biblical musical instruments by suzanne haïk-vantoura

7/28/2019 BIBLICAL MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS by Suzanne Haïk-Vantoura

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THE BIBLICAL MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

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N.B.: A WinZip (.zip) archive (17.9 MB) containing a PowerPoint Presentation (.ppt) and sound files(.mp3) summarizing the historical and musical background to Suzanne Haïk-Vantoura's work may bedownloaded via this link.

Stringed Instruments in the Hebrew Scriptures According to the Hebrew Scriptures, "[Jabal's] brother's name was Jubal; he was the father of allthose who play the lyre (kinnor) and the pipe (`ugav)" (Genesis 4:21, RSV). Some recentcommentators, with some support from such sources as Josephus and Philo (1st century A.D.),

suggest that Jubal was not the inventor of the instruments themselves, but rather the teacher ofwhose who "played" (i.e., "handled" in a bad sense) these instruments. In other words, Jubal wasthe first before the Flood to misuse musical instruments, using their power to move men's mindstoward ends that were displeasing to the Lord. (Truly, there is nothing new under the sun!)

By patriarchal times, Mesopotamia and especially Egypt had a rich and diverseinstrumentarium. From the various stringed instruments available to them, the Hebrewsapparently adopted just two for their own purposes: the kinnor (a species of lyre) and thenevel (identity uncertain).

The following three illustrations are adapted from illustrations produced by Time-Life Books.

This drawing of the "Silver

Lyre" found at Ur (ca. 2800This drawing is based on aninlay found on the "Royal

Two illustrations ofEgyptian lyres are featured

http://www.rakkav.com/biblemusic/zips/mbr_lecture_2007-05-11.zip



http://www.lyre-of-ur.com/









B.C.) illustrates the kind oflyre played in the royalcourts of the city fromwhence Abraham and hisfamily came. Originally itwas covered with silver

plating and had inlays ofgems and ivory. Its elevenlong strings and largesound box gave it a deeptone, apparently inimitation of a bull's voice.

Standard" of Ur. Like theSilver Lyre on the left (whichdates from the same period),the lyre portrayed here is a"bull lyre". It was played atroyal banquets, such as the

one illustrated on thestandard. The lyristapparently used a strap tohelp him support theinstrument against his body.

above. The larger lyre(which has a straightcrossbar, like its Sumeriancounterparts) has a verylarge, fixed bridge withholes through which the

knotted ends of stringscould be slipped. The lyreplayed by the woman(which lyre was muchlighter and thinner than theother) is held in a typicalposture.

Lilana Osses Adams has a Web site in Polish and in English detailing the magnificentdetail used in constructing the extant Sumerian stringed instruments (a number of whichunhappily were stolen or smashed when Saddam Hussein's regime fell). See also the Other

Links page for these references and many others. Following is an in-depth discussion of two of the most famous musical instruments in Hebrew

Scripture...

The "Harp" and "Psaltery" of King David No historical personage comes more readily to mind than the biblical

King David when the word "harp" is mentioned. Yet the instrumenttranslated "harp" in the King James Version (kinnor) was not a harp atall, but a lyre. The other stringed instrument David played, translated"psaltery" by the KJV (nevel), was likewise not a psaltery -- and it maynot have been a true harp either (if by "harp" we mean a more-or-lesstriangular instrument with the strings perpendicular to the soundbox,according to the musicological definition).

According to Josephus (1st century A.D.), the kinnor used by theTemple musicians had ten strings; the nevel, twelve. The Bible also

mentions the nevel àsor or àsor, probably a ten-stringed nevel; thenevel àl - àlamot or àlamot, apparently an alto-pitched or"maidenly" nevel; and the kinnor àl - hashsheminit or hashsheminit,a "lyre upon the eighth". According to Suzanne Haïk-Vantoura, thislast instrument (like the Greek magadis) may have had ten pairs ofstrings tuned so that each pair of strings was an octave apart.

On the left, we present a modern "Davidic" lyre produced by theHouse of Harrari and four silver trumpets produced by the Temple

Institute (photo courtesy of the Temple Institute, Jerusalem). We will

mailto:[email protected]


http://www.zwoje-scrolls.com/zwoje35/text29p.htm



http://www.zwoje-scrolls.com/zwoje35/text11.htm



http://www.rakkav.com/biblemusic/pages/weblinks.htm




http://www.harrariharps.com/


http://www.templeinstitute.org/index.html














have more to say about the Harrari lyre as we go on... There were other, non-standardized instruments of different sizes andwith different numbers of strings, as ancient art demonstrates. The"Lachish lyre" on the left (for example) is based on a bas-relief in thepalace of Assurbanipal (705-681 B.C.) at Nineveh, portraying the fall ofthe Judean city of Lachish. The lyre itself originally seems to have hadseven strings attached. This illustration was taken from Music in the Ancient World, 2nd enlarged edition (Haifa Music Museum and AMLILibrary, 1979), and is the same "logo" used by Haïk-Vantoura in herFrench book to mark the end of each chapter.

According to Harper's Bible Dictionary ("Music", p. 669), the kinnor "was popular all throughout the ancient Middle East, and the worditself appears in the cuneiform vocabularies of ancient Ebla in Syria (ca.2400 B.C.), and in Assyrian, Hurrian, Hittite, Ugaritic, and Egyptiantexts." We know of imported instruments preserved and portrayed in Egypt(some of which one may find in museums such as the Museum ofCairo and the Louvre), and other portrayals such as the ivory carvingon the left from Canaanite Megiddo (1350-1150 B.C.). Thanks to thesewe know that the Semitic kinnor (used by the Hebrews, Canaanitesand Phoenicians alike) generally had a rectangular or trapezoidalsoundbox and an asymmetrical yoke (i.e., two arms of unequal length joined by a crossbar). Its strings (made of gut, or possibly plant fibersor animal hair) were wrapped around the crossbar, then stretched over

a bridge on the side of the soundbox and attached to the base. It wasgenerally portable, and was held by one hand in the crook of the armwhile being played with the other. It was also lightly built and oftensurprisingly thin. It could be played with the hand (as in 1 Samuel16:23); or (according to Josephus) with a plectrum. This last was mostlikely made of wood or bone and tied to the instrument, as was thecase with the Greek kithara. The kinnor (or so we are informed by Professor Lise Manniche) wasnot a native Egyptian instrument. Some early kinnorot portrayed and

found in Egypt nevertheless seem more characteristically Egyptian intype, with horizontal crossbars and often heavy construction. Othersreflect the typically lighter construction and slanted crossbars of thecharacteristically Semitic type. These latter kinnorot appear later inEgyptian history, and were imported from Syria and the Levant. Thischange in style of instruments reflected a change in style of music, forthe later instruments were capable of greater volume than the earlierones.

Some of the preserved instruments had the bases of their soundboxes



open, allowing more sound to escape; and other kinnorot usedsoundholes, like the mockup portrayed at left (based on a six-stringedinstrument from Deir el-Medineh, dating from ca. 1580 BC.). Thiskinnor, given its slanted crossbar and light construction, reflected thetypical Semitic rather than the typical Egyptian model. This woodcut portrays an Etruscan lyre dating from the First Templeperiod. It has what appears to be soundholes and a floating bridge likethat of a violin (rather than a fixed bridge), both of which would haveimproved the sound quality. Again, in this respect this lyre is similar tosome (but not all) lyres we find in ancient Egypt.

