biodiversity conservation, land use, land use change … · biodiversity conservation, land use,...

Biodiversity Conservation, Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF) Programmes

Ideas for Implementation

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CONTENTSExecutive Summary……………………………….……………………………………………… 3

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………… 4

I. Global Perspectives on Key Concepts ……………………………………………………… 5

II. National Synthesis …………………………… …………………………… ……………… 8 1. Policies on Biodiversity Conservation……………………………………………………….… 9 2. Policies on Land Use…………………………………………………………………………… 10 3. Review of the Policies and their Implementation…………….………………………………… 11

III. State Synthesis…………………………………………………………………………… 13 1. State Profiles ………………………………………………………………………………… 13 • Arunachal Pradesh………………………………………………………………………… 14 • Chhattisgarh………………………………………………………………………………… 16 • Jharkhand………………………………………………………………………………… 18 • Orissa ……………………………………………………………………………………… 20 2. State Level Analysis…………………………………………………………………………… 23

IV. Best Practices and Key Learning ………………………………………………………… 28 1.KeyFocalAreas……………………………………………………………………………… 28

1.01 Biodiversity conservation as a strategy for equitable development …………………… 281.02 Models of livelihood production that assist in biodiversity conservation ……………… 291.03 Biodiversity conservation as a means of mitigating risks to livelihoods ………………… 291.04 Promoting trade and business that will strengthen biodiversity conservation… 301.05 Encouraging traditional knowledge and decentralizing management for biodiversity conservation………………………………………………….…………… 311.06 Potential means for converging government programmes for biodiversity

conservation……………………………………………….…………………………… 31 2.SupportingSectors……………………………………………………………………………32

V. Programmatic Ideas for Addressing Cross-cutting Issues in Biodiversity Conservation & Livelihoods Promotion ……………………………………33

Idea1:Identifying, conserving and protecting the important biodiversity areas …………… 33 Idea2: Conservation outside Protected Areas………………………………………………… 33Idea3: Strengthening community institutions to promote biodiversity conservation ………. 34 Idea4: Promoting livelihoods that support biodiversity conservation …………….………… 34Idea5: Strengthening conservation needs in important sectors like agriculture, livestock,

fisheries and horticulture……………………………………………………………… 35Idea6:Promoting eco-tourism to protect biodiversity…………………………….………… 35Idea7: Strengthening small scale production systems at the household level………..……… 36Idea8: Developing capacity for biosafety to substantially reduce the impact on biodiversity

of invasive alien species, genetically modified organisms…………………………… 36 Idea9: Promoting trade practices that support biodiversity conservation………….……… 37Idea10: Assessment and inventorisation of biological diversity………………….………… 37

Footnotes ………………………………………………………………………….…………… 39

References………………………………………………………………………….…………… 40

List of Annexures ……………………………………………………………………………… 41



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Executive SummaryThe study, ‘Biodiversity Conservation, Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF) Programmes – Ideas for Implementation’, was undertaken to identify pertinent and emerging issues that have implications for biodiversity conservation and livelihoods and the inter-relationship between them. A detailed review of the current national and state policies was undertaken along with the strategies being implemented by the government and various multi-lateral and bi-lateral agencies and other organizations, focused especially in the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and Orissa as provided in the scope of the study. Consultations were carried out with various stakeholders – academicians, key experts, members of non-governmental organizations, research institutions and senior officials in the Central/State forest departments in the related field. Based upon these, the report attempts to come up with suggestions for programmatic action to address the problems related to land use, land use change and forestry issues.

The assignment was conducted between December 2007 and April 2008, wherein the desk review and consultations with various stakeholders in each state were conducted. Through the review of the policy frameworks at national and state level, particularly that influencing biodiversity conservation and livelihoods, we have attempted to highlight the several strengths and gaps. Through the review of the strategies and learnings from various programmes of government, bilateral agencies and civil society organizations, we also highlight what works and what doesn’t and provide suggestions and steps that may be taken up through various programmes in the next few years.

While there is a growing appreciation that biodiversity needs to be conserved, attempts are isolated either through policy prescriptions or in programmatic action. The issue of land use and conservation of biodiversity not only requires specific attention but also needs to be taken up as a cross-cutting agenda in all development programmes. There are sufficient programmes promoting improvement in pro-poor livelihoods, the intricate relation between biodiversity conservation and poverty as a safety net deserves appreciation. The programmatic ideas for addressing cross-cutting issues in biodiversity conservation and livelihoods promotion suggested are as follows:l Identifying, conserving and protecting the important biodiversity areasl Conservation outside protected areasl Strengthening community institutions to promote biodiversity conservationl Promoting livelihoods that support biodiversity conservationl Strengthening conservation needs in important sectors like agriculture, livestock, fisheries

and horticulturel Promoting eco-tourism to protect biodiversityl Strengthening small scale production systems at the household levell Developing the capacity for biosafety to substantially reduce the impact on biodiversity of

invasive alien species and genetically modified organismsl Promoting trade practices that support biodiversity conservationl Assessment and inventorisation of biological diversityl Promoting biodiversity to combat climate change

The study has been carried out by the Foundation for Ecological Security, Anand, Gujarat. The Foundation for Ecological Security works towards the ecological restoration and conservation of land and water resources and setting in place the processes of coordinated human effort and governance towards that end. The report is an independent publication commissioned by United Nations Development Programme. The views expressed in this publication are those of the author and do not necessarily represent those of the United Nations or UNDP.



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Introduction The study, ‘Biodiversity Conservation, Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF) Programmes – Ideas for Implementation’ was undertaken by the Foundation for Ecological Security (FES) with the overall objective of providing input for the programmatic action on issues related to biodiversity conservation, land use, land use change and forestry. The report attempts to identify gaps and constraints that exist within the current policies and strategies and present suggestions to develop and implement suitable programmes within the UNDP Country Office with a view to conserve biodiversity and enhance livelihood opportunities.

The scope and strategy of the study was to undertake a detailed review of the current policies and strategies being piloted/implemented by various multi-lateral and bi-lateral agencies and other organizations including the Government, focused especially in the States of Arunachal Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Jharkhand and Orissa. To prepare this, information from various sources was to be collected for desk review and consultations were to be carried out with stakeholders (key experts, organizations, institutions and senior officials in the Central/State Forest Departments) in the related field. Based on the analysis, a detailed report on the issues and constraints in the current policies and mechanisms for biodiversity, land and forest conservation related programmes had to be prepared and suggestions to initiate and suitably address these activities/mechanisms had to be provided to the UNDP India Country Office.

The primary task of the study was to identify pertinent and emerging issues that have implications for biodiversity conservation and livelihoods, more specifically the requisite inter-relationship between the two. The central subject of Land Use, Land Use Change and Forests (LULUCF) has received definite importance during the course of the study, and continues to be perceived as an integral component of the ongoing debate between biodiversity conservation and livelihoods. An analysis of the implications of international conventions and national level policy was undertaken to establish the context. Apart from identifying gaps and constraints that exist within the current policies and strategies, the study also presents best practices, both local and international, and offers a set of programmatic ideas for future implementation.

The assignment was conducted between December 2007 and April 2008, wherein the desk review and consultations with various stakeholders in every State were conducted. The report is presented under five chapters. ChapterI provides a brief understanding of the global perspectives; ChapterII comprises the national level synthesis of the policies and programmes; ChapterIII looks at state level issues; ChapterIV is a compilation of local and international best practices; and ChapterV offers programmatic ideas for biodiversity conservation and livelihoods.



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Twobindingagreementsweresignedearlyin1992atthe‘EarthSummit’inRiodeJaneiro.OneofthemwastheConvention on Biological Diversity(CBD),whichisreckonedasthefirstglobalagreementontheconservationandsustainableuseofbiologicaldiversity(CBD,2008).Itarguesforconservationofbiodiversity,itssustainableuse,anditsequitableandfairsharing.TheotheragreementwastheConvention on Climate Change.Thisconventiontargetedreductioninindustrialandotheremissionsofgreenhousegasessuchascarbondioxide,methaneandnitrousoxide.TogetherwiththeCBD,theLandUse,LandUseChangeandForestry(LULUCF1)sectorundertheKyotoProtocoloftheUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChangetolimitandreduceemissions,coverstwoamongthemostcrucialaspectsofecologicalsecurity:biodiversityconservationandlanduse.Bothareexplicitlycriticalforhumansurvival,andstressontheirsustainablemanagementhasgainedmomentum2.

TheConvention on Biological Diversity,2008,describes“biologicaldiversity”asthevariabilityamonglivingorganismsfromallsourcesincluding,interalia,terrestrial,

marineandotheraquaticecosystemsandtheecologicalcomplexesofwhichtheyarepart;thisincludesdiversitywithinspecies,betweenspeciesandofecosystems.Biodiversityhasalsobeenassignedeconomicvaluesforitsvariousfunctions(Harris,2004).Thesebroadfunctionsbringforthalargesetofstakeholders:globalsociety,nationalgovernments,aidanddevelopmentorganizations,businessesandperhapsmostimportantly,indigenousgroups.Biodiversityisimportanttoeachgroup,butitspreferredusesareoftenconflictingamongoneanother.Evenifconservationisagreedupon,thereisrarelyaconsensusonthebestmeanstoachievethis.Policy,often,assumesavitalrole(Harris,2007).

Therecentlossofbiodiversityisunprecedentedandatnoothertimeinhumanhistoryhasthislossbeenasgreat.Habitatsarebeinglostanddegraded(severalreasonsareassignedtothis,almostallinducedbyhumans);naturalresourcesarebeingexploitedbeyondtheircapacity;pollutionistakingatollonthesystems;speciesthatarenotnativearetakingovernewhabitats;andclimatechangeisthreateningtheveryexistenceofspecies.

Chapter �:

Global Perspectives on Key Concepts Biodiversity

‘Biological diversity’ is the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.



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Onindigenoususe,oneoftheRioForestryPrinciplessays,“Forestpoliciesshouldsupporttheidentity,cultureandrightsofindigenouspeopleandforestdwellers.Theirknowledgeofconservationandsustainableforestuseshouldberespectedandusedindevelopingforestryprogrammes.Theyshouldbeofferedformsofeconomicactivityandlandtenurethatencouragesustainableforestuseandprovidethemwithanadequatelivelihoodandlevelofwell-being”.

Inthismeshofrelations,themostcriticalistheonebetweenbiodiversityandindigenouscommunities.Thesecommunitiesare,almostuniversally,acutelydependentonbiodiversityforthepurposeoftheirlivelihoods.Livelihoodscomprisecapabilities,assets(including

bothmaterialandsocialresources)andactivitiesrequiredforameansofliving(ChambersandConway,1992)andareinextricablylinkedtoregionalbiodiversity.Biodiversityisthesourceoffuel,fodder,medicineandculturalreferencestoo.Harvestingthecomponentsofbiodiversityalsoprovidesavarietyofmeansofliving:agriculturalpractices,locallivestockandfishvariety,non-timberforestproduce(NTFP)fromforests,etc.Toaccountforsuchuseswhileplanningforbiodiversityisessentialandethicallysound;itwouldalsobeprudenttobesensitivetothebiggestdirectstakeholder.Suchcommunitiessufferthemostwhenbiodiversitysuffers;biodiversitymostoftensuffersowingtochangesthatinwhichthesecommunitieshadlittlerole.

LivelihoodsBiodiversity is crucial to the alleviation of poverty, due to the basic goods and ecosystem services it provides. It is integral to key development sectors such as agriculture, forestry, fisheries and tourism, on which more than 1.3 billion people depend on for their livelihoods. Although biodiversity does not contribute directly to all sectors of development, such as infrastructure or mining, sustainable development cannot be achieved if biodiversity is compromised by development efforts. (CBD).



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Landuseissignificantlydifferentfrom‘landcover’inthatthesamelandcover,saygrassland,mayhaveanyofthedifferentlandusespossible:recreation,agriculture,transport.Exactlytheoppositemayholdtrue(thesamelandusemayhavedifferentlandcover),andthesevarytemporallyacrossregions(Harris,2004).Landisarguablythefirstnaturalresourcetohavebeenpoliticallycontestedinhistory.Itisalsofinite,fragileandnonrenewable.

However,thepresentlandusehasencourageddiversionoflandsforincreasingagricultureandmeetingindustrialrequirements.Pasturesandgrazinglandsarereducing.Commonlandsarebeingpressuredfarbeyondtheircapacityandbeingdegradedquicklywhereasregenerationisbeingrenderedincreasinglydifficult.Significantly,itistheseverylandswhichsupporttherudimentaryneedsofthemarginalcommunities.Withmoreurgentissuestakingpriority,thedemandsoftheirruralandindigenouslivelihoodstendtogetsidelined.Givenitsacutelimits,conflictoverlandisoftenremarkable,andhencemoredependentonpolicy.Agenda21recognizedthatthe“Expandinghumanrequirementsandeconomicactivitiesareplacingeverincreasingpressuresonlandresources,creatingcompetitionand

conflictsandresultinginsuboptimaluseofbothlandandlandresources”(UNCED,1992).Itsuggestedanintegratedplanningformanagementoflandresourcesasthevarioususesmayinteractandoftenbeconflictingtoeachotherandthusundermineitsroleinconservation.Agenda21,whileondeforestation,biologicaldiversityandfreshwaterresources(Chapters11,15and18),alsolayssignificantemphasisonlandasaproductiveresource,theimportanceofsustainablelanduse,andenvironmentalpollutionandconservation.

Theintricaterelationshipbetweenbiodiversityandlivelihoods,thecrucialityofbiodiversityforourveryownsurvivalasaspeciesandhumanprogress,andtheimpactsoflandusechangeasregardsthesameprovidesforanimportantdebate.ItmaybestatedherethatCommonPropertyResources(CPRs)inthenatureofforestsandrevenuewastelandsfigureineveryelementoftheongoingdiscussion;neverthelessitisnotjustpoliciesrelatedtoCPRsper sethathaveimplicationsforbiodiversityconservation.Commonlandsarenotonlybiodiversityrich,buttheyalsosupportlivelihoodsofthepoorandaremostoftenthegroundswherelivelihoodneedsarenegotiatedwithbiodiversityconcerns.

Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF) Land use, land use change and forestry (LULUCF) refers to the way humans manage land, how that use changes and forestry. Human alteration of landscapes from natural vegetation (e.g. wilderness) to any other use typically results in habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation, all of which can have devastating effects on biodiversity.



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Indiaishometoabout8%oftheworld’sbiodiversityonjust2.4%ofglobalareaandhasoneofthehighestdiversityofecosystemsintheformofforests,wetlands,grasslands,marineareas,deserts,glaciers,mangrovesamongothers.Thisrichnessisshowninabsolutenumbersofspeciesandtheproportiontheyrepresentoftheworldtotal.

Comparison between the Number of Species in India and the World�

Group Number of species in India (SI)

Number of species in the world (SW) SI/SW (%)

Mammals 350 4,629 7.6Birds 1,224 9,702 12.6Reptiles 408 6,550 6.2Amphibians 197 4,522 4.4Fishes 25,446 21,730 11.7FloweringPlants 15,000 2,50,000 6.0

Indiapossessesadistinctidentity,notonlybecauseofitsgeography,historyandculturebutalsobecauseofthegreatdiversityofitsnaturalecosystems.ThepanoramaofIndianforestsrangesfromevergreentropicalrainforestsintheAndamanandNicobarIslands,theWesternGhats,andthenorth-easternstates,to

dryalpinescrubhighintheHimalayatothenorth.Betweenthetwoextremes,thecountryhassemi-evergreenrainforests,deciduousmonsoonforests,thornforests,subtropicalpineforestsinthelowermontanezoneandtemperatemontaneforests(Lal,1989).TheWesternGhatsandtheEasternHimalayasaretwoofthe25hotspotsofbiodiversityonEarth.IndiacontainsgloballyimportantpopulationsofsomeofAsia’srarestanimals,suchasthe

Chapter II

National Synthesis

BengalFox,AsiaticCheetah,MarbledCat,AsiaticLion,IndianElephant,AsiaticWildAss,IndianRhinoceros,Markhor,Gaur,WildAsiaticWaterBuffalo,etc.Seventypercentofthecountry’sbillionpluspopulationdependsonthisrichbiodiversityforsustenance(Gadgil.1989).

Overthepastfewdecadestheworld



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haschangedatafasterratethanperhapsanyothertimeinhistory.Previouslyinaccessibleareasarenowexploitable;controlregimeshavechanged;humanrelationwithbiodiversityhasevolvedfromthehunter-gathererphasetothefast-industrializingstages;andnewresourcesarebeingharvestedlikeneverbefore.Researchhasshownthatdegradationhasledtotheextinctionofmanyspeciesandpushedmanymoreintothethreatenedorendangeredlist.Indiacontains172speciesofanimalconsideredgloballythreatenedbyIUCN(WorldConservationUnion),or2.9%oftheworld’stotalnumberofthreatenedspecies(Groombridge,1993).Theseinclude53speciesofmammal,69birds,23reptilesand3amphibians.

IthasbeenreportedthatIndia’sbiodiversityhasstarteddwindlingduetoreasonsrangingfrompoachingto

Indiaisthesignatorytovariousinternationalconventionsthataffectforestandbiodiversityconservation–‘ConventiononInternationalTradeinEndangeredSpeciesofWildFloraandFauna(CITES),1973’,‘ConventiononWetlandsofInternationalImportanceespeciallyasWaterfowlHabitat,(Ramsar,1971)’,‘UnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange(UNFCCC),1992’,‘ConventiononBiologicalDiversity(CBD),1992’,‘UnitedNationsConventiontoCombatDesertification(UNCCD),1994’,‘ConventionontheConservationofMigratorySpeciesofWildAnimals,Bonn,1979’,‘ConventionfortheProtectionoftheWorldCulturalandNaturalHeritage,1972’,‘InternationalConventionfortheRegulationofWhaling,1946’,andthe’UnitedNationsConventionontheLawsoftheSea(UNCLOS)’,1982.IndiahasbeencommittedtotheimplementationofChapterXIofAgenda21andthenon-bindingForestryPrinciplesandhasdevelopedappropriatenationalstrategies,legislationandadministrativeinstrumentstoaddresstheobligationsundertheconventions.IndiabelievesthatallsubsequentdeliberationsontheinternationalarrangementsormechanismsshouldbeguidedbyandbeinconsonancewiththeelementsforactionidentifiedinAgenda21andtheForestryPrinciples(MOEF2002).

1. Policies on Biodiversity Conservation

rampantandunplannedurbanization.Inagriculturalpractices,monoculturehasreplacedinter-cropping;traditionalseedsaredisappearingandhybridstakingover,addingtowhicharedestructivetradepractices,poorremunerationforindigenousfoodgrainandcereals,anddemographicchanges.Whilethesefactorsareaidingbiodiversityloss,therehasalsobeenasimultaneousdepletionoftraditionalknowledgeandculturalpracticesthathavebeeninstrumentalinconservingbiodiversity.

Thechangingcircumstanceshaveinfluencedandhavebeeninfluencedbypolicies,inwhichtheconcernfordegradationofbiodiversityisrelativelyrecent.WhileIndianPolicyhasmadesomeremarkableprogressoncertainaspects,thereremainafewpolicyareaswhicharestillregardedasmatterofconcern.

TheConstitutionofIndiamandatesconservationasadutyofthecitizenandaresponsibilityofthestate(Sheth,1997).TheforestpolicyofIndiaisbasedontheprinciplethatsustainabilityisnotanoptionbutanimperative.TherehasbeenagradualtransformationoftheforestactsandpoliciesovertheyearssincetheIndianForestAct,1927,whichwasa“lawrelatingtoforests,thetransitofforest-produceandthedutyleviableontimberandotherforest-produce”.ItwasdesignedasaninstrumenttoconsolidatethecontroloftheStateoverforeststothatofthe1988NationalForestPolicythatacknowledgedthedissonancebetweenstatutorylawandtherightsoftribalsandforest-dwellers(Forthefirsttime,thepolicyconcededthatasymbioticrelationshipexistedbetweentribalsandforests,andthatpeoplelivinginandaroundforestsdependedonthemfortheirlivelihoodandsurvival.)Theinterveningperiodhasseengradualchangesinconsonancetotheinternationalagreements–likein1972,prioritieschangedaftertheStockholmConferencewhichledtothenotificationoftheWildlifeProtectionAct1972;the42ndamendmentoftheConstitutionwherebytheCentrecouldtakedecisionsonforests;theestablishmentofaseparateDepartmentofEnvironment(laterMinistryofEnvironmentandForest)in1980;andtheForest



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(Conservation)Act,1980,whichmakesmandatoryCentralconsentfordiversionofforestlandfornon-forestrypurposes.

Further,theJointForestManagementprogrammeand73rdamendmenttotheConstitutionandthePanchayatiRaj(ExtensiontoScheduledAreas)Act,1996havehelpedinthedevolutionofconservationofnaturalresourcestothelocallevel.TheBiologicalDiversityAct,2002hasbroughtafocusontheconservationofbiodiversityinvolvingthelocalcommunities.ThoughtheBiodiversityActandthesubsequentrulesprovide

rightsandpowertothelocalcommunitiestomanageandconservelocalgeneticresourcesanddocumentlocalknowledgethroughthecreationofBiodiversityManagementCommittees,therearemanycriticismswithregardstolackofpowersofthecommunityindecidingthefateoftheirgeneticresources,suchaslackofspaceforstronglocalcommunities’rights,lackofappreciationofthecollectivenatureofthisknowledgeandlackofprotectionoflocalknowledgeandbiodiversityfromprivatizationandotherformsofmisappropriation.

