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1. IntroductionThe present book is a des'ripti/e grammar of Makalero@ one of the 1# nationallanguages of East Timor re'ognised as su'h in the 'ountryFs 'onstitution* 4t isspoken in the subdistri't of 4liomar@ in the south(east of the 'ountry* The lo'ation ofEast Timor in the 'onteIt of insular 5outh(East Asia is sho-n in Map 1*

Map 1: East Timor in 5outh(East Asia 2adapted from 5'happer ! 7

With an area of 1"@ 1 km_ and ust under a million inhabitants@ East Timor eIhibitsHuite a striking language di/ersity* The linguisti' lands'ape of Timor as -ell as the

neighbouring islands of Alor and Pantar is depi'ted in Map !* The Makalero(speaking area is darkened*

Map !: The languages of Timor@ Alor and Pantar 2adapted from =ull !

Malaysia Philippines

4ndonesia

Papua e-Cuinea

East Timor

4ndonesia

MalaysiaPhilippines

Papua e- Cuinea

Australia

East Timor

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! . =APTE; 1

` 1*1 2p*! gi/es an outline of the history of the young 'ountry of East Timor* 4tin'ludes some details on the 4liomar subdistri't@ although relati/ely little is kno-n ofits earlier history* ` 1*! 2p*" and ` 1*3 2p*8 present ba'kground information onthe geographi'al setting of the Makalero area and on its speakers and their 'ulture*` 1* 2p*7 dis'usses the language and the language situation* The geneti''lassifi'ation of Makalero is outlined in ` 1*" 2p* 1! @ follo-ed by a sket'h of thelanguageFs stru'ture in ` 1*# 2p*1# * `1*8 2p*!8 gi/es an o/er/ie- o/er pre/ious-ork* ` 1*9 2p* !9 details the 'orpus underlying the present analysis and themethodology used* ` 1*7 2p*3! @ finally@ dis'usses the orthography used forMakalero*

1.1 A short history of East Timor and Iliomar The island of Timor is often 'ited as being on the possible migration route for maninto Australia and Melanesia 2Clo/er 179#: * Earliest e/iden'e of settlement may

be as old as @ years* 4t is today inhabited by speakers of both Austronesian andPapuan languages@ -hi'h suggests multiple migrations* Whether the an'estors oftodayFs Austronesian speakers or Papuan speakers arri/ed on the island first appearsto ha/e been a matter of some debate: a superfi'ial glan'e at a map might suggestthat these Papuan en'la/es 2-ithin an area dominated by Austronesian languages@$= are simply remnants of an earlier and larger distribution o/errun byAustronesian speakers@ but re'ent resear'h on the Papuan languages as a -hole may

make su'h a /ie- rather simplisti' 26ell-ood ! 8: 1! * Wurm 21793 suggeststhe Papuan languages of Timor deri/e from the third and main Papuan languagemigration@ -hi'h essentially amounts to the spread of his massi/e Trans( e-Cuinea family and -as more or less 'ontemporary -ith the arri/al of Austronesianspeakers in the area* Wurm posits this e/ent at around 3@ 6.@ -hile a''ording to6ell-ood 2! 8: 1!3 @ Austronesian settlers rea'hed Timor only by about !@ 6.*;oss 2! " @ on the other hand@ seems to 'ontend that Papuan speakers arri/ed inTimor earlier than Austronesian speakers* A possible migration route for Papuanspeakers from e- Cuinea@ starting some-here near the 6omberai peninsula and

passing through the %ei and Tanimbar 4slands on-ards to Timor@ is depi'ted in =ull2! : # *.hinese and $apanese sour'es mention the island as early as the 1 th 'entury@ mainlyas a sour'e of 5andal-ood 2>oI ! 8: # * =o-e/er@ little is kno-n of the islandFs

history before the arri/al of the first European eIplorers and traders by the early1" s* The first European /isitors report that the island is fragmented into smallkingdoms ruled by liurais 2kings * The three ma or kingdoms -ere@ a''ording to a1# th 'entury sour'e@ Wehale@ -hi'h dominated the 'enter of the island@ 5onbaFi in the-est@ and Likusaen 2today: LiHuiNa in the east*>rom about 1"" @ European 'olonialism -as the ma or for'e shaping the islandFshistory* The earliest European a'ti/ity in the area -as by Portuguese traders andmissionaries* 4nitially@ there -ere no permanent administration@ military presen'e ortrade posts* =o-e/er@ these -ere established later@ to 'ounter the gro-ing influen'eof the ?ut'h in the area* 4n 1"9#@ large parts of the island of Timor -ere de'lared

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4 T;O?&.T4O 3

the Pro/in'e of Portuguese Timor* The follo-ing 'enturies -ere 'hara'terised by?ut'h(Portuguese ri/alry on the island@ as -ell as se/eral rebellions of the Timoreseagainst the foreign 'olonisers* The 'olonial ri/alry bet-een the t-o European

po-ers persisted until 19"7@ -hen the t-o parties agreed on a di/ision of the islandin the Treaty of Lisbon* =o-e/er@ territorial disputes 'ontinued@ and the boundariesas in eIisten'e today -ere not established until 171#*&ntil the late 199 s@ there -as little permanent Portuguese presen'e outside ?ili2.hamberlain ! 9: 1! * ;ather@ the 'oloniser ruled through the lo'al 'hiefs andkings@ lea/ing traditional stru'tures inta't* The Timorese@ ho-e/er@ -ere far fromsubdued@ and the Portuguese military had to deal -ith numerous rebellions* 4t -asonly to-ards the end of the 17 th 'entury that a 'ountry(-ide net-ork of military

