants. This is one of successful examples that local government has promoted recycling sewagerelated wastes.URL: http://nett21.gec.jp/GESAP/themes/themes3_3.html6. Selangor, MalaysiaThis study reports the use of sewage sludge generated from sewage treatment plant as raw material in a clay brick-making process. Bricks were produced with sewage sludge additions ranging from 10 to 40% by dry weight. Bricks withmore than 30 wt.% sludge addition are not recommended for use since they are brittle and easily broken even whenhandled gently. A tendency for a general degradation of brick properties with sludge additions was observed due to its

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refractory nature. Therefore, sludge bricks of this nature are only suitable for use as common bricks, which arenormally not exposed to view, because of poor surface finishing.URL: http://wmr.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/22/4/226

6.2.5 COMMERCIAL USES OF BIOSOLIDS

Efforts to market biosolids generally refer to the sale of large amounts to commercial consumers. Biosolids also maybe sold in bulk and in smaller quantities to homeowners and gardeners. They could be used as an alternative tocommercial fertilizers and soil conditioners, or it could be used in conjunction with these types of products. Biosolidsalso have the added benefit compared to commercial products in that they contain a significant amount of organicmatter (approximately 40-60%) which improves soil structure by increasing soil aeration and the water holding capacityof the soil. There are many fine examples of biosolids marketing success stories that have been presented around theworld.

1. Milorganite - Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USAOne of the USA oldest and most recognized biosolids recycling programs is conducted by the city of Milwaukee,Wisconsin. Since the 1920's this city has been producing a granular, heat-dried biosolids product called Milorganite.Milorganite is sold in bulk to fertilizer manufactures. Forty pound bags of Milorganite are sold to the retail market fordistribution by nurseries and garden centers and 50 pound bags are marketed commercially to the turf and landscapeindustry for use at schools, parks and golf courses. Besides being sold throughout the United States, Milorganite hasbeen sold in Japan, Puerto Rico, Canada, Venezuela and India. Approximately 50,000 tons of Milorganite areproduced per year.URL: http://www.werf.org/downloads/pdfs/00PUM5.pdfandhttp://www.metrocouncil.org/environment/Biosolids/BiosolidsUS.htm2. Sarnia, Ontario, CanadaPrior to 2001 at the Water Pollution Control Centre in the City of Sarnia, biosolids management consisted of anaerobicdigestion, lagoon storage and then disposal to landfill. Upon commissioning of the N-Viro Soil process, three digesterswere shut down and a fourth was converted to a holding tank used to feed undigested sludge to the N-Viro system thatuse lime stabilization technology to reduce pathogens, control odours, and prevents vector attraction. The WaterPollution Control Centre average flows are 38,641 m3 per day. Sludge production is 60 wet tones per day and 16.8 drytones per day. The N-Viro Soil production is 55 tones per day and is marketed for local agricultural use as a fertilizer.

Cost: Total cost of the buildings and equipment, including renovations to the liquid sludge-storage facility anddewatering, was $5.0 Million; the cost of the N-Viro component was approximately $3.8 Million. An alkaline stabilizationmanufacturer has provided a cost estimate for a facility to manage 14 dry tones per day of undigested sludge. Thecosts assume that the facility would be located at a wastewater treatment plant and that existing dewatering equipmentwould be used. The capital cost estimate is $4.3 Million and includes site work, construction of buildings for productstorage and a process area. The operation and maintenance estimate is $0.83 Million per year and includes amanagement service fee based on the assumption that the manufacturer will provide marketing services and one staff.Calculated on a dry weight basis, operating costs are estimated at $229/tonne. Lower costs can be achieved if forinstance a biogas is available as the fuel source and through economies of scales if a central facility were establishedand material were imported from other plants.URL: http://www.city.sarnia.on.ca/visit.asp?articleid=193 andhttp://www.gvrd.bc.ca/sewerage/pdf/ReviewAlternativeTechnologiesForBiosolidsManagement_Sep05.pdf

3. ComPro - Silver Spring, Maryland, USAThe Washington Suburban Sanitary commission operates several wastewater treatment plants in and around theWashington, D.C. area. Biosolids recovered from one of the plants, the Blue Plains Regional Plant in Washington,D.C., is transported to the Montgomery County Regional Composting Facility where it is processed into a valuable,marketable product, called ComPro. ComPro is sold to retail outlets in bags or in bulk to professional landscapers,contractors, grounds managers, nurserymen, and homeowners.URL: http://www.metrocouncil.org/environment/Biosolids/BiosolidsUS.htm