2. Policies on Land UseLandisasubjectwithinthelegislativeandadministrativejurisdictionofthestatesaspertheVIIthScheduleoftheConstitutionwhichempowersthestatestodeveloppoliciesandenactlaws.InIndia,thethreeMinistriesresponsiblefortheconservationandmanagementoflandresourcesaretheMinistryofRuralDevelopment,theMinistryofAgriculture,andtheMinistryofEnvironmentandForests.Atthenationallevel,theDepartmentofLandResourcesundertheMinistryofRuralDevelopmentisthenodalagencyforcoordinatingdifferentlandresourcedevelopmentand

managementprogrammes.TheNationalCommissiononAgriculture

in1976suggestedtheneedforarationallandusepolicy.TheNationalLandUseBoardin1984drewupadraftoutlineforaNationalLandUsepolicy,whichwasadoptedbytheNationalLandUseandConservationBoard(successortotheNationalLandUseBoard)in1986(Swindale1994),neitherofwhichisnowfunctional.IndiadoesnothaveaNationalpolicyonLandUse(Nair,2006)butland,beingaStateissue,thestateshavetheirownlegislationsuchasthelandrevenue



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code,whichapartfromdealingwithissuesoflandadministration,regulatetheuseoflandresources.Onagrarianmatters,thereareseveralstatutesdealingwithtenancy,ceilingsonlandholdings,etc.Amajorprogrammefortheconsolidation

offragmentedplotsoflandhasbeenestablishedtopromoteeffectiveandscientificmanagementoflandresources,thoughprogresshasbeenunevenindifferentstates4.

3. Review of the Policies and their ImplementationAreviewofthepolicyframeworkandimplementation,particularlywithreferencetobiodiversityconservationandlivelihoods,rendersvisiblecertainstrengthsandgaps.Itwouldbeimperativetoremainsensitivetothesewhiledevisingprogrammestoconservebiodiversityandimprovelivelihoods.Adetailedanalysisofnationallevelpoliciesandprogrammeswasundertakentoexaminetheirorientationandefficacytowardsbiodiversityconservation(referAnnexureII)ofwhichthesignificanttrendsandobservationsarepresentedbelow.

l Different pieces of legislation take divergent views on crucial aspects of biodiversity. Community role in biodiversity conservation, for instance, has had a mixed treatment in recent laws. While there is a reasonable national direction, the implementation of the same remains to be strengthened and followed.

l Most policies and initiatives that address conservation issues take a human-centric view. At an individual level, decision-makers do appreciate the value of conservation. While the existing legal instruments can be enhanced, there is a need for better implementation of the programmes.

l Ecological concerns, which are congruent with concerns of biological diversity, have had little space in policy. Most policies are populist in design and favour options for livelihoods and enhancing incomes. An ecologically sound way of dealing with these production systems needs more emphasis.

l The issue of conservation of biodiversity remains to be mainstreamed across departments, schemes and policies. Local diversity needs to be appreciated by the various Centre and State



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administered initiatives like the National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme, etc.

l The overall orientation of policy is towards identifying the user of natural resource. Policy seldom identifies the guardian/stewards of these resources; it is the State that occupies that position through the principle of eminent domain. Considering the present trends of decentralisation and devolution, it would be worthwhile to explore and experiment with mechanisms for governance at the local level.

l While it is interesting that resources are increasingly being locally managed, the capacities of the people to manage the resources need to be strengthened. The community should be brought to appreciate the local and global relevance associated with the management of such resources. Building community institutions is widely deemed vital for biodiversity conservation. However, the additional responsibility also calls for a need to build the necessary capacity in such institutions.

l Except for forestlands and select areas that are under community control, large tracts of land are left as open access regimes, and are degrading for lack of proper management plans. With these lands largely categorised as ‘wastelands’, they tend to get assigned to other uses. These lands are sizable and, apart from Protected Areas, constitute an important category in conserving biodiversity. Tenure over such lands in favour of communities would encourage them to regenerate these lands for the conservation of biodiversity.

l There is a lack of clarity as regards the precise role and responsibility various government departments and agencies are required to play, and the manner in which they may partner with community-based institutions in conserving biodiversity.

l Many progressive conservation legislations are weak in implementation. This could be attributed to non-compliance, or the failure in these provisions being actually implemented. More processes are oriented towards exploitation rather than conservation of biodiversity. The process of development calls for stronger checks and balances with regard to the same.

l Incentives for conservation did not exist historically. Yet, even after conservation became a priority in the latter half of the last century, incentives for conservation have not materialized in earnest, rather, a disincentive to conserve seems more prevalent. There is a need for innovative programmes and policies that reward conservation initiatives.

l Often there is trade-off to be made between local use, competing interests and global well-being. In the absence of a policy framework, trade-offs and conflicting interests are most often settled based on the arbitration ability of involved parties and on economic incentives. Policy needs to deal with individual cases while keeping the overall national ecological security in mind.

Thereissufficientstressonpromotingpro-poorlivelihoodsindebateandpracticeofdevelopmentinitiatives.Theeffortsfromgovernmentandotheragenciestowardslivelihoodsaretremendous,andoughttobeappreciated.Theintricateissuesofbiodiversityhavealsobeguntoberecognized.Manystepshavebeentakenforbiodiversityconservationandtheytoodeserveappreciation.Itisnowrequiredtointegratethesetwoconcernswitheachotherfortheyareinherentlylinked.Thiswouldrequiresufficientplanninganddemonstrationofmodelprogrammesandevolvinginstitutionsandutilization/conservationframeworks.Thechallengeliesinthedemonstrationofmodelswithsocialnorms,localeffortsforconservationandharmoniousdevelopment.



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Thestudy‘Biodiversity Conservation, Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF) Programmes – Ideas for Implementation’wasundertakeninthefourStatesofArunachalPradesh,Chattisgarh,JharkhandandOrissainordertodevelopanindepthunderstandingoftheissuesspecifictobiodiversityconservation,landuse,landusechangeandforestryprogrammes.Informationregardingthe

Chapter III

State Synthesissamewascollectedthroughsecondaryresearchandinteractionwithgovernmentofficials,departmentheads,civilsocietyorganizationsandconcernedbureaucratsattheStatelevel.

Thischapterhasbeendividedintotwosections–thefirstpartprofilesthefourStatesandtheseconddelvesonissuesthatcutacrossandhaverelevancetoeachofthem.



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Arunachal PradeshArunachalPradeshisapartoftheEasternHimalayasandliesbetweenlatitude26°28’to29°30’Nandlongitude91°30’to97°30’Ewithageographicareaof8.37millionha.ItsharesinternationalborderswithBhutan,China,TibetandMyanmar.TheStatehasfiverivervalleys,thoseofKameng,Subansiri,Siang,Lohit,andTiraprivers.ArunachalPradeshhasavariedclimate:fromtemperateinthenorthernparttowarmandhumidinthesouthernpart.Theaverageannualrainfallrangesfrom2,000mmto8,000mm;andthetemperaturerangesfrombelowzeroto31°C.

OfthetotalStatepopulationof1.10million(Census2001),about79.25%areruraland20.75%areurban.Nearly64.2%peoplebelongtoScheduledTribes.Thepopulationdensityis13personskm2.Thelivestockpopulationis1.26million(LivestockCensus2003);ithasincreasedbyabout50%sincetheCensusof1992.

ThelandusepatternofArunachalPradeshisshowninTable 3.1.About12%oftheStateisunderpermanentsnow.Forestscovernearly94%oftheStatearea.However,recordedforestareais51,540sqkm,makingupjust61.55%ofthetotalgeographicarea.Ofthetotalforestarea,51,380sqkmisState-ownedandonly15,500haareunderprivateownership.Roughly62%oftheStateareacomesunderthecategoryofUnclassedStateForest.Thisareaalsosupportsvasttractofforestsaswellasthehabitationandcultivationpracticesobservedbylocalcommunitiessincetimeimmemorial.Thelocalcommunitieshaveheldcustomary

rightsontheseforestswhilethelandsarecategorizedasgovernmentlands.TheStatehas347JFM(JointForestManagement)committeesmanaging90,000haofland.Thereare2TigerReserves(NamdaphaandPakhui)and1BiosphereReserve(Dehang-Dibang).

Theforestscanbeclassifiedintofourmajortypes:TropicalWetEvergreenForest,Sub-TropicalPineForest,MontaneWetTemperateForestandSub-Alpine/AlpineForest.Recentstudieshaveledtothediscoveryofnewspecies(offloraandfaunasuchastheMacaca munzala, Arisaema siangense, Coelogyne arunachalensis, Liocichla bugunorum,etc.However,manyareasintheStatestillremainphysicallyinaccessible.Thishasimpededtheenumerationandscientificsurveyofitsexquisitebiodiversity.

InfrastructureintheStateislargelyunderdevelopedandmanyareasliebeyondanyreasonablecivicamenities.Yet,theStateisveryrichinbiodiversity,muchofwhichisendemic.Communitieshaveprotectedseveralareaswithage-oldcustomarypractices,includingjhumorshiftingcultivation,whichhaveallhelpedconservetheState’srichbiodiversity.Modelsofprotectedareascouldbereplicatedwiththeirtraditionalpractices.

However,paucityofresearchandgrassrootworkremaincontributingfactorsintheweakimplementationofenvironmentprotectionlaws.Thecivilsocietytendstoremainweaksincethereareonlyfewcommunityorganizationsandthosefromoutsidetheregiontaketime

Table �.�: Land Use in Arunachal Pradesh

Land Use Area In ‘000 Ha PercentageTotalGeographicalarea 8,374Reportingareaforland Utilization 5,498 100.00Forests 5,154 93.74NotAvailableforcultivation 26 0.47Permanentpasturesandothergrassingland 4 0.07Landundermiscellaneoustreecrops&groves 36 0.65Culturablewasteland 37 0.67Fallowlandsothercurrentfallows 47 0.85Currentfallows 30 0.55Netareasown(asperagriculturecensus1995-96expecttotalcroppedarea) 164 2.98

Source: State of Forest Report 2005, Forest Survey of India, Dehradun

�. State Profiles



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todevelopanunderstandingoftheissuesthatarespecifictotheareainwhichtheywork.

IndigenouscommunitiescontrollargeswathesoflandandtheirmodeofgovernancecoulddifferacrosstheState.Theconceptoflandownershiphasnotbeenofprimeimportancetothetribalsastheyhavebytraditionalwayssharedlandanditsnaturalresources.Butwithmassivedevelopmentprojectsonthehorizon,ArunachalPradeshisembarkingonahugemakeover.Megaprojectssuchashighways,airports,bigdamstofuelthecountry’sgrowingpowerneeds,landrightsandownershiphavenowbecomemoreimportantthanever.Withmorethan100smallandlargedamsbeingplanned,manybiodiversityrichforestscouldbeadversely

affected.Withmorethanamilliontribalswithno

landrecordsandnolegaldocumentationtoprovethecommunity’sownership,thereisasituationofchaosanduncertainty.TheArunachalPradesh(LandSettlementsandRecords)Act,2000andtheArunachalPradesh(LandSettlementandRecords)Rules2002havebeenenactedtoprovideacomprehensivelawforlandrevenueadministrationforthewholeStateincorporatingcustomaryrightsonthelandandcertainmeasuresoflandreforms.

Map of Arunachal Pradesh



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ChhattisgarhChhattisgarhisanewStatethatwasformedoutofMadhyaPradeshinNovember2000.TheStateliesbetween17°47’and24°06’Nlatitudeand80°15’and84°24’Elongitude,andoccupiesanareaof13.52millionha–about4.1%ofthecountry’sarea.Theannualrainfallvariesfrom1,100mmto1,700mm,andthetemperaturehoversbetween11°Cand47°C.TheStatehasapopulationof20.83million(Census2001)with79.93%livingintheruralareasand20.07%intheurbanareas.Thepopulationdensityis154personsperkm2.About31.8%ofthepopulationbelongtoScheduledTribes.

Table 3.2showsthelandusepatterninChhattisgarh.TheStaterecordsaforestareaof59,772sqkm(44.21%ofthetotalStatearea).ReservedForest,ProtectedForestandUnclassifiedForestconstitute43.14%,40.21%and16.65%ofthetotalforestarearespectively(55,863sqkmand41.32%ofthetotalgeographicarea).With35.35%ofNetSownAreaitisoneofthemostintenselycultivatedregionsinthecountry,withpaddybeingthemaincrop.

Chhattisgarhisextremelyrichinbiodiversity.TheState’sforestsareoftwomajortypes:TropicalMoistDeciduousandtheTropicalDryDeciduous.Composition-wise,therearefourimportantformations:Teakforests,Salforests,miscellaneousforestsandBambooforests.ThechiefNTFPs(non-timberforestproduce)oftheStatearetenduleaves(Diospyrosmelanoxylon),salseeds(Shorearobusta),harra(Terminaliachebula),gum,chironji(Buchananialanzan),etc.Chhattisgarhhas3NationalParksand10WildlifeSanctuariesspreadover4.69%ofitsgeographicalarea.

TheIndravatiNationalParkistheonlyTigerReserveintheState.TheJFMResolutionof2001providesfortwokindsofcommittees:ForestProtectionCommittees(FPC)foralreadyrichforests,andVillageForestCommittees(VFC)fordegradedforests.

TheState’sagro-biodiversityisanothernoteablefactor.Nearly22,500varietiesofricealonewerecollectedatthericegermplasmbankattheIndiraGandhiAgriculturalUniversity(IGAU)atRaipur,mostofwhichwerefromtheregionitself(Menon,2001).Likeothertribaldominatedandnon-industrialsocieties,inChhattisgarhtoothereexistseveralexamplesofcommunity-initiatedpracticesandcustomsthatconserveandencouragebiodiversityconservation.Thedependenceofindigenouscommunitiesonforestsishigh.ManyofthegroupsrelyheavilyonforestsfortheirmedicinalandnutritionalneedsaswellasforincomefromNTFPs(non-timberforestproduce).Remotepocketswithcommunitycontrolstillexist,wheresuchpracticesareespeciallystrong.

Inrecentyears,theNaxaliteissuehasimpededtheoverallgovernanceanddevelopmentintheState.Toaddtothis,theweakinstitutionalframework,includingthePanchayati Rajinstitutions,andtheexecutionofineffectivepolicieshasnotyieldedmuchtowardstheState’sdevelopment.InissueslikeOrange Areas5,landclassificationandtenuresecurityforindigenouscommunitiesareunclearandthecommunityrightsstillremaintoberecognized.Byandlarge,theadministration’ssensitivitytowardsbiodiversityconcernsisfarfromencouragingandtheimplementation

Table �.�: Land Use in ChhattisgarhLand Use Area In ‘000 Ha PercentageTotalGeographicalarea 13,519ReportingareaforlandUtilization 13,468 99.57Forests 5,977 44.21NotAvailableforcultivation 1,039 7.69Permanentpasturesandothergrassingland 848 6.27Landundermiscellaneoustreecrops&groves 1 0.007Culturablewasteland 344 2.54Fallowlandsothercurrentfallows 232 1.72Currentfallows 248 1.83Netareasown(asperagriculturecensus1995-96expecttotalcroppedarea) 4,779 35.35




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oflegalchecksonenvironmentallydetrimentalprocessesremainsunproductive.

InaStatesorichinbiodiversity,itisironicthatthepromotionofbiofuelsforacceleratinggrowthanddevelopmenthasledtomuchcontroversy.Chhattisgarh’sbiofuelpolicystressesonbringing‘wastelands’underbiofuelcultivation,whichthreatenstounderminetheprevalentlocaluseaspastures,woodlotsandbiodiversity.Commercializationandbio-piracyoftheratherrichagro-

biodiversityisacauseofdeepconcernwithmanycasesbeingreportedwherelocallydevelopedvarietiesofcropswerenearlytakenoverbypartieswithvestedinterests6.Insuchcases,accessandbenefitsharingbecomescontestable.Theissueofcommercializationandthesubsequentstandardizationofdiversebreedsandvarietiesisanissuetoreckonwith.MostState-sponsoredschemestakedivergentviewsonbiodiversityandareasonabledirectionremainstoberesolved.

Map of Chhattisgarh



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JharkhandJharkhandwascarvedoutofBiharonNovember15,2000.TheStateis7.97millionhainareaandliesbetween22°00’and24°37’Nlatitudeand83°15’and87°01’Elongitude.Geographically,itismarkedbytheChhotanagpurPlateauandisdrainedbythreemajorrivers:theSone,theKoel,andtheDamodar.Jharkhandisrelativelydenselypopulatedwith338personspersqkm.Ofitstotalpopulationof26.91million(Census2001),77.8%isrural.About22.5%ofthetotalpopulationbelongstoScheduledTribes.

Table 3.3showsthelandusepatternofJharkhand.TheState’srecordedforestareais23,605sqkm,whichis29.61%ofthegeographicarea.Ofthis,ReservedForestsare18.83%,ProtectedForests–81.14%,andUnclassedForests–0.03%.Jharkhandhasthreemajorforesttypes:TropicalMoistDeciduous,TropicalDryDeciduousandSubtropicalBroadleavedHillforests.TheStatehas1NationalParkand10WildlifeSanctuarieson2.62%ofitstotalarea.Nearly10,903JFMcommitteesmanageabout92.8%oftheforestarea.VerydenseforestsinJharkhandcoveranareaof2,544sqkm,moderatelydenseforests:9,078sqkm,andopenforests:10,969sqkm.

JharkhandhasseveralissuessimilartothoseofitsadjacentlylocatedneighbourChhattisgarh.Thedependenceof

thecommunitieshereonforestsandotherresourcesfortheirmedicinalandnutritionalneeds,forcashincomesfromsaleofNTFPsandasgrazinggroundsfortheirlivestockisveryhigh.Therehavebeencustomarypracticesthathavehelpedintheconservationofbiodiversitydowntheages,mostlypresentinthetribalpocketsoftheStatewherethetotemicnamesoftheclansignifythenameofananimalorabird.Severalsuchareasstillretainastrongcommunitycontrol.ThelandtenuresystemintheStateisgovernedbytwoacts–TheChhotaNagpurTenancyAct,1908andtheSanthalParganasTenancy

Act,1949–whichprovidespecificcommunityandindividualrights.Tilldate,theancienttenuresystemslikeMundari KhunkhattiandBhuinhari pattiescontinuetoexistinnameaswellaspractice,thoughinveryscatteredpatches.

DespitetheenactmentoftheJharkhandPanchayatiRajActin2001,thePanchayatelectionshavenotbeenheldsincethelast25years.Thishasseverelyimpededgovernance.NaxalismisanotherissuethathascurtailedthepaceofdevelopmentandgovernanceoftheState’snaturalresourceandbiodiversityconservation.Thepolicyframeworkisweakandimplementationofplansandproceduresisinconsistent,oftensufferingduetotheweakunderstandingofthenuancesofissuesatanadministrative/

Table �.�: Land Use in Jharkhand Land Use Area In ‘000 Ha PercentageTotalGeographicalarea 7,972ReportingareaforlandUtilization 7,970 100Forests 2,333 29.27NotAvailableforcultivation 1,366 17.14Permanentpasturesandothergrassingland 88 1.10Landundermiscellaneoustreecrops&groves 113 1.42Culturablewasteland 274 3.44Fallowlandsothercurrentfallows 783 9.82Currentfallows 1,244 15.61Netareasown(asperagriculturecensus1995-96expecttotalcroppedarea) 1,769 22.20




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Map of Jharkhand

bureaucraticlevelinthenewlyformedState.Thecivilsociety’sinvolvementintheState’sdevelopmentisquitevibrantbutunfortunatelynotstrongenoughonissuesrelatedtobiodiversityconservation.Communityrightstoo,remaintoberesolvedinparts.Thegreaterstressoneconomicdevelopmentthroughminingandindustrialgrowthhasnegativeimpactsonbiodiversity.Biofuelplantationposesanotherproblemthatisthreateningto

affectlanduseandbiodiversity.Manyareasthatareclassifiedas‘wastelands’arebeingbroughtunderbiofuelplantationsandthishaschallengedmanycustomaryuses.



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OrissaOrissaliesintheeasternpartofthecountrybetween17°47’and22°34’Nlatitudeand81°22’and87°29’Elongitudeandoccupies15.57millionha,or4.74%ofthetotallandmassofthecountry.Ofthefourstatesthatformthefocusofthisstudy,Orissaistheonlyonewithacoastline.Physiographically,theStatehasfourregions:NorthernPlateau,EasternGhats,CentralTableland,andCoastalPlains.TherearethreemajorriversinOrissa–Mahanadi,BrahmaniandBaitarni.Theannualrainfallvariesbetween1,200and1,600mmandtheannualtemperatureshuttlesbetween25°Cand47.5°Cwithrelativelyhighhumidity.85%ofthe36.7millionpopulationlivesintheruralareaswithapopulationdensityof236personspersqkm.22.21%ofthepopulationbelongstoScheduledTribes.