At least one lyre found in the Louvre's Egyptian collection is made ofpieces of tamarisk wood glued together with bitumen. Were thekinnorot and other lyres of the Hebrews and their neighborsconstructed in this fashion? This seems quite likely. We know bitumenwas available both at the Dead Sea (in the Levant) and in

Mesopotamia; and there were various softwoods and hardwoodsavailable in the area or through trade. Much later, after the fall of the Second Temple (during the Bar Kokhbarevolt of 132-135 A.D.), we see portrayals on coins of what may bekinnorot with symmetrical yokes and bodies shaped to fit comfortablyinto the crook of the arm. This particular form (in this author's opinion)may ironically reflect Hellenistic influence. Semitic lyres (as noted)tended to be asymmetrical; Greek lyres, symmetrical.

Davidic Harps, partly on my recommendation, used the above coin asthe ultimate basis of its own modern "restoration" of the biblicalkinnor (see left). It has modern tuning pegs (tuned with a tuning key),soundholes in the front, a floating bridge and nylon strings.

Certain other lyres of antiquity likewise had tuning pegs, soundholesand floating bridges. Most ancient lyres, though (such as the Ur lyrefeatured above and the Greek kithara featured below) used tuningsticks to which the strings were attached. The strings were then wound

around the cylindrical crossbar of the yoke, and tuned by pulling onthe tuning sticks (which apparently were commonly inserted under thespooled strings for stability).

Leather or cloth bands sometimes filled the place of tuning sticks. First,the bands were wound around the crossbar, then the strings attachedto the bands. The strings could then be tuned by tightening orloosening the spooling of the strings around the crossbar.

http://www.flex.com/~davidhs/harp/





The nevel is more difficult to identify than the kinnor. Like the nabla or nablas that the Greeks borrowed from the Phoenicians, it hadtwelve strings. Its name seems to come from the Hebrew for "skin-bottle", perhaps in reference to its shape; and there are portrayals inIsraelite and later Jewish art of lyres that have soundboxes shaped likewineskins. The famous "lyre of Ma`adanah" (left), portrayed on a

brown jasper seal found in Jerusalem that dates to the seventh centuryB.C., is such a lyre; and it has twelve strings. (Lyres of this type have thestrings entering the top of the soundbox rather than being stretchedover a bridge -- making them "harp-lyres", in effect.) Many scholars today believe that the nevel was a lyre or harp-lyre, nota "true" harp. This example from the period of the Bar Kokhba revoltseems to have arms made of rams' horns. (Notice the unusual soundchamber into which the strings enter -- something reputedlymentioned by certain Catholic Church Fathers as pertainingspecifically to the nevel.)

Since this instrument is found on a Jewish coin (and one minted as partof a nationalistic revival at that), it would seem to be a native Jewishinstrument. However, its architecture seems unsophisticated comparedto other Semitic (let alone Greek) lyres, suggesting that the coin mayportray a folk rather than a professional instrument. Other suggestions, of course, have been proposed. Daniel Bingamon concludes (without stating most of his reasons directly) that the nevel was a membrane lyre, such as is still played in some parts of the

Middle East and Africa relatively close to Israel. Such a lyre uses a skinsoundboard rather than a wooden soundboard; this gives theinstrument an exotic timbre and considerable volume. Bingamonthinks that the nevel was so-called because of its skin membrane (theword allegedly being related to nevelah, carcass).

The New BDBG Lexicon, however, gives a fuller (if perhaps moreconfusing) picture. It lists two Semitic verb roots (and three verbs) withthe same spelling (n-b-l) but different derivations (pages 614-615).According to this source, nevel (the instrument) derives from nevel,

"skin-bottle, skin; earthen jar, pitcher" (from a root of dubiousmeaning), while nevelah (carcass, corpse) derives from navel, "sink ordrop down, languish". The musical instrument (or so the BDBG thinks)was "either a portable harp or a lute, guitar (with bulging resonance-body at lower end)." In such a case, nevel might even be anindependent word -- e.g., an Egyptian loan-word transformed: n-f-r,lute (p. 614a).

http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/kadima/nevel.htm






Yet the connection with "skin" or "skin-bottle", of itself, hardly rulesout the possibility that the nevel was a harp -- quite the contrary. Inancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, harps frequently had soundboxesand even soundboards made of skin stretched over a woodenframework. This famous Sumerian example is typical of the genre: aharp without a forepillar, with the boat-shaped soundbox held above

the cylindrical neck. Since the Hebrews came from Mesopotamia andsojourned in Egypt, they certainly would have been familiar with suchharps.

"Absence of evidence is not evidence of absence"; and there istantalizing evidence that the Hebrews may have known of harps morelike the folk harps we use today. Unfortunately, the evidence comesfrom ancient Canaan, well before Abraham sojourned there; from Ur ofthe Chaldees, from where Abraham himself came; or else from distantlands many centuries after Israel and Judah were exiled from thePromised Land... This rather ambiguous drawing found at Megiddo (ca. 3000 B.C.) maybe one of the earliest known portrayals of the triangular harp -- indeed,one of the earliest portrayals of the harp of any kind. Notice that (if it isindeed a harp) it has a forepillar (arched line(s) on the left), unlike theSumerian harp above and its Egyptian counterparts. This harp (?) alsohas several strings (?) entering a wedge-shaped soundbox (?), and hasa neck (?) which is curved, not straight. This would mean the maker ofthe original harp understood the concept of the harmonic curve, aconcept not employed as such by Egyptian and Mesopotamian

harpmakers (who made the necks of their portable harps straight). Aharp with a forepillar is much more sturdy than a harp without one,allowing the string tension to be considerably higher -- and (all elsebeing equal) the pitch and the volume to be higher as well. The "harp of Tara", symbol of Ireland, is linked by Irish traditionalhistory to the "harp of David". This last was said to have been broughtto Ireland (among other artifacts) by "Ollamh Fodhla" (identified withthe prophet Jeremiah), his scribe "Simon Brach" (identified with Baruchthe scribe of Jeremiah), and "Tea Tephi" (identified with the daughter

of King Zedekiah of Judah). Was this connection merely mythical, orcould it have had a basis in truth?

David Michael Holmes-Smith alleges that the harp on the left is theoldest "true" harp (of medieval age) found to date in Ireland. It hastwelve strings, though other harps of this general era and type had tenor eleven strings. Could the biblical nevel have been anything like this?






We do know of at least two portrayals of triangular harps withforepillars in the Eastern Mediterranean, dating to high antiquity.Sarajane Williams has this to say about them:

"Beyond the eastern tip of Crete lies a group of small islands known asthe Cyclades. Two funerary statutettes from the second phase of the

Early Cycladic civilization (2800-2300 B.C.) discovered on one of thoseislands, Keros, depitct a musician seated on a throne and holding atriangular-shaped harp on his lap" (The Mythic Harp, p. 36; illustrationby Marcia Graff). Even more spectacular in its way is the triangular Sumerian harpdiscovered by Sir Leonard Woolley in the 1920s. (The photograph tothe right shows the plaster cast he made of this harp.) Notice itsprominent harmonic curve on the neck (the uppermost part of theframe) and the equally prominent soundbox (left side of frame). Such a"frame harp" is archetypical of the more developed medieval and

modern frame harps, including the "Celtic" harp. (For a larger photo ofthis harp and many other photos of Sumerian harps and lyres, go tothis page.)