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4. MetroGro - Madison, Wisconsin, USAThe city of Madison produces an anaerobically-digested biosolids product, called MetroGro, that is marketed to localagriculture. Every year, about 30 million gallons of MetroGro are sold to fertilize 3,000 to 4,000 acres of farmland.MetroGro is delivered to the farm sites in 6,000-gallon semi-tanker trucks and the biosolids are applied using 3,500-gallon application vehicles which inject the product into the soil. MetroGro is applied primarily to fertilize corn, soybeansand alfalfa.URL: http://www.metrocouncil.org/environment/Biosolids/BiosolidsUS.htm5. GroCo - Seattle, Washington, USAIn 1996, Seattles two wastewater treatment facilities produced 20, 000 dry tons of sewage sludge. Their sludge isused to create a class B biosolids cake that is used on agricultural land and forests (reclaiming logged areas and scarsleft by logging roads). A portion of their biosolids is sold to a private contractor who composts and produces a generaluse soil conditioner called GroCo. In 1995, $100 000 in revenue was received from the sale of biosolids. This revenueoffsets the cost of hauling to application sites. Avoiding landfill fees saves additional money (EPA, 1999). Recently,King County has entered into a partnership with Washington DNR, University of Washington, Sierra Club,Weyerhaeuser, and others in what's called the "Mountains to Sound Re-Greening Program." This program involveshundreds of volunteers in the restoration and revegetation of logging roads no longer needed along the scenicInterstate 90 corridor from Puget Sound to the east side of the Cascades. GroCo is being used to restore revegetatethe unsightly, barren scars left by many old logging roads.URL: http://nett21.gec.jp/GESAP/themes/themes3_3.html,http://www.metrocouncil.org/environment/Biosolids/BiosolidsUS.htm and

http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/non-hw/compost/biosolid.pdf

6. AllGro - Burli ngton County , New Jersey, USAAt the start of the program in 1998, the amendment used in the biosolids mix was wood waste. It since has beenexpanded to include yard and food waste. As the facility operator, Synagro markets the finished compost productunder the AllGro name for Burlington County. The compost is sold to bulk users, including landscapers, nurseries,and golf courses. In large part because of its employment of multiple waste management methods, the plan is widelyrecognized as among the most comprehensive and progressive in the state.URL: http://www.biosolids.com/Features/archives/000007.shtml7. Ogogrow - Kelowna, Brit ish Columbia, CanadaThe City of Kelowna composts biosolids and wood chips and markets the finished compost as Ogogrow. Rich innutrients such as phosphorus, this product is trade-marketed and marketed commercially, and is used as a soil

amendment by nurseries, landscapers, orchardists and residential customers.URL: http://www.ae.ca/aetoday/060304.html,http://www.bvsde.paho.org/bvsaar/cdlodos/pdf/successfulbiosolids861.pdfandhttp://www.compost.org/Biosolids_Composting_FAQ.pdf8. Toronto, Ontario, CanadaToronto council has approved a $4-million-a-year deal to operate the rebuilt sewage pelletizer plant at Ashbridge's Bay.The deal, with Veolia Water Canada Inc., will see treated sewage - mostly comprised of human feces - cleaned, bakedand turned into, hopefully, marketable fertilizer pellets at the plant on the eastern edge of Toronto's port lands.URL: http://www.toronto.ca/water/protecting_quality/biosolids/index.htm

9. Sky-Rocket - Comox-Strathcona, Brit ish Columbia, CanadaIn 2005, Comox-Strathcona reopened a new fully enclosed facility that now turns biosolids into garden gold.

SkyRocket, the nutrient-rich soil amendment created by the Comox Strathcona Regional District (CSRD), for lawns andgardens is available for sale on May 1st, 2007. SkyRocket is made of wood chips mixed with biosolids, which are curedover time to create a nutrient-rich mulch. SkyRocket has been used in land reclamation and slope stabilization projects,tree plantings by the Ministry of Transportation, and has been applied to enrich and amend soils on Vancouver IslandThe annual market potential for t

beneficial uses of municipal wastewater residuals (biosolids) - final report

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