ThetablebelowdescribesthelandusescenarioinOrissa.TherecordedforestareaofOrissais58,136sqkmmakingup37.34%oftheentireStatearea,ofwhich45.29%isReservedForests,26.70%–ProtectedForestsand28.01–UnclassedForests.TheStatehassixmajorforesttypes:TropicalSemiEvergreen,TropicalMoistDeciduous,TropicalDryDeciduous,BambooBreaks,LittoralandSwampForests.Thereare2NationalParksand18WildlifeSanctuarieswhichcover5.11%ofOrissa.Oftheseveralconservationsites,theGahirmathaWildlifeSanctuaryandtheChilikalakearemoreprominent.TheGahirmathaWildlifeSanctuaryisamangroveeco-systemandanestingsitefortheOliveRidleyturtleandtheChilikalake,oneofAsia’slargestbrackishwaterlakes,isthelargestinhabitatfortheendangeredIrrawadyDolphin.Withabout12%oftheareanotavailablefor

cultivation,ofwhichalargepartfeatureshillocks,thereisaconcertedefforttobringitundervegetationforbiodiversityconservationandmeetingcommunityneeds.

Orissaisuniqueofthefourstatesinseveralaspectsofnaturalresource.TheStatehasarichcommunitytraditionthathashelpedintheprotectionofbiodiversitythroughtheages.Severalexamplesofcommunityforestmanagementarestillprevalentandsuchpracticeshavehelpedthecommunitiestosuccessfullyconservevaluablebiodiversity.Communitydependenceonforestsishighinthisregion.Manycommunitiesareknowntodependonforestsforveryfundamentalneedssuchasnutrition.Orissaisextremelyrichinagro-biodiversitytoo,aresultoftheconscientiouscollectiveactionofcommunitiesforcenturiestogether.TheStatealsospeaksofaverystrongcivilsocietythatcanbetappedtoorchestratetheeffortsofbiodiversityconservation.

Orissaisalandpronetonaturaldisasterssuchascyclones,floodsanddroughts.Duringsuchcalamities,allbioticandanthropogenicpressuretendstoshifttonaturalresources,whicharealreadyrenderedvulnerableafteranaturaldisaster.Thiscanhaveanadverseeffectonbiodiversity.Adetailedstudywoulddowelltoaccountforthisdetail.Witheconomicreturnsontheagenda,miningandindustrializationnowgaintoppriority,thusleadingtocompetitionforandconflictoverlandandforestresources.Statepoliciestendtodivergeonseveralaspectswithdifferentdepartmentsapproachingthesameresourcewithconflictingviews.

Table �.�: Land Use in OrissaLand Use Area In ‘000 Ha PercentageTotalGeographicalarea 15,571Reportingareaforland Utilization 15,571 100.00Forests 5,813 37.33NotAvailableforcultivation 1,842 11.83Permanentpasturesandothergrassingland 443 2.85Landundermiscellaneoustreecrops&groves 482 3.10Culturablewasteland 392 2.52Fallowlandsothercurrentfallows 430 2.76Currentfallows 340 2.18Netareasown(asperagriculturecensus1995-96expecttotalcroppedarea) 5,829 37.43




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Itisclearthattheeffortsonbiodiversityconservationwouldstronglybenefitfromthedevelopmentofacommonapproach.SeveralcommunityprotectedareasneedrecognitionandthecommunityrightsinProtectedAreasneedbetterresolution.Severalcommunitypractices,suchasjhumorshiftingcultivation,needtobesensitivelyandcarefullyreorientedtoaccommodatecurrentimperatives.

ManypartsoftheStateareinfestedwithNaxalismwhichhindersdevelopment,especiallyintheremoteareas.Thehuman-animalconflict,especiallyinthecaseofelephants,isalsohighincertainpartsoftheState.Standardizationofforests,agriculturaldiversityandafastdevelopingthrustonbiofuelsposegrimthreatstobiodiversity.

Map of Orissa



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Table �.�: A Few State-specific FeaturesArunachal Pradesh Chhattisgarh Jharkhand Orissa

Governance

• Differentiatedcustomarylaws(statutorylawshardlyprevail)

• Inaccessibility;sensitiveareas(internationalborderdisputes),

• Weakimplementationofgreenlaws• Weakcivilsocietyinvolvement• Mostcommunityheldareasarewell

protected• Statebiodiversitylawsand

BiodiversityBoardinplace

• WeakPanchayats• Weakpoliciesandimplementation• Weakimplementationofgreenlaws• Lackofsecuretenure• Naxaliteinfested• Pocketshavecommunitycontrol• Statebiodiversitylawsand

BiodiversityBoardinplace

• NoPanchayatselectionssincelast25years

• Weakpolicyandimplementation

• Rightsremainunresolvedincommunitycontrolledareas

• Naxaliteinfested• Weakcivilsociety

involvementforconservationforbiodiversity

• StatebiodiversitylawsandBiodiversityBoardinplace

• Unsettledrightsinnon-notifiedProtectedAreas

• Weakimplementationofgreenlaws• Divergentapproachesofthe

departments• Naxaliteinfested• Strongcivilsocietyinput• Communitycontrolinpockets

Land Use

• Absenceoflandrecords• Largehydropowerprojectsbeing

plannedcouldaltertheexistentlanduse

• Shiftingcultivation(jhum)isbeingpractisedthoughthelandundercultivationissmall

• Highlydifferentiatedbiodiversity• Communitycontrolisstrong

• FocusonMiningandIndustrialprojects

• Orange Areascreateconfusions• Veryhighdependenceonforests;little

focusinpolicy• MuchoftheStateisunderScheduleV


• Veryhighdependenceonforests;littlefocusinpolicy

• ManypartsareunderScheduleVmanagedunderChhotaNagpurTenancyActandSanthalParganaTenancyAct


• Veryhighdependenceonforests;littlefocusinpolicy

• Shiftingcultivationincertainlocationscontinuing

• ManypartsareunderScheduleV• Communityconservationtobe

recognized

Biofuels and Biodiversity

• BeingintroducedinasmallscalebytheNorthEasternDevelopmentFinanceCorporationLtd(NEDFi)

• Statehasintroducedbiofuelpolicyandhasmassiveplanswhichisathreattobiodiversity

• HugeplantationofJatrophatakenupinthelasttwoyearsontherevenuewastelandsandforestlands

• Massiveplansofbiofuelplantationwithprospectivethreattobiodiversity

• Massiveplans,prospectivethreattobiodiversity

• Thrustonbiofuelsisdeveloping• Statehasintroducedbiofuelpolicyfor

undertakingJatrophaplantationsonwastelands

Forests and Communities

• Veryhighcommunitydependenceonforests

• Shiftingcultivation• Weakstategovernanceofforests• Existenceofcommunityconserved

areas-recognitionofcommunityprotectedareaslacking

• Existenceofhuman-animalconflicts• Huntingandothercustomary

practicesaffectbiodiversity• Communitycontrolisstrong-many

practiceshaveconservedbiodiversity


• Scopeforimprovementinforestgovernance

• Rightsremainunresolved• Existenceofhuman-animalconflicts• Needtoupdatecustomarypracticesto

preventlossoftheirimpact• Manyinstancesofcommunity

protectedforests• Manypracticeshaveconserved

biodiversity• E.g.Sarna,asacredgrove


• Scopeforimprovementinforestgovernance

• Rightsremainunresolved• Existenceofhuman-animal

conflicts• Needtoupdatecustomary

practicestopreventlossoftheirimpact

• Manypracticeshaveconservedbiodiversity

• E.g.Sarna,asacredgrove


• Recognitionofcommunityprotectedareaslacking

• Manycommunityrightsremainunresolved

• Existenceofhuman-animalconflicts• Needtoupdatecustomarypracticesto

preventlossoftheirimpact• Manypracticeshaveconserved

biodiversity• E.gDebottarlands

Livelihoods and Biodiversity

• Forestsserveforeverydayneeds• Standardizationofcropsandproducts• Livelihoodsdependonbiodiversity

-linkagecanbestrengthened• Endemicdiversityrequiresprotection• Littledocumentationofbiodiversity

withchancesofbiopiracy

• Biodiversityversuslivelihood/Biodiversitywithlivelihoods–orientationofschemes

• NTFPsarevaluablenutrition• Standardizationofcropsandproducts• Commercializationwithseveralcases

ofbiopiracydocumented


• NTFPsarevaluablenutrition• Standardizationofcropsand

products• Commercializationwith

erodinglocalknowledge• Needformechanismfor

protectionagainstbiopiracy


• NTFPsarevaluablenutrition• Standardizationofcropsandproducts• CommercializationandCorporate

farmingprevalent.• Needformechanismforprotection

againstbiopiracy

Inland Fisheries

and Marine Biodiversity

• Inlandfisheries–traditionallysupportedcommunities

• Largehydropowerprojects• Takeoverofmarkets

• Inlandfisheries–traditionallysupportedcommunities

• Privatization• Introductionofexoticspecies• WaterPollution–anissue

• Traditionallysupportedcommunities

• Mining• Introductionofexoticspecies

• Traditionallysupportedcommunities• Unaccounteduseanddepleting

resources• Developmentprojects/trawlers

threatenmarinebiodiversityanditsspecialfeatures



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Inthissection,efforthasbeenmadetodiscussthebroadaspectsrelatingtobiodiversityconservation,landuse,landusechangeandforestryacrossthefourstatesprofiledandstudiedsoastodevelopprogrammaticideasonissuesofbiodiversityconservationandrelatedlivelihoods.

�.0� GovernanceEffortshavebeenmadeinallfourstatestodecentralizegovernanceinaccordancewiththeprovisionsofthe73rdAmendmentoftheConstitutionandsubsequentlythePanchayat(ExtensiontoScheduleAreas)Actof1996.Whilethethree-tiersystemofPanchayatsisinplaceinChhattisgarh,OrissaandArunachalPradesh,electionsinJharkhandareyettobeconducted.AllthefourstateshaveadoptedJointForestManagement(JFM)arrangementsandhaveattemptedtodevolveforestprotectiontoacertainextent.Thoughtheredoexistinstancesofcommunityledconservationacrosseachofthefourstates,therecognitionofthesameisstillawaited.CommunityactionhasevolvedinareaswheretherehasbeenapreponderanceoflandfallingunderthecategoriesofRevenueWastelandandProtectedForest.Ofthefourstates,Jharkhand,ChhattisgarhandArunachalPradeshhaveenactedaStateBiodiversityActandconstitutedtheStateBiodiversityBoards.

Despitethesame,governanceremainsweakduetothelackofdevolution

ofpowerstothePanchayatsandimpropercoordinationbetweenvariousdepartments.Theprovisionsofthe73rdAmendmentandPESAof1996havenotyetbeenimplementedintruespiritinallthethreestates(Jharkhand,ChattisgarhandOrissa)inordertotransferpowertotribalrepresentatives.EvenwherePanchayatshavebeenconstitutedtheyarefoundtolacktherequiredcapacitiesforadministeringthemselvesorbenefittingfromtheopportunitiestogoverntheirnaturalresources.Thereisalsoaneedtostrengthentheimplementationofexistingpoliciesandgovernmentprogrammessothatthebenefitsfromthesecouldberealized.Forinstance,thediscussionswithvariousstakeholdersinChhattisgarhrevealedthattheForestWorkingPlanhasbeendraftedindependentlywithoutincludingtheprovisionsoftheChhattisgarhStateBiodiversityStrategyandActionPlan(CSBSAP)of2001.RisingNaxalismposesfurtherchallengestothepro-peopleinitiativesundertakenbycivilsocietyorganizationsandthegovernment.

�.0� Land UseAhighpercentageoflandineachStateisunderforestcoverwithrichfloralandfaunalbiodiversity.OnaccountofthehighpresenceofmineralsinthethreestatesofOrissa,JharkhandandChhattisgarh,theemphasishasshiftedtolarge-scaleminingaswellasindustrialandinfrastructuraldevelopment.Theidentifiedstateshave

�. State Level Analysis



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richdepositsofmineralssuchasironore,coal,limestone,uranium,bauxite,dolomite,tinore,gold,etc.TheStateGovernmentsofJharkhandandOrissaareknowntohavesignedMemorandumsofUnderstandingwithseveralcompaniesforundertakingminingandsettingupindustriesintherespectivestates.Inasimilarway,theVision2020statementoftheChhattisgarhgovernmentenvisagesprosperitybywayofexpeditingminingoperations7.Eventhoughminingisrestrictedtosmallerareas,ecologicalrepercussionsofsuchinterventionsarefeltacrossvastexpansesaffectingotherproductionsystems.Manypeopleinthestate,duringtheirdiscussions,pointedoutthatminingisthesinglebiggestthreattobiodiversity.

JhumorshiftingcultivationiscommonincertainpocketsofArunachalPradeshandOrissabuttheprejudiceagainstJhumcultivationbytheStateandthescientificcommunityhasnothelpedmuch.Theslopeshavefurtherdegradedbecauseofthereducingperiodoffallowandmoreintensivecultivation.Therehavebeeneffortsatpromotinghighyieldingcropandlivestockvarieties,monoculturefarming,andmorerecently,adisproportionateemphasisonbiofueldevelopmentwhichhasdivorcedculturalandecologicallinkagesbetweendifferenttraditionallivelihoodsystems.

LanduseisrenderedcomplexinanenvironmentwhereownershipandmanagementofcertainlandparcelsliewithtwodifferentdepartmentsasisthecaseofrevenueforestsinOrissa,

ChhattisgarhandJharkhand.ThereisalsotheissueofOrange Areas inChhattisgarh,whichwereforestlandsthatwerehandedbacktotheRevenueDepartmentbutthe12/12/1996rulingoftheSupremeCourtintheGodavarmanCaseagainmandatedtheForestDepartmenttoadministercontroloversuchlands.Duetothelackofclearownershiprights,muchconfusionandconflicthasprevailed,leadingtoaneglectofmanagementofsuchlandsandtherebydegradationoftheresource.SimilaristhecasewithforestlandswhichareawaitingtheregularizationundertheScheduledTribesandOtherTraditionalForestDwellers(RecognitionofForestRights)Act,2006.

�.0� Biofuels and BiodiversityTheGovernmentofIndia’spolicyofblendingbiofuelswithdieselhasledtotheevolvingofthebiofuelspolicybytheStateGovernmentswhichadvocatespromotionofJatropha(anon-edibleoil-seedbearingplant)andtreeborneoilseedplantationsonrevenuewastelandsandagriculturalmarginallands.Biofuelshaveemergedasanareaofmajorthrustinallstates,especiallyinChhattisgarhandJharkhand.Opinionsontheentireissue,locallyandglobally,remainsharplydivided.Chhattisgarh,forexample,hasstressedonplantingJatrophaonitswastelands/non-cultivableareas/uplandstoenhanceeconomicopportunityfromsuchlands.TheStateplanstobringupto10lakhhaunderJatrophaplantationby2012,fromthe18lakhhaofrevenuewastelandand19lakhhaofdegradedforestland.Ofsuch



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anambitioustarget,1.6lakhhahasalreadybeencovered.

Debatesaroundbiofuelshavehighlightedtheissueoffoodandfoddersecurity.Also,thisactivityhasbeenplannedonlandscategorizedas‘wastelands’,whichincidentallyhavebeenusedascommonstomeetthefuel/fodderrequirements.Inthesestates,wheremostofthelivestockownersaresmallandmarginalfarmerswhodependlargelyoncommonsfortheirfodderrequirements,propagationofspeciessuchasJatrophaatsuchextensivescaleissettothreatentheirlivelihoods.Theplanningshouldaccountforregionallanduseasaconcernandremainsensitivetolocaluse.TheinitiativeisalsosettoreplacetheexistingscrubforestsandsecondaryvegetationwhicharerichinbiodiversitythroughmonocultureplantationsofJatropha.

�.0� Forests and CommunitiesForestsareofgreatecologicalvalueintheidentifiedstatessincemostoftheperennialriversintheseregionsarenon-glacialinnature.Apartfrombeingthestartingpointsofseveralrivers,theforestsarealsoasourceoflivelihoodforinfringingcommunities.Inallthestates,forestsarefoundtoactasvitalsourcesforfood,andarecriticalintermsoffoodsecurity.Suchdependenceisgreaterinthecaseoftribalsandothermarginalizedgroups.TilltheJointForestManagement(JFM)wasintroduced,thecommunitiesdidnothavesubstantialrightsoverforests.InIndia,therearemorethanalakhJFMscoveringanareaof22.02millionhectares(PressInformationBureau,2008).ViewpointsdifferpertainingtothesuccessofJFM–onemaintainsthatJFMhasbeensuccessfulinareaswhereforestshavereducedwithtimeandtheotherthatitstillsuffersthelackofsufficientdevolutiontothecommunities.Intheareaswheretherewerenoforeststobeginwithorwherelargetractsofforestsstillexist,JFMhasnotbeenverysuccessful.

Orissahasinstancesofself-initiatedforestprotectiongroupsprotectinglargetractsofforestsmainlyrevenueforestsandGramya Junglesandovertheyearsthisphenomenonhasspreadtoreserveforestsaswell.InArunachalPradesh,communitiescontrol62%ofthetotalforest(Rastogi,2007)andtheyareknowntohavehistoricallyprotectedthem.Such

instancesarealsoobservedinChhattisgarhandJharkhand.People’sconservationmeasureshavelongexisted,butthereisneedforpolicyrecognitionofsuchconservation.The2002amendmentsoftheWildlife(Protection)Act,1972,doprovideforCommunityReservesandConservationReserves.Therehasbeenaninitiativetoform‘CommunityConservedArea’(CCA)intwosites–ThembangvillageofWestKamengdistrict(312sqkm)andLumpoandMuchatvillageofTawangdistrict(98sqkm)ofArunachalPradesh.Allthefourstateshavepredominantlytribalpopulationwhoseculturalandreligiouslinkswithnaturearewelldocumented.TheApatanisystemofresourcemanagementinArunachalPradesh,Sarna,ascaredgroveinChhattisgrahandJharkhand,andDebottarlandsinOrissaaresomeofthefewpracticesthatassistbiodiversityconservation.Culturalreferencesaresuchthatthetribalsinmanypartsofallthestateswouldneverkillcertainanimalswhichareregardedassacredbythemduetotheirrelationtototemicnames.

�.0� Livelihoods and BiodiversityThelinkagebetweenbiodiversityandlivelihoodsisquitecomplexanddifferentstakeholdershavedifferentapproaches.Thereisuniversalagreementthatbiodiversityisaresourcethatislinked



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tothewellbeingofcommunitieslivinginitsvicinity.InthecasestudyofanOrissavillageitwasfoundthatthetribalcommunitycollectsabout58varietiesofNTFPsfromtheforestofwhichitsellsonlyfive,butwhichneverthelessprovidesnearly50%ofitsannualcashincome.Theremainingvarietiesareusedfordomesticconsumption–asproductsforbarter,nutrition,medicine,etc.Inaforestthereistremendousdiversitytobeusedalltheyearroundandthuswhendiversityreduces,thelocalcommunitieshavefewerresourcestobankonandarerenderedvulnerable.AnotherstudyinJharkhandshowsthat55%foodsecurityhasdeclinedbecauseofdeclineinNTFP,somethingattributedtodeforestationandforestdegradation(CentreforEnvironmentandFoodSecurity,2005).

Acorollaryisthatifcommunity-biodiversitylinkageswereweakened,communitieswouldloseonnutrition,cashincomes,agriculturalproductivityandhealthylivestock.Itisalsoheldthatthereisnotsufficientnaturalresourcetosupplythemarket,whichisusuallyinarrangementswherecommunitiestendtoloseout.Thisisparticularlyevidentforagro-biodiversity.Theprevalenceofhighyieldingvarietieshassuppressedandsidelinedthecultivationoflocalvarietiesofcrops.Itisalsoarguedthatforestsregulatepovertyandacutepovertyexhaustsbiodiversity.Thepressureonbiodiversitycannotbewishedaway,anditisexertedfromseveralsides,notallofwhichcanbeaccounted.Thebestwayoutwouldbetodiversifylivelihoodssoastotakethepressureoff

biodiversity.Marketpotentialofcertainspecies

promptscommunitiestoconservethemtotheexclusionoftherest.Forinstance,laccultivationpromotedbytheIndianInstituteofNaturalResinsandGums(formerlyknownastheIndianLacResearchInstitute)inJharkhandhasencouragedtheprotectionofvarietiessuchasberandpalash.Alargenumberofothervarietieshavesufferedneglect.Manyschemesorientedtowardslivelihoodgenerationhaveencouragedlivelihoodsonparticularspeciesbuthaveaninsufficientcomponentforconservationofbiodiversity.Localbiodiversityisalsooverlookedinmanyschemesforplantations–forexampleundertherehabilitationplansthesecondaryforestscontinuetobeclearedforplantationofcommercialspecieslikeTectona grandisandGmelina arborea.Further,theneglectofcropandlivestockbiodiversityisevidentfromthependingSeedBillof2000andtheweakeningoftheProtectionofPlantVarietiesandFarmersRightsAct,2001andisanissueofgreatconcern.BiopiracytooremainsanissueandisweaklyaddressedbylawbothattheCentralaswellasattheStatelevel.

