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CHAPTER 1

(CLAUSE)

is a group of words containing a subject and a verb. Some example are :

Text 1

(To obtain the optimal ratio of tribal bean and soybean, the tribal beans were mixed with soybeans at different ratios such as 25:75, 50:50, 75:25, and 100:0. The experiment was designed in a complete random with four replications (Scheaffer et al. 1990). Soybean var. Wilis was obtained from a local market.)

(Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Tribal Bean (Canavalia virosa) And Its Alternative Tofu and Tempeh Food Products ; page 3 ; paragraph 2)

The Analysis :

(The experiment) (designed) was in a complete random with four replications.

SubjectVerbal

Text 2

(The beans were analyzed physically and chemically using the standard prosedure. Since the tribal bean seeds contained high HCN, to minimize HCN content the beans were presoaked for 48 hours in water. The beans were then mixed with soybean at a ratio of 50:50 or 25:75 and processed for making tempeh and tofu using traditional method.)


The Analysis :

(tempeh and tofu) ( making)The beans were then mixed with soybean at a ratio of 50:50 or 25:75 and processed for

using traditional method.

VerbalSubject

(SENTENCE)A sentence may consist of one or more clauses, for example :

(Tribal bean pods were harvested from wildly grown plants in the coastal areas of Bugel Village, Panjatan District, Kulon Progo Regency, Yogyakarta. The other materials were yeast for making tempeh and coagulants for making tofu, such as rice vinegar (from market), lactic acid 98% (technical brand), and pineapple extracts.).


(tempeh ) ( making)The Analysis :

The other materials were yeast for and coagulants for

( making) (tofu)Verbal Subject

, such as rice vinegar (from market), lactic acid 98% (technical

VerbalSubject

brand), and pineapple extracts.

(PHRASE)

A phare is a group of words lacking either a subject or a verb. Some example

Physical and chemical characteristics of tribal bean seeds were presented in Table 1 and 2. The tribal bean seeds are rich in protein and minerals. However, the bean seeds also contain very high HCN (1134 ppm), above the tolerance threshold for human body of 50 ppm kg-1 body weight (Buckle et al. 1987). Therefore, the seeds must be treated before processed to minimize its HCN content. The tribal bean seeds contains 37% protein, equivalent to soybean protein of 39% (Sitompul 2004; Anonim 2009).

Important minerals found in the tribal bean were calcium, manganese, sodium, potassium, and phosphorous. The tribal bean also contains various essential amino acids similar to those found in soybean, but in lower quantities (Table 2). to minimize HCN content as described above. The presoaked beans were then processed for tempeh using a traditional method (Purwaningsih 2008). The peeled beans were washed, soaked in water for 24 hours and boiled for 45 minutes. The boiled beans were then washed and soaked again for 24 hours.

(Finally, the beans were washed and steamed for 45 minutes. After chilling, the beans were inoculated with tempeh yeast, packed in plastic bags and fermented for one day at room temperature (27-30C).)


The Analysis :

(tribal bean seeds)1. Nominal phrase

Physical and chemical characteristics of were presented

in Table 1 and 2. Nominal

(washed) (soaked)2. Verbal phrase

The boiled beans were then and again for 24 hours.

Verbal Verbal

(rich in protein and minerals)3. Adjectival phrase

The tribal bean seeds are

Adjectival

4. Adverbial phrase

(At room)The beans were inoculated with tempeh yeast, packed in plastic bags and fermented for one day temperature (27-30C).

Adverbial

CHAPTER 2

There is two kind of contextual reference, general and scientific English. In both, words like WHO, WHOM, WHICH, THAT, WHOSE, ABOUT, WHOM, TO WHICH, WHERE, WHEN, OF WHOM, OF WHICH and many more are used to refer to something that have been said before, or to what is ging to be said.

(OF WHICH)

Text 1

(Nigeria is blessed with a land mass to about 91.0 million hectares out of which about83.0 million is considered suitable for agriculture.)