There is no way we can confirm or deny, of course, that the ancientIsraelites used harps like these. But what of some of their overseascolonists, or of their descendents in exile? "It is reasonable to assume," writes Leo Maguire, "that when the Celtsfirst entered Europe from the Middle East [sic], they brought with

them a fairly advanced type of harp" (Walton's Irish Airs for the Harp,Dublin, 1968, p. 5). Maguire notes that the harp had been played formillennia before the Celts "began the first of their many migrationsover the European mainland or through the Mediterranean Sea" (ibid.)A small band of refugees from the Middle East would not haveintroduced the Irish to an instrument they had been using all along!

Yet when one examines (as Maguire does not) where and when thevarious "Celtic" migrations began, one sees part of the evidence thatthese were Israelite (and in the case of the Irish, largely Danite and

Judahite) migrations. Was the harp these wanderers brought with themthe same as the biblical nevel? And could an actual relic from the "oldcountry" have been brought to Israelite colonists or exiles in Ireland,after the fall of Jerusalem to the Babylonians? We know that "theinstruments of David" were preserved for centuries in Judah by thepriests and Levites (1 Chronicles 23:5; 2 Chronicles 29:26).

Today the "harp of Tara", fully developed into the very symbol ofIreland itself, stands on the flag of the province of Lenister (see left).

http://www.silvavocat.com/


http://www.zwoje.com/zwoje35/text11.htm






However, from at least medieval times the Irish harp was wire-strung,not gut- or fiber-strung as the biblical stringed instruments were. Thisgave the Irish harp a completely different sonority than the biblicalinstruments had.

Both the harp on the Lenister flag and the harp portrayed at left are

wire-strung harps. They are characterized by their metal strings, heavyconstruction, curved necks, high heads and ornamented pillars --features lacking on ancient Semitic harps as we know them.Nevertheless, harps like these, Gothic and other medieval harps, andeven psalteries of various kinds, were long connected (in ignorance) byEuropean artists with the "harp of David". Obviously, these artistssimply portrayed David and his royal retinue with the costumes andaccroutrements with which the artists themselves were familiar.

The Australian organization Origin of Nations once published anarticle by me (in Volume 1, Issue 4 of its magazine): "The Harp ofDavid and the Harp of Ireland". This article (originally written andpublished elsewhere in 1995) explored the connection between thesetwo great musical symbols in Irish traditional history. The Web siteitself has publications and links (some with more accurate andcomplete information than others) dealing with the connections(historical and legendary) between the ancient Israelites and the laterNorthwest Europeans.

If we have digressed on this matter, it is because the House of Davidand the "harp of David" are so intimately connected, not just in the

Bible, but in traditional history...and because that connection hasinfluenced some who would reconstruct "Davidic harps" for modernand future use. The Bible describes "loud music" being played on kinnorot andnevalim -- a remarkable comment, since rams' horns, trumpets andcymbals sometimes accompanied them (1 Chronicles 15:28). This meansthat their strings would have been high in tension, relative to theirlight frameworks. They seem to have been made mostly of softwoodslike fir (2 Samuel 6:5), though Solomon used algum or almug (possibly

teak) to create special versions (1 Kings 10:12; 1 Chronicles 9:11). Theywere played in religious contexts (1 Chronicles 25:1-6) as well as secularones (Isaiah 5:11, etc.). They could accompany both song and dance,and they could play instrumental solos as well. In psalm-singing theyaccompanied soloists and choirs alike, depending on the requirementsof the text being sung.

This artist's rendition (based on modern instruments built by theHouse of Harrari in Jerusalem) portrays the Levitical psalmists singingand playing in the Second Temple service.

http://www.originofnations.org/



http://cgca.net/coglinks/origin/oon1.4.htm#harp












Caveat lector (et emptor ): the Harrari harps' design is based closely onthat of the modern Irish "Celtic" harp, thanks originally to itsconnection with "David's harp" as discussed above. (Only after the"Megiddo harp" shown above was discovered did the Harraris connecttheir harp design to it.) As we have stated, there is no direct proof thatanything like such harps were made by the ancient Israelites. Modern

Celtic harps (if they have nylon or gut rather than wire strings) aresuitable tonally and in timbre for the music restored by Haïk-Vantoura(and indeed Haïk-Vantoura's recordings use them, along with lutes inchoral Psalms); but they are not historical reconstructions of "biblicalharps".

Meanwhile, the Harrari lyres (and the lyres made by Jubilee Harps aswell) are virtually identical in their design to a 16th-century woodcutof a "Jewish" lyre (see left). Even in the Renaissance, the true qualitiesof the ancient and biblical kinnor were largely unknown; andcontemporary depictions of "David's harp" were more Hellenistic thanSemitic in form. Moreover, the modern Harrari and Jubilee lyres arewire-strung and have solid bodies; this gives them (like the wire-strung Irish harp) a completely different tone color and acousticquality from those which the biblical kinnorot would have possessed. In Middle Eastern antiquity, both lyres and harps could be played inprocessions, whether religious or military. To the left we see Elamiteharpers welcoming the Assyrian king Ashur-Idanni-Pal (the biblicalAsshurbanipal) after his conquest of Susa, capital of Elam (ca.628-626B.C.). As we will show later, these harpists are depicted as playing in

harmony (on notes placed across a double octave and a fifth in apentatonic scale). What vocal melodies the kinnor and nevel would have accompaniedin Israel's high liturgy have remained lost to us since the fall of theSecond Temple. While oral (or rather aural) remnants of these melodiesmust have been preserved in the various synagogue communities (aswell as in Christian chant), they would inevitably have been tainted bytime and "local color". Yet thanks to recent discoveries, we may nowsay much about both the vocal melodies and their instrumental

accompaniment.

In Egypt, Mesopotamia and elsewhere, harps, lyres and otherinstruments as well as singers were commonly conducted usinggestures of the hand and fingers. As we have already noted, 1Chronicles 25:1-6 apparently alludes to a similar practice: the use of "thehand(s) of" the section leaders (or of David himself) to conduct theensemble. This practice (according to biblical and Talmudic allusions)was passed down among the priestly psalm-singers right until the firstcentury A.D. and continued in corrupted forn in the various Rabbinic

http://jubilee-harps.com/



http://www.rakkav.com/biblemusic/pages/chironomy.htm







synagogues. The original musical gestures, meanwhile, weretranscribed as the te`amim of the Masoretic Text.