posts -as established* 4n response to the Timorese rebellion of 1711,171! inManufahi@ the Portuguese tried to further redu'e the po-er of the traditional rulersand established an administrati/e system -here the land -as di/ided into a largernumber of smaller administrati/e units@ or su'os 2/illages *?uring World War 44@ East Timor sa- Australian and $apanese military a'ti/ity*?uring this time@ many Timorese fled the 'ountry@ and it -as in su'h refugee 'ampsin Australia that .apell 217 @ 178! 'ondu'ted his sur/ey of Timorese languages2see ` 1*8@ p* !8 * After the 'apitulation of $apan in 17 "@ Portugal resumed 'ontrolo/er Timor and retained it until the .arnation ;e/olution in 178 @ -hen the fas'istdi'tatorship in Portugal -as abolished* >ollo-ing this e/ent@ the then ruling party>retilin 2>rente ;e/olu'ion ria do Timor(Leste 4ndependente de'lared theindependen'e of East Timor in 178"* 5hortly thereafter@ ho-e/er@ internal strife that-as probably supported by the 4ndonesian se'ret ser/i'e broke out* The 'ountryseemed on the /erge of 'i/il -ar* Presenting this as a threat to stability in the region@4ndonesia laun'hed an armed in/asion of Timor* >earing 'ommunist tenden'ies in>retilin@ the international 'ommunity -as largely silent* Thus East Timor be'ame the!8 th pro/in'e of 4ndonesia* What follo-ed -as a period of 4ndonesian repression@'ountered by guerilla -arfare from >alintil 2>orNas Armadas de LiberaN o a'ionalde Timor(Leste @ the military -ing of >retilin* East Timor -as only brought ba'k tothe international stage in 1771@ -hen 4ndonesian military killed at least !"Timorese as -ell as a number of foreign nationals during a pea'eful protest in the'apital ?ili* This e/ent@ kno-n as the 5anta .ru massa're@ -as re'orded by a6ritish 'ameraman* &nder the ensuing international pressure@ 4ndonesia finallyoffered East Timor the 'hoi'e bet-een a -ide(rea'hing autonomy -ithin 4ndonesiaor independen'e* This referendum took pla'e on August 3 @ 1777 and resulted in89*"c of /otes for independen'e from 4ndonesia* ?ire'tly after this@ 4ndonesianmilitary and pro(integration East Timorese militia 'arried out a 'ampaign of/iolen'e and terrorism in retaliation: 4n one month@ this massi/e military operationmurdered some !@ people@ raped hundreds of -omen and girls@ displa'ed three(Huarters of the population@ and demolished 8" per'ent of the 'ountryFsinfrastru'ture 2.homsky ! 3: 8! * A multinational for'e -as finally allo-ed intoEast Timor to stabilise the area* After an interim & administration@ East Timor

be'ame formally independent on May ! @ ! !* The brief period of independen'ehas been 'hara'terised by episodes of ma or unrest in ! ! and ! #@ as -ell as anearly fatal atta'k on the then(president $osQ ;amos(=orta in ! 9* To this day@ East

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1.2 Geography and infrastructureMakalero is spoken in the 4liomar subdistri't of LautQm distri't@ -hi'h is depi'ted inMap 3*

Map 3: LautQm distri't!

The subdistri't 'o/ers an area of approIimately 3 km ! 2.hamberlain ! 9@ AnneI.@ ! * 4t is bordered in the east and ortheast by the Lospalos subdistri't@ in thenorth by Luro@ in the north-est by 6aguia@ in the east by &atu'arbau@ and in the5outh by the Timor sea* 4t is home to a population of #@8!# 2a''ording to the !East Timor population 'ensus retrie/able at http:,,dne*mof*go/*tl,'ensus,indeI*htm *4liomar subdistri't is hea/ily -ooded and mountainous: ele/ations range from seale/el to almost 7 m on Mount aunili* The main 'onne'tion by road is fromLospalos* The road is # kilometers long and in fairly bad 'ondition* Traffi' isfreHuently interrupted due to mudslides* The road 'ontinues -est-ards to&atu'arbau* 4t is in dri/eable but /ery bad 'ondition@ although re'ently ne- bridges'rossing the ri/ers to the east of 4liomar ha/e been 'ompleted* There is a regular

tru'k and sometimes bus ser/i'e from 4liomar to Lospalos* >urthermore@ the &staff o''asionally use a 'entrally(lo'ated football field@ neIt to the primary s'hool in4liomar to-n@ as a landing site* There is a 'atholi' 'hur'h -ith a resident priest in4liomar@ as -ell as se/eral 'hapels in the surrounding /illages* A number of primarys'hools operate a'ross the subdistri't@ and there is one se'ondary s'hool in 4liomarto-n* Ele'tri'ity is pro/ided by t-o diesel(generators@ -hi'h are s-it'hed on dailyfrom 8 pm to 1! pm* A lo'al health 'entre pro/ides basi' medi'al 'are* 4n ! 7@there -as mobile re'eption on Mount aunili@ the highest point of the subdistri't@some " km out of 4liomar to-n on the road to Lospalos* 4liomar to-n is furthermore! < $*(P* >is'her* ;eprodu'ed -ith the permission of the author*

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# . =APTE; 1

proud o-ner of a library@ established by the Timor LorosaFe ippon .ultural Pro e't2T .. in ! * 4t pro/ides a /ariety of books and s'hool materials for all ages@

predominantly in Tetum@ English and $apanese*Politi'ally@ the 4liomar subdistri't is di/ided into siI /illages 2su'os -hi'h are@ inturn@ di/ided into a total of !" sub/illages* This organisation is sho-n in Table 1*1 3*