(Comparative Efficiency of Mechanized and Non-Mechanized Farms in Oyo State of Nigeria: A Stochastic Frontier Approach; paragraph 1)

(of which) (91.0 million hectares out)The Analysis :

Nigeria is blessed with a land mass to about

about 83.0 million is considered suitable for agriculture.

(WHEN)

Text 2

(Massive food importation began in order to bridge the gap between supply and demand for food. In 1970 to 1975 food importation stood at 143 percent till 1976 to 1982 when the ratio of export to import declined to about 38 percent (CBN, 1997).)

(Comparative Efficiency of Mechanized and Non-Mechanized Farms in Oyo State of Nigeria: A Stochastic Frontier Approach; paragraph 1)

The Analysis:

In 1970 to 1975 food importation stood at 143 percent till 1976 to 1982

(when) (the ratio of export) to import declined to about 38 percent (CBN, 1997).

(WHICH)

Text 3

(This is evidenced in the establishment of institutions like Federal department of rural development (FDRD) in 1976 to coordinate an integrate rural and agricultural development and to initiate and develop appropriated strategies and projects which will help to increase agricultural productivity, employment opportunity in the country.)

(Comparative Efficiency of Mechanized and Non-Mechanized Farms in Oyo State of Nigeria: A Stochastic Frontier Approach; page 1, paragraph 2)

The Analysis

(which) (develop appropriated strategies and projects ) will help to increase

(WHO)agricultural productivity, employment opportunity in the country.

Text 4

(Nigerian Agriculture is dominated by resource poor, small-holder farmers who use traditional farming tools and techniques that are antiquated and inefficient. )

(Agricultural Mechanization for creation of rural wealth : The Imperative, page 1, paragraph 3)

The Analysis :

(farmers) (who)Nigerian Agriculture is dominated by resource poor, small-holder use traditional farming tools and techniques that are antiquated and

inefficient.

(THAT)

Text 5

(For Nigerians to create wealth through agriculture sector, mechanization of its agriculture must of necessity assume a centre-stage through application of appropriate level of agricultural mechanization technology that is potent enough to modernize, energize and revitalize the Nigerian agriculture industry.)

(Agricultural Mechanization for creation of rural wealth : The Imperative ; page 1; paragraph 2)

(that) (mechanization technology)The Analysis :

appropriate level of agricultural

is potent enough to modernize, energize and revitalize the Nigerian agriculture industry.

(ABOUT)

Text 6

(Nigeria is blessed with a land mass to about 91.0 million hectares out of which about 83.0 million is considered suitable for agriculture. However, less than 30.0 million is currently under cultivation (Oni, 1996; F.M.A, 2001).)

(Agricultural Mechanization for creation of rural wealth : The Imperative, page 1, paragraph 1)

(91.0 million hectares out) (about)The Analysis :

Nigeria is blessed with a land mass to

(about) (83.0 million)

of which is considered suitable for agriculture.

(WHERE) Text 7

(Hand tool technology is the most basic mechanization level where a human muscleis the source of power utilizing simple tools and implements such as hoes, machets, sickles, wooden diggers, etc.)

(Agricultural Mechanization for creation of rural wealth : The Imperative; page 3; paragraph 6)

(where) (mechanization level)The Analysis :

Hand tool technology is the most basic

a human muscle is the source of power utilizing simple tools.

CHAPTER 3

PARALLEL STRUCTURE

One use of a conjunction is to connect words or phrases that have the same grammatical function in a sentence. This useof conjunctions is called PARALLEL STRUCTURE. The single conjunctions used in this patter are, among others, AND, BUT, OR, and NOR. They are also referred to coordinating conjunctions.

(OR)

(The situation has persisted because of lack of appropriate mechanization policies, dependence on foreign or alien ideas and advice and an almost exclusive reliance on imported agricultural machines and equipment.) Text 1

(Agricultural Mechanization for creation of rural wealth : The Imperative)

The analysis :

Dependence on

(OR)foreign

Dependence on

Alien ideas

(AND).

Text 2

(A wide range of explanatory parameters of farming activities were examined. Finally, 19 explanatory parameters were used as input variables to predict MI and LOM.)