All of Hebrew Scripture, not just the Psalms and songs, could inprinciple have been accompanied by kinnorot and nevalim, for "Thystatutes have been my zemirot (songs accompanied by plucked-string

instruments) in the house of my pilgrimage" (Psalms 119:54, KJV). Thevocal melodies preserved by the biblical gestures and notation, then,would naturally have been accompanied by the biblical stringedinstruments, as tuned to compatible scales and modes. Haïk-Vantoura's reconstructed melodies and their modality imply thatDavid (like the Mesopotamians) would have tuned his kinnor or nevel using a cycle of fourths and fifths. His basic mode would have been the"mode of E" rather than the "major mode" or "mode of C" (again, as inMesopotamia). Other modes could be derived simply by raising thepitch of one or more strings. Alterations of a mode within a melody

could be handled by pinching a particular string (as in the famous 6th-century Gaza synagogue mosaic on the left, which portrays KingDavid as Orpheus), pressing it against the soundboard, or by othervirtuoso techniques. The strongly "harmonic" character of the Psalms' melodies especiallysuggests the frequent use of "root position" chords in a I-IV-V-Isequence. In effect, the "bass line" of these chords likely tended todescend below and return to (E), while the melodic line tended toascend above and return to (E). Prosodic melodies, while retaining the

same general tendency to rise from and fall to the tonic degree (E),generally had a more complex harmonic structure than did psalmodicmelodies. Haïk-Vantoura believed that David and others used single notes,simple intervals and arpeggiated chords to accompany their singing.First, the melodic lines she reconstructed are very "transparent", withonly one to three notes per syllable, and those placed in a way thatunderlines the subtle accentuation of the words. Not every syllable isgiven the same amount of stress, so not every syllable receives the

same melodic note or the same kind of accompaniment. Second, whenthe restituted melodies are sung, notes, intervals and even pure triadsreturn from the walls of the chamber or courtyard to the listener. Anyaccompaniment on a kinnor or nevel would have underlined thiseffect, not clashed with it - for the playing simply "sweetened the tone"of the singing (as the Talmudists put it).



Assuming a "tonic" of (E) and the most basic mode possible (we do notknow the exact pitches used), here are the basic modes used in singingpsalmodic and prosodic texts under Haïk-Vantoura's system:

In ascending order (as on the left):

C D (E) F G A B C Prosody

In ascending order (as on the left):

D# (E) #F G A B C Psalmody

Here is one way the kinnor and nevel may have been tuned, assumingthe basic mode of prosody and a tonic of E (see also the chart in thenext section):

A B C D (E) F G A B C D E Nevel

(E) F G A B C D E F G Kinnor

I tuned the kinnor I built in 1982 (left) to a different scale (and to a

different basic mode, the "mode of G"):

C D E F (G) A B C D E

Special Types of Instruments in the Psalm Headings The Bible indicates that special types of instruments used in at least some Psalms. 1 Chronicles15:20-21 speaks of nevalim àl - àlamot ("harps upon Maidens") and kinnorot àl -

hashsheminit ("lyres upon the Eighth"). The former are mentioned in the title of Psalm 46; the

latter, in the titles of Psalms 6 and 12. Given the sonorities implied for these instruments by thePsalms written to be accompanied for them, Haïk-Vantoura inferred that the nevel àl - àlamot was an alto range instrument, while the kinnor àl - hashsheminit had paired strings an octaveapart (as mentioned, like the Greek magadis, which had ten pairs of strings). But let us review some history. In the Second Temple ensemble (according to both Josephusand Rabbi Akiba), there were a minimum of twelve players, nine on the kinnorot, two on thenevalim and one on the cymbals or tsiltsilim. From this many have inferred that the kinnor was softer in sound than the nevel. Yet in 2 Chronicles 15:19-21, we find six kinnor (àl -

hashsheminit) players, eight nevel (àl - alamot) players and three cymbalists; whereas in 1



Chronicles 25:1-6, we apparently find (aside from the three section leaders and David himself)six kinnor players, fourteen nevel players and four cymbalists! (Only the kinnor players, thesons of Jeduthun, are implied as such; but as Asaph conducted his section with one hand andHeman with two, it seems reasonable to assign the instruments this way.) It is evident that thekinnor in these early ensembles was the louder instrument, even if the nevel of the SecondTemple ensembles was in all probability the louder of the two. Haïk-Vantoura surmised that when the Davidic kinnorot àl - hashsheminit "led" the ensemble(1 Chronicles 15:21), they did so by virtue of the increased resonance given by the doubling of itsstrings. This fact would have justified their special citation by the Chronicler (Les 150 psaumesdans leurs melodies antiques, Volume 1, T-29, footnote 2). As noted, such an instrument wouldalso generate the harmonics which Haïk-Vantoura sensed the melodies of Psalms 6 and 12 weremeant to exploit. But it would also have been louder than the small, alto-pitched nevel.Whereas the Second Temple ensembles may have been comprised of "normal" kinnorot andnevalim (the latter being considerably louder than the former). Of course, there is no way of knowing exactly what the pitch range of these instruments would

have been. But for the sake of modern arrangements (such as my MIDI arrangement of Psalm46 on the Index Page), I have set the ranges thus (here C' equals middle C):

Àlamot A B C' D' E' F' G' A' B' C" D" E" Sheminit e f g a b C D E F G

I have not attempted to make the notes of the sheminit "doubled" in the above chart, or (so far)in any MIDI arrangement I have attempted. It is interesting that as combined above, the total range of the two instruments is 22 degrees.Much has been made of the possible connections between the 22 letters of the Hebrew alphabetand the several possible kinds of significance of 22 in music theory and performance. Somehave suggested that the Hebrews had harps of 22 strings (despite there being no hard evidenceat all for this conclusion). I think it is far more probable that Josephus' descriptions of thenumber of strings on the kinnor and the nevel dovetail with the indications of Haïk-Vantoura'stheoretical work in the manner outlined above, and that the total number of strings of thekinnorot àl - hashsheminit and the nevel àl - àlamot equals 22. This solution has the virtueof allowing for the "root position" and "inverted" chords that psalmodia in particular seems todemand. There likely was also a "bass" nevel of twelve strings, lower in pitch than the àlamot

(the very existence of this distinctive name implies a lower-pitched counterpart) and capable ofclose counterpoint with the kinnor of the Second Temple. Haïk-Vantoura had this to say about the special instruments found in the Psalm headings,again as suggested by the character of the melodies of the Psalms themselves (op. cit., p. T-29,with slight corrections of my own as based on the French original):

Neginot These are "'strings', no doubt various kinds, cited in ninePsalms. Pss. 4, 6, 12, 54 ,55, 60, 61, 67, 76." [It is also citedin combination with the following term, in Pss. 6, 12.]

http://www.rakkav.com/biblemusic/index2.htm






Àl - hashsheminit This is "indicated in Pss. 6, 12 and might mean in octaves (from the root 'eighth'. (In ancient Phoenicia and Greecethere existed lyres producing simultaneously the octavewhen the main note was plucked....[In] 1 Chron. 15:21,lyres in octaves are mentioned 'in order to direct the choir ';the resonance of the instrument is thus amplified and

justifies the unusual citation.) It is most likely that it is nota question of instruments playing [an octave higher thanthe others] since another designation, àl alamot, fits this."[Another possibility, as mentioned, is that this type ofkinnor was actually a bass kinnor an octave lower thanthe usual type; this too would account for its unusualresonance.]

Àl - àlamot "([The] root is 'young girls' [or 'maidens'] which wetranslate as 'sopranos'). Ps. 46 with its lively and ferventcharacter could very well have used instruments much

higher than others (the historical circumstances concernthe transporting of the ark to Jerusalem, 1 Chron. 15:20)."

Àl - haggittit "([Regarding the meaning of gittit,] translators areundecided). Pss. 8, 81, 84 mention gittit. Their respectivecharacters are: pastoral (Ps. 8), quite 'demonstative' (Ps.81), and plaintive (Ps. 84), and we might deduce that gittit has an incisive, delicate sound."

Àl - shoshannim "([The word shoshannim is] translated as 'lily' [actually,'lilies'; shushan in Ps. 60 is 'lily']). From the character of

the psalms mentioning it -- full demeanor (Ps. 45),desperate supplication (Ps. 60), tragic (Ps. 80) -- one mightthink of a [plucked] string instrument like a 'cello, or[perhaps] a long-necked lute [such] as existed in AsiaMinor and in Egypt?"