/illage sub/illages

4liomar 4

4liomar 44

Ailebere

>uat

%ainliu

Tirilolo

4liomar Ara(ara%aentau

Ossuhira&atamatar

AkaraLihinaMadarira6okila%aidabu

Leilor Marafal=italiLalumato

;umutauAkadirilo&ataomar

TitirauenMaluhiraLiufalin%aidalauarinLarimi

TiriloloTatalalarinEteuata

Table 1*1: illages and sub/illages in 4liomar

Map sho-s the approIimate lo'ation of these sub/illages* ote that the spelling ofthe toponyms is not entirely standardised*

3 The spelling of the pla'e names is ad usted to follo- that used in this thesis 2see ` 1*7@ p* 3! *

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4 T;O?&.T4O 8

Map : 4liomar subdistri' t

1.3 Culture and social lifeTraditionally@ the Makalero so'iety is organised into 3# 'lans* " E/ery 'lan has itso-n origin story@ -hi'h is 'onsidered taboo to outsiders a -rong telling of the storyis belie/ed to result in early death or the like* Though offi'ially repla'ed by amodern demo'rati' administrati/e system during the Portuguese 'olonial rule andthe 4ndonesian o''upation@ the traditional elite and 'lan stru'tures are still highlyimportant* Lo'al kings are /ital to the resol/ing of so'ial issues and disputes@ as aretraditional 'eremonies* >un'tions and positions asso'iated -ith the modernadminstrati/e stru'ture often go to members of the traditional ruling elites* .onsider

< $*(P* >is'her* ;eprodu'ed -ith the permission of the author*" ! a''ording to .hamberlain 2! 9: AnneI .@ " * =e lists their names as 6usarulu@ 4liomar@ ?irimuni@

%omil@ Luruira@ Pukakesi@ TaFamatu@ Mumun@ &ardai@ Loorasa@ MaFaleuet@ Liusoru@ &ruhuFa@ Tafarira@ onira@ aunira 2note: these are likely /ariant spellings of the same name @ &aritir@ 6uabere@ Abubul@=ulalain@ Lafidebar@ 4nameli@ Luanira@ 6etunomar@ >ehira@ ?erekun@ Maluhira@ Ailebere@ ?eni@ %aparesin@Muarai@ Lutupere@ %iltau@ &puira@ &pulira 2it is possible that one among the last t-o is a misspelling andthe t-o refer to the same 'lan @ &aitelu@ Manir@ Perut@ Paidur@ utupupul@ Luruboitafa and Mauberu* Thespelling has been ad usted to follo- that used in this thesis 2see ` 1*7@ p* 3! * The present 'orpus does not'ontain a 'omplete set of 'lan names* =o-e/er@ it 'onfirms eight of the abo/e(mentioned names@ namely?irimuni@ %omil@ Loorasa@ Liusoru@ Tafarira@ aunira@ 4nameli and Maluhira@ and additionally gi/es thenames ?olomara@ Loopupul@ Muenira@ Pusaulu@ Punakosi and ?arapuFu* 4t is at present un'lear ho- theserelate to the names gi/en by .hamberlain* With the eI'eption of 4liomar 2a nominal 'ompound 'onsistingof ili XstoneF and omar Xstilt houseF @ none of the 'lan names@ from either sour'e@ is transparent* ote theo''urren'e of the /oi'ed bilabial stop in se/eral of the names listed by .hamberlain this suggests 'lannames follo- the same phonologi'al subsystem as pla'e names 2see ` 3*1*3*1*!@ p* 111 *

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the follo-ing episode from .hamberlain 2! 9: "8 @ relating the reason for adisagreement bet-een a >alintil group and the >retilin 4liomar Bone in 178#: Animportant element in the dispute -as =ornayFs 2the leader of the >alintil group@ $=antipathy to-ards the 4liomar >retilin 5e'retary@ T mas Pinto* =ornay reportedly

belie/ed that the position should be held by a respe'ted liurai 2traditional leader *A''ording to Lere Anan Timor 2the >retilin i'e 5e'retary of the 4liomar Bone atthe time@ $= : They didnFt -ant T mas Pinto to be the Bona 5e'retary@ be'ausethey -anted a Xblue(bloodF 2i*e* a member of a po-erful 'lan@ $= * =e 2>ran'is'o=ornay -anted me to be the Bona 5e'retary@ be'ause 4 -as a Xblue(bloodF *The so'iety is patriar'hi'ally organised* Lo'als 'onsider marriage 'eremonies the'entral pillar of the 'ultural frame-ork* 4n the 'ourse of this@ the 'lan of the groom

pays a substantial bride pri'e to the 'lan of the bride* An important so'ial di/ision inthis 'onteIt is into -ife(gi/er 2 omaraha and -ife(taker 2 tuumata 'lans* Anotherimportant part of so'io('ultural life are funerals and the 'eremonies asso'iated -iththem* These areas of 'ultural life still a-ait anthropologi'al in/estigation*The residents of the 4liomar subdistri't are mainly subsisten'e farmers* The main'rops 'ulti/ated are ri'e@ mai e and /egetables* >urthermore@ there are fairlyeItensi/e 'o'onut plantations* Other 'rops 'ulti/ated are 'andlenut 2aleuritesmolu''ana @ are'a nut and lontar palms 2borassus sundai'us * Li/esto'k in'ludes-ater buffalo@ 'attle@ pigs@ goats@ 'hi'kens and horses* ?espite the subdistri'tFs long'oast line@ little fishing is undertaken due to rough seas*The large ma ority of residents are ;oman .atholi' 27#*"c of the population nation(-ide@ a''ording to http:,,---*state*go/,r,pa,ei,bgn,3"989*htm * e/ertheless@traditional animist belie/es remain strong and 'oeIist -ith the .atholi' pra'ti'es*5ome degree of formal s'hooling is /ery 'ommon* Many young people 'ontinueedu'ation in other 'ities of East Timor@ either temporarily or permanently* =o-e/er@the eIa't proportions are unkno-n*There are si eable Makalero 'ommunities in the distri't 'apital Lospalos@ -here theyare 'entred in the sub/illages of atura and 5a-ari'a@ and in ?ili@ parti'ularly in the6e'ora area*

http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35878.htmhttp://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35878.htm

