best teaching strategies to help struggling readers …
TRANSCRIPT
BEST TEACHING STRATEGIES TO HELP
STRUGGLING READERS
A Dissertation
Presented to
The Faculty of the Education Department
Carson-Newman University
In Partial Fulfillment
Of the
Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Education
By
Leigh A. Talley
May 2017
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© Copyright 2017
Leigh Andrews Talley
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
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I hereby grant permission to the Education Department, Carson-Newman University, to
reproduce this research in part or in full for professional purposes, with the understanding
that in no case will it be for financial profit to any person or institution.
Leigh Andrews Talley
March 10, 2017
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Abstract
The purpose of this grounded qualitative study was to examine the most effective
teaching strategies that are implemented in the classroom to meet the needs of struggling
readers, to find activities that motivate struggling readers, and to investigate the role of
teachers in the development of struggling readers. The data were gathered from six
elementary teachers from grades third, fourth, and fifth. A structured interview was the
primary source of data for the grounded qualitative study. The research design included
identifying the role of teachers as facilitators and motivators who identify, assess, and
observe struggling readers and then measure comprehension with assessments,
discussion, and running records. The study was guided by teacher perceptions of
instructional strategies to include reading time, small groups, use of one text, and reading
strategies that motivate struggling readers. The study concluded that reading instruction
changes when a struggling reader is introduced to multiple grouping strategies,
vocabulary instruction, and comprehension strategies that are embedded in the
instruction. The findings of the study identified that games, group work, high interest
texts, and plays or poetry influence struggling readers to engage in the process of reading.
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Dedication
This study is dedicated to my grandmother, Mary Lea Bland, who loved me with
all of her heart. You always believed in me and gave me encouragement as a child to
succeed. You would always share with other ladies how much you were proud of me. As
a little girl, when you babysat me, I would always give you directions to where my
brother and I needed to go. The direction you instilled in me is your love for Jesus Christ.
Grandma, I wish you were here to see me graduate with my doctorate degree, but I know
you are continually praying for me and singing songs of praises in Heaven because you
are proud of me. I love you, Grandma Mary, and miss you very much.
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Acknowledgements
First, I would like to thank God. This paper was completed with prayer, time with
Scripture, and faith that God can use me through this degree to help spread the love of
Christ to others.
I appreciate the support of my committee chair, Dr. Patricia Murphree. Thank you
for the words of encouragement, the helpful insights, and the time you have spent helping
me. You are a Christ-like model for all educators to strive to be.
I would like to thank my Dissertation chair members Dr. Christopher Shon and
Dr. Mary Day Reynolds. Thank you for reading my rough drafts, giving me instruction,
and helping me present my best work throughout this dissertation process.
I would like to thank my editors, Katherine Pinkerton-Long and Dr. Barbara
Payne, for helping me edit my papers and submit my best work.
I would to thank my family for your love, prayers, and encouragement. Thank you
Kent and LaDonna for always sending me texts telling me that you are praying for me.
Thank you Matt and Emily for loving me and encouraging me to pursue a higher
education degree. Thank you Papa and Jackie for showing me how proud you are of me.
Thank you Mom Mom Mitchell for always showing love and support.
I would like to thank my parents. Dad and Mom, you have never stopped
believing in me. You have always encouraged me to shoot for the stars in everything I do.
I appreciate your love and support throughout this process.
I would like to thank my sweet Jack Russell puppy dogs, Baxter and Annabelle
Talley. You have always given me love when I needed a “lick” of encouragement or a
walk around the neighborhood to take a break from writing.
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Finally, I would like to thank my wonderful husband, Scott, for being my #1 fan
and helping me throughout this process. Thank you for reading my syllabus to me when I
get overwhelmed, planning weekly dates to Starbucks for writing time, watching
Hallmark movies with me to relax, and always having a positive attitude. I love you Scott
Talley with all my heart, and I could not have finished this degree without your
unconditional love and support. I know God has great plans for us as Dr. and Dr. Talley.
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Table of Contents
Copyright ........................................................................................................................... iii
Abstract ............................................................................................................................... v
Dedication .......................................................................................................................... vi
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................... vii
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... ix
Introduction and Background of the Study ......................................................................... 1
Building Blocks of Reading ........................................................................................................ 3
Statement of the Problem ............................................................................................................ 5
Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................................... 6
Research Questions ..................................................................................................................... 6
Rationale for the Study ............................................................................................................... 7
Limitations and Delimitations ..................................................................................................... 8
The Researcher ............................................................................................................................ 8
Definition of Key Terms ............................................................................................................. 9
Summary ................................................................................................................................... 10
Review of the Literature ................................................................................................... 11
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 11
Historical Literature of Reading Instruction ............................................................................. 11
Theoretical Lens: The Presence of Struggling Readers ............................................................ 19
Essential Components of Effective Strategies for Struggling Readers ..................................... 22
Guidelines for Instructing Struggling Readers .......................................................................... 22
Interventions for Struggling Readers ........................................................................................ 23
Re-Envisioning Instruction ....................................................................................................... 32
Targeted Reading Supplemental Intervention ........................................................................... 34
Grouping Strategies for Struggling Readers ............................................................................. 35
Effective Teaching Methods for Building Comprehension ...................................................... 38
Summary ................................................................................................................................... 40
Methodology ..................................................................................................................... 41
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 41
Description of Qualitative Research ......................................................................................... 41
Description of the Specific Research Approach ....................................................................... 42
Description of the Study Participants and Setting ..................................................................... 43
Data Collection Procedures ....................................................................................................... 44
Ethical Considerations .............................................................................................................. 45
Data Analysis Procedures ......................................................................................................... 46
Summary ................................................................................................................................... 47
Analysis of Data ................................................................................................................ 48
Presentation of Descriptive Characteristics of Participants ...................................................... 48
Research Questions ................................................................................................................... 49
Analysis of Data ........................................................................................................................ 49
Role of Teachers in Helping Struggling Readers ...................................................................... 50
Identifying a Struggling Reader ................................................................................................ 50
Measuring Comprehension in the Classroom ........................................................................... 53
Teacher’s Role in Helping Struggling Readers ......................................................................... 54
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Reading Activities that Motivate Struggling Readers ............................................................... 56
Best Teaching Strategies ........................................................................................................... 56
How Reading Instruction Changes with Struggling Readers .................................................... 58
Best Grouping Strategies .......................................................................................................... 58
Incorporation of Groups ............................................................................................................ 59
Vocabulary Instruction .............................................................................................................. 60
Comprehension Strategies ......................................................................................................... 61
What Reading Strategy Influences Engagement ....................................................................... 63
Activities Most Engaging .......................................................................................................... 63
Summary ................................................................................................................................... 65
Conclusions, Implications, and Recommendations .......................................................... 67
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 67
Summary of the Study ............................................................................................................... 67
Research Questions ................................................................................................................... 68
Conclusions ............................................................................................................................... 69
Role of Teachers in Helping Struggling Readers ...................................................................... 69
Reading Activities that Motivate Struggling Readers ............................................................... 71
How Reading Instruction Changes with Struggling Readers .................................................... 72
What Reading Strategy Influences Engagement ....................................................................... 75
Recommendations for Future Research .................................................................................... 75
Summary ................................................................................................................................... 76
References ......................................................................................................................... 77
Appendix ........................................................................................................................... 88
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Figures and Tables
Table 4.1 ........................................................................................................................... 49 Figure 4.1 ......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.1
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CHAPTER ONE
Introduction and Background of the Study
Dr. Seuss (1991), a favorite author of many children and adults, once said, “The
more that you read, the more things you will know. The more that you learn, the more
places you’ll go.” Most educators would agree with the statement that reading leads to a
prosperous future. Reading instruction begins at an early age. J.D. Worthington (2013)
explained that, “Children need lots of opportunities to build spoken language by talking
and listening, learn about print and books, learn about the sounds of spoken language,
identify the letters of the alphabet, and listen to books read aloud” (p. 2).
Mastering reading is a primary tool for success for children. Reading is required
for many developmental accomplishments such as attention, memory, language, and
motivation. Reading is a necessary part of social activity. According to Gredler et al.
(1998), “Being a good reader in English means that a child has gained a functional
knowledge of the principles of the English alphabetic writing system” (p. 15).
There are many reasons why knowing how to read is important. In order to
function in today’s society one must know how to read. Understanding instructions on a
medicine bottle, filling out job applications, reading road signs, writing and responding to
emails, and even following a map are some of the normal day-to-day activities that
involve reading. Reading is required in order to find a substantial job. Reading is required
for reading reports and memos, responding to employees, and accomplishing tasks.
Failure to master reading skills will lead to slower job performance (Davis, 2014).
Reading develops the mind. The mind must have opportunities to practice.
“Understanding the written word is one way the mind grows in its ability. Teaching
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young children to read helps them develop their language skills” (Davis, 2014, p.1).
Reading is a contributor to listening and communication. “A person who knows how to
read can educate themselves in any area of life they are interested in. We live in an age
where we overflow with information, but reading is the main way to take advantage of it”
(Davis, 2014, p.2).
Imagination is formed through reading. Books have the ability to transport
children to faraway places, magical cities, and even travel in time. In order to have these
opportunities, children must have adequate reading skills. Reading provokes the flow of
ideas and new creations (Davis, 2014). Discovering new things and ideas requires
reading. Reading is mandatory in order to research, read informational texts, and gather
thoughts.
Knowing how to read leads a child to success in the world economy. Proficient
readers are more likely to obtain post-secondary degrees, which are required in order to
compete in global America. Proficient readers will be able to obtain new skills needed for
the fast-changing global marketplace (Casey, 2010). “Analyses of data from the
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development indicate that the United States
will need 60% of its population to possess a post-secondary degree or credential by 2025
to remain globally competitive” (Casey, 2010, p. 11). Currently, in the United States only
30% of American workers have four-year degrees (Casey, 2010).
In order to master reading, children are presented with many building blocks that
help them develop the ability to read. These include talking and listening, opportunities to
see prints and books, phonological awareness, letter, recognition, and opportunities to
hear books read aloud (Gradler, Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998).
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Building Blocks of Reading
Talking and listening. Talking and listening is a building block for children to
obtain reading ability. When children reach the age of one, children have knowledge of a
spoken language by talking and listening. Worthington (2013) stated, “Even baby talk,
which exaggerates the sounds and rhythms of words, makes a contribution to children’s
ability to understand language”(p.3). Talking and listening encourage children to learn
the sounds of the language. “As children learn to talk with others, they ask questions,
learn the meaning of words, and find out interesting and important things about the world
around them” (“Talking & Listening,” 1996).
Print and books. Prints and books contribute to a child’s development in reading.
Print Awareness has many components including: Print Organization, Print Meaning,
Letters, and Words. Print awareness involves holding a book the right way and reading
lines in a book from left to right. Children who understand print awareness will be able to
connect the words they see to the words they say (Worthington, 2013). “Print knowledge
has been identified as a central component of emergent literacy development and a
worthy goal of primary prevention efforts” (Piasta, Justice, Mcginty, & Kaderavek, 2012,
p. 1).
Phonological awareness. Phonological awareness leads to successful readers.
Phonological awareness is an understanding that words can rhyme, are divided into
syllables, and are combinations of sounds. “Phonological awareness is the ability to hear
and work with the sounds of a spoken language” (Worthington, 2013). Stahl and Murray
(1994) found that when students have not mastered skills such as blending sounds,
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segmenting words, and understanding final consonants, the child is destined to reside in
the bottom if his or her class in reading four years later.
Letter Recognition. Letter recognition is a building block to success in reading.
Children memorizing the alphabet song, learning how to write each letter uppercase and
lowercase, and having knowledge of the names and shapes of letters will help children
have an easier experience learning how to read. Letter recognition is a predictor of
reading achievement. When students are able to recognize and name the upper- and
lower-case letters, they will have better success in learning to read (Wood & McLemore,
2001).
Reading aloud. Reading aloud to children benefits their chances of becoming a
successful reader. “Reading aloud, with children participating actively, helps children
learn new words, learn more about the world, learn about written language, and see the
connection between words that are spoken and words that are written” (Worthington,
2013, p. 4). Reading aloud to children can increase a child’s vocabulary, increase
listening comprehension skills, promote syntactic development, and lead to word
identification. “Read-alouds provide a wonderful opportunity to promote children’s love
of literature, and they can be a treasured time together” (Lane & Wright, 2007, p. 668-
669).
Mastering the art of reading is required in order to survive in our universe.
“Reading is important because words - spoken and written - are the building blocks of
life. You are, right now, the result of words that you have heard or read AND believed
about yourself. What you become in the future will depend on the words you believe
about yourself now” (Davis, 2014).