Àl - yedutun This "is most likely a stringed instrument knownparticularly to Jeduthun (1 Chron. 25:3), one of the threechoir directors appointed by David. It is used in Ps. 39 (great sadness), Ps. 62 (despair), and Ps. 77 (fervent

supplication). This instrument must have had a uniquetimbre like the modern viola, discrete but penetrating." Àl - hannehilot This phrase merely means "upon the flutes" (Ps. 5), and

Haïk-Vantoura refers to it only in passing on this page. Tothis author the "flutes" were most likely not reed pipes,but wooden or cane, vertical or transverse flutes such as wereabundant in Egypt and other nations of the time. (Modernrecorders would make an effective substitute, given theplaintive tone suggested by the melody of Ps. 5 itself.)



Haïk-Vantoura remarks that is it rather tempting to imagine the timbres of these instruments,though of course nothing precise may be known of them (ibid.). Even so, in comparing modernCeltic harps (by different makers or even by the same maker), it is remarkable how a given harpwill sound considerably better with some Psalms than with others. I have found that Psalm 24 isat its best when supported by the dark timbre of a walnut or (better yet) a tropical hardwoodharp. Psalm 8 ("upon the Gittith", a bright-toned instrument) is at its best when accompanied by

a harp made of maple -- and so on. Who can say how the different woods (fir, "almug", etc.)used in ancient instruments might have been exploited for the purposes of musical expression? There are other terms which could concern music, perhaps even instruments or instrumentaltechnique, but their meaning remains obscure. It is easier to say what they do not mean:particular modes or popular tunes (as many have thought via comparison with the musicalnomenclature of other ancient nations or the folk liturgies of the ancient synagogues). Perhapsthe real parallel is with evocative instrumental names such as "oboe d'amore" in our ownWestern instrumentarium. Haïk-Vantoura thought so. "These expressions connote instruments,no doubt plucked instruments with a veiled, mysterious, plaintive and incisive timbre" (op. cit.,p. T-31).

Ayyelet ha-Shahar The RSV elegantly translates this phrase as "The Hind ofthe Dawn". Other versions render the phrase "The Doe ofthe Dawn" or something similar. A most evocative title,befitting the provocative, plaintive timbre of Psalm 22.

Yonat elem rehoqim Again the RSV has a most elegant translation: "The Doveon Far-Off Terebinths." This is found in the heading ofPsalm 56, one of a series of very striking Davidic Psalms.

Al tashhet This is found four times, in Pss. 57, 58, 59, 75. Just as wesay "let vibrate" in modern plucked-string music, so thismay indicate instrumental technique (the term literallymeans "Do Not Destroy"). But as Haïk-Vantoura notes,other Psalms of similar character are not given a similarterm in their headings!

It is worth noting that from Psalm 88 onward, there is no further mention of special terms suchas these in the Psalm headings.



The three instruments on the left show the variety of styles the Semiticlyre could take. The top instrument is the "Lachish lyre"; the middleone, a lyre from one of the bar Kokhba coins; the bottom one, a lyrefrom another of the bar Kokhba coins. (Many consider this lastinstrument a nevel and the first two kinnorot.)

"The [musical] bow was not used in the ancient world. Neither theSumerians nor the Egyptians nor even the Greeks used it. The Kinnor,with a resonance box and two arms connected by a yoke belongs to thelyre family. It is devoid of ornamentation and is held diagonally. TheKinnor's iconographic documentation, which derives partially fromMesopotamia and Egypt spans a period of 2,000 years. It showsconsistence in its basic design and only certain changes in its form. Asurvey of the Kinnoroth will show:

a) Kinnor player in a Semitic nomad-caravan from a painting in BeniHassan tomb, ca. 1900 B.C.;

b) Kinnor playing before the King from an ivory carving, Megiddo,1350-1150 B.C.;

c) Kinnor player among beasts on a painting on a pottery jug,Megiddo, 1350-1150 B.C.;

d) Kinnor player pottery figurine, Ashdod, 8th cent. B.C.;

e) Kinnor player on Bar-Kokhba coin, 132-135 C.E.

Text and illustrations from "Ancient Israel", Music in the Ancient World,2nd enlarged edition (Haifa Music Museum and AMLI Library, Haifa,Israel, 1979).



Here are three more kinnorot, all of which are mentioned in the abovelist: the first from Beni Hassan, the second from a pottery jug found inMegiddo, and the third from an ivory carving found in CanaaniteMegiddo.

"The problem of the Nevel (Harp) seems to be much more complicated

than that of the Kinnor. This is because of the complete lack oficonographic evidence, with the exception of some coins. [This haschanged only slightly in the light of the discoveries listed on this Webpage.] It is very difficult, therefore, to understand thoroughly thedesign and exclusiveness of this instrument. It is assumed, however,that the Nevel is the stringed instrument with a broad resonance bodyand arms made of horn, seen on Bar-Kokhba coins. There is somethingparticular about its design, not found in any other musical instrumentof the ancient world, an additional small resonance body above thebasic one. It is left to the future to solve the problem.

"The rich treasure of Biblical songs stands in inverse proportion to thescarce knowledge we have of the Biblical instrumentarium. Biblicalpoetry, always sung and accompanied by instruments [emphasis ours],found its richest and most colourful expression in the magnificentverses of the 'Song of Songs' and the Book of Psalms."

Text and illustrations from "Ancient Israel", Music in the Ancient World,2nd enlarged edition (Haifa Music Museum and AMLI Library, Haifa,Israel, 1979).

Haïk-Vantoura's version of Psalm 133 ("a Psalm of David") illustrates both how the biblical melodicsystem works and how the original melody may have been accompanied (Edition Choudens, 1978).



Starting from a tonic of D rather than E, this score's accompaniment remains within an ambitus (range) of ten degrees -- as it happens, in perfect concordance with my suggested relative tuning of the

kinnor.



This MIDI file is a transcription of Psalm 133 as published byEditions Choudens, Paris (see above). It was produced using the FINALE 98d software package



produced by Coda Music Software. It has its limitations, notably the lack of breath marks andother marks of expression. It does, however, have a ritardando corresponding in position to thatof the recorded version of this Psalm (if not precisely to that of the score). NOTE: If you cannot play this file on your computer using the plug-in, you may download the file via this link.

Stringed Instruments in the New Testament

The ancient Greeks had a "range of instruments [which] was [allegedly] not remarkable for itsvariety," at least compared to that of ancient Egypt's extraordinarily rich instrumentarium("Greece" and "Egypt", Music of the Ancient World). Yet the Greeks did have a surprising numberof subtypes of their basic classes of instruments and a wide variety of names to describe them.Of these, two are of special interest for our purposes here.

The lyres played by the ancient Israelites fell into two basic categories: 1) the "folk" instrumentsused by the common people (shepherds, folk minstrels and others); and 2) the "professional"instruments specially made for the Temple service. In like manner, ancient Greece had "folk"

and "professional" lyres, one of which (the kithara) is mentioned in the Greek New Testament.Given the Hebraic as well as the Hellenistic roots of the New Testament, the theologicalinterweaving of the Hebrew and Christian Scriptures, and the fact that kithara is back-translated as kinnor in Hebrew New Testament versions, I believe it fitting that these twoGreek instruments be given honorable mention here.