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1.4 Language and language situationMakalero@ sometimes also gi/en as Maklere #@ is the main language of the subdistri'tof 4liomar* 4t borders the language area of aueti in the -est@ Makasae in the northand north-est@ and >ataluku in the east* 6oth the >ataluku and the Makasaelanguages are 'learly related to Makalero aueti@ on the other hand@ is not* Thelinguisti' boundary -ith aueti appears 'lear('ut@ marked by the ma or 4rabere ri/er-hi'h also forms the -estern boundary of the 4liomar subdistri't* The boundaries tothe other languages are less easy to define and appear to be more gradual* Theinhabitants of the Luro subdistri't@ -hi'h borders 4liomar on the north@ appear tothink of their idiom@ referred to as 5aFani@ as distin't from either Makasae and

Makalero* The spee'h of this subdistri't has seen no linguisti' in/estigation yet afirst impression by the present author 'onfirms that the mutual intellegibility -ithMakalero is high* 5aFani may thus perhaps be seen as a transitional /ariant bet-eenMakasae and Makalero*The present in/estigation -as 'arried out in a relati/ely restri'ted radius 'entred on4liomar to-n* As su'h@ no notable diale'tal differen'es -ere re'orded* =o-e/er@ in anumber of instan'es 'onsultants 'hara'terised the use of spe'ifi' leIemes as typi'alfor the spee'h of one or another /illage* This suggests the presen'e of regionallinguisti' /ariation* 4t is the authorFs impression@ ho-e/er@ that these are subtle andmainly leIi'al*At the time of -riting@ Makalero is relati/ely /ital* 4t is spoken by an estimated#@" speakers8 and is a ma or identifi'ation fa'tor for the people of 4liomar* Thelanguage is used in both e/eryday life as -ell as in ritual 'onteIts* 4t is being learnt

as a first language by all 'hildren of Makalero parents in the distri't* O/erall@ the population of the 4liomar subdistri't is fairly homogeneous@ -ith /ery fe- residentsfrom other parts of the island*?espite the relati/e isolation of the Makalero language area@ there is a high le/el ofmultilingualism* A large part of the population has some 'ommand of Tetum and ,

# The origin of the name Makalero is un'lear@ and the speakers appear not to be able to eIplain itsatisfa'torily* The first element@ maka @ is also found in the name of its nearest linguisti' relati/e@Makasae* One speaker eIplained to me that maka" translates as XfirmF@ andlero is supposedly taken fromthe name of a founding an'estor named 4lilero Laualero@ -ho -as a headstrong and independent leaderand kept separate from the others* The 'ombination@ a''ording to the said speaker@ signifies a people thatis headstrong and independent* .hamberlain 2! 9: ! Huotes another speaker -ho renders Makalero asXthe people -ho ne/er tireF* Almeida 2177 : "9 notes that Makalero@ or Ma'alQre @ is a etnonimoformado por M#ka @ 'ansado + L$re%a denominaN o do po/o daHui* Os MakalQre des'onhe'em a sua terrade origem e 'om Huem s o aparentados antropologi'amente@ afirmando os /elhos Hue alguns deles se'hamam a si proprios &nu L$fu L$re @ ou se a: &nu gente + L$fu + L$re@ abelha 2an ethnonym formedfrom maka XtiredF andlere @ the designation of the lo'al people* The Makalero do not kno- their originand -ith -hom they are related anthropologi'ally the elders 'laim that some of them refer to themself asanu lefu lere @ -hi'h is made up from anu ' peopleF + lefu + lere XbeeF translation mine * T-o of thesea''ounts seem to agree on the translation of maka as XtiredF* 4ndeed@ it is attested in this meaning in the'orpus* 4t is likely of Austronesian origin 2i*e* borro-ed from Tetum maka Xto limp@ be tiredF * AlmeidaFssuggestion of anu lefu lere Xbee peopleF is unsubstantiated by the present 'orpus@ -hi'h re'ords uani forXbeeF*8 A''ording to the East Timor population 'ensus of ! 2http:,,dne*mof*go/*tl,'ensus,indeI*htm "@791indi/iduals aged # and abo/e ha/e Makalero as their mother tongue* "@""7 of these li/e in the LautQmdistri't and !7! in ?ili the rest is s'attered a'ross the other distri'ts of East Timor* The estimate of a totalnumber of #@" speakers adds a rather generous " more speakers lo'ated abroad*

http://dne.mof.gov.tl/census/index.htmhttp://dne.mof.gov.tl/census/index.htm

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1 . =APTE; 1

or 4ndonesian* Pra'ti'al kno-ledge of Portuguese is relati/ely restri'ted at the timeof -riting* =o-e/er@ this language is the offi'ial language of instru'tion* ?espitethis fa't@ Tetum or 4ndonesian -ere more 'ommonly used during my first /isit in! 8* 5in'e then@ tea'hers ha/e re'ei/ed intensi/e training in Portuguese and -eremostly using that language in the 'lassroom by the time of my se'ond /isit in ! 7*4t is un'lear to -hat degree the pupils are able to follo- 'lasses in this language*Tetum@ -ith a large proportion of Portuguese(based /o'abulary@ is used in matters