(Agricultural Mechanization for creation of rural wealth : The Imperative)

The Analysis

predict

MI

predict

LOM

(AND)

(BUT)

Text 3

(Agricultural mechanization can be defined as the use of machines instead of human effort for agricultural production, processing, handling, preservation and storage. Agricultural mechanization is not an end but a means of eliminating drudgery in farming and eventually increasing food production.)

(Agricultural Mechanization for creation of rural wealth : The Imperative ;page 3; paragraph 1)

The Analysis

Agricultural mechanization

Is not end

Agricultural mechanization

A means

(BUT)

(NOR)

Text 4

(According to Odigboh (1996), Even to a casual observer, it becomes immediately evident that the agricultural industry neither commands the respect nor maintains the pride of place it once did in Nigeria.)


The Analysis

Commands

The respect

Commands

Maintains

(NOR)

PAIRED CONJUCTIONS

In section A above you are shown how single conjuctions can be used to join two or more clauses into one new sentence. In English you can find paired conjunctions carrying the same function as single ones. Some examples of paired conjuctions are:

BOTH . AND ..

NOT ONLY BUT ALSO

(BOTHAND)

Text 1

(The struggle for food security for all, through the adoption of concerted policies and action at both national and international levels, points to the need for Nigeria to evolve viable agricultural production options that will ensure sustainable production of food and raw materials for agro-based industries and for export.)


The Analysis

National

Levels

International

Levels

In this case we can use the single conjuction and. Paired conjuctions having the same meaning as and in the positive sense are:

Both A and B

Not Only A but also B

Not Only A but B as well

Thus the new sentence can be:

1. both national and international levels

2. Not Only national But also international levels

3. Not Only national But also international as well levels

CHAPTER 4

In a procedure text, the description of processes makes use of words or phrases such as first(ly), then, the next step, the next stage, during, subsequently, finally to introduce each stage.

(BEFORE)AT SENTENCE LEVEL

Text 1

(Before the CS was introduced, the entire sawah land in Java had been commonly planted with paddy rice in the rainy season and it had been followed by non-rice food crops named palawijaya as the second crop. )

( Agriculture and Irrigation System Development in Java During The Cultivation System; page 2 ; paragraf 2)

The Analysis

Before the CS was introduced, the entire sawah land in Java had been commonly planted.

(AFTER)

(Coagulant was mixed slowly with the milk at temperature of 80C. After completely mixed, the milkcoagulant was slowly transformed into curds and whey. )Text 2

(Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Tribal Bean (Canavalia virosa) And Its Alternative Tofu

and Tempeh Food Products ; page 2 ; paragraph 6)

The Analysis

After completely mixed, the milkcoagulant was slowly transformed into curds and whey.

(WHEN)Text 3

(Accordingly, when risks and uncertainties are high, a traditional producer may opt for traditional methods which he has come to know and understand in preference to the adoption of new innovation which "promises" higher returns but may entail greater risks and production failures.)


The Analysis

(WHILE) Accordingly, when risks and uncertainties are high, a traditional producer.

Text 4

(Under the traditional or subsistence agriculture, output and productivity are low, simplest traditional tools are being used, capital investment is minimal while land and labour constitute principal factors, thus ulminating in the "Law of Diminishing Returns" - high labour and input applications, low returns.)


The Analysis

Capital investment is minimal while land and labour constitute principal factors, thus ulminating in the "Law of Diminishing Returns" - high labour and input applications, low returns.

(UNTIL)

(Blended tribal bean and soybean milk was filtered using filter cloth and boiled at a temperature of 90C until completely boiled. Coagulant was mixed slowly with the milk at temperature of 80C.) Text 5


The Analysis

(THEN)A temperature of 90C until completely boiled. Coagulant was mixed slowly with the milk at temperature of 80C.

Text 6

(The whey was ladled out into a tank and the curds were ladled roughly into a cloth-lined perforated wooden box. The box was then closed with a wooden lid. The curds were pressed under a slatted lid with 20 kg stone for 15 minutes (Sulistiyani 2009).)


The Analysis

The box was then closed with a wooden lid. The curds were pressed under a slatted lid with 20 kg stone for 15 minutes (Sulistiyani 2009).