The following two illustrations are adapted from illustrations produced by Time-Life Books.

The lyra (despite its status as an "amateur" instrument) was themost important and widely known of all the instruments ofancient Greece. It (like the kithara) was associated with the cultof Apollo. Its soundbox was made of the carapace of a tortoise,over which a soundboard of hide was stretched. It also had twoarms made of horn and a crossbar made of wood, and used gutor linen strings attached to an endpiece at the bottom of thesoundbox. The strings passed over a bridge and were fixed tothe crossbar by mobile cotton or leather rings (or else by pegs).

The primitive lyra originally had three strings. (The one whichthe god Hermes played was said to have invented and playedhad four : the first, fourth, fifth and eighth degrees of an octave.) Onvases it is normally portrayed with seven (though up to twelveare attributed to it). The drawing of a woman lyrist shows thetypical playing posture. (As with so many portrayals of ancientlyres in ancient Greece and elsewhere, the bridge and stringingof this lyra are not shown.)

http://www.codamusic.com/coda/



http://www.rakkav.com/biblemusic/midis/psalm133_just.mid







The kithara (which could take a number of forms) was a larger,more perfect and more elaborate instrument than the lyra. Itssoundbox was made of wood; its tone was fuller and moresonorous than that of the lyra. Aristotle designated it as anorganon technikon (i.e., a "professional instrument"). In itsclassic form, it had seven strings, though the larger example on

the left has twelve. Like the Silver Lyre of Ur, this particularkithara used "tuning sticks" to help tighten the strings aroundthe crossbar.

The kithara was the instrument par excellence of the cult ofApollo, and was also used to support the singing of Homericpoetry (see left). But this instrument is also the "harp" that ismentioned in the Book of Revelation, and that is played byangels and saints alike to accompany sacred song (Revelation 5:8;14:1-5; 15:2-4).

Apparently the kithara was also known in ancient Babylon asthe qatros (in the KJV, "psaltery": Daniel 3:5, 7, 15). It is foundwith the sabkha' or "sackbut" (KJV) in these verses: apparentlythe inspiration for the Greek sambuke, a triangular instrumentwith four strings. Evidently trade in musical instruments wasthriving between Greece and the Middle East since ancienttimes.

The two instruments on the left are examples of the Greek lyra. One

uses animal horns to form its yoke; the other uses carved wood. Thelonger of the two is a barbiton, a longer subtype of the lyra: a woodenlyre with a resonator imitating the usual turtle carapace. (The barbiton is taken from a painting on an Attic vase, ca. 490 B.C; the lyra,apparently from a painting an Attic vase ca. 475 B.C. Both wereoriginally portrayed with seven strings.) From Music in the AncientWorld, 2nd enlarged edition (Haifa Music Museum and AMLI Library,Haifa, Israel, 1979).



Here are two examples of the kithara (the second considerably moreelaborate than the first), and yet another example of the lyra. From Music in the Ancient World, 2nd enlarged edition (Haifa Music Museumand AMLI Library, Haifa, Israel, 1979).

Wind Instruments in the Hebrew and Christian Scriptures According to the Hebrew Scriptures, "[Jabal's] brother's name was Jubal; he was the father of allthose who play the lyre (kinnor) and the pipe (`ugav)" (Genesis 4:21, RSV). This is the earliest

mention of a wind instrument in the Bible (in terms of the order of books and of humanhistory).

Before the creation of man, however, God created various kinds of angels (Psalm 148:2, 5). Thehighest kind of all are the covering cherubim, so-called because the wings of two of these beings"cover" the "mercy seat" of the Ark of the Covenant, which represents God's throne (Exodus25:10-22). Actually, the wings overshadow the mercy seat, and form a platform, not a canopy, forGod; the Eternal sits upon, not just between, the cherubim (Psalm 99:1, RSV and othertranslations).

One of these "covering cherubim", identified later as the "king of Tyre" (that is, the superhumanpower behind the human "prince of Tyre") is described thus: "the workmanship of thy tabrets (tuppim) and of thy pipes (neqavim) was prepared in thee in the day that thou wast created"(Ezekiel 28:13, KJV). Neqavim refers to things that have been bored through -- and in combinationwith tuppim (timbrels or frame drums: Exodus 15:20), most likely refers to a genre of flute. This"king of Tyre", then, had great musical ability -- and of a sort capable of stirring great passion inthe listener, as flutes and drums were and remain ideally suited for this (especially in dance).

Besides the already-mentioned `ugav (Genesis 4:21 and Psalm 150:4, where it is mentioned withother instruments), there was the halil (cf. Isaiah 30:29), the equivalent of the Greek aulos (cf. 1



Corinthians 14:7 ). It could be used for joyous occasions (cf. 1 Kings 1:40; Matthew 11:17 ) as well asfor mourning (cf. Jeremiah 48:36; Matthew 9:23). According to Harper's Bible Dictionary ("Music",p. 670), the halil "consisted of two separate pieces of reed, metal or ivory, each with its ownmouthpiece containing either a single (clarinet-type) or double (oboe-type) reed. The pipeswere played together, one probably acting as a drone accompaniment." The halil was"generally a secular instrument" (op. cit.), not surprising since the cantillation of the HebrewScriptures was not suited to a drone accompaniment or the "tone color" of reed instruments.

We find a singular reference to nehilot ("flutes") in the heading of Psalm 5 (Psalm 5:1, Hebrewversification). The "tone color" of the melody Haïk-Vantoura has reconstructed for Psalm 5suggests the instrument could produce sounds that were either doleful or cheerful; yet it seemsnot to have been a clarinet- or oboe-type instrument. (As noted above, perhaps it was a woodenflute, not unlike the modern recorder.) Other instruments mentioned in the Psalm titles mightalso be specialized types of wind instruments (see "Sing To The Lord A New Song..." for moreinformation).

The most famous wind instruments of the Bible are the trumpet and the horn or (falsely so-

called) "cornet" (Psalm 98:6, KJV). The Hebrew Scriptures mention the hatsotsrot (trumpetsmade of silver) and the shofarot (horns made of rams' or antelopes' horns). (Both are sometimescalled "trumpet" in the KJV, to the confusion of the reader.) There are also the wind instrumentsmentioned in a number of Psalms and Psalm titles (which will be discussed below).

In the Aramaic portions of Scripture, we read of the wind instruments found in the famousensemble of King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon (Daniel 3:5, 7, 15): the qarna' (horn), mashroqita' (flute or pipe), and sumfonyah (bagpipe, reed-pipe or Pan's pipe, if not simply the wholeensemble playing together). The sabkha', translated "sackbut" in the KJV, apparently is not awind instrument, but a stringed instrument (see above).

In the New Testament, we find the Greek salpinx mentioned as the trumpet used by the angelsto announce the "seven trumpet plagues" (Revelation 8:2). It is back-translated as shofar ratherthan hatsotserah in Hebrew New Testament versions, presumably because of verses such asIsaiah 27:13 and Joel 2:1. In ancient Greece, it was chiefly used by the army (the animal hornhaving but limited use among the Greeks).