�.0� Inland Fisheries and Marine Biodiversity Watermanagementiscloselyassociatedwithlivelihoodandbiodiversityconcerns.Noneoftheidentifiedstatesreceiverainfallanylessthan1,100mm,despitewhichascarcityisoftenfacedwhichisprimarilyonaccountofthepoormanagementofwaterresourcesandskeweddistribution.Further,



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thereisatrendtowardsprivatizationofwaterresourcesinmanystates.Eachofthestateshasanindependentwaterpolicy,mostofwhichhavebeenrevisedinaccordancewiththeamendmentsmadetotheNationalWaterPolicyin2002thatareorientedtowards‘privateparticipation’inwaterresources.Thishasadverselyimpactedtheavailabilityofcleanandsafedrinkingwaterforhumanconsumptionpurposesandlivelihoodssuchasfisheriesandanimalhusbandry.

Allthefourstatesprofiledshowafocusoninlandfisherieswithbigger,capital-intensiveenterpriseshavingleaseholderrightsoverlargerinlandwaterbodiesforcommercialpurposeswithrestrictedcustomaryrightsfortheruralpoor.ThesmallerwaterbodiescontinuetobeunderthePanchayats,villagebodiesorindividualsandinallthestates,itisthemarketvarietiesoffreshwaterfishesthatarepropagatedinsuchvillagewaterbodies.Theconstructionofbigdamshasresultedinthedepletionofseveralindigenousvarietiesofcarpsandtroutsinthedownstream.InOrissa,itisfurtherreportedthatconstructionofmajorirrigationandhydroelectricityprojectsalongtheMahanadiandBrahmanirivershasreducedthedischargeoffreshwatertothesea,increasedbrackishnessandaffectedwildfaunainthereacheswheresuchriversmeetthesea.AdditionallyriverpollutionishighwithBrahmanibeingoneofthe20mostpollutedriversofthe

world.Mahanadiisequallyaffectedbytheindustrialcorridorsalongit.

Oftheidentifiedstates,Orissaistheonlyonewithacoastline8.EventhoughtheCoastalRegulationZoneNotification,1991(undertheEPA,1989)remainsinforce,theHighTideLine(HTL)isyettobedeterminedforabetterpartofthestretch.IntheabsenceofaclearlyidentifiableHighTideLine(HTL),ithasbecomedifficulttoenforcetheprogressiveelementsoftheact,whichpreventsenvironmentallyhazardousactivitieswithin500metersoftheHTLarea.Theprevailingpolicyframeworkprovidesverylittleopportunitiesforcommunity-basedconservationofmarinebiota.Ontheonehand,rapidmechanization(i.e.introductionoftrawlers),introductionofbarricades(onlyaffordablebybiggerenterprises)andparticipationofforeignfishingenterprisesinIndianseashavemarginalizedpoorergroupsoffisherfolktraditionallydependentuponmarinefishproduce,andontheother,theseareasarepronetonaturaldisasterssuchascyclonesimpactingthefishermencommunitiesaswellasagricultureinthehinterland.Thecropdestructiononaccountofnaturaldisastersrenderscommunitiesvulnerableandforcesthemtoexerthigherpressuresontheprevailingbiomass,whichitselfisrecoveringfromthedisaster.Disasterpreparednessthusneedstohaveinbuiltcomponentsofbiodiversityconservationandviceversa.



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Instancesofafewacknowledgedbestpracticesandsuccessstoriesarepresentedinthissectionunderkey focal areasthat,inrecenttimes,havebeguntodefineprogrammaticinterventiononbiodiversityconservation.

�. Key Focal Areas �.0� Biodiversity conservation as a strategy for equitable development BiodiversityrichareasprovideNTFPsforthepoor.Theyarenotonlytheoriginatingpointsofseverallifesustainingriversandtributariesbutalsotransfervitalnutrientstosmallandmarginallandslocatedinadjoiningareas.Eachofthesebenefitsareofcriticalvaluetomarginalizedgroups,heedingwhichaUNDPprogrammeinPakistancalledtheMountain Areas Conservancyproject(MACP)9hashelpedestablishandstrengthenvillageandvalley-levelconservationcommitteesin65of70valleysandsetuptheValleyConservationFundandMountainAreasConservancyFundasfinancingmechanisms.Ithasalsohelpedtodeveloptheofficialpolicythatempoweredthesecommitteestotakeresponsibilityforsustainablemanagementoftheirownforestsandwildlife.This

projecthasnotonlysafeguardedtheinterestsandlivelihoodsofanerstwhile-marginalizedgroup,buthasalsobecomeameansforprovidingthelocalstewardswithanempoweringcontextthatensuressocialandpoliticalequability,inadditiontoeconomicequity.

Inanotherinstance,theWesternTeraiLandscapeComplexProjectinNepalhasbeencraftedtoaddresstheissueofexpandinghumanneedsandtheirpressureontheecosystem.Inthisinitiation,conservationhasbeenextendedbeyondtheboundaryoftheProtectedAreatocoverlargerlandscapeofdifferentlandusepatternswithanaimtodevelopreplicablelandscape-levelmanagementmodel(s)forsafeguardingthebiologicalwealthandvitalecologicalfunctionsinNepal.Initiatedin2005,theeight-yearlongprojectisajointinitiativeoftheGovernmentofNepalandsevennationalandinternationalorganizations.Theproject’slandscapeapproachenvisionsintegratedecosystemmanagementtoachievethemultipleobjectivesofconservation,sustainablenaturalresourcemanagementandpovertyalleviationbyreorientingbiodiversitymanagementapproachesanditsinstitutionalarrangements.Theprojectwasdesignedtoaddressmajorbiodiversity

Chapter IV

Best Practices and Key Learning



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threatsofagricultureencroachmentandsquattinginforestlands,highgrazingpressureintheforests,overexploitationofforestresourcesandthereplacementoftraditionalagriculturalcropvarietiesandlandraceswithmoderncultivars.

�.0� Models of livelihood production that assist in biodiversity conservation Thereexistseverallivelihoodoptionsthatensureasustainablestreamofbenefitsandhelptocreateeconomicincentivesforthelong-termfurtheranceofconservationgoals.Suchlivelihoodscommonlyincludeorganicfarming,smallscaleenterprisessuchasbeekeeping,eco-tourism,etc.ThehoneyprogrammeofAppropriate Technology India(ATI)10isworthyofamention,andiscentredontheorganization’s‘conservation-and-enterprise’approach.TheorganizationhasintroducedimprovedwallhivetechnologytoincreaseproductivityoftraditionalbeehivesinremoteGarhwalHimalayanvillages.Inecologicalterms,beesserveasefficientpollinatingagentsintheWesternHimalayasregion.Thisresultsinbetterseedproductioninforestsandpastures,whichcontributestobetterregeneration.Asaresult,theeconomicvalueofblossomingtreesandflowersincreases,thusbenefittinglocalcommunities.Severalsuchviableoptionsarefoundtoexist,andareofextremevalueinconservingbiodiversitythroughecologicallysoundmodelsoflivelihood.

FES’sprojectintheperipheryvillagesofSatkosiaGorgeWildlifeSanctuary,Orissa,initiatedin2005,isaimedatconservingandimprovingthebiodiversityandfaunalhabitatsofthesanctuarythroughreducedpressureoflivestockgrazingandaddressingthebiomassneedsoftheperipheryvillagesthroughimprovedvegetationoutsideforestareastomeetlocalneedsandsupportalternativelivelihoodoptions.Theprojecthasbeenabletodemonstrateonasmallscalethatworkonlivelihoodaspectscouldhelpinbothreducingthedependenceontheforestsaswellasincreasingthelivelihoodsofthecommunitieslivingaroundthesanctuary.SimilarprojectsbeingimplementedbytheAshokaTrustforResearchinEcologyandEnvironment(ATREE)aroundBRTWildlifeSanctuaryandtheKeystone’sprojectaroundtheNilgirisprovidefurtherexamples.

�.0� Biodiversity conservation as a means of mitigating risks to livelihoodsBiodiversityconservationensurestheavailabilityof‘keyassets’fordifferentsectionsofruralcommunity–agriculturists,fisherfolk,livestockherders,artisans,smallscaleentrepreneurs,NTFPcollectors,etc.–thuswideningthelocallivelihoodportfoliotoencompassavarietyofalternateandecologicallysustainableenterprises.Adiverselivelihoodportfolio,createdandsustainedinthismanner,increasesvillageresiliencetomarketfluctuations,unpredictablerainfallandevennaturaldisasters.Inrain-fedregionsbiodiversityconservation,undertakenaspartofwatershedprogrammes,succeedsindroughtproofingregionsandrestrictinglanddegradation.BiodiversityconservationfurtherequipslocalcommunitiestodealwithissuesrelatingtotheintroductionofGeneticallyModifiedOrganisms(GMOs).

InMexico,forinstance,thecountry-baseddemonstrationprojecttoassistincapacity-buildingtoimplementnationalbiosafetyframeworkispartneringwiththegovernment’sNationalCommissiononBiosafetyandGeneticallyModifiedOrganismstodevelopalong-rangeplanaddressingbiosafetyconcerns.Specifically,theprojectishelpingdeveloptheskillsandcapacityneededtocarryoutscientificandtechnicalriskassessments;implementactivitiesforriskmanagement;andfosteranevaluationandstrengthening,wherenecessary,ofMexico’slegalandregulatory



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framework.Aflexibleinformationsharingsystem,introducedaspartoftheproject,wasasignificantinfluenceinhelpingco-ordinategovernmentactivities,standardizeriskassessments,andprovideeffectiveoversightoflivingmodifiedorganismsissues.

�.0� Promoting trade and business that will strengthen biodiversity conservation Sincetermsoftradeuniversallydeterminelivelihoodchoicesatthevillagelevel,interveningagenciesarerequiredtofostermarketconditionsthatwillencouragebiodiversityconservation.Theseinterveningagenciesarerequiredtoassistlocalcommunitiesintappingexistingopportunities,aswellasinitiatelocallevelmarketreformsthatwillpreventthecorrosionofexistingbiodiversity.

InEthiopia,forexample,theDynamicFarmer-basedApproachtotheConservationofEthiopia’sPlantGeneticResourcesprojecthasfosteredauniquepartnershipbetweenlocalfarmers,extensionagents,scientificinstitutions,andgovernmentdepartmentstoconserve316varietiesof22differentcropsonfarms.Theprojecthasdevelopedthecapacityoflocalfarmerassociationsandestablished12communitygenebanks.Atthesametime,theprojecthasdevelopedmarketincentivesformaintaininggeneticdiversity.

Thisincludesapioneeringandeffectiveprogrammeforreimbursingfarmersforconservingdifferentvarieties,orlandraces,ofthesamecropspecies.SimilarlycocoafieldsofGhanaareharvestedamongforeststhatincludeoneoftheworld’stop-25‘hotspots’ofbiodiversity.There,inaregionthatincludesmorethanhalfofallmammalspeciesfoundinAfrica,aUNDP-GEFprojectisinitiatingworkwithlocalstakeholders,government,donorsandtheglobalcocoaindustrytodevelopsustainablecocoaproductionsystemsthatcanbothbenefittheregion’sbiodiversityandproveeconomicallyviable.

Marketpotentialofcertainspeciespromptscommunitiestoconservethemtotheexclusionoftherest.Forinstance,laccultivationpromotedbytheIndianInstituteofNaturalResinsAndGums(formerlyknownastheIndianLacResearchInstitute)inJharkhandhasencouragedtheprotectionofspeciessuchasZiziphus ziziphus(ber)andButea frondosa(palash), whiletheothershavebeenexploited.Therearesimilarexperienceswiththepromotionof tassarcultivation(hosttreebeingTerminalia arjuna)inJharkhandandWestBengal.Whilethepromotionofspecies-basedprogrammesforlivelihoodimprovementcouldbeencouraged,itmustbeensuredthattheprojectscompriseasufficientcomponentforoverallconservationofbiodiversity.Thechallenge



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remainsinsensitizingglobalforcesandprioritiesinamannerthatmarketmechanismsatthegrassrootlevelaremadeaccommodativeoflocallivelihoodandbiodiversityconcerns.

�.0� Encouraging traditional knowledge and decentralizing management for biodiversity conservation Thegoalsofdecentralizationlargelycoincidewiththeneedsofeffectivebiodiversitymanagement.Intheory,localpeoplearemorelikelytoidentifyandprioritizetheirenvironmentalproblemsaccurately,andinsuchcontext,resourceallocationisboundtobemoreefficientandinformationcostslower.Localgroupsarealsolikelytohaveagreatersenseofownershipofdecisionsmadelocally,suchasrulespertainingtoresourceuse11.Inadditiondecentralizedmanagementisalsocapableofcapitalizinguponsystemsoftraditionalknowledgeandlocalbestpractices.

InthisregardthePolynesianislandofNiuehasbegunanationaldialogueonTraditionalKnowledge(TK)byestablishingaNationalForumfortheProtectionofTraditionalKnowledgeandAccesstoGeneticResourcesandEquitableBenefit-sharing.TheForumhasmadeevidenttothegovernmentthatprotectionoftraditionalknowledgethroughtraditionalintellectualpropertyregimesisnotsatisfactorytoNiueoritscitizens.TheForumisnowconsideringproposing

legislationbasedupontheModelLawfortheProtectionofPacificIslands’TraditionalKnowledgeandCulturalExpressionsdevelopedbytheWorkshopontheProtectionofTraditionalKnowledgeandExpressionsofCulture(UNESCO,2001).RecognitionofTraditionalKnowledge,coupledwithdecentralizedmanagementisguaranteedtocontributetowardsbettergovernanceofbiodiversity.

SimilarlyANTHRAisanorganizationofwomenveterinaryscientistsworkingprimarilyonissuesoflivestockdevelopmentwithinthebroadercontextofsustainablenaturalresourceuse.ANTHRAhasdocumentedover700differenttraditionalremediesusedfortreatingapproximately70differentconditionsaffectingdomesticfarmanimalsand14conditionsofpoultry.Bypopularizingsuchpractices,ANTHRAhasinitiatedaprocessthatassistsinpreservingindigenousvarietiesoflivestock.

Decentralizedmanagementrequiresforinterveningagenciestocapacitatelocalinstitutions,andstrengtheninstitutionalnormsandregulationsforsustainabledevelopmentandbiodiversityconservation.

�.0� Potential means for converging government programmes for biodiversity conservationBiodiversityconservationmeasuresbearwiththemthepotentialmeansforconvergingprogrammesandinitiatives,



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bothgovernmentalandnongovernmental,andinitiatingadialogueontheneedtocoherepolicies,enactmentsandlegislations,whichinpractice,arefoundtoworkatcross-purposestooneanother.Biodiversityconservationidealsdemandanintegratedapproachthatnecessitatesinterdepartmentalcooperationandcoordinationaswell.

InSriLanka’sWildlifeConservationandProtectedAreaManagementproject12,thishasmeantthetrainingofmorethan475resourceprofessionals–90%oftheDepartmentofWildlifeConservation’srangers,guards,andparkstaff–whoarenowbetterpreparedtomanageprotectedareasandinteractpositivelywithlocalpopulationswhosecommunitiessurroundthem.

TheCommunity-BasedRangelandRehabilitationprojectinSudan,implementedwithsupportfromUNDP/GEF,undertookaneffortinprovidingleadersofruralcouncilswithintensivetrainingonenvironmentalawareness.Followingthat,theprojectsupportedrequestsfromcouncilauthoritiesforassistanceindraftingadecreetostoptheinefficientexpansionofagriculturalfields.

Bothprojectshavesucceededinbringinglocalcommunities,subjectmatterspecialists,interveningagenciesandlocalcommunitiesonacommonplatformandinitiatingadialogueonevolvinggovernancemechanismsthatwouldbebetterorientedtowardsbiodiversityconservation.

Supporting SectorsApartfromthebestpracticesandsuccessstoriesmentionedaspartofthekeyresultareas,biodiversityrequiresassistanceintheformofadequatetechnologicalsupport,measurestoenhancelocalcapacitiesandresearchanddevelopment.Suchareasofinterventionarerecognizedassupportsectors–areasthatgreatlyassistmainstreamprogrammestosystematicallyaddresslivelihoodneedsandeffortsaimedatbiodiversityconservation.

Capacity Building and Technological SupportPoliciesofagenciessuchastheInternationalFundforAgricultureDevelopment(IFAD)andtheEuropeanUnioninthisregardareexemplary.Emphasisislaidonenhancingtechnical,legalandinstitutionalcapacitiesto

addressnegativeexternalities;tohelpbeneficiariesmitigateanypotentialadverseimpactsassociatedwithprojectinterventions,andtoeaseconstraintsontheiradoptionofenvironment-friendly,sustainablepractices.AconsciousefforttointroducetechnologicalpackagestoimprovelivelihoodsshouldevolveoutofadaptiveR&D,inordertobuildonlocalknowledgesystemsinthefaceofnewenvironmentalchallengeslinkedtoclimatechangeandtoenhancelocalcapabilities.Itisfurtherbelievedthatcertainformsoflocalandindigenousknowledge(forexample,knowledgeofmedicinalplantsorunder-utilizedplantspecies)needsupportandintegrationintofair,sustainablevaluechainswhichmayboostlocalcapabilitiesandstrengthenlocalcultureswhilealsocontributetoclimatechangemitigationandbiodiversity.

Research and DevelopmentAninterdisciplinaryapproachwhereincommunitymobilizationisbasedonascientificallycorrectunderstandingofecologicalphenomenaisnecessaryforinterventionstobesuccessful.InthisregardYemen’sConservationandSustainableUseoftheBiodiversityoftheSocotraArchipelagoprojectiswidelyseenashavingraisednationalawarenessontheimportanceofcoralreefhabitatsandencouragedtheYemenigovernmenttosigntheConventionontheInternationalTradeinEndangeredSpeciesofWildFloraandFauna(CITES).Theprojectcarriedoutthebiodiversityresearchthatprovidedthebasisfordesigningacomprehensiveconservation-zoningplanfortheislands,whichwasratifiedbythegovernment.

Itmaybestatedthattraditionalandcommunityknowledge,asopposedtobeingunscientific,arefoundtocontributesignificantlytodatabasesandknowledgesystemsdevelopedthroughmodern,scientificallyrigorousmethods.Researchundertakenalongwithcommunityparticipationisboundtobemoreaccurate,andmoreeasilytranslatableintoactionatthelocallevel.Researchremainsanimportantarenainbeingabletodeterminetheadverseaffectsofclimatechangeandincreasedemissions,asmuchasitshouldbeaninstrumentforpolicyformulationandlocaldecision-making.



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Chapter V

Programmatic Ideas for Addressing Cross-cutting Issues in Biodiversity Conservation & Livelihoods PromotionAprogrammeplantoaddressbiodiversityconservationandlivelihoodconcernsforthenextfouryearsfocusingonfourpriorityStates–Chattisgarh,Orissa,JharkandandArunachalPradesh–isdiscussedinthischapter.Basedonthereviewofpolicyandstrategicprioritiesasmentionedinthepreviouschapters,weproposethefollowingideasmaybetakenforward:

Idea �: Identifying, Conserving and Protecting the Important Biodiversity Areas Thefourstateshaveseveralsitesthatareofimportanceintermsofbiodiversityandlandscapes.Protectedareashaveemergedasameansofconservingvaluablebiodiversityandlandscapes.TheIUCNhasalsourgedcountriesparticipatingintheConferenceofPartiestotheCBD,meetinginBonnin2008,tostrengthenProtectedAreasasameanstosavethespecies,especiallythoseinmarine,freshwatersandthecoastalareas(suchasChilikainOrissa).Toaccordthesesitesdueprotectionitisimportanttorecognizethemassuch.Thereareseveralpossibilitiesundertheexistinglegalframework.SuchareasmaybenotifiedundertheIndian(Forest)Act,1927andthenundertheWildlife(Protection)Act,1972ascommunityconservedareasorconservationreserves.However,areasthatarenotnotifiedasforestscanbedeclaredEcologicallySensitiveAreasundertheEnvironmentProtectionAct(1986),whichallowsafairdegreeofinnovationandsituation-specificsetofregulations.

Itisrequiredthatconservationeffortsdonotremainrestrictedtothedefinedprotectedarea.Rather,theyshouldaddressthelargerlandscapecomprisingsuchareasforallpurposesofhealthysustenance.Thesuccessofbiodiversityconservationinthebufferzoneswillgreatlyensuretheprotectionofendangeredspeciesinthecoreareas.Mostoften,withthedeclarationoftheseProtectedAreas,communitieslivinginandaroundthemarerestrictedfromderivingbenefitsfromforestproduce,

andaresometimesantagonizedagainsttheveryprocessofbiodiversityconservation.Suchconflictsarebeingobservedineachoftheaforementionedstates.

Thereisaneedtomoveawayfromanapproachwhereinlivelihoodandconservationareatcross-purposes,toonewhereeachcomplementstheother.Muchcanbeachievedbyinvolvingcommunitiesinconservationaroundprotectedareas,moresobyenablingthemtoestablishnormsthataresensitivetoconservationneeds,withoutsidelininglivelihoodrequirements.