(DURING)

(Biochemical energy input: Biochemical energy is the amount of energy stored in the seed. The calculated energy input from seed during the study period was presented in row 6 of the Table 4.)Text 7

(Energy Flow in Agriculture: Bangladesh; page 4; paragraph 5)

The Analysis

The calculated energy input from seed during the study period was presented in row 6 of the Table 4.

(THROUGHOUT)Text 8

(The tribal bean plant has good adaptation in poor soils, such as coastal sand. The plant is flowering throughout the year. Tribal bean roots are rich in root nodules which bind nitrogen from the air so it can nourish the soil.)


The Analysis

The plant is flowering throughout the year. Tribal bean roots are rich in root nodules which bind nitrogen from the air so it can nourish the soil.

(PRIOR TO)

Text 9

(NCAM Seed treatment drum a simple device for chemically treating seeds prior to storage/planting. The output capacity is 20 - 25-kg/hr, it consists of a cylindrical drum mounted on two bearings supported on an angle iron frame. The device is ready for commercial release.)


The Analysis

(IF)NCAM Seed treatment drum a simple device for chemically treating seeds prior to storage/planting.

(These constitute great investment avenues for entrepreneurs if processing and packaging are appropriately organized and distribution and marketing strategies perfectly worked out.)Text 10

\


The Analysis

These constitute great investment avenues for entrepreneurs if processing.

AT PARAGRAPH LEVEL

(FIRSTLY)

Text 11

(Firstly mention is made to the physiological and biological characteristics of sugarcane. Agronomically, sugarcane can be grown on any suitable land and requires less irrigation water is concerned. In many places, it is grown in rainfed areas. Java may be exceptional where all sugarcane was irrigated and grown in sawah land. )

( Agriculture and Irrigation System Development in Java During The Cultivation System paragraph 3, page 5)

The Analysis

Firstly mention is made to the physiological and biological characteristics of sugarcane.

(FINALLY)

(The boiled beans were then washed and soaked again for 24 hours. Finally, the beans were washed and steamed for 45 minutes. After chilling, the beans were inoculated with tempeh yeast, packed in plastic bags and fermented for one day at room temperature (27-30C).)Text 12


The Analysis

Finally, the beans were washed and steamed for 45 minutes.

CHAPTER 5

The conjunction showing a relationship of consequence can be divided into two groups depending on the types of claese it prececdes

BEGINNING A CLAUSE CLAUSE

BEGINNING A RESULT CLAUSE

As

Consequently

Since

Therefore

Because

Thus

If

and so

Due to the fact that

Hence

Considering that

As a result

etc.

etc.

(SINCE)

Text 1

(Since farmers select long maturing rice varieties, rice matures after 6-7 months in April or May. Rice plus sugarcane or sugarcane plus palawija cropping patterns prevail in the given command area as shown in the Fig.4.)

(Agriculture and Irrigation System Development in Java During The Cultivation System halaman 6,paragraf 2)

The Analysis

Since fasrmers select long maturing rice varieties, rice matures after 6-7 months in April or May.

(assincebecauseifetc)

(THUS)

(Under the traditional or subsistence agriculture, output and productivity are low, simplest traditional tools are being used, capital investment is minimal while land and labour constitute principal factors, thus culminating in the "Law of Diminishing Returns" - high labour and input applications, low returns.)Text 2

(Agricultural Mechanization for Creation of Rural Wealt: Imperative ; page 2;paragraph 4)

The Analysis

thus culminating in the "Law of Diminishing Returns" - high labour and input applications, low returns.

(ConsequentlythusThusand sohenceetc.)

(AS)Text 3

(The consequence of this is the importation of major food items from such countries as the United States of America (USA), Portugal, Malaysia, Thailand, to mention just a few of Nigerias valued trading nations.)

(Agricultural Mechanization for Creation of Rural Wealt: Imperatives, page 2, paragraph2)

The Analysis

as the United States of America (USA), Portugal, Malaysia, Thailand, to mention just a few of Nigerias valued trading nations.