The first three illustrations are adapted from the out-of-print Ambassador College BibleCorrespondence Course , Lesson 28 (Worldwide Church of God, Pasadena, CA., 1986). The fourth is

taken from the 2001 Catalog of Galilee of the Nations.The fifth is taken from Music in the Ancient World , 2nd enlarged edition (Haifa Music Museum and AMLI Library, Haifa, Israel, 1979).

http://www.rakkav.com/biblemusic/pages/psalmody.htm



http://www.thegalileeexperience.com/







The Eternal God commanded Moses (in theTorah) to make two silver trumpets or hatsotsrot "for the calling of the assembly, and for the journeying of the camps" (Leviticus 10:2). Theywere blown singly or together, and with differentkinds of calls: teqi`a (a simple blowing) and

teru`ah (a sounding of an alarm). Differentsynagogue communities today use these terms todifferentiate calls on the shofar (see below), buteach community uses different calls with differentrhythms and pitches.

The melodies rediscovered in the Psalms by Haïk-Vantoura (especially -- and interestingly -- inPsalm titles such as that of Psalm 47 ) suggest whatthese different calls may have been like in biblicaltimes. One or both calls likely would have used arise from the tonic to the fifth degree and backagain, just as does the melody of the Psalm title.This interval is certainly possible on a well-madevalveless trumpet. This interval is also easily possible on a well-madeshofar like this one, which is made from antelopehorn. Spectacular fanfares of penetrating tonalbeauty are possible on such an instrument --belying the reputation of the shofar as a mere

noisemaker. This author has heard no less thanseven distinct tones (in the harmonic series)played on such a shofar! Some very skilledplayers can even produce the notes of thechromatic series on such an instrument, or play jazz...

The shofar (like the hatsotsrah) is oftenmentioned in Hebrew Scripture as a warning ofwar and judgment. Yet it is mentioned besides the

hatsotsrah (and for that matter the kinnor andnevel) as an instrument worthy to be used in thepraise of God (Psalm 98:5-6). It was blown on feastdays (Psalm 81:3). Both instruments were usedwhen the Ark of the Covenant was brought to Jerusalem (2 Chronicles 15:28).



When the Hebrew Scriptures explicitly describewhat type of horns the shofarot are made from (asin Joshua 6:4), they always mention ram's horns,never antelope horns. However, the fact that sucha distinction is made ("shofarot of ram's horns")suggests that other animal horns (such as antelope

horns) may also have been used even in thebiblical period.

"Among no other people did the Shofar occupy ashallowed a place as among the Israelites," we aretold. "Together with the 'Menorah' [seven-branched lampstand] it became a traditionalsymbol, as may be seen in ancient mosaics. TheShofar was a meaningful instrument and hadmanifold uses. It was used in times of peace andwar, in the presence of royalty, as well as duringthe execution of priestly rites. It was the sound ofthe Shofar that assembled the sons of Israel at Mt.Sinai and it was the sound of the Shofar, too, thatbrought down the walls of Jericho. On New Year'sDay [Rosh ha-Shanah, also called the Day orFeast of Trumpets] it was a practice to blow thehorn of a goat with a gold-plated mouthpiece andon the Day of Atonement a ram's horn with asilver-plated mouthpiece was used" ("AncientIsrael", Music in Ancient Israel). The illustration on

the above left is of the latter kind of shofar.

"The Shofar [at least the smaller kind!] is capableof producing only a few sounds of indefinedpitch. Three tyopes of Shofar blasts are known[from Judaic practice]: a) 'Tekiah' -- a long soundwith a broken ending. b) 'Shevarim' -- alternationsbetween basic and overtones. c) 'Teruah' -- threesounds on rising fifths" (ibid.).

Daniel Bingamon gives the following instructionson how to play the various calls on the shofar (astraditional in Rabbinic Judaism):

Teqi`a - a single medium length blast. Low-to-high pitch transition. Hard short push on lowpitch, slight sustain on high pitch sometimesended with a short pushing higher pitch burst.

Shevarim - Three blasts each low-to-high pitch

http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/kadima/shofar.htm





sounded like triplets; think of Shevarim as beingthree short Teqià's without the short burst on theends.

Teruàh - Teruàh consists of rapid single secondpitch bursts in a staccato fashion. There should be

nine or more bursts for make a Teruàh.

Teqià Gedolah - Similar to Tekià, only the highnote is sustained for the longest possible breath.Also ended with a violent short pushed out breathof an even higher pitched note. These shofarot are carved from the horms of ramsand possibly other animals, are of different shapesand sizes, and are either plain or decorated withHebrew lettering, carvings and others artwork.

Even such limited instruments as these may havecompelling tone colors -- if they are properlycarved and fit to the player's mouth (and to thestyle of calls that are to be performed on them).

Even so, ram's and goat's horns, even when well-made, typically can play only a few harmonicsand have a rougher timbre (tone color) than dowell-made antelope horns. It is no surprise thatram's horns were typically used to sound alarms

of war. The shofarot used in worship, beingmusical by implication (Psalm 98:6), werereasonably antelope rather than ram's horns,although we are not told so specifically.

There are very few professional shofar-makers inthe world today. One of the best is Trumpets ofGod, a Messianic Jewish ministry based in theHouston, Texas (USA) area. Apparently just twoin Israel (one in Haifa, one in Tel Aviv) supply the

needs of Rabbinic Judaism.









The shofar in particular has come to symbolize acall to repentance on Yom Kippur, the holiest dayin Rabbinic Judaism (and, in terms of workforbidden on that day, of the biblical festivals).The shofar also welcomes in the Jewish New Year,on the festival biblically called the Day of Alarm

(Yom Teru`ah) or the Memorial of Alarm (ZikhronTeru`ah). In English this day is often called theFeast of Trumpets.

Since the fall of the Second Temple, silvertrumpets have not been used in Judaism. Bothinstruments, though, were used on the Feast ofTrumpets, as both instruments served to warn ofwar, to welcome the reign of a new king and topraise God. All these themes are interwoven withthe Feast in type.

The following photo comes from The Jerusalem Temple Store in Israel, and illustrates areconstruction of the priestly silver trumpet which is sold by that entity (from U.S. $595.00 up).

Here is what the Jewish historian Flavius Josephus wroteabout the silver trumpets used by the priests ( Antiquitiesof the Jews, Book 3, Chapter 12, Whiston translation):

"6. (291) Moreover, Moses was the inventor of the form oftheir trumpet, which was made of silver. Its description isthis: In length it was little less than a cubit. It wascomposed of a narrow tube, somewhat thicker than aflute, but with so much breadth as was sufficient foradmission of the breath of a man's mouth: it ended in theform of a bell, like common trumpets. Its sound wascalled in the Hebrew tongue Asosra. (292) Two of thesebeing made, one of them was sounded when theyrequired the multitude to come together to

congregations. When the first of them gave a signal, theheads of the tribes were to assemble, and consult aboutthe affairs to them properly belonging; but when theygave the signal by both of them, they called the multitudetogether. (293) Whenever the tabernacle was removed, itwas done in this solemn order: At the first alarm of thetrumpet, those whose tents were on the east quarterprepared to remove; when the second signal was given,those that were on the south quarter did the like; in thenext place, the tabernacle was taken to pieces, and was

http://www.templestore.com/








carried in the midst of six tribes that went before, and ofsix that followed, all the Levites assisting about thetabernacle; (294) when the third signal was given, thatpart which had their tents towards the west putthemselves in motion; and at the fourth signal those onthe north did so likewise. They also made use of these

trumpets in their sacred ministrations, when they werebringing their sacrifices to the altar, as well on theSabbaths as on the rest of the [festival] days; and now itwas that Moses offered that sacrifice which was calledthe Passover in the Wilderness, as the first he had offeredafter the departure out of Egypt."