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Statement of the Problem
According to the National Assessment of Educational Progress (2016), “thirty-six
percent of fourth-grade and thirty-four percent of eighth grade students perform at or
above the Proficient level in NAEP reading.” Children in the United States are falling
behind in mastering the art of reading. As reported by Keck (2009) President Barack
Obama once stated, “The relative decline of American education is untenable for our
economy, unsustainable for our democracy, and unacceptable for our children, and we
cannot afford to let it continue” (p. 1).
By the end of third grade, a student should be reading proficiently to succeed in
upper grades. During the early grades (K-3), children learn the building blocks of reading
including phonological and phonemic awareness, sight words, letters of the alphabet, and
basic vocabulary. Fourth grade and above students use these concepts in order to read to
learn. According to researchers at Yale University, students who have difficulties in
reading in third grade, will continue to struggle in reading in high school (Casey, 2010).
“Students with relatively low literacy achievement tend to have more behavioral and
social problems in subsequent grades and higher rates of retention in grade” (Casey,
2010). Individual earning potential, global competitiveness, and general productivity can
be affected when children have low achievement in reading (Casey, 2010). Action must
be implemented to help students who have not mastered the art of reading by the time
third grade has been finished.
Casey (2010) presents three statistics that should influence the educational
system.
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One in six children who are not reading proficiently in third grade fails to
graduate from high school on time, four times the rate for children with proficient
third-grade reading skills.
Children who have lived in poverty and are not reading proficiently in third grade
are about three times more likely to dropout or fail to graduate from high school
than those who have never been poor.
Black and Hispanic children who are not reading proficiently in third grade are
about twice as likely as similar white children not to graduate from high school.
There are students who do not fully master the building blocks of reading when
presented in kindergarten through second grade. It is important for educators to find the
best teaching strategies to meet the needs of the students who are not proficient in
reading. Administrators and educators must research the best strategies to meet the needs
of the struggling readers in order to direct them in the way of success, graduation, and
global readiness.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to: 1) explore effective teaching strategies that are
implemented with struggling readers, 2) find activities that motivate struggling readers,
and 3) investigate the role of teachers in the development of struggling readers.
Research Questions
1. What role do teachers have in helping struggling readers become proficient
readers?
2. What kinds of reading activities motivate struggling readers?
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3. How does reading instruction change when a student is considered a struggling
reader?
4. What reading strategy influences a struggling reader to engage in the reading
process?
Rationale for the Study
Due to the increased number of students who are not proficient in reading and the
many beliefs of the best practices to help struggling readers, this study seeks to determine
the best practices to implement in order to help struggling readers reach proficiency in
reading. Looking at the American education system has challenged the project to focus
on reaching struggling readers.
Children come into the classroom five days a week with many different
challenges and struggles to grow academically. There are students who have living
situations that have influenced their reading proficiency. This includes parents that work
long hours, parents who speak limited English, parents who have medical conditions that
prevent family involvement, and even parents who are not proficient in reading. The
problem happens when students fall behind because they have struggled in reading and
comprehension. Reading can affect all other subjects in school. The study aimed to
examine strategies that may help the struggling reader.
It has been shown that there has to be a solution to assist and reach the children
who need help with the reading building blocks. There exist different avenues for
reaching children, but this study used a different strategy through reaching these students
from a teacher’s perspective.
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Limitations and Delimitations
The study had many limitations. In the school where the study occurred, there was
an increased SES environment. Teacher age and experience could have affected the
responses gathered. The length of the study was approximately three weeks: Two weeks
conducting interviews and one-week analyzing data. Due to the data coming from
interviews, teachers’ answers may not have been completely honest.
The study was delimited to one school and by the age of students. The students
involved in the research range from 9-11 years of age. The researcher did not conduct
research in an urban population.
The Researcher
The researcher graduated with a Bachelor in Education from Union University in
Jackson, Tennessee, and then graduated with a Masters of Art in Education from Bethel
University in McKenzie, Tennessee. The researcher graduated as an Education Specialist
from Carson Newman University.
The researcher is presently a kindergarten teacher for North Carolina Virtual
Academy in North Carolina. She has taught reading to sixth and seventh graders for four
years. While teaching sixth and seventh-grade students, the researcher observed students
who struggle in the area of reading. The researcher had students who were below grade
level in reading and sought to find a way to help them.
As a kindergarten teacher for NCVA, the researcher has the responsibility of
teaching students the basics of reading through a Phonics Program, letter recognition
activities, and development in reading comprehension. By teaching kindergarten, seeing
the reading skills needed to be successful, and by teaching sixth and seventh grade
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students who had not mastered the skills of reading, the researcher’s goal was to identify
best practices for helping students succeed in reading.
The building blocks of reading are taught to students in kindergarten. Students are
ultimately “learning to read.” In middle school, students are diving into fictional and
nonfictional texts; thus, students are “reading to learn.” The goal would be that all
students reach the level of “reading to learn” and not stay in the “learning to read” stage
of life. The researcher sought to find the best teaching practices that impact struggling
readers and give them the confidence to become life-long readers.
Definition of Key Terms
Proficient Reader: Proficiency is defined as the ability to construct meaning from
text at a reading level higher than the students' age (Endress & Nygren, 1998).
Phonological awareness: “Phonological awareness is the ability to hear and work
with the sounds of a spoken language” (Worthington, 2013).
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP): NAEP is the largest
nationally representative and continuing assessment of what America's students
know and can do in various subject areas.
Struggling Reader: “Students who are considered to be struggling readers
typically read one or more years below their current grade-level but do not have
an identified learning disability of any kind” (Hall, 2014).
Pre-teaching Words: The strategy of teaching each unfamiliar word used in a text
prior to the reading experience (“Effective,” 2008).
Implicit Learning: The learning of complex information in an incidental manner,
without awareness of what has been learned (Seger, 1994).
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EVAAS data: (Educational Value-Added Assessment System) EVAAS provides
North Carolina's educators with tools to improve student learning and to reflect
and improve on their own effectiveness. Along with other sources of data,
EVAAS plays a valuable role in the success of North Carolina's schools and
students.
SES Population: The population of low socio-economic status students in a
school.
Summary
In order to help struggling readers meet proficiency, teaching strategies must meet
the needs of the student. Students may have learning disabilities, medical conditions, or
suffer due to language barriers. However, educators must find the best strategies to meet
every student. This study examined teaching strategies that are currently implemented to
help students in grades 3 through 5.
This study contains five chapters. The first chapter includes an introduction and
background of the study, the statement of the problem, the research questions, the
rationale for the study, the limitations and delimitations, the background of the
researcher, definition of key terms, and a summary. Chapter 2 is a review of literature
associated with the study. Chapter 3 introduces the methodology used in the study to
investigate the best teaching strategies to help struggling readers in grades 3 and above.
Chapter 4 includes the data collection and an analysis of findings. Chapter 5 contains the
conclusion and describes implications that could affect other similar studies.
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CHAPTER 2
Review of the Literature
Introduction
The objective of this research study was to find successful teaching strategies for
struggling readers in grades three through five. This review of literature discussed various
teaching strategies, the effects of the teaching strategies on students’ attitude towards
learning, and the effects of the teaching strategies on students’ academic performances.
There are many teaching strategies implemented in classrooms. This study sought to
identify best practices used by teachers to benefit reading proficiency. Throughout
history, there have been many ways of teaching reading to students. Reading has been
taught to children of all ages for decades. In this literature review, the researcher will
present the historical literature on teaching reading, the theoretical lens related to
teaching reading, literature related to the topic of most effective teaching strategies, and
specific literature related to the study.
Historical Literature of Reading Instruction
A historian named Carl Kaestle once said, “History cannot tell us the answers, it
may provide some understanding of the problems” (Barry, 2008, p. 31). In order to
discern the best strategies to teach reading, one must investigate the teaching strategies
used throughout history. The alphabet method of teaching, the focus on reading, the
phonics movement, and more modern methods using the Common Core Standards are
just a few of the reading instruction movements that have been used to instruct children
in reading.
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Alphabet method. Before the United States was established, reading was
included in a child’s instruction. Children in colonial life read Colonial reading materials
based on Christian, Protestant, and Puritan beliefs. The Hornbook was the first textbook
given to children for instruction. It included the alphabet, a set of syllables, the
invocation, and the Lord’s Prayer. The “alphabet method” was the primary way of
introducing reading and utilized “an oral, spelling approach to reading. In this method,
which was essentially the only approach to reading instruction in use until about 1820,
children first named the letters of the alphabet, spelled aloud the syllables in the
syllabary, and then spelled and recited each word of the printed prayer” (Barry, 2008, p.
32).
The second textbook material that was introduced was the primer. Essential
material for children’s education was included in the primer. “Primers were true books as
some were more than 70 pages and were comprehensive texts. The first American primer,
printed on an American press and designed for the American market, was the New-
England Primer, published shortly before 1690” (Barry, 2008, 32). The primer’s material
focused on the beliefs of the Puritans. Children would practice syllables with vocabulary
associated with the religious such as God, grace, and peace. The purpose of reading
during this time was to understand the religious text. The “alphabet method” focused on
recitation and memorization. Puritan children were required to practice routinely in order
to master the art of reading (Barry, 2008).
During the American Revolution, teaching material from England was thought to
be inappropriate for instructional use in America. “A young patriotic American named
Noah Webster decided the new nation should publish its own spellers, with a uniform
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pronunciation and spelling, designed to united the new country” (Barry, 2008). Reading
instruction, spelling, religion, and morality was the purpose of the speller. Webster
named the speller A Grammatical Institute of the English Language, Comprising an Easy,
Concise, and Systematic Method of Education, Designed for Use of English Schools in
America” (Barry, 2008). The alphabet method was the first section of the speller, and
included practice with syllables. The second section included lists of words with multiple
syllables and reading lessons with moral themes (Barry, 2008). The third section of the
speller contained historical texts for children to read. Until the 1820s, Webster’s speller
was the most extensively used book for reading instruction (Barry, 2008).
Focus on meaning. Beginning in the 1820s a new goal for reading instruction
was presented. Famous educational reformers such as Rousseau, Pestalozzi, and Horace
Mann desired an education that included meaningful reading instruction (Barry, 2008).
“They published their views in the American Journal of Education and criticized the old
spelling books, with their long lists of incomprehensible words and tedious essays. In
response to this criticism, educators created a series of readers that graded material
according to its difficulty and included information for teachers, such as pre-reading
activities, comprehension questions, and stories that would interest children who were
learning to read” (Barry, 2008, p. 36).
The texts introduced in this period were the McGuffey Readers, based on the
writings of Worchester. The McGuffey stories included Biblical stories about creation
and established cultural values. Instead of focusing solely on alphabet instruction,
educators began to introduce the whole to part method of reading instruction. Children
were instructed by giving whole words to memorize, also known as sight words (Barry,
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2008). “Instant recognition was the goal, so children learned words by sight” (Barry,
2008, p. 36).
Phonics movement. During the Civil War, Phonics was introduced into reading
instruction. “Readers were given to children that included an invented or reformed
alphabet, diacritical markings on the traditional alphabet, and synthetic phonics, an
approach that converts letters into sounds and then blends the sounds” (Barry, 2008, p.
37). The emphasis of phonics was the relationship between sounds and letters. In order to
spread this movement, Isaac Pitman created the first phonemic alphabet. George Watt, a
phonemic expert hired by Brigham Young, created a new version of the phonemic
alphabet called the Deseret alphabet. The purpose of this alphabet was to teach beginning
readers and convert Utah students to the Mormon religion (Barry, 2008).
Some educators believed that instead of a new alphabet, diacritical markings
could be used to show students how to pronounce letters. “Edward G. Ward, former
superintendent of schools in Brooklyn, New York, produced a popular set of readers at
the end of the 1800s that made extensive use of diacritical marks” (Barry, 2008, p. 39).
Stories included were “The Wind and the Sun” and “The Little Red Hen.”
The diacritical phonics method ended in the 1880s. It was replaced by a synthetic
approach that included following steps:
1. Teach the letter names and their sounds, usually with pictures.
2. Sound out and blend words as soon as a few letter-sounds are learned.
3. Orally read sentences and stories containing words with the letter sounds learned.
The synthetic approach is still implemented in the 21st century. Teachers use decodable
texts and word families to introduce reading (Barry, 2008).
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Modern Readers. After the 1820s, reading instruction modernized to include
lessons similar to what lessons look like today. The curriculum for reading included a
primer and five graded readers. Teachers were given lesson plans on how to best use the
readings. Pre-reading strategies were implemented into the lessons. McGuffey created a
second reader that incorporated questions for comprehension. In 1886, Ellen Cyr created
an eight book reading series. Silent-reading comprehension and instruction was an idea
she emphasized. Cyr’s texts included female characters and stories written by female
authors, which was not seen in the previous McGuffey readers (Barry, 2008).
Meaning and understanding. In the 1880s, reading instruction changed again.