(assincebecauseifetc)

(THEREFORE)

Text 4

(Enhancing the use of agricultural mechanization technologies in agriculturaloperations is therefore a crucial factor for increasing both the production and productivity of agriculture in Nigeria (Simalenga, 2000).)


The Analysis

therefore a crucial factor for increasing both the production and productivity of agriculture in Nigeria (Simalenga, 2000).

(thereforeConsequentlyThusAnd so)

CHAPTER 6

(BUT)Two clauses can also be contrasted. To realize a relationship of contrast between two clauses in English, some special conjuctions are used. Expressions like but, however , in contrast, while, on the other hand, instead, and although can be used to show that the information in one statement is the opposite of another.

Text 1

(Accordingly, when risks and uncertainties are high, a traditional producer may opt for traditional methods which he has come to know and understand in preference to the adoption of new innovation which "promises" higher returns but may entail greater risks and production failures.)

(Agricultural Mechanization for Creation of Rural Wealt: Imperatives, page 2, paragraph 5)

The Analysis

(BUT)understand in preference to the adoption of new innovation which "promises" higher returns may entail greater risks and production failures.

(HOWEVER)

(This category of farmers still depends on manual labour to carry out their various farming operations. However, with labour peak demand at critical crop production cycle, high labour cost and the teaming population of over 120 millions with an annual growth rate of 2.5%, the introduction of mechanization to Nigerian agriculture is indispensable.)


The Analysis

This category of farmers still depends on manual labour to carry out their various farming operations.

(HoweverNeverthelessOn the other handIn contrastBy contrast)

, with labour peak demand at critical crop production cycle, high labour cost and the teaming population of over 120 millions with an annual growth rate of 2.5%, the introduction of mechanization to Nigerian agriculture is indispensable.

(INSTEAD)

Text 2

(Agricultural mechanization can be defined as the use of machines instead of human effort for agricultural production, processing, handling, preservation and storage. Agricultural mechanization is not an end but a means of eliminating drudgery in farming and eventually increasing food production)


The Analysis

(In contrastInsteadOn the other handNeverthelessBy contrastHowever)Agricultural mechanization can be defined as the use of machines

of human effort for agricultural production, processing, handling, preservation and storage. Agricultural mechanization is not an end but a means of eliminating drudgery in farming and eventually increasing food production

CHAPTER 7

(For examplefor exampleFor instancefor instance)

The Relationship Showing Exemplification

In this chapter use many word for make an example in the statement, are: for example, for instance, such as, and like.

The first sentence is a statement that weathering processes are largely physical(a)

(SUCH AS)The second sentence is an example of the statement in sentence. (b)

(Hand tool technology is the most basic mechanization level where a human muscle is the source of power utilizing simple tools and implements such as hoes, machets, sickles, wooden diggers, etc. This level only produces a low and declining agricultural production and productivity.)Text 1


The Analysis

(a) (such as)Hand tool technology is the most basic mechanization level where a human muscle is the source of power utilizing simple tools and implements

(b) (hoes, machets, sickles, wooden diggers, etc.)

Text 2

(Seed dehuller - is a manually operated equipment with a capacity of 25 30 kg/day. It is used to dehull crops like cowpea and soyabean. ) (LIKE)


(cowpea and soyabean.) (like)The Analysis

It is used to dehull crops

(FOR EXAMPLE) (a) (b)

(Simultaneously, government made different economic reformation to boost food production among which are, Operation Feed the Nation (OFN), National Accelerated Food Production Project (NAFPP), Agro - Services, Green Revolution. Some projects are joint ventures for example NAFPP involves Federal,, State government, USAID, IITA and National Research Institutions.)Text 3

(Comparative Efficiency of Mechanized and Non-Mechanized Farms in Oyo State of Nigeria: A Stochastic Frontier Approach; page 1, paragraph 3)

(a)

(for example)The Analysis

Green Revolution. Some projects are joint ventures

(NAFPP involves Federal, State government, USAID, IITA and National Research Institutions.).

(b)

The word for example on that paragraph shows the relationship showing exemplification between two sentences, and can be changed into: for example, For instance, for instance.