Key Operational Ideas 1. Identifylandscapeswithbiodiversity-

richregions2. Understandinter-linkagesbetween

differentproductionsystemsandecosystemfunctions

3. Initiatepilotstodemonstrateandpopularizetheprinciplesofco-management

4. Helpthegovernmenttoregulatetheactivitiesintheseregionsthroughvariousmeasures

5.AdvocatetopolicymakersattheCentralandStateleveltospecificallyidentifyandregulatetheseregions

Idea �: Conservation Outside Protected Areas Itisrequiredtoaddressconservationissuesoutsideprotectedareasaswell.Thereareopportunitiestoconservebiodiversitythroughinterventiononsizabletractsoflandfallingundervariouscategories.Theonlyimpedimentisthatitisdifficulttosecureworkingapprovalsonaccountofpolicyandbureaucraticbottlenecks.Ifsuchlandscanbebroughtunderplannedintervention,controlensuredinfavouroflocalcommunitiesandresourceschannelledinaccordancewiththedesirablelanduse,theycouldhelptogreatlystimulateeffortsatbiodiversityconservation.Thisissomethingthatcouldbemadepossibleevenifsuchlandsoccur



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inisolatedblocks.Theseblockscanalsoactasunitsofbiodiversityconservationthatcanreducepressuresonprotectedareas,andgrowtoformanetworkofconcertedeffortsthatwouldenhanceparticipationasregardsbiodiversityconservationandprovideforcommunityneedssimultaneously.

Key Operational Ideas1. Identifyareasoutsideprotected

areasforbiodiversityconservation2. Promotecommunity-based

conservationpossibilitiesinordertoreducepressuresonprotectedareas

3. Deviseinnovativeandsituation-specifictenurearrangements

4. Demonstrateappropriatelandusemodels

Idea �: Strengthening Community Institutions to Promote Biodiversity Conservation Manycommunityinstitutionshavebeenconservingforeststomeetsomeoftheirlivelihoodneeds.SuchformsofinstitutionshaveconservedthebiodiversityofGramya JunglesasfoundinOrissa,communityforestsinArunachalPradesh,etc.Institutionalmechanismsalsoprevailamongfishingcommunitieswhichfrequentlypreventtheharvestofproduceduringthebreedingseason.Theseinstitutionsneedtoberecognizedandreplicatedtoensureasustainedeffortinconservingbiodiversity.

Securetenureonland-basedcommons,suchasleaseallottedtocommunitiesoverrevenuewastelands,canexpeditetheformationofinstitutionaltemplatesthatcaneffectivelyconservebiodiversity.Inthisregarditmaybementionedthattenurialrightsremaintobeproperlydefinedwithregardtorevenueforestsinallstates–beitcommunityprotectedareasinOrissa,KhuntkattilandsinJharkhand,Orange AreasinChhattisgarh,unclassedforestsinArunachalPradesh,etc.Programmesthatcanbuildontraditionalconservationpracticesandprovidetherequiredincentiveshavemuchtoofferinthisregard.

Sinceissuesofbiodiversityconservationarecommontoanumberofvillages,theformationofforumscomprisingallthevillageinstitutionssharingagivenresourceeasesnegotiations,reducesconflicts,andincreasessolidaritytoprotectresources

fromvestedinterests.Itisfoundthatforumsarebetterpositionedtobargainwithgovernmentdepartmentsandrelatedagenciesfortheirrightsandentitlements.Bymakingvillageinstitutionsthelocusofconservationefforts,adherencetonormsisguaranteedandeffortscanbeundertakenoverlongerperiodsoftime.Thechallengehoweverremainsinensuringequitabledevelopmentbycreatingspacesforthemarginalizedindecision-makingandbenefit-sharingprocesses.Infact,biodiversityconservationprovidesthegroundsforinitiatingadiscussiononequityandfurtherprovidesanopportunitytoforgeinstitutionsthatarelong-standingandresilient.

Key Operational Ideas1. Supportcommunity-based

institutionsinvolvedinconservation2. Disseminateandbuildcapacities

ofcommunityinstitutionsonbiodiversityconservation

3. Developmanagement/institutionalsystemsthatincludeincentivesforconservationofbiodiversity

4. Evolveforumsofvillagelevelinstitutionsatdifferenttiersandattempttoformulateregionalplans

5. Advocateforsimilarsystemsatthenationallevel

Idea �: Promoting Livelihoods that Support Biodiversity Conservation Certaintraditionaloccupationalpracticeshaveevolvedaroundthebiodiversityprevalentinareas.Non-TimberForestProducefromforestsisamajorsourceofincomeforthetribals.ArtisanshipbasedontheabundanceofbambooinArunachalPradesh,prospectsforlaccultureandtassarsilksinJharkhandaresomeofthelivingexamplesoflivelihood-biodiversitylinkages.Traditionalhealershavelongbeendependentonherbsandotherbiodiversityinforests.However,knowledgesystemsthathavehadanintricaterelationshipwithbiodiversitysincethepastaregettinglostinthetransitionoftribalcommunitiesfromsubsistenceeconomytomarketeconomy.Breedingpracticesofthepastoralists,forexample,havesucceededinconservingthebestlocalvarietiesandbreedsofanimals.Similarlywithinagriculture,therearetraditionalpracticesthathelpconserveseeds.These



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traditionaloccupationsaredependentondiversifiednaturalresourcesandensurelivelihoods.Thespecificadvantageoftheselivelihoodsisthattheystemfromaninherentinterestinconservationbecauseofthefunctionalrelationshipestablishedbetweenconservationandlivelihoods.Thereforeidentifying,understandingandstrengtheningsuchoccupationsshallbeusefulforbiodiversityconservation.

Key Operational Ideas 1.Promoteenterprisesthatarenot

exploitativebutrathersustaineffortsatbiodiversityconservation

2. Supporteffortstoconserveindigenousbreeds,traditionalseedvarieties,medicinalandethno-veterinarypractices

3. Documentanddisseminatepracticesandknowledgearoundtheenterprise

4. Developsuitablestandardsandaccreditationprocesses

Idea �: Strengthening Conservation Needs in Important Sectors like Agriculture, Livestock, Fisheries and Horticulture Farmingandproductionsystemspromotedbythegovernmenthaveheavilyunderminedlocalvarieties.Thepredominantapproachbythegovernmenthasbeenorientedtowardsmaximizingproductivityandmeetingthecountry’sgrowingconsumptiondemandsandneeds.Policiesimplementedacrossthecountryatthenationalandstatelevelhavealteredthebiodiversity.Cultivationpracticeshavechangedthroughmassiveextensionandselectiveseedpropagation.Researchinagricultureandlivestockrearingisalsoorientedtowardsproducinghighyieldingvarietiesthatareinput-intensiveandlesssuitedtolocalconditionsand/orneedsofsmallandmarginalfarmers.AnexampletobeconsideredisthatOrissahadnearly500varietiesofrice/paddytillrecently,andcurrentlynotmorethan10differentvarietiesareavailablefortheconsumerinthemarket.Thiskindofmonocultureisapredominantpracticenotonlyinagriculturebutalsointhelivestock,fisheriesandhorticulturesectors.Alternativelythereexistmeasuresthatfocusonimprovingexistingpracticesoflivestockrearingorcultivation,andsuch

measureshaveensuredhigheryieldsinanecologicallyfriendlymanner.TheSystemofRiceIntensification(SRI)isonesuchexample.

Effortsinthedirectionofagro-biodiversity,promotionanddevelopmentinthenon-dairylivestocksector,valueadditionforhorticultureproducethatissuitedtolocalclimaticconditionsandindigenousvarietiesoffishareneeded.Biodiversityconservationmeasureshavethepotentialforconvergingprogrammesandinitiatives,bothgovernmentalandnon-governmental,andinitiatingadialogueontheneedforcoherentpoliciesandinterdepartmentalcoordination.

Key Operational Ideas1. Buildthecapacitiesofvarious

linedepartmentsatthenationalandstatelevelonbiodiversityconservationneeds

2. Encouragethemulti-stakeholderapproachtoachieveconvergenceamongdifferentdepartmentsandagencies

3. Reorientresearchandpromotepracticesthatsupportbiodiversitysimultaneously

4. Documentthespeciesdiversityinvariousimportantproductionsystems

5. Developincentivesforpromotionofbiodiversity

Idea �: Promoting Eco-tourism to Protect Biodiversity Communitiesarelikelytooptforeco-tourismonlywhenitismoreremunerativetoprotectthelandscapethantoclearoraccessitforthepurposeofotherlivelihoods.Thereareseveralexamplesofbiodiversityhotspotsbecominginterestingtouristattractionsduetotheirnaturalwealth.Inplaceswherethereareendangeredspecieswerequireprotectedpropagationtoensurethatthesespeciessurvive.Theobjectiveshouldbetofosterandencouragetheprotectionofsuchlandscapesandspeciesthroughtourismrevenue.Sincethetourismindustryishighlyresourceintensiveandalsoinvolveshighgenerationofwastematerialitwouldrequiresoundmanagementtohandlethedelicatebalancebetweenresourceconservationandutilizationfortheincomeenhancementoflocalcommunities.



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Tourisminsuchareashastobelowvolumeandhighrevenue.

TheIUCNandtheWorldTourismOrganizationidentifyaboutfourcriteria13beforeanenterprisecanbelabeledas“ecotourism”.Itwouldalsobeveryimportanttopublicizethesespotsasbiodiversityspotsandnotasgeneraltourismdestinations.Infrastructure,ifitweretobedevelopedatall,wouldhavetotobearinmindtheintegrityofthesociallandscapeandculturalspecificities.

Key Operational Ideas1. Identifybiodiversity-richsitesthat

cansupportandbenefitfromecologicallysustainablemodelsoftourism

2. Promotepartnershipbetweencommunities,governmentsandtourismindustrytomanagetheseresources

3. Developeco-friendlyinfrastructureforthetouristtoaccesstheselocations

4. Buildcapacitiesoflocalcommunitiestoconserveandmanagetourism

5. Institutechartersofmanagingsustainableandresponsibletourism

Idea �: Strengthening Small Scale Production Systems at the Household Level Biodiversitycanthrivebetterthroughdecentralizedsystems,especiallywhenchoicesareallowedtobemadeatthehabitationandhouseholdlevel.Intermsofbiodiversity,thesesmall-scaleproductionsystemsincludingjhum,conserveawidevarietyoflocalspecies.Inthissensethesmall-scalecultivationofvegetables,smalllivestockholdingscomprisingfewbirds,ruminantsandmilchcattle,andpropagationoffruitbearingtreesonfarmbundsofferampleopportunitiesforbiodiversityconservation.Small-scaleproductionsystems,especiallythosefollowedbythetribalsandinremotepockets,continuetorelyonamixofpracticesthathelpconservebiodiversity.Bynursingarangeofcropvarietiesontheirsmalllandholdings,suchruralcommunitiesarenotonlyabletosatisfytheirnutritionalrequirementsbutalsoensurethatintheeventofacalamityselectspeciesoughttosurvive.Indiresituationssuchpracticesalsoprovidesupplementaryincome,astheyusuallyareeasily

disposableliquidassets.Withacertaindegreeofsupporttosuchinitiativesandmethodsofvalueaddition,theirmarketvaluecanbeconsiderablyenhanced.Thus,small-scaleproductionsystemscanbeusedasameanstopreserveindigenousgeneticmaterial,whichmaintainsdiversityandtherebyenlargesthelocallivelihoodportfolio.

Key Operational Ideas1. Strengthentheexistingsmall-scale

productionsystemsinruralIndiabyprovidingincentivesforthepromotionofsuchsystems

2. Documentanddisseminatetheimportantbiologicalresourcesconserved,withadditionalemphasisonnutritionalsupportprovidedbythesespecies

3. Promoteresearcharoundsuchsystems

4. Advocateanddeveloppoliciestoaccountandpromotesmall-scaleproductionsystems

Idea �: Developing Capacity for Biosafety to Substantially Reduce the Impact on Biodiversity of Invasive Alien Species, Genetically Modified Organisms Manygeneticallymodifiedorganismsarebeingintroducedwithinthecultivatedanddomesticatedproductionsystems.Theseareusuallybroughtinasascientificsolutionfordevelopingresistancetopests,diseasesandclimatevagaries.Thespeciesthusdevelopedareinturnabletocompetewiththedominantspeciesanddominateresourceusage.Theyupsettheecologicalbalanceandoftenbecomeinvasive,takingoverpristinehabitatsintheabsenceofanynaturalpredatorsorcompetitors.Invasivespeciesareoneofthetopfourthreatstobiodiversity.However,theprocesstomanagethemwouldalsoneedconsiderableamountofinputfromscientists.

IncaseofspeciessuchasLantanaorPartheniumnoamountofphysicalinputhasyieldedresultsbecausethespeciesarefartooadaptive.Onlyfewresearchagenciesaddressthis,thattoo,withlimitedresults.Theefforttofightoffinvasivespeciesneedsaholisticeffortthatincludesscientificinstitutions,governmentagenciesandcivilsocietyintomeaningful



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collaboration.Toaddfurthercomplicationtothematter,manysuchspeciescouldcomefromwithinthecountryandtheywouldnotbesubjecttoprogressivearrangementsliketheCartagenaProtocolonBiosafetyundertheCBD.Therearenoregulationsonintroducingspeciesfromelsewherewithinthecountry,thoughsuchspecieswilldefinitelybealientotheecosystem.Aspeciesfromelsewherewithinthecountrytoocouldbealientotheecosystemandispotentialinvasive.However,thereisnocontrolonthepropagationofspeciestoocouldbealientotheecosystemandpotentiallyinvasive.Suchloopholesneedplugginginthelargerpolicyarrangement.

Key Operational Ideas1. Assessgapsinthelegal,policyand

economicframeworktoprevent,controlanderadicateinvasivealienspecies

2. AssessalienspeciesandpresenceofGMOs(geneticallymodifiedorganisms)acrossagro-ecologicalzoneswithinthecountry

3. Mitigatetheirimpactsonbiodiversityanddevelopacommunitystrategytoaddressthemitigationmeasures

4. Encouragebothnational/statelevelpoliciestomanageinvasivespecies

5. Demonstratebiosafetymeasuresinproductionsystems

6. Buildcapacitiesofthelinedepartmentsonbiosafetymeasures

Idea �: Promoting Trade Practices that Support Biodiversity Conservation Tradepracticesacrosstheworldinfluencebiodiversityconservationefforts.Ifthemarketisabletoaccommodatealargevarietyoffood,commodities,medicines,clothesorotheritemsoftrade,itwouldobviouslyraisethescopeforconservation.Freetradeneverthelessisrequiredtoremainsensitivetothecarryingcapacityofecosystemsandmustcontrolpoachingandexcessiveextraction.Restrictivetradepracticesandalsoencouragementofspecificvarietiesbynationalandinternationaltraderegimesdoaffectthespeciesdiversity.Tradebarriersarealsobeingpractisedtoprotectthelocalvarietiesandtorestrictthemovementofalienspecies.Thereforeeffortsto

understandtheinfluenceoftradeonbiodiversityandtoadvocaterightpracticeswillbeimportantforthenationonthewhole,andespeciallyforthefourstatesinwhichworkisproposed.However,precautionarychecksandbalanceswouldberequiredtoensurethatsuchchainsremainfreeofriskssuchaspollution,geneticcontamination,invasivespecies,etc.

Key Operational Ideas1. Identifythevarioustraderelated

elementswhichaffectthebiodiversityconservation

2. Fosterlinksbetweentradeagreementsandbiodiversityconservationatthenationalandstatelevel

3. Identifymeasuresforreducingtheecologicalimpactofglobalizationandtraderelations

4. Advocatetovariousgovernmentlinedepartmentsespeciallythoserelatedtonaturalresourcesandlivelihoodsontheneedtoidentifythelinksandestablishpolicieswhichencouragespeciesdiversity

Idea �0: Assessment and Inventorisation of Biological Diversity Allresourceforhumansurvival–food,medicine,fiber,fuel–isultimatelydrawnfrombiologicalresources.Humanscontinuetodiscoverprospectiveusesofbiodiversitywithfurtheradvancementintechnologyandasnewerneedsariseandbiodiversityoftenassumestheroleoftheonlysourceofrawmaterialforinnovation.Yet,inthesefourbiodiversity-richstates,thebiodiversityisnotevenentirelyandsufficientlydocumented.PreviouslyunknownbirdsandmammalspecieshavebeendiscoveredinArunachalPradeshinrecenttime(thelastfiveyears).Undoubtedlymanymorespeciesofsmallertaxalikeinsectsandmicrobesremaintobediscoveredbyscience.Sincetheprecisescaleofdiversityremainsunknown,theimpactsofitslossorthebenefitfromitsprotectionarealsonotquantifiable,whichalsomakesitdifficulttoadvocatefortheprotectionofbiodiversityinthesestates.

Onlywellorganizedscientificresearchtowardsinventorizingthebiologicalresourcesofthesestateswouldservethepurposeofidentifyingnewuses



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ofbiologicalresourcesandpromotingecologicallysensitivelivelihoodsonthebasisofthesenewuses.However,carehasalsotobetakenthatinventorizationofresourcesdoesnotresultintheirusurpationatthehandsofmarketforces,asmoreoftenthannot,onfindingatallyofmarketableandcommerciallylucrativeproducts,corporateagenciesareknowntoattempttoacquirepropertyrightsorevenunrestrictedaccessforsalepurposes.Inventorisationofbiologicaldiversityshouldbeprimarilywiththeintentionofstrengtheningcommunity-basedprotectionmechanisms,proprietaryrightsoverbothproduceandknowledgesystems,andgivingprecedencetolocalneedsovercommercialinterests.

Key Operational Ideas1. Identifyandinventorizevarious

aspectsofbiodiversitycomponents2. Researchinpropertiesofbiological

resourcesthatmayassistinhumanadvancement

3. Bioprospectthespeciesusingvarioustechniquesandtools

4. Ensurethatinventorisationdoesnotdiminishcommunitycontrolorownershipofresources

5. Craftvillagelevelinstitutionsfortheprotectionofbiodiversityonthebasisofinformationgathered

Idea ��: Promoting Biodiversity to Combat Climate Change Biologicaldiversityisslowlybeginningtogainrecognitionasoneamongtheeffectiveresponsestothechallengeofclimate-change.Landandoceansactashugereservoirsofcarbonspeciallywhencomparedtoemissionsfromfossilfuelsandindustrialprocesses.ThecurrentfocusforcombatingclimatechangeisonthereductionofgreenhousegasemissionsfromenergygenerationandtheoptionshaverangedfromCDMtobiofuels.Biodiversity,however,canbeamajorpotentialtooltoo,becausetheimpactofbiologicalprocesscanbemuchhigher.Afewoptionsforbiologicalmitigationofgreenhousegasesthroughlandusechangeandforestryactivitiesareavoidingofdeforestation,sequesteringcarbonthroughafforestationandreforestationand

substitutingfossilfuelenergybytheuseofmodernbiomass.

Thoughthetrendistoreplaceforestsbyplantationsforfiscalincentives,abiologicallydiversetropicalforestholds50timesmorecarbonperunitarea.Recognizingtheimportanceofthisfactinclimatechangeoptions,theCBDhasalsodecidedtopromotebiodiversityinforestmanagement.TheExecutiveSecretaryoftheConventiononBiologicalDiversityhasrecentlyexhortedcountriestolayemphasisonbiodiversitytomitigateclimatechangeastropicalforestsareincreasinglybeingfelledforvarioususesandcultivationandforbiofuels,destroyingnotonlythepoolofcarbonbutalsotheresourceforfurtherabsorption.

Aprogrammeinthefourfocusstatescouldusevariousopportunitiestodevelopnon-conventionalenergyresources,enhancebiomasswitharegion-specificfocus,andpromoteanddeveloppracticesthathavepotentialtoassistinclimatechangemitigation.Itisqueerthatsincelocalcommunitiesdependonthenaturalresources,itistheywhoaremostvulnerabletoeffectsofclimatechange,whiletheircontributiontotheproblemisminimal.Thepromotionofadifferentlanduseorlandcoverwouldhavetoremainsensitivetoandavoiddisruptionoflocalcustoms/needsandcurrentlyprevalentuses.Theopportunityliesinrecognizingprevalentlocaluseandenhancingthebiodiversity/climatechangemitigationvalue.

Key Operational Ideas1. Identifypotentialareaswhere

biomassandbiodiversitycouldbeenhancedwithaviewtocombatingclimatechange

2. Identifyandoperationalizemeasurestoenhancebiomassandbiodiversitythroughreforestation/afforestation,reductionindeforestation,anddiversionfromfossilfuels,etc.

3. Promoteincentivesforcustomarypracticesthatconservebiologicaldiversityandenhancebiomassorreducebiomassdepletion

4. Advocatetovariousgovernmentdepartmentsandotheragenciesthegravityofclimatechangeandthepotentialroleofbiologicaldiversityasatoolinmitigation



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Footnotes1 LULUCFhereisnotseenwithintheperspectiveofclimatechangeandourunderstandinghas

beendescribedunderasubsectionofthischapter.