pertaining to politi's and national issues* 4t is also the language used in 'hur'h*Although 4ndonesian has lost ground sin'e 1777@ it is still present as the language ofentertainment in that most tele/ision programmes follo-ed by the lo'al populationare 4ndonesian* >urthermore@ it is /ery 'ommon for young people to lea/e the areatemporarily or permanently in order to pursue edu'ation or ob opportunities* Alanguage -ith relati/ely fe- speakers in a hea/ily multilingual nation -heremobility is on the in'rease@ Makalero must thus be 'onsidered endangered in thelonger term*Although it is re'ognised as a national language in the 'onstitution of East Timor@many pre/ious sour'es on the languages of the nation do not re'ognise Makalero asa language in its o-n right@ but as a diale't of the larger Makasae 2see e*g* Le-is! 7 * On the other hand@ =ull 2! : !#,31 dis'usses it a separate language that is

transitional bet-een Makasai and >ataluku* 2*** Of all the non(Austronesianlanguages of Timor@ Makasai and Makalero are 'learly the most 'losely related@although mutual intelligibility is minimal* LeIi'al 2as -ell as morphologi'aldisagreements bet-een the t-o /erna'ulars are ne/ertheless freHuent enough to

ustify their 'lassifi'ation as separate languages* The present study 'onfirms a /eryhigh degree of leIi'al 'orresponden'e bet-een Makasae and Makalero* The'omparati/e -ord list in Table 1*! gi/es an impression of the degree of similarity

bet-een the t-o languages* .ontrary to =ullFs assessment of minimal mutualintellegibility@ it appears dire't 'ommuni'ation bet-een the t-o groups is possible toa 'onsiderable degree* 4n fa't@ Makalero speakers 'hara'terise their language as adiale't of Makasae* 4t is noti'eable@ ho-e/er@ that the similarity bet-een the t-oidioms is 'entred on 'ontent /o'abulary@ -here regular sound 'orresponden'es 'an

be established* >or instan'e@ /oi'ed plosi/es in Makasae 'orrespond to /oi'elessones in Makalero@ -hi'h seems to ha/e lost this distin'tion* This 'onstitutes themain differen'e bet-een the phonologi'al systems of the t-o languages*>urthermore@ Makasae seems to ha/e lost a final ,r, in se/eral 'ases -here it is still

present in Makalero* Also noti'eable are differen'es in /o-el Hualities in diphthongsor -here a glottal phoneme is in/ol/ed* 4tems -ith more grammati'al fun'tion@ onthe other hand@ are in many 'ases -ildly different* EIamples are pro/ided by the lastt-o items in Table 1*!@ namely the modal /erb Zbe ableF and the 'lause(internalnegator*

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English Makalero Makasae

day , sunnightri/er earth@ groundhousemeat

bonename'hild

older siblingyounger siblinggrandparent, grand'hildonet-othreesiIgood-etlongsharphea/ysayhear sleepsear'h

beat be able EC

uatukamuueir mu"aomar ( lopu

seur afaneimata

nananokodadau ( unloloi ( loleilolitudouhrauhifal asanmera" ti"ir lolouali" ti"ahaka

paseme"enomo

)atu *amu)air ma"aoma

seu sapanaimata

kakanokodadaulola"elolitudahorauipal asanmera" ti"ir lolo)ali" ta"eha*a+ase+e"uto% noto% tonai% notonai%noko

Table 1*!: LeIi'al 'omparison bet-een Makalero and Makasae

As al-ays@ the distin'tion bet-een languages and diale'ts is not an easy one todra-* While there is a high degree of leIi'al similarity bet-een Makasae andMakalero@ there is a range of grammati'al differen'es* An instan'e is the parti'le ,'liti' ini@ -hi'h is found in both languages* 4n Makasae@ its main fun'tion is that of asub e't marker 2=uber ! 9a: 8"f * 4n Makalero@ ho-e/er@ it is the most freHuentlyused 'liti' 'lause linker@ -hi'h signals a 'lose semanti' relationship bet-een the'lauses it links 2` 3*"*!*"@ p* ! 8 and ` 9*1*1@ p* "8 * 4t is@ ho-e/er@ also used as amarker of 'ontrasti/eness -ith Ps and appears to be de/eloping into a sub e'tmarker* >urthermore@ -hile Makasae is largely isolating@ Makalero retains someinfle'tional morphology* Also@ it appears the distin'tion bet-een ob e'ts and'omplements -ithin the /erb phrase@ arguably the most 'ompleI part of Makalerogrammar 2` "*!@ p* 317 @ is not paralleled in Makasae 2although further resear'h is

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needed on this issue * Crammati'ally@ Makalero is more 'onser/ati/e than Makasae@retaining many features that appear to ha/e been lost in Makasae* 4n many parts ofthe -orld@ su'h a situation -arrants the use of the term language@ rather than diale't*

1. ClassificationMakalero is a non(Austronesian , Papuan language* 9 4t is /ery 'losely related to theneighbouring language Makasae 2see Table 1*! in ` 1* @ p* 7 @ as -ell as@ some-hatmore distantly@ to >ataluku@ spoken to the east of it@ and Oirata on %isar* The

relations bet-een these languages is detailed in >igure 1*1* The terms XEasternTimorF and XTimor tipF follo- ?onohue 2! 8 *

Eastern Timor

Makasae(Makalero Timor tip

Makasae Makalero >ataluku Oirata

>igure 1*1: The Eastern Timor languages

The eIa't position of 6unak@ spoken in the 'entre of the island 25'happer ! 7 @ in afamily tree representing all four of the Papuan languages of Timor is not Huite 'lear*With respe't to higher(le/el 'lassifi'ation@ the non(Austronesian languages of Timorha/e had a 'heHuered history* The non(Austronesian nature of 6unak and Makasae-as first re'ognised by .apell 217 3a@ 17 3b@ 17 @ -ho regarded them as Papuanon a''ount of their stru'ture* .o-an 217#": 3#1 supported this /ie- and suggesteda relation of the non(Austronesian languages of Timor to those of the 6irdFs =ead in4ndonesian e- Cuinea* .apell 2178" finally argued for the grouping of all non(Austronesian languages of Timor and the neighbouring islands of Alor and Pantar-ith the languages of the 6irdFs =ead and the 6omberai peninsula these in turn areargued to be a member of the eItensi/e Trans( e- Cuinea phylum in oorhoe/e2178" * This 'lassifi'ation has sin'e largely been upheld 2see e*g* Wurm 179!@ 1793and ;oss ! " *7