CHAPTER 8

(That is to sayIn other wordsThis indicates thatThis means that)

EXPRESE A RELATINSHIP OF EXPLANATION.

Text 1

(This means that the establishment of effective local agricultural machinery industries is a pre-requisite to the establishment of effective local agricultural machinery industries is a pre-requisite to the establishment and growth of other industries in Nigeria since agriculture provides about 60 per cent of industrial inputs. )


The Analysis

This means that the establishment of effective local agricultural machinery industries is a pre-requisite to the establishment

(That is to sayIn other wordsThis indicates thatThis means that)

CHAPTER 9

ADDITION SHOWING REINFORCEMENT

(IN ADDITION)

(The main reason being that agricultural growth rate in these countries seriously lags behind their ever increasing population. In addition, there are various natural as well as institutional constraints which miligate against rapid growth in the agricultural sector. )Text 1


The Analysis

In addition, there are various natural as well as institutional constraints which miligate against rapid growth in the agricultural sector.

(In additionMoreoverFurthermoreFurtheralso)

(MOREOVER)

(Which can help to solve the food, fodder and rural domestic cooking fuel problem. Moreover, the condition of agricultural mechanization is such that there is a scope to obtained the proportionality higher output-input energy ratio with increasing energy input and/or with increasing solar conversion efficiency.) Text 2

(Energy Flow in Agriculture: Bangladesh; page 7; paragraph 8)

The Analysis

Moreover, the condition of agricultural mechanization is such that there is a scope to obtained the proportionality higher output-input energy ratio with increasing energy input and/or with increasing solar conversion efficiency.


(FURTHERMORE)

Text 2

(The correlation between the models outputs and the calculated values of the indicators was quite strong according to the results after the validation phase (10 cases), with 2=0.989 and 0.992 for MI and LOM, respectively. Furthermore, the developed mechanization indicators provided sufficient information to identify the target farming system as well as to assess their mechanization status.)

(Assessment of agricultural mechanization status of potato production by means of Artificial

Neural Network model; page 6, paragraph 1)

The Analysis

Furthermore, the developed mechanization indicators provided sufficient information to identify the target farming system as well as to assess their mechanization status.


(FURTHER)Text 3

(The potential practical application of this work consists on mapping the proposed mechanization indicators for a much wider area without direct calculations. Further analysis based on the interrelation between the produced data with complementary parameters already available in local databases, would contribute to assess the mechanization status in the region.)

(Assessment of agricultural mechanization status of potato production by means of Artificial

Neural Network model; page 2, paragraph 1)

The Analysis

Further analysis based on the interrelation between the produced data with complementary parameters already available in local databases, would contribute to assess the mechanization status in the region.


(LIKELY)ADDITION SHOWING SIMILARITY

(Tribal bean roots are rich in root nodules which bind nitrogen from the air so it can nourish the soil. The plant is likely adaptive to high temperature of the tropic, grows well in the dry season, and apparently resistant to diseases and rodents.)Text 1

(Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Tribal Bean (Canavalia virosa) And Its Alternative Tofu and Tempeh Food Products ; page 1; paragraph 4)

The Analysis

The plant is likely adaptive to high temperature of the tropic, grows well in the dry season, and apparently resistant to diseases and rodents.

(SimiliarlyLikelyAn the same wayAlsoetc)

(ALSO)

Text 2

(Tribal bean contains 31.3% protein and 4.9% fat with a caloric value of 1512.4 kJ/100 g. Tribal bean also contains various essential amino acids, including isoleucine, lysine, histidine, sistine, methionine and threonine, as well as antioxidant especially isoflavon that can be useful for humans (Snyder and Kwon 1987; Siddhuraju and Becker 2001).)

(Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Tribal Bean (Canavalia virosa) And Its Alternative Tofu and Tempeh Food Products ; page 1; paragraph 5)

The Analysis

Tribal bean also contains various essential amino acids, including isoleucine, lysine, histidine, sistine, methionine and threonine,

(SimiliarlyLikelyAn the same wayAlsoetc)

(English AgricultureenPage 24)Englis

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