Meaning and understanding became the goal for education. Educator Colonel Francis
Parker explained, “Reading was thought getting…In response to Parker and to George
Farnham’s The Sentence Method of Reading (1895), sentence-method and story-method
readers began to appear. In the sentence method, as Parker (1883) and Farnham (1895)
explained it, the teacher presented the story one sentence at a time through questioning
and the use of illustrations” (Barry, 2008, p. 41). This technique allowed the children to
fully dissect the text looking at sentences, words, and letters individually.
Influence of science investigation. During the 1880s, scientific research
influenced reading instruction. Researchers thought that children would understand the
text better when it is read silently versus read aloud (Barry, 2008). The actual text
changed from fairy tale stories to more realistic stories. Authors such as Thorndike and
gates published readers that included “scientifically controlled vocabulary” (Barry,
2008).
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Research in teaching reading. Research in teaching reading began to arise in the
1930s. Two of the famous works include The Prevention and Correction of Reading
Difficulties (1936) by Betts and Remedial Reading (1937) by Monroe and Bachus. Gray
and Elson, who created Foresman’s Basic Readers, also expanded upon research. The
Foresman’s Readers included scripted lessons and materials for teachers and focused on
the whole word approach to reading. Many researchers detested Foresman’s Readers,
claiming that it was a pointless method (Barry, 2008). Jeanne Chall, a Harvard
researcher, wanted to find the best reading program.
Jeanne Chall, a respected Harvard researcher, conducted a systematic analysis of
reading research and programs. She concluded that a “code-emphasis” method
produced better readers “not only in terms of the mechanical aspects of
literacy...but also in terms of the ultimate goals of reading instruction—
comprehension and possibly even speed of reading…In addition, however, she
also concluded that language, good teaching, and appropriately-leveled
instructional materials were important factors in developing successful readers”.
(Barry, 2008, p. 44)
Whole language approach. Children’s literature, authentic texts, and teacher
empowerment was the response to the negative opinions of Basal Readers. The primary
way of teaching reading was Basal Readers. They were considered a drill workbook for
reading instruction. The fear with Basal Readers was that children did not understand
meaning. A meaning-centered approach was the instructional practice sought after. The
concept of reading to understand is also called the whole language approach (Barry,
2008). Contributers to the “Whole Language” approach were Yetta Goodman and Ken
17
Goodman. They believed “phonics and word advocates missed how readers construct
meaning from language” (Barry, 2008, p. 45). The Whole Language approach was later
defined by Bergeron.
Whole language is a concept that embodies both a philosophy of language
development as well as the instructional approaches embedded within, and
supportive of, that philosophy. This concept includes the use of real literature and
writing in the context of meaningful, functional, and cooperative experiences in
order to develop a student’s motivation and interest in the process of learning.
(Bergeron, 1990, p. 319)
In 1988, California State Superintendent adopted the Whole Language approach
to reading instruction. However, in 1992 and 1994, on the National Assessment of
Educational Progress California declined in scores. This led to California readmitting a
Phonics Program back into instruction. In order to find the best research-based methods
to teach reading, Congress asked the Director of the National Institute of Child Health
and Human Development and the Secretary of Education to create a panel of educational
experts to research the best practices for reading instruction.
The Report of the National Reading Panel: Teaching Children to Read: An
Evidence-Based Assessment of the Scientific Research Literature on Reading and
Its Implications for Reading Instruction (NICHD, 2000) was produced. It
concluded that effective reading programs should include instruction in phonemic
awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary and text comprehension. (NICHD, 2000)
In conclusion, this reading approach was holistic, meaning that not just one part of
reading instruction was important.
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Present day. Based on the stagnant progress of the United States academically,
there was a need for a set of learning goals that would be consistent with all students
across the United States. A committee known as the CCSSO (Common Core State
Standards Organization), which consisted of state school chiefs and governors, assembled
in 2009 to create the Common Core Standards. Teachers, school chiefs, and
administrators were interviewed in order to create successful standards (“About,” 2016).
“The standards define the knowledge and skills students should gain throughout their K-
12 education in order to graduate high school prepared to succeed in entry-level careers,
introductory academic college courses, and workforce training programs” (“About,”
2016).
Reading instruction has changed with the Common Core Standards. There are
three key components of reading instruction based on the Common Core Standards.
Complex texts. The first component is, “Regular practice with complex texts and
their academic language” (“Key Shifts,” 2016). Common Core Standards encourage
implementation of difficult texts that prepare students for college level material. The
standards build off of each other each year, so students are gain academic skills during
each grade level. The CCSS focus on academic vocabulary suggesting that vocabulary
instruction should be included in direct instruction, which will lead to students expanding
word knowledge over time. The CCSS includes many types of literature, such as myths
and stories from around the word, U.S. documents, and even pieces from Shakespeare
(“Key Shifts,” 2016).
Evidenced-based questions. The second component is, “Reading, writing, and
speaking grounded in evidence from texts, both literary and informational” (“Key Shifts,”
19
2016). Evidence-based questions and answers are key to the Common Core State
Standards. “Rather than asking students questions they can answer solely from their prior
knowledge and experience, the standards call for students to answer questions that
depend on their having read the texts with care” (“Key Shifts,” 2016). Questions must be
answered not with opinions, but by using the text.
Nonfiction texts. The third component says, “Building knowledge through
content-rich nonfiction” (“Key Shifts,” 2016). The Common Cores Standards encourage
the implementation of nonfiction texts that allow students to uncover information from
around the world. Equal opportunities should be given to students to study fiction and
nonfiction.
Theoretical Lens: The Presence of Struggling Readers
Reading instruction has evolved throughout the years to meet the needs of the
students. Struggling readers are present in United States Schools. In the classroom,
through assessment, reading activities, and class assignments, a teacher may notice a
student who struggles in the area of reading. There is not one specific area where a
student may struggle with reading. A student may find difficulties with phonemic
awareness and knowledge of letter/sounds, vocabulary, fluency and expressing phrasing
of their oral reading, comprehension, and motivation (Leipzig, 2015). In Supporting
Struggling Readers, the author Barbara Walker identified four factors that can contribute
to the rise of a struggling reader.
Difficulty linking information. The first factor identified by Walker (2002) is
“Difficulty Linking Sources of Information.” A struggling reader will show deficiencies
in reading skills. Knowledge of sight words and sound blending are just some of the skills
20
that could be lacking. “In an essay in the Handbook of Reading Research, Richard
Allington said, ‘Poor beginning readers…seem to rely on one available source of
information rather than integrating all available cues” (Walker, 2002, p. 16). Linking
information is difficult for struggling readers. Struggling readers sometimes rely on only
what they know to figure out a piece of text.
Difficulty elaborating content. Walker’s second factor is “Difficulty Elaborating
Content and Strategy Knowledge” (Walker, 2002). Struggling readers are often given
texts that are strenuous to read and understand. A struggling reader will try to decode the
text by using only the words he or she knows. “When this happens, the gap between what
struggling readers know and what they are asked to read is so great they cannot
coordinate how they are reading or elaborate on their understanding” (Walker, 2002, p.
19). Struggling readers will not fully make sense of the text using the knowledge he or
she already has.
Difficulty monitoring meaning. Walker’s third factor is “Difficulty Monitoring
Meaning” (Walker, 2002). When a struggling reader does not understand the text, he or
she does not know how to find understanding. Most of the time, a struggling reader will
answer, “I don’t know.” “Because these readers have little experience constructing
meaning, they passively read words without actively questioning their understanding”
(Walker, 2002, p. 20). Struggling readers rarely correct their mistakes and find
difficulties in revising predictions about the text.
Interpreting the context. Walker’s fourth factor is “Difficulty Interpreting the
Situational Context” (Walker, 2002). When struggling readers cannot interpret the text or
continue to get wrong answers, he or she will begin to have a failure attitude. “They think
21
to themselves, I will not try, because if I try and fail again, I am admitting I am dumb.
Then, to preserve their sense of self-worth, they stop trying, thus eliminating the
possibility of being dumb” (Walker, 2002, p. 21). If, by chance, a struggling reader does
find success, they have the opinion that the teacher made the assessments easier, or the
teacher feels sorry for them. When students have this attitude, the motivation for reading
decreases.
A successful reader. According to Walker (2002), a successful reader
exemplifies these qualities:
1. Developing readers use many sources of information to predict what a
text will say.
2. Developing readers automatically monitor their interpretation of a text
by checking their predictions against the text to figure out what makes
sense.
3. Developing readers expand their content knowledge and strategy
options by embedding new information and strategies within their
existing knowledge.
4. Developing readers select strategies and expand their knowledge of a
topic depending on the situation they encounter. (Walker, 2002)
Qualities of a developing reader and the qualities of a struggling reader have been
presented. It was the goal of the researcher to find the most effective strategies for
helping struggling readers.
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Literature Related to the Topic:
Essential Components of Effective Strategies for Struggling Readers
There are many essential components to help struggling readers. Many authors
have ways to change struggling readers into developing readers.
Guidelines for Instructing Struggling Readers
In Walker’s Supporting Struggling Readers, she identified guidelines for
instructing struggling readers. Walker suggested that teachers must focus on what
children can do, “Because struggling readers unconsciously shift away from weakness
and rely on what they can do, sensitive teachers create literacy activities that encourage
them to build on the successful strategies they already possess” (Walker, 2002, p. 25).
Walker also suggested focusing on making sense. The purpose of reading is to understand
the text. Teachers can use nonverbal cues, questioning, and responses to help students
grasp the text.
Walker recommended using familiar topics. This included on-level texts and
familiar content. Stories, “Need to be read with no more than one error every ten words
and a 90 percent accuracy rate” (Walker, 2002, p. 27). Additionally, Walker suggested
teachers ask children what they already know. This includes assigning reading and
writing activities based on prior knowledge. Walker encourages giving opportunities for
students to discuss stories with peers. “Struggling readers often receive extensive skills
instruction in isolated situations in which their only interaction is with the teacher about
the correctness of their responses” (Walker, 2002, p. 28). Discussions allow students to
share opinions and think about the text with one another.
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Walker recommended revisiting the text. This includes rereading the passage.
When a student reads a passage for the second time, he or she already has a familiarity
with the words and meaning. The student can deepen understanding and begin
constructing interpretation and meaning (Walker, 2002).
Interventions for Struggling Readers
In Cheek and Ortlieb’s School Interventions for Struggling Readers, the authors
present strategies to encourage success in struggling readers.
Embrace complexity. The first strategy is to “Embrace Complexity.” Learning
the art of reading can be a difficult, discouraging task for teacher and student. It is
important for the teacher to implement strategies that embrace the complexity. Teachers
may have to decompose the skill. “The logic is to break down a complex, usually
multistage performance into its component parts, teach each part to some level of
mastery, and, after each part has been mastered, to reassemble them into a comprehensive
routine” (Cheek & Orlieb, 2013, p. 7). The teacher may have to provide scaffolding to the
struggling reader in order for them to complete the task or skill (Cheek & Orlieb, 2013).
Scaffolding “allows students to engage in authentic processes before they have achieved
independent mastery of them” (Cheek & Orlieb, 2013, p. 9).
Foster proactive reading instruction. The second strategy is to “Foster
Proactive Reading Instruction.” In order to foster proactive reading instruction, teachers
must differentiate instruction, provide re-teaching, and adapt the text.
Differentiated instruction. Differentiated instruction is defined as providing
content materials that match the student’s reading level. “Matching the relative
complexity of a text with the reading ability of a student is quite important: provide a
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student too difficult a text, and she/he will likely struggle and get frustrated with reading
it; provide a student too easy a text, she/he may either get bored or not advance much in
reading ability” (Cheek & Ortlieb, 2013, p. 28).
Reteaching. Teachers may have to provide re-teaching for students who have not
mastered skills. “Elements of effective content area instruction include having a
collection of instructional strategies as well as using them logically to decide when and
which should be involved in a particular instance” (Cheek & Ortlieb, 2013, p. 28).
Adapting the text. Teachers may have to adapt the text for students. In order to
help struggling readers comprehend a piece of text, it must sometimes be adapted to a
level that can be understood. The teacher can simplify vocabulary and sentences. There
are websites, such as NEWSELA, which offer texts of different reading levels
(McCormick & Segal, 2016). Another way to help struggling readers is to chunk the text.
“Separating a text into sections with lines or boxes makes the text seem less daunting.
Similarly, inserting guiding questions in each section helps students focus better than a
large set of questions placed at the end of the reading” (McCormick & Segal, 2016).
Motivation, engagement, and comprehension. The third strategy is to “Increase
Motivation, Engagement, and Comprehension.” Teachers must create lessons that
provide choice and purposes for reading. Tasks should be created for students based on
ability. Students must be instructed on how to self-monitor their learning. Collaboration
must be present. Teaching strategies should encourage construction of meaning because
the end goal is to “read to learn.” When students are not engaged in what they are
reading, they will not read. There are many techniques that should be implemented in
order to engage struggling readers. “Focusing on the motivation of struggling adolescent
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readers is critical because, while students who are motivated to read readily and
autonomously enhance their reading performance and comprehension skills, unmotivated
adolescents are usually reluctant to improve their reading and do not acquire the
necessary skills to become proficient readers” (Macid & Kimber, 2013 p. 87). Motivating
and engaging reluctant readers can be accomplished in a number of ways.