The Trans( e- Cuinea family@ -hi'h 'o/ers a large part of the e- Cuineamainland as -ell as some nearby islands@ may 'ontain more than " languages*5e/eral resear'hers@ among them Pa-ley 2! ": 83 @ emphasise that the Timor(Alor(Pantar languages are highly aberrant among Trans( e- Cuinea languages* ?espitethat familyFs enormous si e and the fa't that its members eIhibit a -ide range ofstru'tural /ariation@ it follo-s from su'h remarks that it is ne/ertheless possible toidentify a typi'al Papuan@ or Trans( e- Cuinea@ language type* A summary of

9 The t-o terms are used inter'hangeably in the present thesis*7 ote@ ho-e/er@ that it is 'ontested in ?onohue and 5'happer 2forth'oming the final -ord on the'lassifi'ation on the Timor(Alor(Pantar group has thus not yet been spoken*

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general phonologi'al@ morphologi'al and synta'ti' features that are 'hara'teristi' forthis language type is gi/en in >oley 21779: " #f* * Tables 1*3 through 1*" summarisethese features* The right 'olumn in ea'h table gi/es their Makalero /alues@ sho-ingho- it relates to this general Papuan language type*

feature Papuan Makalero

/o-el system

stops: pla'es of

arti'ulation

stops: /oi'ingdistin'tion

fri'ati/es

liHuids

syllables

stress

tone

di/erse 2,i e a o u,-idespread

3( : labial@ dental(

al/eolar@ /elar@ 2palatal

di/erse patterns2absen'e of /oi'ing'ommon

restri'ted2 (1 members

UrV and UlV not phonemi'

'ompleI 'onsonant'lusters 'ommon

di/erse rules 2phonemi'stress 'ommon

'ommon

,i e a o u,

": labial@ al/eo(dental@

post(al/eolar@ /elar@glottal

absent

,f s, 2UhV

,r, and ,l, phonemi'

. fa/oured some'onsonant 'lusters

predi'table

absent

Table 1*3: Makalero and Papuan languages 'ompared: phonology

T-o of the patterns found in Makalero phonology@ namely the fi/e(/o-el systemand the absen'e of /oi'ing in stops@ are also -idespread in Papuan languages* Otherthan these@ Makalero is Huite distin't from the typi'al Papuan language -ith respe'tto its phonologi'al 'hara'teristi's*

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feature Papuan Makalero

morphologi'al stru'ture

infle'tional morphology

deri/ationalmorphology

nouns

Ps

/erbs

TAM

leIi'al 'ategories

-eakly or highlyagglutinati/e

strongly de/eloped

/aried freHuent use of5 .s

normally uninfle'ted fornumber and gender

typi'ally infle'ted for'ase

/aried 2the presen'e ofat least an agreementaffiI for the sub e't is'ommon

/aried often suffiIal5 .s 'ommon

sharp di/ision into

nouns and /erbs'ommon

'lose to isolating

/ery -eakly de/eloped

little 2'omplement(/erb'ompleIes

uninfle'ted 2may be plural(marked

uninfle'ted

mostly uninfle'ted

pre/erbal parti'leseparate predi'ations

'ategorial

indetermina'y somederi/ational pro'esses

Table 1* : Makalero and Papuan languages 'ompared: morphology

4n the domain of morphology@ Makalero resembles the Papuan language type -ithrespe't to nominal infle'tion@ -hi'h is largely non(eIistent 2eI'ept for the fa't thatthere is in Makalero optional plural marking * Another possible analogy is TAMmarking@ for -hi'h serial /erb 'onstru'tions are -idespread in Papuan languagesalthough the present thesis does not use the term 5 .@ the ad/erbial /erbs used toeIpress the ma ority of the TAM 'ategories in the form of distin't predi'ations mayHualify as su'h* 4n all other respe'ts@ Makalero de/iates from the Papuan languagetype*

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feature Papuan Makalero

phrase right(headed

5O 2O5

postpositions

?ET

MO? 2 MO? possible

'lause 'haining@ no'on un'tions

right(headed

5O

no adpositions

?ET

MO?

'lause linking -ith 'liti''on un'tions'omplement(/erb'ompleIes

Table 1*": Makalero and Papuan languages 'ompared: syntaI

4n the domain of syntaI@ Makalero sho-s the largest degree of agreement -ith thePapuan language type@ 'onforming to it -ith respe't to general phrase headedness@-ord order@ as -ell as the pla'e of the determiner and the modifier -ith a noun*Makalero agrees -ith >oleyFs !! 'hara'teristi' Papuan features 1 as reprodu'ed inTables 1*3* through 1*"@ in only 9 instan'es@ most of -hi'h are found in syntaI*Apart from the /o'abulary@ syntaI thus pro/ides the strongest argument for its'lassifi'ation as Papuan *11 >oley 21779: " #f* 'ontrasts this Papuan language type -ith an XAustronesianlanguage typeF* The 'hara'teristi's he lists for this language type may perhapsadeHuately represent the Austronesian languages in the e- Cuinea area but 'annot