2 Inthelate1980s,theWorldCommissiononEnvironmentandDevelopment(theBrundtlandCommission)proposedthateconomicdevelopmentmustbecomelessecologicallydestructive.Comingsoonafterthat,theCBDarguedforconservationofbiologicaldiversityforsustainabledevelopment.Environmentalconservationhastobeintertwinedwitheconomicdevelopmentandthatisouronlyhopeforsustainedoptimalexistence.Itlaysstressonanecosystemapproachtosustainbiodiversity.

3 BiodiversityofIndiabyMadhavGadgil

4 ThisinformationwasprovidedbytheGovernmentofIndiatotheEighthsessionoftheUnitedNationsCommissiononSustainableDevelopment.LastUpdate:1April2000.http://envfor.nic.in/divisions/biodiv/csd2k/csdlman.html

5 OrangeAreasarelandsrecordedasforestlandintherecordsoftheDepartmentofForestsandasrevenuelandintherecordsoftheDepartmentofRevenue.Thisdisputedlandisknownasthe“OrangeArea”becausetheareahasbeenmarkedinorangecoloronthemaps.

6 Syngenta,aSwissMNC,triedtogetaccesstothegermplasmoftwentythousandricevarietiesofChhattisgarhfromIndiraGandhiAgricultureUniversity,Raipurin2004butluckilytheinformationleakedoutbeforefinalizationofthedeal.Againin2006,germplasmof18localvarietiesofJatro-phahasbeentakenoverbyamultinationalcompanyknownasD-one.ManyvariantsofJatrophaarewildlyfoundinsomeforestsofChhattisgarh.ThevarietyfoundinPendraareaofChhattisgarhisconsideredtobeofhighqualitywhichisoneofthevarietiesofwhichthegermplasmwasstolen.(http://www.grain.org/bio-ipr/?id=465 accessedon3rdMarch2008)

7 ItisclaimedthatthestateofChhattisgarhhasearnedRs.7billioninmineralroyaltyoncoal,baux-iteandironoresduringthefirstninemonthsofthecurrentfiscal2007-08.

8 Coastlinelengthis482kms

9 Accessedfromwww.undp.org.pkon3rdMarch2008forthedetailsontheMountainAreasCon-servancyproject(MACP)

10 AppropriateTechnologyIndiaisbasedinRudraprayag,Uttaranchal,andispresentlyworkinginthemountainstateofUttaranchalalongtheCentral/WesternHimalayasofIndia.

11 http://www.undp.org/oslocentre/docs06/TimClairs.pdf

12 TheprojectwassupportedbytheGovernmentofSriLanka,AsianDevelopmentBank,GlobalEnvironmentFacilityandtheGovernmentoftheNetherlands.

13 TheWorldTourismOrganization(andlatelytheIUCN)listcertaincharacteristicsofresponsibleecotourism.Theymaybeenlistedas:(a)Conscientious,low-impactvisitorbehaviour,(b)Sensitivitytowards,andappreciationof,localculturesandbiodiversity,(c)Supportforlocalconservationef-forts,(d)Sustainablebenefitstolocalcommunities,(e)Localparticipationindecision-making,(f )Educationalcomponentsforboththetravellerandlocalcommunities.



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26.WorldResourceInstitute,2003,BiodiversityandProtectedAreas—India,http://earth-trends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/bio_cou_356.pdf,asseenonFebruary13,2008



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Annexure - IPeople Consulted: 1. Mr A K Bansal, Director,OrissaForestrySectorDevelopmentProject,Bhubaneswar 2. Mr H S Chahar (IAS),Principal Secretary,ForestandEnvironmentDepartment,Orissa 3. Dr Debashish Roy,Scientist, Ecology and Environment, ForestandEnvironmentDepartment, Orissa 4. Sri Deepak Mohanty,IFS, Programme Director,OTELP & Ex-Officio-Additional Secretary to Government Orissa, TribalEmpowermentandLivelihoodProgramme,Orissa 5. Mr Sisir Pradhan,Team Leader. SpearHeadTeam,AngulFoundationforEcologicalSecurity 6. Mr Pranav Choudhary,Consultant,Bhubaneswar,Orissa 7. Ms Shweta Mishra,Programme Officer,Vasundhara,Orissa 8. Mr Sharat Singh,Programme Officer, SocietyforPromotionofWastelandDevelopment, (EasternRegionoffice) 9. Mr Pran Ranjan, Senior Programme Officer,SocietyforPromotionofWastelandDevelopment, (EasternRegionoffice)10. Mr Ram Lal Prasad, Director,JanSewaParishad,Hazaribagh11. Ms Rajbala Verma,Principal Secretary,DepartmentofFinance,GovernmentofJharkhand, Jharkhand12. Mr S.K. Satpathy,Principal Secretary,DepartmentofRuralDevelopment,Governmentof Jharkhand14. Mr Meghnad, Film maker on Development Issues,Akhra,Ranchi15. Dr Himadri Sinha, Professor,XavierInstituteofSocialService,Ranchi16. Dr Ranjay Kumar Singh,Scientist, Lac Production Division,IndianInstituteOfNaturalResins AndGums(FormerlyknownasIndianLacResearchInstitute)17. Mr R Krishnamurthy (IFS), Director,InstituteofForestProductivity,Ranchi18. Sanjay Basu Mallick,Convenor,JharkhandJungleBachaoAndolan,Ranchi19. Siman Hansda, Researcher,B.I.R.S.A.MinesMonitoringCentre,Ranchi20. Mr Rameshwar Das (IFS), Conservator of Forest,InstituteofForestProductivity,Ranchi21. Mr Rabindra Kumar Singh (IFS),Director,StateInstituteforRuralDevelopment,Raipur, Chattisgarh22. Mr S K Shukla,Executive Director, Special Secretary (Energy),ChhattisgarhBiofuelDevelop mentAuthority(CBDA),GovernmentofChhattisgarh23. Mr Gautam Bandhopadhyay, ChhattisgarhActionandResearchTeam,Raipur,Chhattisgarh24. Mr Rajat Choudhary,Church’sAuxiliaryforSocialAction(CASA),Raipur,Chhattisgarh25. Dr Sanket Thakur,Chairman,AgriconsAgropreneursLimited,Raipur,Chhattisgarh26. Dr Anup Bhalla, Additional Chief Conservator of Forests (JFM/Policy Analysis), Departmentof ForestandEnvironment,GovernmentofChhattisgarh27. Mr M. Firoz Ahmed, Wildlife Biologist, Aaranyak,Guwahati28. Mr Amarjyoti Borah, Journalist,Guwahati29. Ms Nandita Hazarika,Executive Director,EcoSystmes-India,NECentre,Guwahati30. Dr A Borang, Scientist, StateForestResearchInstitute,DepartmentofEnvironment&Forests GovernmentofArunachalPradesh,Itanagar31. Dr G V Gopi, Scientist-C, Wildlife Biology,G.B.PantInstituteofHimalayanEnvironmentand Development(AnAutonomousInstituteofMinistryofEnvironment&Forests,Governmentof India)32. Mr Jitendra Singh,Senior Researcher,G.B.PantInstituteofHimalayanEnvironmentand Development,(AnAutonomousInstituteofMinistryofEnvironment&Forests,Governmentof India)33. Mr P Ringu, Director,DihangDibangBiosphereReserve,DepartmentofEnvironment&Forests GovernmentofArunachalPradesh,Itanagar34. Mr M K Palit,Deputy Conservatory of Forests (Wildlife and Biodiversity),DepartmentofEnvi- ronment&Forests,GovernmentofArunachalPradesh,Itanagar35. Mr S Banerjee, Principal Secretary,DepartmentofEnvironment&Forests,Governmentof ArunachalPradesh,Itanagar36. Hibu Dole,Deputy Conservatory of Forests, DepartmentofEnvironment&ForestsGovernment ofArunachalPradesh,Itanagar37. Dr. Padmaraj Gajurel,Research Fellow, Department of Forestry,NorthEasternRegional InstituteofScience&Technology(NERIST)38. Mr Bamang Anothony,Chairman,ArunachalCitizenRights,Itanagar39. Mr K D Singh,Former Technical Advisor, Forest Resources Division Forestry Department FAO Rome,Delhi40. Ms Vishaish Uppala, WWF-India(DelhiOffice)41. Mr Nitin Sethi, Journalist, TimesofIndia,Bureau,NewDelhi42. Ms Manju Menon,Member,Kalpavriksh,NewDelhi43. Ms Kanchi Kohli,Member,Kalpavriksh,NewDelhi44. Mr Sanjay Upadhyay,Advocate (Supreme Court) and Managing Partner,EnviroLegalDefence Firm,NewDelhi



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Annexure - IISection �. Central Acts and Policies A. Forests, Biodiversity and WildlifeIndian Forest Act ��Theactempowersthegovernmenttonotify‘forests’.Forestsareclassifiedas‘Reserve’,‘Protected’and‘Village’.Theactallowsforsettlementofrights,alsowithrespecttoshiftingcultivation.Itveststhegovernmentwiththeauthorityonforestproduce.Forestofficercanmakearrestseventopreventof-fense.Ithasbeencriticizedforvestingcontrolwithstate.Itdoesnotspecifythecriteriafornotifying‘forests’.Thestatedpurposeoftheactwastovestgovernmentwithcontrolforeasyextraction,notconservation.Theact,itissaid,ledtolarge-scalenotification,withoutrecordingrights,leadingtocomplicationsintenure.Manyimportantareaswereconserved.Nearly24%ofthecountry’sareaisunderforestdepartmentnowundervariousstagesofprotection.Complicationsintenurebecauseofirregularlyfollowedprocessofsettlementofrights.Theuseofforestswasorientedtowardsextractiontilllater1970s.Forestdepartmentsnowmangetheirdivisionsaccordingto10year‘WorkingPlans’,whicharebasedonprinciplesofscientificforestry.

Wildlife Protection Act �� (amended �00�)Thisistheonlyact,whichgivesthelegalprovisionfordeclaringProtectedAreas:WildlifeSanctuaries,NationalParks.TheWildlifeAdvisoryBoardismandatedtooverseemattersrelatedtoProtectedAreas.Theactregulateshunting,trade,ownership,transportofwildanimalsandproductsofscheduledspecies,alsouprootingscheduledplantsgrowinginwild.Itsetsrelativelyhighpenaltiesfornon-compliance.ItnowalsogiveslegalrecognitiontoCommunityReserves.ItalsomandatestheNationalTigerConservationAuthority,tooverseethemanagementof28tigerreservesinthecountry.Theacthasfoundcriticismforweaklyfollowedprocessofsettlementofrights.Issuesofencroachmentandrelocationremaincontentious.Communityreserves,eventhoughareameansofvoluntaryprotec-tion,takeawayfromindigenouscontrol.Theyarelargelyunsuccessfulbecausetheyhavenotbeenfollowedstrongly.TherelationofthisactwithScheduledTribes(andOtherTraditionalForestDwell-ers)RecognitionofForestRightsAct,2006,isambiguous.Thisactgivestheonlylegalbackingforconservationofseveralcriticallyimportantareas.Itrecognizesandregulateszoos,themajormeansofex-situconservation.ItalsomandatestheworkingoftheNationalBoardforWildlife,StateWildlifeBoardsandNationalTigerConservationAuthority—theseoverseetheProtectedAreasandTigerReserves.Theactremainstheonlylawforprotectionofwildlife.IthasbeenadeterrentinchanginglanduseinProtectedAreas.ProtectedAreasnowaccountfor4.77%ofthecountry(theworldhasover10%).Itallowsthestateto‘scientificallymanage’protectedareas.

Forest Conservation Act ��0TheactmakesclearancefromtheCentremandatorybeforedirectingforestfornonforestpurposes.Itmakestopofficialsresponsibleandpunishable.Itisarguedthatacentralcontrolofforesthasmargin-alizedandweakenedcommunitycontrol.Criticshavesaidthatratherthanreducediversionofforest,ithassimplytransferredtheauthorityfordiversion.Nonetheless,theactisappreciatedforbeingastronglegislation.Severalbiodiversityrichareaswereprotectedafterthisact;theacthasactedasadeterrentindiversion.ForestclearancesfromtheCentrearemandatorybeforeanywork(evenplan-tation)andsothathasdiscouragedlandusechangeonforestlands(though,contentiously,severalhighprofilecaseshavebeencleared).Therateofdiversionofforestsdroppedsignificantlyafterthisactwasbroughtin.TheactmandatesCompensatoryAfforestationfordiversion.

Environment (Protection) Act ��(Only relevant sections viz, Section 3 of the Act and Section 5 (1) or the Rules have been reviewed.) TheCentrecantakeallmeasuresthatitfeelsisnecessarytoprotectandimprovequalityoftheenvironmentandtopreventandcontrolenvironmentalpollution,anditcanrestrictindustrial/devel-opmentactivityincertainareas.ThesehavecometobeknownasEcologicallySensitiveAreas(ESAs).Thesehavebeenformulatedforacceptinglocalprioritiesandapplicationtoanykindsofecosystems.Theotherenvironmentlawswouldstillbeapplicable,butESAgivesconservationalegalbacking.Implementationinearnestissaidtobewanting.NationalEnvironmentTribunalBill,ifenacted,willdismissthelocalauthoritiesthatgovernESAs.Thiscanbeextendedtoanykindofareas,eventoagro-biodiversityhotspotsbutonlyaboutnineareasareunderit.Landuseisgovernedandevenar-rested(likeinthecaseofDahanu,Maharashtra)inESAs,buttheclausehasnotbeenbroughttogooduse.

National Forest Policy ��Itrecognizes,perhapsforthefirsttimeinIndianpolicy,subsistenceuseoflocalcommunities.Itsubordinateseconomicbenefittoenvironmentalstability.Fuelwood,thepolicystatementhascon-sideredNTFPneedsoflocalcommunities.Itishailedasarevolutionarypolicy,whichreorientedtheconservation/extractionmandateoftheforestdepartment,toincludeindigenoususe.Itrecognizesforestsasanationalassetratherthanaresource.ThepolicyisthesourceoftheJointForestMan-



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agementmechanism(seeprogrammes).Thepolicyexplicitlydiscouragestheuseofexoticspecies,unlesstheirsuitabilityhasbeenscientificallydetermined.Itidentifiestheimportanceof‘corridors’thatconnectProtectedAreas.Itstronglydiscouragesdiversionofagriculturallandtoforestry.Italsoencouragesafforestationofwastelandstomeetlocaluseandincreaseforestcover.Itmandatesthatthecountrywillincreaseforestcover“throughmassiveafforestationandsocialforestryprogrammes,especiallyonalldenuded,degradedandunproductivelands.”Thepolicystatementsetsa33%targetforforestcover;two-thirdsforthehills.Itencouragessocialforestryandforestsforvillageuse.

Biological Diversity Act �00�ItprohibitstransferofIndiangeneticmaterialoutsidethecountry,withoutspecificapprovaloftheIndianGovernment;claimsofanIntellectualPropertyRight(IPR),suchasapatent,overbiodiversityorrelatedknowledge,withoutpermissionoftheIndianGovernment.TheactregulatescollectionanduseofbiodiversitybyIndiannationals,whileexemptinglocalcommunitiesfromsuchrestrictions;itsetsmeasuresforsharingofbenefitsfromtheuseofbiodiversity,includingtransferoftechnology,monetaryreturns,jointResearch&Development,jointIPRownership,etc.;andalsosetsmeasurestoconserveandsustainablyusebiologicalresources,includinghabitatandspeciesprotection,environ-mentalimpactassessments(EIAs)ofprojects,integrationofbiodiversityintotheplans,programmes,andpoliciesofvariousdepartments/sectors.Thereareprovisionsforlocalcommunitiestohaveasayintheuseoftheirresourcesandknowledge,andtochargefeesforthis;toprotectindigenousortraditionalknowledge,throughappropriatelawsorothermeasuressuchasregistrationofsuchknowledge.Theactregulateduseofgeneticallymodifiedorganisms.

ItmandatessettingupofNational,State,andLocalBiodiversityFunds,tobeusedtosupportconservationandbenefit-sharing;andsettingupofBiodiversityManagementCommittees(BMC)atlocalvillagelevel,StateBiodiversityBoards(SBB)atstatelevel,andaNationalBiodiversityAuthority(NBA).Theacthasbeencriticizedforapproving‘patentsonlife’andpotentialcommercializationofbiodiversity.These,itissaid,couldbeusedtofurthercommercialisebiodiversity,anddonottrulyem-powercommunities.ThemainfunctionoftheBiodiversityManagementCommittee(thelocallevelbody)isreducedtomeremaintenanceofPeople’sBiodiversityRegister,whichdocumentsthelocalbiodiversityknowledge.Butconsentofthecommunityisnotmandated,beforeanoutsiderusestheknowledge.IthasbeencriticizedforapprovingIPRsandgoingagainstthespiritoftheConventiononBiologicalDiversity.IthasalsobeencriticizedthatitsprovisionsdonotapplytoplantsthatareregisteredundertheProtectionofPlantVarietiesandFarmers’Rights(PVPFR)Act,2001,whichallowscorporationsandscientiststogainintellectualpropertyrights.Citizenscannotdirectlyapproachthecourts;canonlyappealinHighCourtagainstanyorderbytheNBAortheSBB.Indiancorporateandotherentitiesrequireonly“priorintimation”toaSBBforthecommercialuseofbio-resources,ratherthanpermissionfromtheNBAasinthecaseofforeigners.Itdoesnotfullyempowerlocalcommuni-ties,toprotecttheirresourcesandknowledgefrombeingmisused,ortogeneratebenefits(exceptchargingcollectionfees).ThepowerofdeclaringaBiodiversityHeritageSiteslieswiththestategovernment(Article37oftheAct).

SeveralorganisationsandpeoplefeelthatthebasicframeworkoftheActisproblematic,sinceitacceptsintellectualpropertyrightsonbiodiversity,couldbeusedtofurthercommercialisebiodi-versity,anddoesnottrulyempowercommunities.OthersfeelthattheActprovidessomepotentialforcheckingbiopiracy,achievingconservation,andfacilitatingcommunityaction.Theystressthatacombinationofstrongrules,andamendmentsrelatedtotheabovepoints,wouldhelpstrengthenthispotential.

B. FisheriesInternational conventions having implications for Indian fisheries:Basel Convention, 1992–concernedwiththemonitoringofhazardouswasteOcean Policy statement–concernedwithdevelopmentofoceansConvention on migratory species–offersprotectiontospeciessuchasturtles,sharksandcrocodiles.MARPOL73/78–appropriatedisposalofshipbasedwastes.

Participation in international agreementsAgreementfortheImplementationoftheProvisionsoftheUnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSearelatingtotheConservationandManagementofStraddlingFishStocksandHighlyMigratoryFishStocks(NewYork1995)Agreement for the Establishment of the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission (1993) Agreement for the Establishment of the Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia and the Pacific (Bangkok 1988)

Acts and Bills on FisheriesIndian Fisheries Act, ��Itpreventsdestructionoffishbyexplosivesininlandwatersandoncoastsandbypoisoningofwaters.Thelegislationisseverelyoutdated.ItisfartoogeneralanddoesnotspecifylimitssuchastheTAC(totalallowablecatch),closedseasons,meshlimitsetc.Thelegislationbyitself(andevenstate



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levellegislationsformulatedinaccordance)remainfixatedon‘access’tofishresources,ratherthanit’ssustainablemanagementandscientificconservation.Also,nomeasuresarearticulatedforinvolvingfishingcommunitiesintheconservationofmarinebiota.Marine Fishing Regulation Bill, ��Regardedamodelbilldraftedinresponsetotheshortcomingsoftheprevailinglegalframework,ithasnotbeenbroughttoforcedespitetherecommendationsoftheMazumdarcommitteereportin1978andthemorerecentMuraricommitteereport.ShortcomingsandlimitationsasmentionedunderIndianFisheriesAct,1897remain.The Deep Sea Fishing Policy, ��Itisclaimedthatmarinewaterbelow50metersofdepthareunderexploited.Thepolicyseekstointensifyfishingactivitiesinsuchreaches.Ifnotscientificallyregulateddeep-seafishingbearswithitthethreatofdisturbingbreedinggroundsofseveralcritical/endemicmarinespecies.Water (control and prevention of pollution) Act, ��, amended in ��Itpertainstocontrolofpollutionfromlandbasedresources.TheActbearswithitaclauseempower-ingStateGovernmentstorestricttheapplicationoftheacttocertainareas:Sec.19reads“Notwith-standinganythingcontainedinthisAct,iftheStateGovernment…isofopinionthattheprovisionsofthisActneednotapplytotheentireState,itmay,bynotificationintheOfficialGazette,restricttheapplicationofthisActtosuchareaorareas…”Coastal Regulation Zone Notification, �� (under the EPA, ��)Theregulationdeclaresthecoastalstretchesofseas,bays,estuaries,creeks,riversandbackwaterswhichareinfluencedbytidalaction(inthelandwardside)upto500metersfromtheHighTideLine(HTL)andthelandbetweentheLowTideLine(LTL)andtheHTLasCoastalRegulationZone.Theregulationprohibitscertainactivitiesintheaforementionedzone.EstablishmentofHTLhasbecomeanecessitybutitisnotaneasytask,anditremainsundeterminedforabetterpartofIndia’scoastline.Whatoflagoons,(andothersuchbodies)whicharenotsubjecttotidalaction?Thereisnoscientificvaliditytobackthe500meterfigure.TheCRZremainsconvenientlyblindtoglobalchange–with-drawaloftradebarriers,liberalizationetc.DisastermitigationmeasurestakealongerdurationwhenroutedthroughtheCRZ.Theacthasbeenamendednearly19times.BesidesthereisaplantoreplacetheCRZwith‘CMZ’–anideapromulgatedonthebasisofrecommendationsmadebyM.S.Swamina-than.Theproposalhasmetwithstiffresistancefromcommunity-basedorganizations,NGOsandlocalmovements.TheCMZproposaliscriticizedasbeingcorporatefriendly,andinsensitivetotheneedsoffishingcommunitiesandconservationneedsofmarinebiota.