Student choice of literature. Students must be given opportunities to choose what
they read. “When children struggle with motivation, they often benefit from instruction in
choosing books that are both engaging and appropriate and setting purposes for reading
for example, to get information on a particular topic” (Leipzig, 2015). Giving students
opportunities to choose tasks related to literature is important. This could consist of long
term projects of their own in which they are constructing something that is interesting to
them and is related to the book they are reading (Macid & Kimber, 2013). Students may
choose texts from magazines, nonfiction articles, comic books, recipe books, and graphic
novels. It is important to find what interests the student and provide a text that meets that
need.
Providing literature on reading level. Students must be given texts that are on
their reading level. Jorgenson, Klein, and Kumar (1997) reported, “Struggling readers
were more likely to be engaged when the texts they were reading better matched their
reading levels as compared with engagement when texts were at grade level.” “The most
important activity for developing literacy is that of inducing students to read
independently. Yet, when a text is difficult for children, they comprehend little, learn
little, and tire quickly” (Adams, 1990). Students are going to be more engaged in their
26
reading when they feel more confident in the vocabulary, language, and material in the
text.
Providing independent reading time. Students should be given opportunities to
read independently.
“Independent reading is the reading students choose to do on their own. It reflects
the reader’s personal choice of the material to be read as well as the time and
place to read it. Independent reading is done for information or for pleasure. No
one assigns it; no one requires a report; no one checks on comprehension.”
(Cullinan, 2000, p. 1)
There should be set times throughout the week that are designated for independent
reading time. During this time, students may read anything of choice. “Students’ reading
achievement has been shown to correlate with success in school and the amount of
independent reading they do” (Cullinan, 2000, p. 2).
Vocabulary instruction. “Vocabulary awareness is a major key to reading
comprehension because readers cannot comprehend a text without knowing what most of
the words mean” (Alaraj, 2015, p. 1). When students reach intermediate grades, there is a
greater need for vocabulary instruction because the texts become more challenging to
read. “Vocabulary knowledge, which is a key to reading comprehension, must be a focus
for every teacher in today's increasingly diverse schools, including those in the
mainstream classroom” (Alaraj, 2015, p. 1). Vocabulary instruction should be centered
on the literature that is being read in class. Students should have opportunities to work
with the vocabulary words. This includes writing them in sentences, acting them out,
drawing picture representations of the words, and identifying closely related words. If a
27
student knows a vocabulary word in a piece of text, he or she will feel more confidence in
reading the whole text. Vocabulary instruction should be engaging to the student.
Laflamme (1997) found, “A strategy that allowed students to use new vocabulary in
dramatic and written forms resulted in better retention and usage than memorization and
study.”
Methods of teaching vocabulary. “Reading instruction that focuses on the growth
of children’s vocabulary results in enhancing students’ abilities to infer meanings and to
better comprehend what they read” (Ruply & Nichols, 2005, p. 239). Vocabulary
instruction is an on-going process for children. New vocabulary is learned by experience.
Struggling readers may have not have life experiences that cultivate vocabulary that
meets the needs of the curriculum. Teachers must provide vocabulary during instruction.
Graves (2006) identified four components that should be included in vocabulary
instruction: Providing rich and varied language experiences, teaching individual words
explicitly, teaching word-learning strategies, and fostering word consciousness.
It is recommended that teachers provide eight to ten new vocabulary words each
week. Direct vocabulary instruction will help struggling readers who may not spend time
each week independently reading (Hanson & Padua, 2011). In order to provide rich
vocabulary instruction, teachers must identify potential words that will be included in the
lesson. The teacher must then provide multiple activities that allow the student to be
exposed to the words. In an article titled “Multisensory Vocabulary Instruction,” Susan
Jones gave six guidelines for creating vocabulary instruction that is successful.
First, Jones suggested having structure and organization behind the words
presented. Words should not be randomly picked from a basket, but have a commonality.
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This could include studying word parts, prefixes, and suffixes. Secondly, Jones
recommended incorporating multisensory learning from the beginning. With each word
used, illustrations and demonstrations should be introduces. Thirdly, Jones said to model
the activities first. Before any new vocabulary activity is implemented, the teacher should
introduce the activity and then model the activity using a common word all students
would know. The fourth guideline stated that meanings should be available with all
vocabulary work. The fifth guideline emphasized the importance of keeping an ongoing
list prominently posted in the room. “If the words are visible and accessible to students,
they are more likely to see them, think about them, and use them” (Jones, 2015, p.1).
Finally, Jones recommended going beyond the definitions of the words. Connotations of
words are a great way to look at all meanings of the words. Vocabulary Activities may
include.
Illustrate the words
Play “quick draw”
Play vocabulary charades
Give credit for finding the word used in the real world
Use the words yourself
Have students generate examples and non-examples for words
Use “fill in the blank” exercises before you expect the students to use the words in
sentences themselves
Compose with the words (Jones, 2015)
In the article, “Four Practical Principles for Enhancing Vocabulary Instruction,”
the authors introduced a model for introducing word meanings. Presenting the word in
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the context is the introductory action in this model. The teacher then provides a kid-
friendly definition of the targeted word. Multiple examples should be presented to the
student in order to fully grasp the word. Students create examples of the word and use the
word. A visual image of the word is discussed. Finally, the teacher should conclude with
a thought question, which will allow the student to keep thinking about the word
(Manyak et al., 2014).
In this study, the researcher examined the best strategy to implement vocabulary
instruction. “In 2000, the National Reading Panel identified vocabulary instruction as one
of the five essential components of reading instruction, and a large
body of research indicates the critical role vocabulary knowledge plays in reading
comprehension” (Manyak et al., 2014).
Literature discussion. The final strategy is to provide Literature Discussion
Groups. Literature Discussion Groups are one way to peer discussion. Literature
Discussion Groups (LDG) are defined as, “small discussion groups who meet together to
talk about literature in which they have a common interest” (Pittman & Honchell, 2014).
Book content, strategies to comprehend text, personal stories, and real life connections
are just some of the conversations that can be involved in LDGs. Students may also talk
about characters, setting, plot, author’s craft, and meaning found from the text (Pittman &
Honchell, 2014). Literature discussion groups provide students opportunities in the
classroom to think critically, reflect with others about what they read, deepen their
understanding of the text, and communicate what they find. LDGs can be beneficial to all
students including: students who come from low economic homes, students with
disabilities, and students below grade level. LDGs can be used in any environment to
30
help struggling readers. “LDGs promote community in our diverse classrooms,
establishing a culture of cooperation and collaboration and building an atmosphere of
trust, an important factor in the sharing of thoughts, ideas, and feelings during
discussion” (Pittman & Honchell, 2014, p. 119). LDGs help struggling readers by
meeting the following needs:
Students engage in collaborative learning opportunities
Students cooperatively create meaning from texts
Students increase their interest in and enjoyment of reading
Students negotiate different viewpoints and thoughts on text
(Pittman & Honchell, 2014).
In a study conducted by Pittman & Honchell (2014), 45 seventh graders of
various social-economic backgrounds, academic abilities, and racial backgrounds were
introduced to LDGs. Sixteen of those students were struggling readers. After data
collection, two themes emerged: “Students enjoyed reading more when they engaged in
LDGs. Students understood the text better through the use of LDGs when they used their
prior knowledge and experiences to make connections between their own lives” (p. 124).
Close reading. Close Reading allows struggling readers to revisit the text and
gather meaning. “Close Reading of text involves an investigation of a short piece of text,
with multiple readings done over multiple instructional lessons” (Fisher & Frey, 2014).
Close reading includes the following:
Short complex passages- Texts are generally three paragraphs to three pages in
length and the appropriate text complexity for the student.
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Repeated readings- Students are given opportunities to reread a text selection in
order to answer questions and prepare for discussion. “Research evidence over the
years suggests that repeated reading of the same text can improve fluency and
comprehension” (Therrien, 2004, p. 368).
Annotations- Students are given opportunities to write notes directly on the text
while they read. Their goal is to identify main ideas, circle confusing words, and
write questions and reactions they have formed in their mind.
Text-dependent questions- When students are answering text dependent
questions, they are having to provide evidence from the text to support their
answers.
Discussion of the text- Students use academic language and argumentation to
discuss ideas formed from the text. “Text-based discussions improve
comprehension and allow students to clarify their own thinking and consider the
thinking of others” (Kucan & Palinesar, 2013).
In a study created by Fisher & Frey (2014), Close reading was further
investigated. There were 75 students who participated in the afterschool reading program.
“For the 75 students who completed the study, 48 (64%) made at least one level increase
(e.g., from Far Below Basic to Below Basic or from Below Basic to Basic), 26 (35%)
achieved the same score on the more difficult test, and 1 (1%) performed worse than the
previous year” (Fisher & Frey, 2014, p. 369). Close reading benefited the students in the
study, increasing their reading level and providing them more confidence in reading.
Walker suggested giving students choice. “Because they have experienced failure,
whether in the short or long term, they are often extremely skeptical of any activity that a
32
teacher might suggest. Giving students the opportunity to choose among selected options
can increase their level of engagement in an activity and the degree of enthusiasm they
bring to reading (Walker, 2002, p. 30). Walker suggested asking students what they
learned. Allowing students to be a participant in their learning will help the struggling
reader. The teacher can give the struggling reader self-assessments and allow the student
to identify success and failures. The student can then identify the path to success.
Teachers can give struggling readers reading checklist to self-evaluate his or her
performance.
Re-Envisioning Instruction
The Common Core Standards have been implemented in most of the United
States. These standard contain high expectations for literacy achievement. In order to
meet the demands of the Common Core Standards, teachers must alter the preset vision
of teaching. Teachers must concentrate on three elements while planning instruction:
motivation and engagement, instructional intensity, and cognitive challenge (Robertson,
Dougherty, Ford-Connors, & Paratore, 2014).
Instruction must be constructed to motivate and engage the learner. “Instruction
that attends to issues of motivation and engagement is linked to improved strategy use
and reading achievement” (Robertson, Dougherty, Ford-Connors, & Paratore, 2014, p.
549). In order to provide engaging instruction it must include the following components:
Focuses on knowledge goals, taps into students’ interests, ensures coherence among
instructional settings, and engages students in collaborate work (Robertson, Dougherty,
Ford-Connors, & Paratore, 2014, p. 549).
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Instruction with the struggling learner must be intense. Research has also
demonstrated that effective instruction for readers who struggle must be more intense
than the instruction provided to readers who are developing at a typical pace”
(Robertson, Dougherty, Ford-Connors, & Paratore, 2014, p. 549). Instruction that
demonstrates intensity contains the following: Provides explicit explanations, models and
practice of strategies; targets students’ specific needs, teaches at an appropriate pace, and
ensures coherence among instructional settings (Robertson, Dougherty, Ford-Connors, &
Paratore, 2014).
Instruction must take into account cognitive challenge. Teachers must match texts
with the ability of the student. There needs to be healthy distance between frustrating and
easy for the struggling reader. Teachers must find on-level texts that are age appropriate
and thought provoking (Robertson, Dougherty, Ford-Connors, and Paratore, 2014).
Teachers must use extended texts. This will build the stamina of the students. Finally, the
teachers should find ways to mediate challenging texts. This might include offering read-
alouds, assisted readings, choral readings, and even reader’s theater (Robertson,
Dougherty, Ford-Connors, and Paratore, 2014). “Readers’ Theater is a scripted text
which teachers use as an instructional strategy and technique in the classroom. With
guidance and modeling, students rehearse plays, scripts, poems, or other similar texts.
These scripts vary in length, and allow students the opportunity to practice reading aloud”
(Lewis & Feng, 2014, p. 4). Texts should be used that are on or above a student’s reading
level. Word recognition, fluency, and comprehension have been proven to strengthen by
using readers’ theater (Lewis & Feng, 2014). Readers’ Theater is also a fun way to get
34
students interested and engaged in reading by allowing them to bring characters to life.
Instructions for implementing
Targeted Reading Supplemental Intervention
Instruction may have to happen beyond the instructional period. Presently there is
a program called Response to Intervention that has been set in place to help students who
display difficulties in school. Gorski (2016) defined RTI as, “a multi-tier approach to the
early identification and support of students with learning and behavior needs. The RTI
process begins with high-quality instruction and universal screening of all children in the
general education classroom. Struggling learners are provided with interventions at
increasing levels of intensity to accelerate their rate of learning” (2016). Response to
intervention includes many different components. Instruction must be high quality and
scientifically based. There must be ongoing assessments given to students to measure
students’ learning rates and levels of achievement. Instruction must be tiered and
routinely monitored. Interventions are given to students based on student need.