be said to be 'hara'teristi' of the Austronesian family as a -hole and are thus notreprodu'ed here* otably@ ho-e/er@ Makalero agrees -ith >oleyFs Austronesianlanguage type to more or less the same degree 2i*e* number of features as it does-ith the Papuan language type* With respe't to other features@ it does not group'learly -ith either of the t-o 'ontrasting language types* O/er /ery similar results@5'happer 2! 7: 31 'on'ludes that Papuan 6unak displays a parti'ular Xinsulareastern 4ndonesianF linguisti' type -hi'h 'ross('uts the distin'tion bet-een Papuanand Austronesian* This 'on'lusion 'learly also holds for Makalero*4nterestingly@ %lamer@ ;eesink and 5taden 2! 9 propose an East usantaralinguisti' area@ in -hi'h Austronesian and Papuan languages 'oeIist and share anumber of features -hi'h are partly of Papuan@ partly of Austronesian origin* 4t must

be noted@ ho-e/er@ that this linguisti' area is based on only fi/e relati/ely broadfeatures@ of -hi'h only t-o are 'learly manifested in Makalero 2i*e* possessor(

possessum order in adnominal possession and the presen'e of an in'lusi/e ,

1 The total of !! 'ounts the synta'ti' features in Table 1*" ea'h separately@ despite the fa't that most ofthem are 'on'omitants of 5O *11 ote@ ho-e/er@ that -ord order is not a sound basis for language 'lassifi'ation@ sin'e languages may'hange their basi' -ord order 2see =eine ! 9: 3 f* for some 'onta't(indu'ed eIamples of this pro'ess *

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eI'lusi/e distin'tion in the personal pronoun paradigm * ote also that ?onohue2! 1! denies the /alidity of an area -ith linguisti'ally definable borders in .entraland Eastern 4ndonesia* 4nstead@ he 'laims the region is part of a typologi'al'ontinuum bet-een orthern@ Western and Eastern Austronesian languages*

1.! A grammatical s"etch of #a"aleroThe follo-ing se'tions gi/e an o/er/ie- of Makalero grammar* They largely follo-the o/erall organisation of the thesis 2` 1*1 @ p* 3" * `1*#*1 2p* 1# remarks briefly

on the make(up of the /o'abulary@ -hile ` 1*#*! 2p* 17 dis'usses the phonology*` 1*#*3 2p* !1 sket'hes the leIi'al 'ategories found in Makalero* ` 1*#* 2p*!! and` 1*#*" 2p* !3 @ respe'ti/ely@ treat the noun phrase and the /erb phrase* ` 1*#*# 2p*! gi/es a short eIamination of the 'lause* ` 1*#*82p*! and ` 1*#*9 2p* !"dis'uss units larger than the 'lause@ namely the senten'e@ the utteran'e and the teIt*>inally@ 1*#*72p* !# gi/es some remarks on dis'ourse stru'ture*

1.6.1 The vocabularyThe bulk of the Makalero /o'abulary is non(Austronesian indeed@ together -ith thelanguages 5O profile 2` 1*"@ p* 1! @ this is the main reason for its 'lassifi'ation as a

Papuan language* =o-e/er@ it is also /ery ri'h in loan-ords@ most of -hi'h 'omefrom Austronesian sour'es* 5e/eral sour'es note that 2Proto( Austronesian loans permeate e/en the basi' /o'abulary of many Papuan languages 2see e*g* Wurm179!: 9"@ >oley 179#: !11 * >oley 2ibid* lists 13 leIi'al items 'ommonly found inPapuan languages -hi'h 'an be tra'ed ba'k to Austronesian sour'es* Table 1*#sho-s those items from the list that appear to deri/e from the same Austronesianroots 13 in Makalero*

1! ;eferring to %lamer 2! ! @ -hi'h gi/es an earlier /ersion of the hypothesis*13 Most of the re'onstru'ted forms >oley 2179#: !11 lists appear to be Proto(Malayo(Polynesian@ ratherthan Proto(Austronesian@ as he indi'ates* 4n some 'ases@ his spelling is adapted in the Table a''ording tothe forms in the Austronesian 6asi' o'abulary ?atabase retrie/able athttp:,,language*psy*au'kland*a'*n ,austronesian,*

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Proto(Malayo(Polynesianre'onstru'tion

Makalero

kulit XskinF

,t-ina XmotherF

,)ahi X-aterF

ulit Xskin 2human or animal F@uliXbark@ leatherFina Xmother 2as a term of addressonly Fueir Xri/erF

Table 1*#: .ommon Austronesian loans in Papuan languages and their refleIes inMakalero 1

Tables 1*8 and 1*9 eIemplify other Austronesian loan-ords in Makalero -hi'h are presumably of 'onsiderable antiHuity* The leIemes in Table 1*8 must be 'onsidered part of the 'ore /o'abulary* Also@ related forms are found not only in Makalero@ butalso in 2some of the surrounding non(Austronesian languages* This suggests they-ere borro-ed in the 'ommon an'estor language* The leIemes in Table 1*9

parti'ipate in su'h morphologi'al pro'esses as the distin'tion bet-een free and bound or redu'ed /erb forms in Makalero 2` 3*!*!*!*!@ p* 131 * These pro'esses arenot produ'ti/e in the present(day language and are not used in ne- /erbs* The fa'tthat the morphemes in Huestion parti'ipate in this morphologi'al alternation thus

points to their full integration into Makalero and suggests a long(term presen'e inthe language@ too*