C. Tribal DevelopmentConstitution Articles –Articles �� (�) ��, �� (�) and ��Powerstopromotelawsandadministrativepoliciesrelatingtothetribalpopulation.Relatetospecialprovisionsmeantfortribalwelfare/development.

Schedules V and VI of the ConstitutionListthescheduleareas,orareasidentifiedashavingtribalpopulation.Administrationofforestre-sourcesinsuchareascoveredundertheVandVIschedule.RightsofTribalsovertheirland,adminis-trativespecificitieswithregardtosuchlandspecifiedherein.

Panchayat (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act, ��Itextendstheprovisionsofthe73rdConstitutionalAmendment1993totheScheduleVAreasofthecountry.ItaccordsstatutorystatustothegramsabhasinScheduleVareasandrecognisestheprevailingtraditionalpracticesandcustomarylaws.StateGovernmentswererequiredtopasssuit-ablelegislationstomaketheprovisionsofotherpoliciesandprogrammesconsistentwithPESA–thisdidnothappen.MinorforestproduceremainsundefinedbytheAct,owingtowhichtherehasbeenmuchconfusion.OwnershipofMFPhasremainedcentralisedasperearlierlegislations.CommunitybasedresourcesnotclearlydefinedintheAct,asaresultofwhichownershiprightsofgramsabhasremainvagueandambiguous.Thereisnoprovisionforcapacitatinggramsabhastoundertaketasks/measuresconcerningbiodiversityconservationandappropriatelanduseplanning.Itprovidesthemanagementandcontrolofallthenaturalresources–land,waterandforestinthehandsofpeoplelivingintheScheduleAreas.Createsscopeforcommunitybasedconservationmeasures,handsoverownershiprightsoverMinorForestProduce(MFP)tolocalgramsabhasandrecognizesandimpartsimportancetocommunitybasedprotectionmechanisms,baseduponindigenoussystemsandlocalbestpractices.Gramsabhaisempoweredtosanction/ordismissleaseagreementsanddevelop-mentprojects(suchasmining,sandquarryingetc.).Gramsabhahaspowerstoarticulatemeasurestopreventlandalienation.

Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, �00� (to be read alongside Rules of �00�)TheActallowsownershipofupto4hectaresoflandtoeachnuclearfamilyforhabitationandself-cultivationpurposes.Itextendstobothtribalandothernon-tribalforestdwellingcommunities.ItgivesrighttoMinorForestProduceforbonafidelivelihoodpurposes.Therecognitionofforest



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dwellingcommunitiesisprimafaciedeterminedonthebasisoftheirlandholding.Dependenceofcommunitiesnotholdinglandsbutusingothertypesofforestproduceisnotsignificantlyrecog-nized.Landremainsheritableandnottransferable-thusreducingchancesforlandalienation.Pow-ersdevolvedtoGramsabhaslikelytopreventtheusurpationofforestbasedresourcesbypowerfullobbiesandcorporateagenciesfortheirends.Accordingtosomecritics:withanallocationof4hato20millionnuclearfamilies(tribalalone)50millionhaofforestcoverislikelytobelost.Humanandlivestockpressuresonforestswillonlyincreasewithtime.

TheactiscriticizedbecauseconservationethicsofTribalsareromanticallyover-prized;amarkedchangeinaspirationsandconsumeristtendenciesamongTribalsisignored.Theactlacksaspecificandrigorousdescriptionoftermslike‘biodiversity’,‘sustainability’and‘wildlife’.ItisalsounclearwithregardtothemannerinwhichrolesandresponsibilitieshavetobesharedbetweenthegovernmentandlocalinstitutionsfortheimplementationofotherActsrelevantforbiodiversityconservationandwildlifeprotection.Itiscriticizedforitempowersgramsabhaswithoutassessinglocalinstitutionalstrengthsandcapacities.ResponsibilityasregardscomplianceandimplementationofwildlifeandBiodiversityConservationAct(s)ishandedovertogramsabhas.ItalsorecognizesothertraditionalrightsofTribalsandcreatesincentivesforcommunitybasedconservationefforts.Byempoweringgramsabhasandinvolvinglocalcommunities,theActreducesbureaucratichurdlesintheimplemen-tationoflegislaturepertainingtoBiodiversityConservationandWildlife.Itexcludesthetraditionalrightofhuntingortrappingwildanimalsandpreventssaleoftimberforcommercialpurposes.

D. AgricultureIndia’s Participation in International agreements AgreementonAgriculturewiththeWTO TradeRelatedAspectsofIntellectualPropertyRights(TRIPS),1994 TradeRelatedInvestmentMeasures(TRIMS),1994 ConventiononBiodiversity(CBD),1992 InternationalTreatyonPlantandGeneticResourcesforFoodandAgriculture(ITPGR),2001 InternationalConventionfortheProtectionofNewPlantVarieties(UPOV),1991 GeneralAgreementonTradeandTariffs(GATT),1994 GeneralAgreementonTradeinServices(GATS),1994

National Agricultural Policy, �000Aimingtoattainagrowthrateinexcessof4percentperannum,itadvocatesatechnicallysound,economicallyviable,environmentallynon-degrading,andsociallyacceptableuseofthecountry’snaturalresources,(includingland,waterandgeneticendowment)topromotethesustainabledevel-opmentofagriculture.Itstressesoncontainingbioticpressure.Itseeksinvolvementoffarmersandlandlessinthedevelopmentofpastures/forestryprogramsonpublicwastelandsbygivingfinancialincentivesandentitlementstotheusufructsoftreesandpastures.Itaimstoevaluatetraditionalpractices,knowledgeandwisdomandtoharnessthemforsustainableagriculturalgrowth.Identifiestheneedofshiftingcultivationtobeaddressed.

Itemphasisestheneedforconservingbiodiversitybypromotingagro-forestry.Promotessurveyandevaluationofgeneticresourcesandsafeconservationofbothindigenousandexogenouslyintroducedgeneticvariabilityincropplants,animalsandtheirwildrelatives.Encouragesbalancedandconjunctiveuseofbiomass,organicandinorganicfertilizersandcontrolleduseofagrochemi-calsthroughintegratednutrientsandpestmanagement(INM&IPM).Italsoseekstocontrolindis-criminatediversionofagriculturallandsfornon-agriculturalpurposes.Reclamationofdegradedandfallowlandstobegivenhighpriority,tooptimizetheirproductiveuse.NAPemphasizesuseofwatershedapproachtomanagelandresources(asperrecommendationsofHanumanthaRao,2000).Policydocumentislackinginstrategiccontent;doesnotarticulateanymeasuresforachievingtheaforesaidobjectives.Itisnotaccompaniedwithanytimebounddirectives/actionplantoachievethesame.Threattoforestresourcesfromtheentryoflobbiesandcorporatehousesintheagro-forestrysectorremainuncommentedupon.ThreattowildandindigenousplantspeciesfromGMOsarenotdealtwith.DoesnotprohibitentryofgeneticallyengineeredcropsfromentryintoIndianfarmsandmarketsanditdoesnotcommentonpatentsofseedvarieties.Italsodoesnotprovidesufficientin-centivesforzero-chemicalandpolyculturemethodsoffarming.Thereisnomentionoforganicfarm-ingperseinthedocument;onlya“balancedandconjunctiveuseoforganicandinorganicmethods”.TheNAPdoesnotstressqualityimprovementinlivestockthroughuseofbetterqualityindigenousgermplasm.Itremainssilentonundoingoflandreformsandleasearrangementsinfavoroflocalcommunities,asameansofexpeditingreclamationofwastelandsforagriculturalpurposes.

National Policy for Farmers, �00�Objectives:(i)Toimproveeconomicviabilityoffarmingbyimprovingthenetincomeoffarmers,(ii)toprovideappropriatepricepolicyandtradepolicymechanismstoenhancefarmersincome,(iii)tointroducemeasureswhichcanhelptoattractandretainyouthinfarmingandprocessingoffarmproductsforhighervalueadditionbymakingitbothintellectuallystimulatingandeconomically



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rewarding.AlongsidethePM’spackageforrelieftofarmersindistressdistrictsitprioritizeseconomicneedsandlivelihoodconcernsoverconservationneeds.

Protection of Plant Varieties ad Farmer’s Rights (PPVFR) Act (�00�)Aplantbreedercanacquirebreedersrightsonanewvariety,ifitis‘distinct’,‘stable’,‘uniform’and‘nov-el.Abreederthusacquiresexclusiverighttotradeinthevariety.Farmersretaintherighttosow,re–sow,exchange,save,shareandsellallkindsofseed,includingseedsofprotectedvarieties[i.e.seedscoveredbyPlantBreedersRights(PBR)]–butfarmersarenotallowedtosellsuchvarietiesunderabrandname.Theactalsostrivestoencourageinvestmentin,anddevelopmentofnewplantvarietiesbyprovidingprotectiontoplantbreedersrights.Breedersarerequiredtopayintoanationalgenefundforusingtraditionalvarietiestobreednewones–actsasa‘royalty’tofarmerswhohaveplayedacentralroleinconservingandimprovingtraditionalvarieties.Thevalueoftraditionalvarietiesisdulyacknowledged.TerminatortechnologybannedundertheAct(whereseedsbecomesterile,‘onetimeuse’seeds).Itintroducestheideaofprivateownershipofseeds(worksagainstideasoncom-munitycontroloverseeds).Ushersmarketforcesintoerstwhilecommunitydominion.ItisDifficulttorecognizeandcategoriestraditionalvarietiesusingthescientificcriteriaasadvisedbytheAct.

The Seed Bill �00�IntendedtoreplacetheSeedActof1966,itaimstoregulatethequalityofseedforsale,importandexport,andsecondlytofacilitatetheproductionandgoodqualityofseeds.Aimstocompletelycurbthesaleofspuriousseedsandestablishesstrictpunishmentforoffenders.AspertheSeedPolicyof2002allgeneticallyengineeredcrops/varietieswillbetestedforenvironmentandbiosafetybeforetheircommercialreleaseaspertheregulationsoftheEPA,1986(theEPAinturnnecessitatestheap-provalandsanctionoftheGeneticallyEngineeredApprovalCommitteeforallsuchpurposes).Dilutespro-farmerrightsofPPVFR–farmerswillnotbeallowedtosellseedswithoutregistration.Withregistrationcompulsoryforseedsbreeders/marketersaremorelikelytodominatetradeinseeds;localfarmersarelesslikelytotakethetheeffortofregisteringtheirvarietiesforsalepurposes.Iffarmersfindthatitisfartootroublesometosell/buylocalvarietiesduetothelaw,theymayabandongrowingtraditionalvarieties.Breedersnotrequiredacknowledgingtheparentageofvarieties.Thebillmakesiteasyforbreederstoregistertraditionalvarieties(orevennewvarietiesbasedontraditionalones).Thiswillallowbreederstogainasortofmonopolyovertraditionalvarieties.TherewillbenoNationalGenefundasinthecaseofPPVFR.

Section�. Major Court RulingsT.N. Godavarman Thirumulkpad versus Union of Indi & ORS.Defined‘Forestland’asanyareaunderforestdept,oranyarearecordedaforestinanygovern-mentrecordsoranyareawhereaforestexists,inthe‘dictionarysense’oftheword,irrespectiveofownershiporclassification.Itbecametheomnibuscaseforoverthousandsubsequentappeals;stillcontinues.Itiscriticizedforhavingconfusedthealreadyconvolutedlawsonforests.Theeffectsofthecasearedebatable.Thoughthecourtshavebeenquitesensitivetothe‘conservation’inabroadsense,manyjudgmentshavebeenseenastoolaxforexploitativeindustry(refer,commentsofamemberofthebench).TheSupremeCourtisnowinvolvedwiththeframing,andexecutionofpolicy,forwhich,criticssay,itdoesnothavesufficientexpertise.Landuseinforestareashasbeenarrestedafterthiscase.Afundforcompensatoryafforestationwascreated,andanauthoritytooverseeit.Thisauthorityisnotyetfunctional.A2000interrimorder,againstremovalofwoodetcfromforests,hasbeenusedtobangrazingandNTFPcollection.Variousinterpretationsexistforthis,likeformostoftheotherordersunderthecase.

CEL-WWF CaseSeveralordersonprotectedareas.Severalmajorordershaveaskedthestatestoissuefinalnotifica-tionsforprotectedareas,tobuildcapacitytocontrolpoachingandtonotdenotifyprotectedareaswithoutSupremeCourtpermission.TheSupremeCourtisnowactivelyinvolvedintheconservationcases.Node-reservationofprotectedareas(andcurrently,evenforforestsbecauseofacomplicatedcaseofForestAdvisoryCommittee),cantakeplacewithoutSupremeCourtpermission.

Section �. Major Programmes and SchemesA. Forest, Biodiversity and Wildlife related programmesJoint Forest Management JointForestManagement(JFM)isaforestmanagementstrategyunderwhichtheForestDepartmentandthevillagecommunityenterintoanagreementtojointlyprotectandmanageforestlandclosetovillagesandtoshareresponsibilitiesandbenefits.ArisingfromtheNationalForestPolicy1980,theCentreissuedacirculartoallStateGovernmentsin1990(Circularnumber6.21/89-F.P.ofJune1,1990).Therearesupposedtobenearly84000ForestProtectionCommitteesonmorethan140thousandsqkm.



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SeveralissueshavebeenidentifiedwithJFM.Mostpertaintoinequitieswithinlocalcommuni-ties,parametersofdefiningcommunity,genderbiasinvillageprotectioncommittees,controlofforestdepartment,pre-JFMpatternsdisturbed,externalaid,marketsactingasexternalpressure,inter-communityconflicts,inflexibilityofrules,NTFPrelatedpolicies–(lowshareofcommunitiesdoesn’tsustaintheirinterest),adaptivesilviculture–(withthechangeindirectionfromproductiontosubsistence),marketing,legalissues–(dependentongovernmentorders),linkswithpanchayatsandJFMindenseforestsandprotectedareas.Itsstrengthsaresaidtolieinchangeinattitudeandrelationship,improvementintheconditionofforests,reductioninencroachment,increaseinincomeandinvolvementofNGOs.

National Afforestation and Ecodevelopment Board (NAEB)TheNationalAfforestationandEco-developmentBoard(NAEB)wassetupinAugust1992forpromotingafforestation,treeplanting,ecologicalrestorationandeco-developmentactivitiesinthecountry.Specialattentionisbeinggiventotheregenerationofdegradedforestareasandlandsad-joiningforestareas,nationalparks,sanctuariesandotherprotectedareasaswellastheecologicallyfragileareasliketheWesternHimalayas,Aravallis,WesternGhatsetc.NAEBoperatesfollowingthreemajorschemes:�. National Afforestation Programme (NAP) SchemeTheflagshipschemeofNAEB,providessupporttotheForestDevelopmentAgencies(FDAs)(federa-tionofJointForestManagementCommittees(JFMCs))forJointForestManagement.Ratherthanroutefundsthroughstates,worksdirectlyandfocusesonJhumaswell.SevenhundredandfifteenFDAshavebeenoperationalisedsofaratacostofRs.1,521.10crorestotreatatotalareaof9.24lakhha.Rehabilitationofjhumlands(shiftingcultivation)havebeengivenspecificfocusundertheprogramme,andsofar19jhumprojectshavebeensanctionedinNorth-Eastern(NE)StatesandoneinOrissa.�. NAEB Scheme ThemajorcomponentsoftheSchemeareGrantsinAidforGreeningIndia(GIAforGI)Scheme.ThisisforTenthFiveyearplanforraisingtreecoveroutsideRFAandworksatraisingmassawarenessaboutQPM(QualityPlantingMaterial)andtreeplanting;andenhancingthecapacityforQPMproduction;andfortreeplantingwithpeople’sparticipation.AlsoworksforMonitoringandEvaluation(M&E)andCommunicationSupporttoRegionalCentres(RCs).�. Eco Development Forces (EDF)Theschemeisbasedontwinobjectivesofecologicalregenerationindifficultareas,andpromotionofmeaningfulemploymenttoex-servicemen.ThisschemeaffordstheestablishmentandoperationalexpenditureontheEcoTaskForce(ETF)BattalionsraisedbyMinistryofDefence.ItisreimbursedbyMinistryofEnvironmentandForestswhiletheinputslikesapling,fencing,etc.asalsotheprofessionalandmanagerialguidanceisprovidedbytheStateForestDepartments.

Integrated Forest Protection Scheme IntegratedForestProtectionSchemewasformulatedbythemergeroftwoschemesoftheNinthFiveYearPlannamely‘ForestFireControlandManagement’and‘BridgingupofInfrastructuralGapsintheForestrySectorintheNorthEasternRegionandSikkim’.Itisoperationalfrom2002-03.TheschemecoversalltheStatesandUT’sfortheTenthFiveYearPlanperiod.CentralAssistanceisprovidedforvariousactivities,whichwillhelptoprotectandimprovetheexistingforest.Themajoritemsincludecommunication,mobility,firefightingmeasures,constructionofofficesandresidencesparticularlyofthefrontlinestaff,technologyupgradationandskilldevelopment,surveyanddemarcationandwrit-ingofworkingplans,assistancetoJFMC’s,etc.UNDP-CCF II Project “National Programme on Promoting Conservation of Medicinal Plants and Traditional Knowledge for Enhancing Health and Livelihood Security” Itwasstartedinninestatesviz;Karnataka,Kerala,TamilNadu,AndhraPradesh,Maharashtra,MadhyaPradesh,Orissa,WestBengalandRajasthanwiththefollowingobjectives:toassistnineprojectstatestoconservewildpopulationofmedicinalplants,torevitalizetheindigenoushealthcareknowledgeand,toenhancethehealthandlivelihoodsecurity.

The National Wetland ConservationProgrammeforconservationandmanagementofwetlandshasbeenundertakentolaydownpolicyguidelinesforimplementingprogramsofconservationandmanagementofwetlandsinthecountry,toundertakeintensiveconservationmeasuresonprioritywetlands,tomonitorimplementationoftheProgrammeofconservation,managementandresearch,andtoprepareaninventoryofIndianwetlands.

B. Programmes on Land Use Guidelines for Hariyali Toinvolvevillagecommunitiesintheimplementationofwatershedprojectsunderalltheareade-velopmentprogrammesnamely,IntegratedWastelandsDevelopmentProgramme(IWDP),Drought



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ProneAreasProgramme(DPAP)andDesertDevelopmentProgramme(DDP),theGuidelinesforWatershedDevelopmentwereadoptedw.e.f.1.4.1995,andsubsequentlyrevisedinAugust2001.TofurthersimplifyproceduresandinvolvethePanchayatRajInstitutions(PRIs)moremeaningfullyinplanning,implementationandmanagementofeconomicdevelopmentactivitiesinruralareas,thesenewGuidelinescalledGuidelinesforHariyaliwerebroughtineffectfrom1.4.2003.ACommonGuide-lineforwatershedimplementationhasbeenintroducedrecently.

Integrated Wasteland Development Programme NationalWastelandDevelopmentBoardwasestablishedin1985undertheMinistryofForestsandEnvironmentmainlytotackletheproblemofdegradationoflands,restorationofecologyandtomeetthegrowingdemandsoffuelwoodandfodderatthenationallevel.Majorprogrammeimplementedforimprovingtheproductivityofwaste&degradedlandskeepinginviewthepoverty,backwardness,gender&equityisIntegratedWastelandDevelopmentProgramme.Itrecognizestheproblemsofincreasingbioticpressure,absenceofadequateinvestmentsandappropriatemanage-mentpractices,highrateofpopulationgrowthandhighincidencepovertyinruralareas,over-exploi-tationofnationalresources,break-downoftraditionalinstitutionsformanagingcommonpropertyresourcesandfailureofnewinstitutionstofillthevacuum,faultylandusepractices.Itworksontheconsequencesoflanddegradation:soilerosion&landdegradation,depletionofnaturalresources,lowerproductivity,groundwaterdepletion,shortageofdrinkingwater,reductioninspeciesdiversity,increaseintheextentofwastelands.