RTI requires parent involvement. “Schools implementing RTI provide parents
information about their child’s progress, the instruction and interventions used, the staff
who are delivering the instruction, and the academic or behavioral goals for their child”
(Gorski, 2016).
Response to Intervention is not just for special education teachers. It is a joint
effort to, “collect and analyze student data, make data-based decisions, and apply
appropriate instructional interventions based on individual student needs” (Gambrell &
Neuman, 2013). The purpose of Response to Intervention is to prevent failure. In most
states RTI is used as a program to help students who are having difficulties in reading by
35
providing intense targeted instruction (Gambrell & Neuman, 2013). Differentiation
according to need is the most important component of RTI.
In order to offer targeted intervention for students, teachers must invest in the
program. Teachers must know how to “respond to children’s cues and adjust teaching, to
a form of on-the run evaluation” (Gambrell & Neuman, 2013). In order to have quality-
targeted intervention, teachers must have appropriate professional development
opportunities to explore the best practices for helping struggling students and
personalizing instruction to meet students’ needs.
Grouping Strategies for Struggling Readers
Ward (1987) said, “A classroom has been grouped when one large group of
students is divided into a set of smaller groups for some portion of the time they are in the
classroom” (p. 1) Grouping students in reading instruction has many purposes including
the following: Assuring that all students learn, to increase student engagement in
learning, to facilitate social interaction among students, to motivate students, and to teach
students how to learn in a variety of ways. Grouping strategies can lead struggling
readers to find success in reading.
Grouping strategies are put in place to assure that all students learn. In a regular
classroom you will find the following:
Students differ in mastery of the skills and knowledge prerequisites for successful
learning in that classroom.
Students differ in the time needed for learning a given unit of material or to attain
a particular educational objective. The slowest 10 percent of students need 2.4 to
6 times as much time as the highest 10 percent.
36
Students differ in race, sex, socioeconomic level of parents and age.
Students differ in self-concept, interest in school, motivation to learn and personal
education goals. (Ward, 1987)
Teachers have the responsibility to meet the instructional needs of all types of
students. Grouping students provides a way for teachers to help the diverse classroom.
“Most studies of small group versus whole class instruction find greater learning on the
part of students when the teacher uses small instructional groups for at least part of the
time” (Ward, 1987).
Grouping strategies are put in place to increase student engagement. On-task
behavior is more likely to be present in small group instruction. “Student engagement
rates in instructional groups are related to interactions among students and between the
teacher and students. These interactions include:
Receiving help from other students that explains, but does not give answers
Providing help to others
Interacting with the teacher that is substantive rather than procedural or behavior-
control oriented
Rewarding based on both individual and group performance. (Ward, 1987)
Struggling readers need engagement in reading instruction and grouping methods lead
students to find confidence and interest in learning.
Grouping strategies are put in place to facilitate social interaction among students.
“When classroom instruction in a subject area takes place mainly in cooperative, student-
directed groups, no academic hierarchy is found relative to student interactions and
students' perceptions of other students” (Ward, 1987). In reading instruction, social
37
interaction is important in order for students to share opinions, ideas, answers to
problems, and to generate theories.
Grouping strategies are implemented to motivate students. “Students who
participate in learning teams and short-term ability groups have more positive self-
concepts than students who do not” (Ward, 1987). Learning groups will encourage a
student to find success in the subject of reading. Self-esteem will increase in students
who are instructed in learning groups (Ward, 1987).
There are many types of learning groups that may be implemented into reading
instruction. Ward (1987) introduced two types of grouping methods: Learning Cycle
Groups and Cooperative Groups are the two methods of grouping.
Learning Cycle Groups
Students with similar learning needs are brought together for a short time.
Students are assigned to groups based on need for additional help, time, and
practice in order to master the content and skills covered in a particular unit or
lesson the teacher already has taught to the entire classroom group. Students who
have mastered the specific content and skills engage in enrichment activities.
Cooperative Groups
Cooperative groups require students with diverse ability and characteristics to
work together and learn from one another to accomplish assigned learning goals
or tasks. Recent research has focused on three types of cooperative groups.
(Ward, 1987)
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Groupings can also include whole class, small group, and pairs. Teachers must
find the most beneficial grouping methods to help the students master the content in
reading.
Effective Teaching Methods for Building Comprehension
“Comprehension instruction, which presents a variety of strategies is most
effective. Comprehension strategies assist students in recalling facts, generating
questions, and summarizing, among other comprehension-related skills” (“National,”
2000). Adapting the text, literature discussion, close reading, and interactive reading
opportunities are just some of the ways that a teacher can build comprehension in
struggling readers. According to Duke and Pearson (2002), reading comprehension
instruction should be balanced. This means there should be instructional time teaching
new skills, but there should also be time to practice the skills by actually reading, writing,
and discussing. Duke and Pearson (2002) introduced a model for teaching
comprehension. They suggested first describing the strategy or skill that will be taught to
the students. The teacher also models the skill in action. Next, the teacher gives students
opportunities to practice the skill. This can include working with a group or partner.
Finally, the teacher has each student work individually on the skill. This method of
teaching leads to student independence and learning. Below, are strategies that can be
implemented into Duke and Pearson’s model in order to help the struggling readers.
Description of strategies.
Teaching Student Monitoring- Monitoring is thinking about how and what
one is reading. Teachers can demonstrate how to monitor one’s own
reading by using read alouds. “Teaching students to monitor their own
39
comprehension and clarify their confusion is a day-to-day process that
requires consistent modeling and thinking aloud regarding how you
personally monitor your own comprehension while reading.” (McEwan-
Adkins, 2007, p. 25)
Teaching How to Question-Demonstrating to students how to form
questions regarding the text can improve their comprehension. Questions
should provoke students to analyze the text, form conclusions, and draw
on own experiences.
Teaching Summarizing- “It is one of the most important cognitive
strategies in terms of academic success, and it requires mindful and skilled
reading” (McEwan-Adkins, 2007, p. 37). Summarizing is important for
struggling readers because they have to gather the information and give a
smaller description of what happened.
Providing Tiered-Text- Tiered-texts are used to help struggling readers
understand the content in the desired text. There are three levels of text.
The first level of text is the same reading level of the student. The second
level is a little more difficult and provides more information. The target
text is on grade-level and should be a comprehension goal for the teacher
and student. (Moss, Lapp, & O’Shea, 2011)
Incorporating Discussion Groups- “Talking about text out loud and to
oneself can improve comprehension. Research has shown that
implementing literature discussion groups in a classroom can have a
40
positive effect on comprehension. Students exchange new ideas that build
on schema” (Tubman, 2010).
Close Reading- “Close Reading of text involves an investigation of a short
piece of text, with multiple readings done over multiple instructional
lessons. Through text-based questions and discussion, students are guided
to deeply analyze and appreciate various aspects of the text, such as key
vocabulary and how its meaning is shaped by context; attention to form,
tone, imagery and/or rhetorical devices; the significance of word choice
and syntax; and the discovery of different levels of meaning as passages
are read multiple times.” (Fisher & Frey, 2014, p. 368)
Summary
In this chapter, a review of literature was presented based on the strategies most
effective to help struggling readers. The history of reading instruction was introduced. A
theoretical lens identified the presence of struggling leaders. A review of literature
involving teaching strategies for struggling readers was given. Finally, specific literature
related to the current study was discussed. In chapter three, the methodology for the study
is described.
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CHAPTER 3
Methodology
Introduction
This research study was a qualitative study. It examined the role teachers have in
helping struggling readers become proficient readers, the kinds of reading strategies that
motivate struggling readers, and how reading instruction changes when a student is
considered a struggling reader. Reading strategies that influence a struggling reader to
engage in the reading process was examined. The research contributes to the literature
concerning instruction and activities that meet the needs of all students in the subject of
reading.
Description of Qualitative Research
The researcher chose to use qualitative research in this study. “Qualitative
research is designed to reveal a target audience’s range of behavior and the perceptions
that drive it with reference to specific topics or issues. It uses in-depth studies of small
groups of people to guide and support the construction of hypotheses. The results of
qualitative research are descriptive rather than predictive” (“What is,” 2016). Human
actions, institutions, events, customs are investigated in qualitative research. The
researcher sought to, “Portray the complex pattern of what is being studied in sufficient
depth and detail so that someone who has not experienced it can understand it” (Ary,
Jacobs, & Razavieh, 1972, p. 448). The purpose of this qualitative study was to find
patterns in teacher instruction that may lead to successful readers.
Qualitative research mainly uses two types of instruments: direct observation and
interviews. In this study, interviews allowed the researcher to examine the role of
42
teachers in helping struggling readers, investigate reading activities that are engaging,
and analyze how reading instruction changes with struggling readers. “Qualitative studies
typically use non-random or purposive selection techniques based on particular criteria”
(Ary, Jacobs, & Razavieh, 1972, p. 448). In this study, a non-random group of teachers
was interviewed regarding the teaching strategies used for struggling readers.
In the Data Collector’s Field Guide, the author gave five purposes for qualitative
research. They are: Seeks answers to a question, systematically uses a predefined set of
procedures to answer the question, collects evidence, produces findings that were not
determined in advance, and produces findings that are applicable beyond the immediate
boundaries of the study (“Qualitative,” 2016). The research goal was to solve the research
problem and investigate the instruction of struggling readers.
The researcher chose to implement the grounded theory approach to qualitative
research. “Grounded theory research is designed to develop a theory of social phenomena
based on the field data collected in the study” (Ary, Jacobs, & Razavieh, 1972, p. 33).
The researcher analyzed interviews to form a correlation between teachers who are
instructing struggling readers.
Description of the Specific Research Approach
By using a grounded theory qualitative research, the researcher investigated the
role teachers play in helping struggling readers, and the kinds of reading strategies
implemented in intervention time that promote engagement. Small group reading
instruction was investigated to see what makes the instruction different for struggling
readers. The researcher wanted to find what reading strategies influence a struggling
reader. “Students who are considered to be struggling readers typically read one or more
43
years below their current grade-level, but do not have an identified learning disability of
any kind. They are often perceived as lacking the skills other students possess and use
with little difficulty such as analyzing information, defining vocabulary words, or
applying comprehension strategies” (Hall, 2014). In order to answer the research
questions, one method was used: interviewing.
The research took place in an elementary school. Six regular education classroom
teachers were interviewed for the study. Two teachers from 3rd grade, two teachers from
4th grade, and two teachers from 5th grade participated. The research conducted a sample
survey. Sample surveys only examine a portion of the population (Ary, Jacobs, &
Razavieh, 1972). The survey measured the intangibles in the classroom, which includes
teacher opinions and implementations in the classroom. The interviews allowed the
researcher to better understand the role of teachers in helping struggling readers. The
interviews displayed activities implemented in reading instruction that helps struggling
readers and investigated what teachers believe are the most engaging activities to help
struggling readers. By using interviews, the researcher answered the research questions.
As suggested by Ary, Jacobs, and Razavieh (1972), the following steps were
completed during the interview process: the survey was planned, the population and
sampling was defined, and the interview instrument was created. The interviews were
administered to the population and the data was processed.
Description of the Study Participants and Setting
Setting. This study focused on the instruction of struggling readers in 3rd through
5th grade at an elementary school. The elementary has approximately 1,034 students and
forty-two regular education teachers. This school was chosen because a relative of the
44
researcher is a teacher at the school. The student diversity of the school is the following:
89% white, 5% black, 3% Asian or Asian/Pacific Islander, 2% Hispanic, and 1% two or
more races. 47% percent of the school is female and 53% of the school is male. The
school is located in a suburban neighborhood.
Participants. The researcher interviewed six regular education grade teachers.
Two teachers were from 3rd grade, two teachers were from 4th grade, and two teachers
were from 5th grade. The teachers included three experienced teachers and three
inexperienced teachers. This is a stratified purposeful sampling. “Stratified purposeful
sampling attempts to ensure that subgroups are represented so that comparisons can be
facilitated” (Ary, Jacobs, & Razabieh, 1972, p. 458). The teachers gave instruction in the
subjects of reading, math, science, and social studies. All teachers in the study had a
designated time each week when they were expected to implement instruction to students
who are not proficient in reading. Students were assessed using the Tennessee
Comprehensive Assessment Program. Students who did not reach proficiency in reading
on the 2016 state test were required to have reading intervention.
Data Collection Procedures
Interviews were conducted by telephone and email. During each interview, the
researcher completed field notes with all words spoken from the respondent. There was a
set list of interview questions that was asked to the six participating teachers. It was a
structured interview with open-ended questions. During a structured interview, “Each
respondent is asked the same set of questions, but with some latitude in sequence” (Ary,
Jacobs, & Razabieh, 1972, p. 466). The researcher gathered all interview responses
within a two-week time period.