If the cubit used was the cubit of the sanctuary (whichsome think was about 25.2 inches) and the trumpet was just that length (again, Josephus says it was a littleshorter), its uncorrected fundamental pitch at 74 degreesFahrenheit would have been about 539 Hz: between ourC and C sharp, just over an octave above our middle C .("Correction" would have depended on what kind ofmouthpiece and aperture the instrument possessed.) Just as the Chinese used gongs and bells as pitchstandards and the Greeks used the sonometer , so theHebrews could have used the silver trumpets as pitchstandards for tuning their stringed instruments.

Percussion Instruments in the Hebrew and Christian Scriptures We have already mentioned the "king of Tyre" (that is, the superhuman power behind thehuman "prince of Tyre"), who is described thus: "the workmanship of thy tabrets (tuppim) andof thy pipes (neqavim) was prepared in thee in the day that thou wast created" (Ezekiel 28:13,KJV). Tuppim refers to timbrels or frame drums (Exodus 15:20), the singular being tof. Thisinstrument was mainly a popular one, commonly used to accompany song and dance (with orwithout other instrumental accompaniment). Most of the figurines found at archaeological sitesin the Land of Israel and its immediate neighbors portray women with timbrels. Large drums

such as the Egyptians and others used are not directly mentioned by the Bible.

The only percussion instruments allowed to accompany psalm-singing were the cymbals (cf. 1Chronicles 25:1), which were always used in pairs. In the accounts relating to the transport of theArk of the Covenant, the cymbals are called either metsiltayim (1 Chronicles 15:9) or tsiltsilim (1Samuel 6:5). The former are explicitly said to have been made of bronze. In Psalm 150:5 the latterare called tsiltselê shamah and tsiltselê teru`ah, respectively -- apparently referring to twotypes of cymbals with different tone or resonance qualities (and therefore different sizes orshapes). Harper's Bible Dictionary ("Music", p. 670) informs us of "small bronze cymbals 4 to 6inches in diameter, which may have been played with an up-and-down motion..." Whereas



Music in the Ancient World (section "Ancient Israel") tells us that the cymbals "are a pair ofconcave metal saucers clashed together either vertically or horizontally. In the excavations atHazor, Megiddo, Akhziv and others, various types of cymbals have been found with diametersranging from three to ten centimeters."

We also learn ("Music", op. cit., p. 670) of "a kind of noisemaker (2 Sam. 6:15), variouslytranslated as 'castanets', 'rattles', 'sistrums', or 'clappers'." (All these, of course, were known inMiddle Eastern antiquity, especially from Egypt.) The relevant Hebrew word in 2 Samuel 6:15 ismenaànìm, which suggests the rattling sound that the instruments may have made. (Oddlyenough, this word is translated "cornets" by the King James Version.) Pottery rattles have beenfound in great abundance in the Land of Israel, and date from the second millennium B.C. tothe ninth century B.C.

The shalishim ("instruments of musick", KJV) mentioned in 1 Samuel 18:6 are often consideredto be sistrums, which were native to Egypt but also used in ancient Greece (see the illustrationof Greek instruments in Sacred Music in Antiquity). Finally, the "bells" or paàmim "attachedto the high priest's robe (Exodus 28:33-34; 39:25-26) are better translated as 'metal jingles', since

true bells with clappers were unknown in Israel before the ninth century B.C. They served aprotective rather than a musical function" ("Music", op. cit., p. 670).

Two percussion instruments are mentioned in the New Testament: the "noisy gong" and the"clanging cymbal" (1 Corinthians 13:1, RSV). (The "gong" and the "cymbal" are the chalkos andthe kumbalon, respectively.) "The 'noisy gong' mentioned by Paul...probably refers to the largebrass vases that were placed at the rear of Greek theaters to help amplify the actors' voices"("Music", op. cit., p. 671).

http://www.rakkav.com/biblemusic/pages/sacred.htm






On the left are but a few of the many pottery rattles that have beendiscovered in the Land of Israel (dates unknown, but probably from theCanaanite period; see below).

"The rattle" (we are told in a sometimes awkward English translation ofa Hebrew original) "belongs to the most ancient of sound-producing

instruments. It was found in considerable quantities inside temples andhouses dating back to the Canaanite period, during archaeologicalexcavations carried out at various sites in Israel. The most typical rattlesare: a) in the form of a spool; b) with a loop for suspension; c) with ahandle; d) with animal ornamentation.

"The quantity of rattles diminishes in the Iron Age and a newinstrument makes its appearance -- the bell. The bell was used on bothsecular and ritual occasions up to the Byzantine period, and asmentioned in the Bible, served as a ritual accessory as an imporant partof the High Priest's garments: '...a golden bell and apomegranate...upon the hem of the robe round about...and his soundshall be heard when he goeth in unto the holy place before the Lord,and when he cometh out, that he die not.' (Exodus 28:34-35) The allusionhere is to the apotrophic meaning of the bell. [In the early Tabernacleperiod the "bell" would have been a metal plate, not a bell with aclapper, as mentioned above.] It is found also to be worn round thenecks of cows and sheep and inside houses for the purpose of drivingaway evil spirits."

Text and illustrations from "Ancient Israel", Music in the Ancient World,

2nd enlarged edition (Haifa Music Museum and AMLI Library, Haifa,Israel, 1979).

The first two illustrations are taken from Sounds from Silence: Recent Discoveries in Ancient

Near Eastern Music , LP recording and booklet by Anne D. Kilmer et al. (Bit Enki Publications,Berkeley, CA., 1976). They were themselves adapted from A Coloring Book of the Ancient Near

East (Bellerophon Books, 1971). The third illustration originally appeared in Dor le Dor , Vol. 6 (1978), p. 167; it is taken from the cover of Bible and Spade , Vol. II, No. 2-3-4 (Spring-Summer-Autumn

1982).



This ensemble of Assyrian musicians istaken from the famous mural of thesiege of Lachish in Judah. The muralitself is found on the wall of the palaceof Asshurbanipal at Nineveh, anddates from the 7th century B.C.

These four musicians are playing twolyres (kinnorot), a frame drum (tof),and a pair of cymbals (metsiltayim) --to call the instruments by their Hebrewnames. We find these very instruments(plus the mena`an`im) being used bythe Israelites when David firstattempted to bring the Ark of theCovenant up to Jerusalem. These three Phoenician women areplaying what Anne Kilmer calls the"psaltery" (the washboard-like stringedinstrument on the left), the frame drum(tof), and the double pipes (halil). Thisscene is found on an ivory pyxis (boxwith a circular lid) imported fromPhoenicia and discovered in theAssyrian capitol of Nimrud (8th

century B.C.). It is presently in theBritish Museum.

The halil and tof (as well as the kinnor and nevel) were likewise found at the"drinking parties" of Israel and Judah(Isaiah 5:11-12).



This famous portrait of three Jewishkinnor players (being taken captive byan Assyrian, far left) is excerpted froma bas-relief in the palace ofAssurbanipal (705-681 B.C.) atNineveh, portraying the fall of the

Judean city of Lachish. While thestrings of these lyres are not well-drawn (at least in this rendition), themiddle one does seem to have sevenstrings. The lyres themselves are theinspiration for the drawing of the"Lachish lyre" shown above.

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