Technology Development, Extension & Training (TDET) CentralSectorSchemeofTDETwaslaunchedduring1993-94todevelopsuitabletechnologiesforthereclamationofWastelandsforsustainedproductionoffood,fuelwood,fodderetc.Theobjec-tivesare,(i)developmentofdatabaseforplanningsustainabledevelopmentofwastelands,(ii)operationalisationofcosteffectiveandproventechnologiesfordevelopmentofvariouscategoriesofwastelandsspeciallyproblemlandsaffectedbysoilerosion,landdegradation,salinity,alkalin-ity,waterloggingetc.,(iii)implementationoflocationspecificpilotprojects/demonstrationmodelsincludingpisciculture,duckery,beekeeping,domesticatedanimalsandbirdsetc.,(iv)disseminationofresearchfindingsandappropriatetechnologiesforpromotingwastelandsdevelopment,(v)evalu-ationofimpact,andreplicationofthesemodelsinlargerareas,(vi)organisingofpublicity,awarenesscampaign,seminar/conferences,circulationofhandouts/extensionmaterials.ThisschemeisbeingimplementedthroughICAR,StateAgriculturalUniversities,DistrictRuralDevelopmentAgencies(DRDA’s),andGovernmentInstitutionshavingadequateinstitutionalframeworkandorganisationalbackup.SuccessfulimplementationoftheSchemeisexpectedtobridgethegapbetweentheexist-ingtechnologiesandtheneedrelevanttothelatestsituation.UnderthisScheme,100%CentralgrantisadmissibletoimplementtheprojectsonwastelandsownedbyGovt.,PublicSectorUndertakingincludinguniversities,Panchayatsetc.InthecaseofprojectsonwastelandsofPrivateFarmers/Corpo-rateBodies,thecostoftheprojectrequirestobesharedonthebasisof60:40betweentheDept.ofLandResources(DoLR)andthebeneficiaries.

Computerisation Of Land RecordsTheschemeofComputerisationofLandRecords(CLR)wasstartedin1988-89.Thisisa100percentgrant-in-aidschemeexecutedbytheStateGovts.Themainobjectivesare:ProvidingcomputerizedcopiesoftheRecordofRights(ROR)totheLandownersatnominalratesondemand;Ensuringspeed,accuracy,transparencyanddisputeresolution;Informationempowermentoflandownersandfree-ingthemfromtheclutchesofcolonialsystems-paradigmshiftfromtaxbasedapproachtomanage-mentoflandadministration;Providingfastandefficientretrievalofinformationfordecisionmaking;Achievinglowcostandeasilyreproduciblebasiclandrecorddataforreliableanddurablepreserva-tion;ValueadditionandmodernizationinLandAdministration.Underthescheme,100%financialassistanceisprovidedtoStatesforcompletionofdataentrywork,settingupcomputercentresatthetehsilortalukorblockandsub-divisionallevelsandmonitoringcellattheStatelevel.Fundsarealsoprovidedundertheschemeforimpartingtrainingoncomputerawarenessandapplicationssoft-waretorevenueofficialsforregularupdatingofrecordsofrightsandsmoothoperationofcomputercenters.

Strengthening Of Revenue Administration And Updating Of Land Records (SRA & ULR)Thesecondimportantscheme,viz.,StrengtheningofRevenueAdministrationandUpdatingofLandRecordswasstartedduring1988-89with50:50sharingbasisbetweentheCentreandtheState.Themainobjectivesoftheschemesare:1.Strengtheningofsurveyandsettlementorganizationsforanearlycompletionandpreparationoflandrecordsinareaswherethisworkstillremainstobedone,2.Settingupofsurveyandsettlementorganizationespeciallyinthenorthernregionswherenolandrecordsexist,3.Impartingthepre-serviceandin-servicetrainingofrevenue,surveyandsettlementstaffandstrengtheningoftraininginfrastructureintheirpurpose,4.Providingthefacilitiesforthemodernisationofsurveyandsettlementoperations,printingofsurveymaps,reports/documentsandforstorage,copyingandupdatingoflandandcropsrecordsusing,amountingotherthings,scienceandtechnologyinputs,5.Strengtheningofrevenuemachineryinthevillageandimmediatesuprervi-



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sorylevelsonaselectivebasistomaketheworkloadofthesefunctionariesmanageable.

Government Wastelands & Bhoodan LandsDistributionofGovernment’WastelandshasbeenoneofthekeystrategiesoflandreformsintheCountry.IthasbeentheacceptedpolicyoftheCentralGovernmentthatwastelandsatthedisposaloftheStateGovernmentsshouldbedistributedamongsteligibleruralpoor.Thecriteriagoverningthedistributionofceilingsurpluslandshouldalsoapplytothedistributionofwasteland.Sofar,anareaof147.47lakhacresofGovernmentWastelandshasbeendistributedamongstlandlessruralpoor.Outofatotalareaof39.16lakhacresofBhoodanland,21.75lakhacreshavebeendistributed.

Prevention Of Alienation And Restoration Of Alienated Tribal LandStategovernmentshaveacceptedthepolicyofprohibitingtransferoflandfromtribalstonon-trib-alsandrestorationofalienatedlandtotribals.Stateswithlargetribalpopulationshaveenactedlawsprohibitingalienationoftriballandsandpromotingrestorationofalienatedland.ThoughresultshavebeenforthcomingineffortsundertakenbydifferentStatesforrestorationoftriballands,thetaskisyettobecompleted.

Central Sector Scheme of National Land Use & Conservation Board (NLCB) SchemeTheNationalLandUse&ConservationBoard(NLCB)isaCentralSectorSchemewith100%Centralassistance.ObjectivesoftheSchemearetoserveasapolicyplanning,coordinatingandmonitoringagencyatnationallevelforissuesconcerningthehealthandscientificmanagementoflandresourcesofthecountry.TheroleandfunctionsoftheNLCBaretoformulateaNationalPolicyandPerspectivePlanforConservation,Management&Developmentoflandresourcesofthecountry,takingintoaccountappropriatelanduseandsoilcapabilityandotherfactors;makeanoverallreviewoftheprogressofimplementationofongoingschemesandprogrammesconnectedwithconservationanddevelopmentoflandresources,soilandalliedmatters;considerandreviewproposalsconcerningsoilsurveysandgeneralassessmentoflandresources;considermeasuresforensuringthatgoodag-riculturallandisnotindiscriminatelydivertedtonon-agriculturalpurposes;considerandundertakeallothermeasuresnecessaryforpromotingthescientificmanagementoflanduseandconservation;sponsorstudiestoorganiseregionalandnationaldeliberations/seminars/workshopsthroughvariousagenciesincollaborationwithStateLandUseBoards,Universities,ResearchInstitutes;takemeasuresforcreatingageneralawarenessabouttheimportanceandproblemsofpropersoilmanagement;actinfullcollaborationwiththeNationalWastelandsDevelopmentBoardandNationalAfforestationandEco-DevelopmentBoardinregardtomattersofcommoninterest.

Watershed Development Project for Shifting Cultivation Area (WDPSCA) -Additional Central Assistance to State Plan Schemea)Toprotectthehillslopesofjhumareasthroughsoilandwaterconservationmeasuresonwatershedbasisandtoreducefurtherlanddegradationb)Encouragerelocationofjhumiafamiliesbyprovidingdevelopedproductivelandandimprovedcultivationpackages.c)Toimprovethesocio-economicstatusofjhumiafamiliesthroughhousehold/landbasedactivitiesd)Tomitigatetheilleffectsofshiftingcultivationbyintroducingappropriatelanduseasperlandcapabilityandimprovedtechnologies.

Central Sector Scheme of All India Soil & Land Use Survey (AIS&LUS) OrganizationAll India and Land Use Survey and application of Remote Sensing TechnologyTocarryoutrapidReconnaissancesurveysinthecatchmentsofRiverValleyProjects,Non-RVPs,andFloodProneRiversfordemarcatingprioritywatershedsyieldingmaximumsedimentload/run-offwhichareinneedofconservationtreatmentonprioritybasisforminimizingsedimentloadandfloodcontrol.Detailedsoilsurveysintheprioritywatersheds,whichhavebeenrecognized,andotherwa-tershedsforspecialdevelopmentprogrammesinravinousareas,saline-sodiclands,rehabilitationetc.toprovidedetaileddataoncharacteristicsandclassificationsandotherrelatedpropertiesofthesoil.;Developmentofpromotionadvancedtechniquesofaerialphoto-interpretationandremotesens-ingforincreasedefficiencyandaccuracyinthesoilsurveys,prioritydelineationandassessmentofdegradedlands;DistrictbasedLandDegradationMapping(LDM);MonitoringandevaluationstudyofwatersheddevelopmentprojectusingRemoteSensingandGIS.

Soil Conservation for Enhancing the Productivity of Degraded Lands in the Catch-ments of River Valley Project &Flood Prone River Aimsatpreventionoflanddegradationbyadoptionofamulti–disciplinaryintegratedapproachofsoilconservation&watershedmanagementincatchmentareas;improvementoflandcapabilityandmoistureregimeinthewatersheds;promotionoflandusetomatchlandcapability;preventionofsoillossfromthecatchmentstoreducesiltationofmultipurposereservoirsandenhancethein-situmoistureconservationandsurfacerainwaterstoragesinthecatchmentstoreducefloodpeaks&volumeofrunoff.

Centrally Sponsored Programme for Strengthening of State Land Use Board (SLUB)AlltheStatesandUnionTerritorieshavebeenadvisedtoestablishStateLandUseBoard(SLUB)asan



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apexbodywiththesemajorobjectivesa)Toprovidepolicydirectiveforsustainabledevelopmentoflandresources,b)Toensureclosecoordinationamongvariouslanduserdepartmentsand,c)Toiniti-atenecessarystepsforintegratedplanningforoptimaluseofavailablelandresources.

C. Important Programs in Livelihoods EnhancementNational Rural Employment Guarantee ActTheNationalRuralEmploymentGuaranteeAct(NREGA)wasbroughtintoforceinmostbackwarddistrictswiththeobjectiveofproviding100daysofguaranteedunskilledwageemploymenttoeachruralhouseholdoptingforit.TheNREGAmarksaparadigmshiftbecauseitbestowsalegalrightandguaranteetotheruralpopulationthroughanActofParliamentandisnotaschemeunliketheotherwageemploymentprogrammes.TheongoingprogrammesofSampoornaGrameenRozgarYojana(SGRY)andNationalFoodforWorkProgramme(NFFWP)havebeensubsumedinNREGA.TheNREGAwouldcoveralldistrictsofthecountrynow.ThefocusoftheActisonworksrelatingtowaterconservation,droughtproofing(includingafforestation/treeplantation),landdevelopment,floodcontrol/protection(includingdrainageinwaterloggedareas)andruralconnectivityintermsofall-weatherroads

Swarna Jayanti Gram Swarozgar YojnaTheSwarnjayantiGramSwarozgarYojana(SGSY)waslaunchedasanintegratedprogrammeforself-employmentoftheruralpoorwitheffectfrom1April1999.TheobjectiveoftheschemeistobringtheassistedpoorfamiliesabovethepovertylinebyorganisingthemintoSelfHelpGroups(SHGs)throughtheprocessofsocialmobilisation,theirtrainingandcapacitybuildingandprovi-sionofincomegeneratingassetsthroughamixofbankcreditandgovernmentsubsidy.Theschemeemphasizesestablishmentofactivityclustersthroughselectionofkeyactivitiesbasedonaptitudeandskillofthepeople,availabilityofresourcesandmarketpotentiality.Theschemeadoptsaprocessapproachandattemptstobuildthecapacitiesoftheruralpoor.

Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar YojnaTheSampoornaGrameenRozgarYojana(SGRY)waslaunchedon25September,2001bymergingtheschemesofEASandtheJGSYwiththeobjectiveofprovidingadditionalwageemploymentandfoodsecurity,alongsidecreationofdurablecommunityassetsinruralareas.Theprogrammeisself-target-inginnaturewithprovisionsforspecialemphasisonwomen,scheduledcastes,scheduledtribesandparentsofchildrenwithdrawnfromhazardousoccupations.PreferenceisgiventoBPLfamiliesforprovidingwageemploymentunderSGRY.

National Food for Work ProgrammeTheNationalFoodforWorkProgrammewaslaunchedinNovember2004in150mostbackwarddis-trictsofthecountry,identifiedbythePlanningCommissioninconsultationwiththeMinistryofRuralDevelopmentandtheStategovernments.TheobjectiveoftheprogrammewastoprovideadditionalresourcesapartfromtheresourcesavailableundertheSampoornaGrameenRozgarYojana(SGRY)to150mostbackwarddistrictsofthecountrysothatgenerationofsupplementarywageemploymentandprovidingoffood-securitythroughcreationofneedbasedeconomic,socialandcommunityas-setsinthesedistrictsarefurtherintensified.

D. Programmes related to HorticultureNational Horticulture Mission Implementedtopromoteholisticgrowthofthehorticulturesectorcoveringfruits,vegetables,root&tubercrops,mushroom,spices,flowers,aromaticplants,cashewandcocoa.ThemainobjectivesoftheMissionaretoprovideholisticgrowthofthehorticulturesectorthroughanareabasedregion-allydifferentiatedstrategieswhichincluderesearch,technologypromotion,extension,postharvestmanagement,processingandmarketing,inconsonancewithcomparativeadvantageofeachState/regionanditsdiverseagro-climaticfeature;toenhancehorticultureproduction,improvenutritionalsecurityandincomesupporttofarmhouseholds;toestablishconvergenceandsynergyamongmultipleon-goingandplannedprogrammesforhorticulturedevelopment;topromote,developanddisseminatetechnologies,throughaseamlessblendoftraditionalwisdomandmodernscientificknowledge;tocreateopportunitiesforemploymentgenerationforskilledandunskilledpersons,especiallyunemployedyouth.

Micro Irrigation (MI) Scheme ThePanchayatiRajInstitutions(PRIs)willbeinvolvedinselectingthebeneficiaries.Allcategoriesoffarmersarecoveredunderthescheme.ThefocuswillbeonhorticulturalcropsbeingcoveredundertheNationalHorticultureMission.ThePrecisionFarmingDevelopmentCentres(PFDCs)willprovideresearchandtechnicalsupportforimplementingthescheme.SchemeonMicroIrrigation(MI)aimsatincreasingtheareaunderefficientmethodsofirrigationviz.dripandsprinklerirrigation.

Coconut Development BoardItstrivestoincreaseproductionandproductivityofcoconut;bringadditionalareaundercoconutinpotentialnon-traditionalareas;developnewtechnologiesforproductdiversificationandby-prod-



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uctutilization;strengthenmechanismfortransferoftechnologies;elevatetheincomelevelofsmallandmarginalfarmersengagedincoconutcultivation;buildupsoundinformationbasisforcoconutindustryandmarketinformation;generateampleemploymentopportunitiesintheruralsector.Theschemeprovidesforproductionanddistributionofqualityplantingmaterial,expansionofareaun-dercoconut,integratedfarmingpracticesforproductivityimprovement,technologydemonstration,marketpromotionandhumanresourcedevelopment.

Technology Mission for Development of Horticulture in North Eastern Region includ-ing SikkimThisaimstoestablishconvergenceandsynergyamongnumerousongoinggovernmentalpro-grammeinthefieldofhorticulturedevelopmenttoachievehorizontalandverticalintegrationoftheseprogrammes;ensureadequate,appropriate,timelyandconcurrentattentiontoallthelinksintheproduction,postharvestandconsumptionchain;maximizeeconomic,ecologicalandsocialben-efitsfromtheexistinginvestmentandinfrastructurecreatedforhorticulturedevelopment;promoteecologicallysustainableintensification,economicallydesirablediversificationandskilledemploy-ment;generatevalueaddition;promotethedevelopmentanddisseminationofeco-technologiesbasedontheblendingofthetraditionalwisdomandtechnologywithfrontierknowledgesuchasbio-technology,informationtechnologyandspacetechnology;andtoprovidethemissinglinksinongoinghorticulturedevelopmentprojects.

E. Programmes related to Tribal Development Special Central AssistanceTheMinistryoftribalAffairsprovidesthisformofassistancetotheStateGovernmentasanaddi-tivetotheStateTSP(tribalSubPlan).SCAisPrimarilymeantforfamily-orientedincome-generationschemesinsectorsofagriculture,horticulturesericultureandanimalhusbandrycooperation.

Central assistance to Primitive Tribal GroupsSeventy-fivePrimitiveTribalGroupshavebeenidentifiedin15States/UTsasbeingmorevulnerablethantherest.States/UTshavebeenrequestedtoallocaterequisitefundsfromCentrallySponsoredandStatePlanschemesfortheirsocio-economicdevelopmentofthisrecognizedgroup.

Central Assistance for the Establishment of Grain Banks Theschemeaimsatestablishmentofgrainbanksintribalvillages.Itisfocuseduponthemorevulner-abletribalgroupswheredeathsareknowntoduetostarvation,malnutritionetc.

Tribal Sub PlanAllocationoffundfortribalareasfromStatePlanaswellasCentralMinistries,atleastproportionatetopopulationoftribalsinthestate(fromstateplan)andtotheoverallproportionatetribalpopula-tionforthecountryfromthebudgetofCentralMinistriesandFinancialInstitutionsetc.WatershedactivitiesandCFMarrangementsmostoftenfigureintheTribalSubPlan

F. Important Programs related to Livestock CentralCattleBreedingFarms CentralHerdRegistrationScheme LivestockHealth&DiseaseControl(LH&DC) SheepDevelopment ConservationOfThreatenedBreeds NationalProjectForCattleAndBuffaloBreeding(NPCBB) CentralFrozenSemenProductionAndTrainingInstitute(CFSP&TI)Hessarghatta,Bangalore FodderDevelopment AssistanceToCooperatives–CentralSectorPlanScheme DairyDevelopmentPerspectivePlan,2010 IntensiveDairyDevelopmentProgramme(IDDP) LivestockInsuranceScheme OperationalGuidelinesonCentralSectorPlanScheme“Dairy/PoultryVentureCapitalFund” StrengtheningInfrastructureforQuality&CleanMilkProduction(CMP)

G. Programmes related to FisheriesCentral sector scheme on strengthening database and information networking for the fisheries sectorItaimsatpromotingstandardizedmethodologyofdatacollectionthroughsamplesurveyforestimationofinlandfisheriesresources.Butscientificknowhownotadoptedtodetectdepletionofendemic/endangeredspeciesandassistintheirprotection.



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Centrally Sponsored Scheme on ‘Fisheries Training & Extension’Trainingserviceprimarilyaimedathumanresourcedevelopment,establishmentoffishfarmers’trainingcentreandawarenesscenters.Schemesprimarilyfocusedatdevelopinghumanresourceformaximizingharvests.Curriculumnotbasedonindigenousknowledgesystemsandbestpractices.Centrally Sponsored Scheme on ‘Development of Inland Fisheries and Aquaculture’Aimsatthedevelopmentofbrackishwateraquaculture,coldwaterfisheriesandaquaculture,devel-opmentofwaterloggedAreas,utilizationofinlandsaline/alkalinesoilsforaquaculture,andIntegrat-eddevelopmentofinlandcaptureresources(i.e.reservoirs/riversetc.).Doesnotconsiderthedamagecausedtoindigenousvarietiesoffishbythedammingofrivers

Centrally sponsored scheme on development of marine fisheries, infrastructures and post harvest operationsAssistancetofishersthroughtheState/UTGovernmentsforactivitiessuchasmotorizationoftradi-tionalfishermen,rebateonHSDoil,constructionoffishingharboursandfishlandingcenters,andsettingupofinlandfishmarketingcenters.Infrastructurecreatedprimarilyforintensifyingmarketoperations

H. Programmes on Agriculture IntegratedEvaluationofCentrallySponsoredSchemeofIntegratedSchemeonOilseeds,Pulses, OilpalmandMaize CentralSectorSchemeonTransportSubsidyforthemovementofSeedstotheNorth-Eastern States,Sikkim,HimachalPradesh,Jammu&Kashmir,UttaranchalandHillAreasofWestBengal. SeedBankScheme Centralsectorschemeforimplementationoflegislationonplantvarietiesandfarmersrights protection StrengtheningofCentralFertiliserQualityControl&TrainingInstituteanditsRegionalLabs SettingupofStateBiocontrolLaboratoriesUndertheSchemeStrengtheningandModernisation ofPestManagementApproachinINDIA’-GrantsinaidtoNGO’s ProjectsoftheNationalLandUseandConservationBoard(NLCB) ProjectforReclamationandDevelopmentofAlkaliSoilsinBiharandUttarPradesh WatershedDevelopmentProjectinShiftingCultivationAreas(WDPSCA) WatershedDevelopmentCouncil(WDC) NABARD-WatershedDevelopmentFund ProjectsinitiatedbytheIndianCouncilforAgriculturalResearch(ICAR)



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ThepublicationismadepossiblebythesupportofUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme(UNDP),NewDelhi.

Anypartofthispublicationmaybecited,copied,translatedoradaptedtomeetlocalneedswithoutpriorpermissionfromUNDPandFESprovidedthatthesourceisclearlystated.

Theviewsexpressedinthispublicationarethoseoftheauthor(s)anddonotnecessarilyrepresentthoseofUnitedNations.

FirstEdition:1000

December,2008

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