45
The questions that were asked:
1. First and Last Name
2. How many years have you been teaching?
3. What grade level do you teach?
4. How do you identify a struggling reader?
5. How many students in your classroom are performing below grade level?
6. What grouping strategies do you find most beneficial to your struggling
readers?
7. During reading instruction, when do you incorporate groups?
8. What types of vocabulary instruction to provide for your struggling
readers?
9. What comprehension strategies are most effective for your struggling
readers?
10. How do you measure comprehension in your classroom?
11. What do you think the best teaching strategy is for struggling readers?
12. What is your role in helping struggling readers?
13. What activities do your struggling readers find most engaging?
Interviews were conducted asynchronously because the researcher does not live in
the same state as the teachers. All responses were documented using field notes for data
analysis. The researcher reflected in a journal after each interview.
Ethical Considerations
Before conducting research in the environment, the researcher had signed consent
from administration and the teachers. The researcher gained permission from Carson
46
Newman and the International Review Board before research was conducted. The
researcher ensured confidentiality to all participants involved in the research study by
giving information about the study ensuring that no names would be used. No harm came
to the subjects involved in the research.
Data Analysis Procedures
After interviews were completed, the data were analyzed. The researcher read
through the transcripts, making notations in the margins. Notations were written that
included summaries of the respondents’ answers. The goal of this step was to filter
important and unimportant material.
Computer software called NVivo was used for data analysis. The researcher
entered all information into the software program and wrote memos for each document.
Broad labels were created, and the interview text was coded. The researcher then
thoroughly examined the preliminary codes in order to identify connections and create
patterns (Piercy, 2004). Connections have included the following:
Connections to Reading Groups
Connections to Vocabulary Instruction
Connections to Struggling Readers
Connections to Interventions
Connections to Comprehension
Connections to Teacher Instruction
After the software analyzed the data, the researcher printed the results and
searched for connections. Expounding upon the top three themes found from the
interviews concluded data analysis.
47
Summary
The grounded theory qualitative study sought to answer the research question.
The participants had knowledge of teaching instruction. Interviews were the tool used to
gather data in the study. The interviews were structured interviews in order for all
teachers to have equal opportunity to answer each question. The participants were
interviewed alone. Each interview was written down and then reflected upon. The data
collected were coded in order to find common themes in reading instruction for
struggling readers. The results captured in the study allowed the researcher to gain a more
in depth look into the role of teachers in instructing struggling readers, reading strategies
that benefit the struggling reader.
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CHAPTER 4
Analysis of Data
The purpose of this grounded, qualitative study was to examine the most effective
teaching strategies that are implemented in the classroom to meet the needs of struggling
readers, to find activities that motivate struggling readers, and investigate the role of
teachers in the development of struggling readers. The study involved collecting data
through a set list of interview questions, which was given to six participating teachers.
The interviews consisted of thirteen open-ended questions. The interview questions
ranged from describing grouping strategies, to asking what defines the role of educators
in the process of helping struggling readers. The interviewer asked the participants to
identify activities they found to be most effective in helping struggling readers master the
art of reading. The interviews were conducted by phone and through email and took
twenty minutes per interview or email to complete.
Presentation of Descriptive Characteristics of Participants
All participants work at the same elementary school. The administrator for the
elementary school was asked permission to allow his educators to participate in the
interview. The participants were third, fourth, and fifth-grade teachers. Teachers were
also chosen for different experience level in order to get a broad range of results. Each
teacher had students in her classes who were identified as struggling readers. Table 4.1
presents pertinent demographic information about the participants in the study.
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Table 4.1
DemDemographics of Teacher Participants
Assigned number Years taught Grade level taught Struggling students
1 4 3rd 5
2 17 4th 4
3 10 3rd 5
4 10 5th 10
5 6 months 4th 5
6 20 5th 12
Research Questions
The researcher examined teachers’ perspectives in regards to the following
research questions:
1. What role do teachers have in helping struggling readers become proficient
readers?
2. What kinds of reading activities motivate struggling readers?
3. How does reading instruction change when a student is considered a struggling
reader?
4. What reading strategy influences a struggling reader to engage in the reading
process?
Analysis of Data
The researcher used a thirteen-question interview related to the best teaching
strategies to help struggling readers. The goal of the thirteen questions was to answer the
four research questions for the current study. The questions addressing the first research
question were: How do you identify a struggling reader? How do you measure
50
comprehension in your classroom? What is your role in helping struggling readers. The
question addressing the second research question was: What do you think is the best
teaching strategy for struggling readers? The question addressing the third research
question was: What grouping strategies do you find most beneficial to your struggling
readers? When do you incorporate groups? What types of vocabulary instruction do you
provide for your struggling readers? What comprehension strategies are most effective
for your struggling readers. The question addressing the fourth research question was:
What activities do your struggling readers find most engaging?
Role of Teachers in Helping Struggling Readers
Identifying a Struggling Reader
A teacher should identify each struggling reader to meet his or her instructional
needs. The researcher asked the participants to describe how a struggling reader is
identified in the classroom. Four methods were identified after analyzing the data
collected from the fourth interview question: AIMSWEB assessment, teacher
observation, classroom formative and summative assessments, benchmark scores, and
Study Island. Figure 4.1 represents the number of participants who identified each
method.
51
AIMSWEB. Four out of the six participants identified AIMSWEB assessments as
a way they identify struggling readers. AIMSWEB is an online assessment program
utilized by the school to identify struggling readers (“AIMSWEB,” 2014). Participant 1
used AIMSWEB as a data indicator. Participant 1 said that AIMSWEB could identify the
specific need of the reader. This could include fluency or comprehension. Participant 2
and Participant 3 used AIMSWEB to monitor reading. Participant 5 used AIMSWEB in
order to find out who is at grade-level or who may be a struggling reader.
Teacher Observation. Five out of the six participants identified teacher
observation as a way they identify struggling readers. Participant 1 used observations to
help identify struggling readers. Participant 2 listened to student’s one-on-one help to
find areas in reading that might not be mastered. Participant 3 created reading
conferences to discuss reading skills and find areas for improvements in reading.
Participant 5 described that whenever a student looked lost during reading or in class
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
AIMSWEB Teacher Observation Formative andSummative Assessments
Study Island
Figure 4.1 Methods of identifying a struggling reader
52
discussion, it is an identifier of a struggling reader. Participant 6 used observations to
identify struggling readers.
Classroom Formative and Summative Assessments. Three of the six
participants used formative and summative assessments to identify a struggling reader.
Formative and summative have distinct purposes. The purpose of formative assessments
is to measure instruction by monitoring student response. Examples of formative
assessments include teacher feedback, curriculum-based measurement, self-assessments,
and student portfolios. “Summative assessment is commonly referred to as assessment of
learning, in which the focus is on determining what the student has learned at the end of a
unit of instruction or at the end of a grade level” (Johnson & Jenkins, 2009). Instructional
goals are measured by summative assessments. Examples of summative assessments
include end of unit tests or projects, course grades, standardized assessments, and
portfolios (Johnson & Jenkins, 2009). Participant 3 used universal screeners, reading
inventories, and running records to identify struggling readers. Participant 4 used
assessments to determine the child’s fluency and comprehension level. Participant 6 used
DRA and benchmark assessments in her instruction.
Study Island. One of the participants used Study Island to identify struggling
readers. Study Island is an online program which combines rigorous content that is highly
customized to specific state standards in math, reading, writing, science, and social
studies with interactive features and games that engage students and reinforce and reward
learning achievement. It is based on state standards, provides interactive lessons, gives
real-time progress monitoring, built-in remediation, and benchmark assessments (“Study
53
Island,” 2015). Participant 1 used Study Island to measure mastery of student skills and
provide remediation.
Measuring Comprehension in the Classroom
After the instruction has been provided, comprehension must be measured. There
are many ways teachers can measure comprehension in the classroom. The researcher
asked the participants to describe how he or she measures comprehension in the
classroom. Three methods were identified after analyzing the data collected from the
tenth interview question: Classroom assessments, discussion, and running records.
Classroom Assessments. Five of the six participants stated assessments are an
important part of measuring comprehension in the classroom. Participant 2 said
assessments are valuable to see if the reader understands the text. Participant 3 reported
that common assessments allow her to see if the reader is grasping the content.
Participant 4 used multiple test formats to check to ensure that students are applying the
knowledge and understanding about the text in their response. Participant 5 occasionally
used exit tickets to assess the skill taught during the lesson. Participant 6 used testing to
evaluate skills that were taught.
Discussion. Six out of six participants commented that discussion was important
for measuring reading comprehension. Participant 1 said that when students are able to
answer questions correctly from the text, then understanding is present. Participant 2
included small group discussion in her daily plan for reading instruction. Participant 3
encouraged discussion by including “responding to reading” activities and reading
conferences. Students communicated with peers during these activities. Participant 4
implemented accountable talk in her lessons. Accountable talk encourages a more
54
student-centered classroom, allowing students question, generate questions, summarize,
clarify, and predict. Discussion encourages reading comprehension (Wolf, Crosson,
Resnick, & National Center for Research on Evaluation, 2006). Participant 5 asked
discussion questions throughout reading the text. Participant 6 had students retell the
stories aloud to fellow peers.
Running Records. Two of the six participants utilized running records to help
measure comprehension. In the “Journal of Educational Research,” Running Records are
defined as, “a test of contextual reading accuracy and student strategy use in which
students read leveled connected passages under untimed conditions. The examiner
typically makes a record of the types of errors that each reader commits during the oral
reading” (Fawson, Ludlow, Reutzel, Sudweeks, & Smith, 2006). Participant 1 used
running records to determine each child’s reading level. The program implemented in the
participant’s classroom included leveled texts, which were paired with comprehension
questions. Participant 3 implemented formal and informal running records when
measuring reading comprehension.
Teacher’s Role in Helping Struggling Readers
The role of the teacher in helping struggling readers has many parts. According to
Carol Denton (2016), powerful instruction includes the following: teaching skills,
strategies, concepts, providing differentiated instruction for all learners, providing
explicit and systematic instruction, giving opportunities for application, and measuring
student progress. The researcher asked the participants to describe his or her role in
helping struggling readers. Two roles were identified after analyzing the data collected
from the twelfth interview question: Facilitator and Motivator.
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Facilitator. Five of the six participants considered themselves a facilitator of
learning in their classroom. A teacher facilitator, “guides students in the learning process,
pushing them to think deeply, and models the kinds of questions that students need to be
asking themselves, thus forming a cognitive apprenticeship” (Hmelo-Silver & Barrows,
2006). Participant 1 identified as a facilitator of strategies, questioning, and follow
through. Participant 3 exposed and developed as many different strategies as possible in
order to allow students to access grade level material. Participant 4 provided students
with support at their level by modeling strategies, thinking for them, and helping them
facilitate learning in the classroom. Participant 5 facilitated learning by pulling small
groups and giving small group instruction. Participant 5 stated, “I consider my role to be
to do the best I can to bring them up in some regards to their reading level. I am not
trying to make them be at grade level, I'm just trying to see growth. If, by the end of the
year they are at grade level, then that is great. I will push them as much as needed in
order to see growth” (Participant 5, personal communication, January 9, 2017).
Participant 6 identified as a teacher facilitator who provided strategies to help students
succeed.
Motivator. One of the six participants considered himself a motivator in the
classroom to help struggling readers. Participant 2 stated, “I think my biggest role is to
help them gain confidence in themselves and to help students understand strategies that
they can use to help them become better readers” (Participant 2, personal communication,
January 4, 2017). Teachers must help students to become self-motivators.
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Reading Activities that Motivate Struggling Readers
Best Teaching Strategies
Teachers have many strategies that are implemented in the classroom to help
motivate struggling readers. The researcher asked the participants to describe the best
teaching strategies to help struggling readers. Four strategies were identified after
analyzing the data collected from the eleventh interview question to help motivate
struggling readers: reading time, small groups, use of one text, and the reading strategy
called UNRAAVEL.
Reading Time. Two of the six participants reported that providing reading time
for students is pivotal in motivating readers. Participant 1 said,
“Read…Read…Read…The more the student practices, the better they become.
Encouraging reading among struggling readers will not only boost their self-confidence,
but it will also allow them to grow” (Participant 1, personal communication, December
21, 2016). Participant 4 reported that a lot of reading practice is the most important
strategy to implement with struggling readers, especially students who struggle with
fluency.
Small Groups. Three of the six participant reported that implementing small
groups into reading instruction motivates struggling readers. Participant 2 and 3 said
small groups allow students to communicate with peers about the text. Participant 5
encouraged plans for struggling readers to read with a higher student and then discuss the
text after reading. This strategy allowed the teacher to observe student reading throughout
the classroom.
57
One Text. One of the six teachers encouraged practicing multiple reading skills
using only one text. The participant said, “In addition, using one text/passage/story for a
variety of reading, writing, and language skills can be helpful. Since struggling readers
often have difficulty with comprehension, using one text to practice a variety of skills can
help them learn without having the struggle through text after text” (Participant 4,
personal communication, January 6, 2017).
UNRAAVEL Reading Strategy. One of the six teachers encouraged a reading
strategy called UNRAAVEL for helping motivate struggling readers. When a student is
competent in their actions, they will be more motivated to finish and succeed.
UNRAAVEL is a mnemonic device to help struggling readers. Waters (2014) explained
that UNRAAVEL stands for the following:
Underline the title
Now predict what the passage is about
Run through and number the paragraphs
Are the important words in the questions circled
Venture through the passage and underline or highlight answers to questions
Eliminate incorrect answers
Let questions be answered by providing support
Participant 6 used the UNRAAVEL strategy to help motivate struggling readers to find
success, especially in answering test questions.
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How Reading Instruction Changes with Struggling Readers
Best Grouping Strategies
Small groups are important to implement in reading lessons in order to help the
struggling reader. The researcher asked the participants to describe the best grouping
strategies to help struggling readers. Five strategies were identified after analyzing the
data collected from the sixth interview question: peer tutors, Reading Level Groups, Skill
Deficit Groups, Teacher-led Small Groups, and Flexible Grouping.
Peer Tutors. Three of the six participants identified peer tutors as the best
grouping strategy to improve reading for students who may be struggling. Participant 1
reported, “When grouping my students, I have found that pairing struggling readers with
a peer tutor is very helpful. They are able to utilize their ‘tutor’ as a tool when the teacher
is unavailable” (Participant 1, personal communication, December 21, 2016).
Participants 4 and 5 paired struggling readers with on-level or advanced readers to
encourage success in reading.
Reading Level Groups. One out of six participants said that struggling readers
benefit when divided into small groups with students of their same reading level.
Participant 3 said, “If we’re working on decoding or fluency, they are grouped based on
reading level and skill” (Participant 3, personal communication, January 6, 2017).
Homogeneous reading groups allow the teacher to use text that meets the reader’s needs.
Skill Deficit Groups. One out of six participants said the struggling readers
benefit when divided into small groups based on skill deficits. This means the teacher
would use assessment data to measure student mastery skills. Students would then be
divided based on the skills individual students have not mastered. After groups have met,
59
another assessment can be given to test for mastery. Participant 2 stated, “When working
on comprehension or strategies, students are placed in groups on skill deficits and may be
varied levels” (Participant 2, January 4, 2017).
Teacher-led Small Groups. Three out of six participants said that teacher-led
small groups benefit struggling readers. Participant 2 used teacher-led small groups to
practice fluency and also provide confidence to the reader. Participant 2 encouraged the
use of games during teacher-led groups. Participant 4 said, “The most beneficial grouping
strategy for struggling readers is working in a small group with me” (Participant 4,
personal interview, January 6, 2017). Participant 5 incorporated one-on-one time with
teacher to help struggling readers.
Flexible Grouping. One out of six participants identified flexible grouping as
beneficial to struggling readers. Flexible grouping consists of assigning students of
different ability groups during small group time. Advantages of flexible grouping include
the following: diversity in learning, opportunities for discussion, and higher-level
students can push lower level students. Participant 6 uses flexible grouping to help
struggling readers in the classroom.
Incorporation of Groups
Reading groups can be implemented at various times during reading lessons.
“When teachers differentiate, they do so in response to a student's readiness, interest,
and/or learning profile” (“Differentiated,” 2017, p. 1). The researcher asked the
participants when he or she incorporates reading groups into instruction. Two methods
were identified after analyzing the data collected from the seventh interview question on:
After mini lessons and for remediation.
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After Mini Lesson. Six out of six participants incorporated small groups after
mini lessons. Participant 1 said, “After the whole group reading mini lesson, students are
pulled into skill-strategy groups. These groups are based on data” (Participant 1, personal
communication, December 21, 2016). Participant 2 used reading groups at least three
times a week. The groups were based on data and generally teacher driven. Participant 3
used small groups after mini lessons to practice the skill taught. Participant 4 utilized
guided reading groups, in which students were grouped by reading levels. Participant 5
taught a mini lesson about a skill and then separated students to work more in depth on
the skill learned. Participant 5 also incorporated groups into instruction five days a week
in order to read an article or practice the skill learned in the mini lesson.
Remediation. Two of the six participants used reading groups for remediation.
Skills might need to be retaught or given opportunities to practice. Reading groups can
provide that time in order to reach mastery of the skill. Participant 1 incorporated skill
and strategy groups based on the needs of his or her students. Participant 4 used strategy
groups to remediate skills. Students were divided by their skill deficits.
Vocabulary Instruction
“In order for learners to be successful reading narrative and especially expository
text, vocabulary instruction must be an integral part of teaching all learners how to read”
(Rupley & Nichols, 2005). Vocabulary instruction may be integrated into reading
instruction in many different ways. The researcher asked the participants what types of
vocabulary instruction he or she provided for struggling readers. Three instructional
methods were identified after analyzing the data collected from the eighth interview
question: Context Clues, Word Attack Skills, and Phonemic Words.
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Context Clues. Three of the six participants said that context clues are an
intricate part of his or her vocabulary instruction. Participant 1 said, “We incorporate
vocabulary within reading using context clues and helping students identify word
meanings as they read” (Participant 1, personal communication, December 21, 2016).
Participant 3 worked with students on specific strategies, such as using context to
determine meaning of unknown words. Participant 4 modeled strategies such as context
clues and thinking for his or her students in order to understand unfamiliar words.
Word Attack Skills. One of the six participants said that he teaches his students
Word Attack Skills. Word Attack Skills include the following: using picture clues,
sounding out the word, looking for chunks in the word, connecting to a word you know,
rereading the sentence, continuing to read, and using prior knowledge. Participant 4
practiced Word Attack Skills with his or her struggling readers in order to help them
figure out unfamiliar words.
Phonemic Words. One of the six participants helped struggling readers by
providing practice with phonemic word families during vocabulary instruction. Phonemic
word families build confidence in struggling readers. If a struggling reader can identify
one word, then they will be able to associate that sound or spelling with other words in
the word family (“Word Families,” 2016). Participant 6 used phonemic word families in
vocabulary instruction to build confidence and word knowledge in struggling readers.
Comprehension Strategies
Teachers must implement strategies to help struggling readers battle the weakness
they may have. The researcher asked the participants what comprehension strategies are
most effective for struggling readers. Six strategies were identified after analyzing the
62
data collected from the ninth interview question: Fluency, Vocabulary, Monitoring and
Clarifying, Textual Evidence, and Multiple Readings.
Fluency. One of the six participants identified fluency as pivotal instruction for
struggling readers. Participant 1 stated, “I focus more on fluency, especially in the
beginning. If a student struggles to read fluently, the comprehension will not be there.
Once a student begins to improve fluency, other strategies will be implemented”
(Participant 1, personal communication, December 21, 2016).
Vocabulary. One of the six participants identified vocabulary instruction as the
most effective strategy for struggling readers. Participant 2 said, “We begin each small
group with vocabulary. I first instruct using the whole group. But each time in small
group, we use things such as dominoes and games to help students understand the words”
(Participant 2, personal communication, January 4, 2017).
Monitoring and Clarifying. Two of the six participants identified monitoring
and clarifying as key strategies to help struggling readers with comprehension.
Participant 3 used monitoring and clarifying with struggling readers to build
comprehension. Participant 6 had his or her students create Tracks and Thinks as they
read. They also retold the story to someone and created plays that retell what they read.
This helps with monitoring reading.
Textual Evidence. One of the six participants identified textual evidence as the
best strategy for struggling readers. Participant 4 stated, “The best comprehension
strategy for struggling readers involves having them show what evidence led them to
their answers. This can be done by color-coding text or with post-it notes” (Participant 4,
personal communication, January 6, 2017). Finding textual evidence to support answers
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can be an exhausted task for student, but teachers can provide scaffolding in order to
meet the needs of individual students. Scaffolding might include using images, short
stories, and prompting with larger texts (Lambert, 2017).
Multiple Readings. One of the six participants identified multiple readings as a
strategy to help struggling readers. Perez (1989) stated, “Children read a short,
meaningful passage several times until they can read it fluently. They then move on to a
new passage. This procedure enables readers to experience ease in reading and improve
their word identification ability. Each time children reread the text, they find it easier and
easier to recognize the words” (p. 62). Participant 5 said, “I found best that when I have
them read the story alone, partner read, then teacher read aloud to them works best when
I want them to work on comprehension” (Participant 5, personal communication, January
9, 2017).
What Reading Strategy Influences Engagement
Activities Most Engaging
Engaging reading strategies influence struggling readers. The researcher asked the
participants what reading strategies struggling readers find most engaging. Four strategies
were identified after analyzing the data collected from the thirteenth interview question:
Games and manipulatives, group work, high interest texts, and use of plays and poetry.
Games and Manipulatives. Four of the six participants stated that games and use
of manipulatives engage struggling readers. Participant 1 said, “The students enjoy games
and activities with manipulatives such as highlighters, colored pens, and highlighting
tape. Participant 2 reported, “Games and activities which they don’t feel like they are just
reading a text” (Participant 2, personal communication, January 4, 2017). Participant 4
64
agreed that interactive games and websites engage the struggling reader. Participant 5
said, “Any type of game they find exciting. If I can make something into a competition,
they love that, and I find that they are more engaged into the lesson” (Participant 5,
personal communication, January 9, 2017). Games and manipulatives can impact the
reluctant reader.
Group Work. One of the six participants stated that partner and group work
encouraged struggling readers. Small group work actively engaged students. “Active
responses during small-group reading instruction increase student engagement and
motivation to participate” (Wilson, Nabors, Berg, Simpson, and Timme, 2012).
Participant 3 used partner work and small group work with the teacher in order to engage
the struggling reader. Opportunities to confer and journal are some of the opportunities
that are implemented in the classroom.
High Interest Texts. One of the six participants mentioned that high interest texts
engage the struggling reader. Reluctant readers must have books that interest them and
are relevant to their age. Participant 4 offered high interest text to struggling readers in
order to get them onboard with reading.
Plays and Poetry. One of the six participants said that plays and poetry engage
struggling readers. Participant 6 had his or her students create their own plays and poetry
based on the stories and text read in the classroom. Poetry can engage struggling readers
because it is short, contains rich vocabulary, boosts comprehension, creates interest in a
topic, and sparks enthusiasm for writing (Walther, 2014). When students create poems
and plays based on what he or she read, that is a higher level of thinking and
understanding.
65
Summary
Through this qualitative study, teaching strategies that are most effective for
struggling readers were analyzed. Every teacher must identify struggling readers in order
to meet his or her instructional needs. Four methods of identifying struggling readers
were reported: AIMSWEB assessment, teacher observation, classroom formative and
summative assessments, benchmark scores, and Study Island. Comprehension is
measured in many different ways. Three methods of how to measure comprehension
were identified: classroom assessments, discussion, and running records.
The role of teachers in helping struggling readers was analyzed in Chapter 4. The
common roles of the teacher were listed as facilitator and motivator. The best teaching
strategies to help struggling readers were addressed. Four strategies were identified after
analyzing the best strategies to help motivate struggling readers: Reading time, small
groups, use of one text, and the reading strategy called UNRAAVEL. The best grouping
strategies to help struggling readers were addressed in chapter four. Five strategies were
identified after analyzing the data collected: Peer tutors, Reading Level Groups, Skill
Deficit Groups, Teacher-led Small Groups, and Flexible Grouping.
The best time to incorporate reading groups into instruction was also analyzed in
Chapter 4. Two themes were identified after analyzing the data. Groups were
implemented after mini lessons and for remediation. Chapter 4 also addressed what types
of vocabulary instruction participants provided for struggling readers. Three instructional
methods were identified after analyzing the data collected: Context Clues, Word Attack
Skills, and Phonemic Words.
66
Six comprehension strategies were identified as the most effective for struggling
readers: Fluency, Vocabulary, Monitoring and Clarifying, Textual Evidence, and
Multiple Readings. Reading strategies that are most engaging were identified as: games
and manipulatives, group work, high interest texts, and use of plays and poetry. Chapter
5 will discuss recommendations and implications of this study on the best teaching
strategies for struggling readers.
67
CHAPTER 5
Conclusions, Implications, and Recommendations
Introduction
This chapter is divided into three sections in order to address the findings of the
study. The first section includes a summary of the study. The second section discusses the
results of the study and the conclusions that have been formed based on the literature and
data gathered through the study. The third section includes recommendations for future
research in order to find the best instruction and strategies to help struggling readers.
Summary of the Study
The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore effective teaching strategies
that are implemented with struggling readers, to find activities that motivate struggling
readers, and investigate the role of teachers in the development of struggling readers.
The study involved collecting data through interviewing six elementary school teachers
in grades 3rd through 5th. Structured interviews were conducted with six elementary
teachers from the same school. The questions were open-ended and sought to answer the
research questions.
Since reading is required in the present society, it is important that struggling
readers be given instruction that meets his or her needs. According to the National
Assessment of Educational Progress, “Thirty-six percent of fourth-grade and thirty-
percent of eighth grade students perform at or above the Proficient level in NAEP
reading” (“NAEP,” 2015). Due to this statistic, instruction must be evaluated to see if
struggling readers are impacted.
68
Reading instruction has evolved throughout the years. Reading instruction began
with the alphabet method, which focused on the spelling approach to reading. Primers
were the second type of reading instruction implemented used to teach reading. The
primers were focused on the beliefs of the Puritans. In the 1820s, instruction changed
again to focus on meaning and then the implementation of phonics. After the 1820s,
instruction, meaning and understanding, science investigation, and research in the art of
teaching became a goal in education (Barry, 2008). Present day reading instruction is
now focused on the Common Core Standards, which encourages instruction based on
preparing students for entry-level careers and college courses (“About,” 2016). However,
there are students who are not at grade level in elementary school who must be given
interventions in order to prepare them for the future.
The theories and information collected in this study helped establish instructional
best practices that benefit the struggling reader. This study found that the best
instructional practices that benefit the struggling reader include first identifying the
struggling reader, finding grouping strategies that benefit each student, understanding the
best times to implement groups, providing vocabulary instruction, enriching instruction
with comprehension strategies that help the reader, measuring comprehension to base
instruction, and finding activities that engage the struggling reader. Teachers must also
identify their roles in the process of helping struggling readers. Ultimately, this study
sought to find the best teaching strategies for struggling readers.
Research Questions
1. What role do teachers have in helping struggling readers become proficient
readers?
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2. What kinds of reading activities motivate struggling readers?
3. How does reading instruction change when a student is considered a struggling
reader?
4. What reading strategy influences a struggling reader to engage in the reading
process?
Conclusions
Role of Teachers in Helping Struggling Readers
Identifying a Struggling Reader. There are various roles that teachers fill in
order to help the struggling reader. The teacher must first identify the struggling reader.
There are many actions that a teacher can use to identify a struggling reader. Teachers
may first use databases that schools may adopt in order to identify struggling readers. A
common database mentioned in the study was AIMSWEB. Teachers may use
observations conducted during guided practice and independent work. “By watching
students, teachers discover who has a hard time getting started, versus who starts off
strong and then loses focus. They deepen their understanding of children who need help,
whether with math or making friends. They notice children with strong social skills and
other talents. Observant teachers apply what they’ve noticed by adjusting structures and
expectations so all students have more positive experiences in school” (Denton, 2015).
Classroom formative and summative assessment may indicate a student who is struggling
in reading. Johnson and Jenkins (2009) found, “When formative assessments are used in
conjunction with summative assessments, the potential exists to improve outcomes for all
students” (p. 1). Other resources that might help teachers identify struggling readers may
70
include computer programs such as Study Island. Identifying a struggling reader is just
one role of the teacher.
Measuring Comprehension in the Classroom. The teacher must next measure
comprehension in the classroom. Samuels and Farstrup (2011) encouraged
comprehension instruction to be balanced when they stated, “By this we mean that good
comprehension instruction includes both explicit instruction in specific comprehension
strategies and a great deal of time and opportunity of actual reading, writing, and
discussion of text” (p. 207). Comprehension can be measured by classroom assessments,
discussion in the classroom, and running records. It is important to look at all
measurement criteria in order to assess whether the child understands the skill or standard
taught.
Teacher’s Role in Helping Struggling Readers. The teacher’s final role in
helping struggling readers is to act as the facilitator and motivator to students. Teachers
must facilitate students in their learning experience by providing the text, teaching mini
lessons to introduce skills, planning activities to practice the skills, offering questions for
discussion and writing, and implementing assessments to see if the students have
mastered the skills. Teachers must also be motivators. “Teachers should always be
constructive to adopt innovative new methods to motivate students to learn the children
by placing their students as a center of learning, meaning the extent to which the material
presented is not depends on the teachers and the curriculum but it depends on the
students” (Lieadi, 2010, p. 1). The goal of teachers is to teach students how to self-
motivate. Motivation will encourage struggling readers to engage in reading
opportunities.
71
Reading Activities that Motivate Struggling Readers
Best Teaching Strategies. There are many strategies that can be implemented
into the classroom in order to engage and motivate the struggling reader. Teachers must
give opportunities for students to read independently. Hurst (2013) stated that when a
student feels capable, in control of their learning, has an interest in their reading, and
feels connected to the text or story, the student will have motivation. Reading materials
could include magazines, news articles, comic books, etc. If a student is engaged in the
topic is reading, he will be more inclined to read again.
Teachers can also incorporate small groups into instruction. Small groups
encourage communication amongst students. Communication could lead to questions,
debate, deep questioning, and discussion. Small groups also lead to differentiation in the
classroom. Students can read to one another. Reading with a peer motivates struggling
readers to read a text that might be a little higher than the normal text they read
(Koskinen & Blum, 1986).
During instruction, one text can be used to address multiple skills. Struggling
readers get frustrated when they finally master one text and then have to move to another
text to work with another skill. One text can be used to address mini standards during a
classroom session (Denton, 2016). Struggling readers will find motivation if they are
already familiar with the text.
There are many reading strategies that teachers may implement in order to
motivate struggling readers. One strategy used by teachers in the study was
UNRAAVEL.
72
Waters (2014) stated that in order to improve their understanding of non-fiction
texts, students need strategies they can use to interact with the text and unpack the
meaning of the text. Not only is it important for them to be able to do this in a
teacher-lead environment, they also need to be able to implement the strategy on
their own, whether they’re trying to comprehend a magazine or newspaper article
or at home, or taking a reading test. (p.1)
It is important to give struggling readers strategies that encourage success and motivation
the classroom, as well as during assessments.
How Reading Instruction Changes with Struggling Readers
In order to meet the needs of every student, reading instruction must change.
Struggling readers may benefit from a change in instruction to include multiple types of
groups, intense vocabulary instruction, and implementation of comprehension strategies.
Instruction may have to change from the set curriculum map in order to reach the
struggling reader.
Best Grouping Strategies. According to Vaughn et al. (2003), “Smaller group
ratios increase the likelihood of academic success through student– teacher interactions,
individualization of instruction, student on-task behavior, and teacher monitoring of
student progress and feedback.” There are many types of groups that can be used in the
classroom. Rohrbeck, Ginsburg-Block, Fantuzzo, & Miller (2013) encouraged peer
tutoring for struggling readers. They stated, “Peers serve as natural teachers to stimulate
cognitive development, and (b) peers contribute to task orientation, persistence, and
motivation to achieve” (Rohrbeck, Ginsburg-Block, Fantuzzo, & Miller, 2003, p. 242).
Reading Level Groups may be needed in order to target instruction to specific reading
73
levels. When students are grouped by reading level, students are more engaged with the
lesson and do not feel behind (Petrilli, 2016). Teachers can then provide text and
questions that are appropriate for each student. Skill Deficit Groups may also benefit the
struggling reader. Skill Deficit Groups are formed based on a skill a student may have not
mastered. Teachers can provide instruction, materials, and strategies that help students
with that specific skill. Teacher-led small groups were seen as very important to the
participants involved in the study. When a teacher is leading a small group, he or she can
instruct the students, observe for understanding, and provide remediation immediately if
the skill is not understood. The final type of grouping strategy is flexible grouping.
Flexible grouping involves mixing students of various skills and abilities. When a
struggling reader is mixed with strong readers, he or she can have a model and mentor in
the group. Struggling readers can feel confidence in working with someone that may be
able to lead them to success.
Incorporation of Groups. There are times during instruction when grouping can
lead to the most success for struggling readers. Grouping students can be used in guided
practice after a mini-lesson in order to practice a skill with peers. After a mini-lesson, the
skill is new to the student, so practice in groups can prepare a student for independent
practice. Grouping students can also be implemented for remediation. If students are not
mastering a skill already taught, the teacher can plan groups or stations in order to build
mastery of that skill. Some teachers find small group instruction to be a daunting task to
implement. However, according to Wilson, Nabors, Berg, Simpson, and Timme (2012),
“Small-group instruction is more effective than whole-group instruction because teachers
74
can differentiate instruction to meet each student’s needs, better match instruction to each
student’s level, and respond to children’s reading more effectively.”
Vocabulary Instruction. Vocabulary may need to be included in instruction to
help struggling readers. Vocabulary can be intertwined in reading instruction in many
forms. Context Clues help students find meaning in words that they may not have seen.
“The goal of teaching strategies to improve the learning of word meanings from context
is to help students learn more words incidentally as they are encountered in everyday
reading. Doing so should, in turn, lead to a larger vocabulary over time, as students read
texts containing unknown words” (Kuhn & Stahl, 1998). Word Attack Skills may be
implemented to “help students decode, pronounce, and understand unfamiliar words.
They help students attack words piece by piece or from a different angle (“Reading,”
2017, p. 1). Phonemic Words are another way to help struggling readers with
vocabulary. If a struggling reader can identify one word, then they will be able to
associate that sound or spelling with other words in the word family. When students are
able to recognize words, they may have a better attitude when approaching a paragraph or
larger text.
Comprehension Strategies. Struggling readers may have various weaknesses
when it comes to reading comprehension. “Problems can include difficulty decoding
texts, having poor metacognitive skills, not comprehending what they read, and being
unable to apply comprehension” (Hall, 2004). Comprehension strategies may include
developing a student’s fluency and reading the text smoother. Comprehension strategies
may include developing a student’s vocabulary and understanding of unfamiliar words.
Monitoring and Clarifying build comprehension. Adler (2001) says, “Students who are
75
good at monitoring their comprehension know when they understand what they read and
when they do not. They have strategies to ‘fix’ problems in their understanding as the
problems arise.” Strategies could include story maps, summarizing, graphic organizers,
and think-alouds. Comprehension strategies include having students finding textual
evidence to support conclusions and ideas formed from the text. Teachers may have their
students read the text multiple times in order to fully grasp the content. Comprehension
strategies are a necessity to help struggling readers.
What Reading Strategy Influences Engagement
Activities Most Engaging. “Not only is reading an engaging way to pass the
time, research shows too that children who read for enjoyment are more likely to achieve
well at school, even in unrelated subjects such as math” (Joshi, 2015). Activities that
spark engagement in reading include implementing games and manipulatives that engage
the hands-on learner, using small groups to guide learning and practice skills, providing
high interest texts for reluctant readers, and planning instruction that sparks engagement.
This can include poetry, plays, and activities interesting to all types of learners. The goal
of educators should be to move a student from the motto of “Reading to Learn” to a more
detailed motto of “Engaged to Read and Learn.”
Recommendations for Future Research
In order to find the best teaching strategies to help every student, more research
must take place. There is a lack of research with meeting students of the Special
Education population. A future study would include interviewing special education
teachers about their thoughts and ideas on how to meet the needs of struggling readers. It
76
would be interesting to see how instructional roles and strategies change to help students
in special education.
Another area where research is lacking is the feelings of struggling readers as to
the best teaching strategies that benefit him or her. A future study could involve
interviewing students who have been identified as a struggling reader. Questions might
include asking the students his or her role in the classroom, what reading strategies
benefit their learning, and what motivates them in the classroom to practice reading. A
qualitative study interviewing students would help teachers understand teaching
strategies that benefit students.
Interviewing special education teachers and then interviewing students who are
identified as struggling readers will allow the researcher to have a broader scope of the
best practices that help the struggling reader.
Summary
The conclusions of this study have led to a better understanding of the best
reading strategies to implement with struggling readers. All instructional practices should
be used to help the learner. It is the researcher’s goal to decrease the number of students
who are not meeting proficiency by the end of 5th grade. With the implementation of
reading strategies presented in the study, students will be more engaged, more successful,
more active in learning to read, and develop a love for “reading to learn.” The study
attempted to present a base of instructional practices that best meet the needs of students.
77
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Appendix
Structured Interview Questions
88
Appendix
Structured Interview Questions
1. What is your first and last name?
2. How many years have you been teaching?
3. What grade level do you teach?
4. How do you identify a struggling reader?
5. How many students in your classroom are performing below grade level?
6. What grouping strategies do you find most beneficial to your struggling readers?
7. During reading instruction, when do you incorporate groups?
8. What types of vocabulary instruction to provide for your struggling readers?
9. What comprehension strategies are most effective for your struggling readers?
10. How do you measure comprehension in your classroom?
11. What do you think is the best teaching strategy for struggling readers?
12. What is your role in helping struggling readers?
13. What activities do your struggling readers find most engaging?