Makalero 'ognates in otherPapuan languages ofTimor

'ognates inAustronesian languages

kuda XhorseF

pipi XgoatF

lopu XhouseF

omar 1" Xstilt houseF

selu XotherF

6nH kuda @ >at ku.a @Mks kuda XhorseF6nH pip @ >at pipi @ Mks

pipi XgoatF>at le XhouseF

Mks oma XhouseF

Mks seluk XotherF

64 kuda @ Ttm kudaXhorseFTtm +i+i XgoatF

64 lepau Xfood stallF2PA lepa) \64 rumah @ Ttm umaXhouseFTtm seluk XotherF

Table 1*8: Austronesian 'ore /o'abulary in Makalero

1 Another item listed as a 'ommon Austronesian root in Papuan languages in >oley 2179#: !11 is t"ut"uXbreastF@ -hi'h appears to be refle'ted in Makalero dudu XbreastF* =o-e/er@ a''ording to theAustronesian 6asi' o'abulary ?atabase@ this leIeme re'onstru'ts as ,susu @ rather than t"ut"u@ for bothProto(Austronesian and Proto(Malayo(Polynesian* 6orro-ing of this Austronesian root into the an'estorof Makalero -ould thus in/ol/e a more un'ommon 'hange from ,s, to ,d,* ote@ ho-e/er@ that the?atabase lists se/eral Austronesian languages 2mostly from the Philippines as ha/ing a form dudu ordudu/ for XbreastF*1" The origin of the final ,r, is not Huite 'lear* 4t may possibly be identi'al to the nominal formati/e -rdis'ussed in ` 3*1*!*1*1 2p* 1 ! *

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19 . =APTE; 1

Makalero 'ognates in Austronesian languages

hein ( sein X-aitFresin resi- XremainFtaru -daru Xput@ pla'eFteri (deri X'utF

Ttm hein X-aitFTtm resin XeI'eed@ be left o/erF64 taruh Xput@ pla'eFTtm teri X'ut -ith s'issors or shearsF

Table 1*9: Austronesian loan -ords in Makalero that parti'ipate in morphologi'al pro'esses

A semanti'ally delineable group of presumably old Austronesian loans are

numerals* Table 1*7 sho-s a sele'tion of Makalero numerals of Austronesian origin*>or more details@ see ` 3*!*3*9 2p* 181 *

Makalero Proto(Austronesian

fat lima

fitu si)a rihun

" 8 71@

0epat lima

pitu si)a 1i+u

Table 1*7: Austronesian numerals in Makalero

Makalero also abounds in ne-er Austronesian loans@ -hi'h 'an be tra'ed to spe'ifi'languages* Tables 1*1 and 1*11 gi/e a sele'tion of loan-ords from t-o of theregionFs lingua fran'as@ Tetum and 4ndonesian@ respe'ti/ely* The -ords gi/en in thetables o''ur /ery freHuently and are as su'h distinguished from non'e(borro-ingsfrom these languages* ote that the Tetum loans 'ome from a -ide range ofsemanti' domains and leIi'al 'ategories* Those from 4ndonesian are some-hat morerestri'ted and often pertain to formal s'hooling@ a domain -hi'h -as firmlyasso'iated -ith 4ndonesian for more than ! years during the 4ndonesian o''upation*

Makalero Tetum sour'e

+eik% peik XstupidF funu X-arF

kole XtiredFkulat XmushroomFliurai XkingFmatenek X'le/erFmate+ian XsoulF

susuuk XmosHuitoFtam+a Xbe'auseFukun XruleF

+eik XstupidF funu X-arF

kole XtiredFkulat XmushroomFliurai XkingFmatenek X'le/er@ intelligentFmate+ian XsoulF

susuk XmosHuitoFtan +a Xbe'auseFukun XruleF

Table 1*1 : Loan-ords from Tetum

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Makalero 4ndonesian sour'e

kasihan XpoorFkarna Xbe'auseFlansun Xstraight a-ay@ dire'tlyF

tamat XgraduateF

kasihan Xmer'y@ pity@ poorFkarena Xbe'auseFlan*sun* Xdire't@ straight@immediatelyFtamat Xfinish@ 'omplete@ endF

Table 1*11: Loan-ords from 4ndonesian

As in all Timorese languages@ there is in Makalero a multitude of leIi'al items from

Portuguese origin* 4t is un'lear -hether these -ere borro-ed dire'tly fromPortuguese@ or through the medium of Tetum *1# Portuguese loans are generally'ultural and in'lude many administrati/e terms*

Makalero Portuguese sour'e

deue Xdebt@ borro-F18

findesemana X-eekendF *o2ernu Xgo/ernmentFistuda XstudyFkalsa% kaalsa XtrousersFkomesa XstartFleh XreadF

lo3a XshopFnosa siniora Xour ladyForde Xannoun'ement@ notifi'ationF

paun XbreadF po2u XpeopleFre3a XprayF

de2er Xo-eF fim-de-semana X-eekendF *o2erno Xgo/ernmentFestudar XstudyF.al4as XtrousersF.ome4ar Xbegin@ startFler XreadF

lo3a XshopFnossa sinhora Xour ladyFordem Xorder@ dire'ti/eF

p5o XbreadF po2o Xpeople@ popula'eFre6ar XprayF

Table 1*1!: Loan-ords from Portuguese

1.6.2 honology

Makalero phonology is fairly straightfor-ard* There are 11 nati/e 'onsonant phonemes@ -hi'h are sho-n in Table 1*13* There is no phonemi' 'ontrast in/oi'ing* Although the presen'e of the phoneme ,d, seems to be an eI'eption to thisrule@ Table 1*13 sho-s that it is distinguished from ,t, not only in /oi'ing@ but also inthe pla'e of arti'ulation* The glottal phoneme@ represented as , ,@ has a stop1# =ull 2! : !8 'laims >ataluku and Makalero generally borro-ed dire'tly from Portuguese@ -hilePortuguese(based leIemes in Makasae and 6unak -ere transmitted through Tetum and other lo'allanguages* =o-e/er@ he does not pro/ide e/iden'e to substantiate this 'laim*18 ote that Portuguese /erbs are not generally borro-ed in the infiniti/e form@ but rather in the third

person singular present tense* An eI'eption is fiar Xtrust@ honourF@ -hi'h ultimately deri/es fromPortuguese fiar Xtrust@ entrustF* 4t is found in an identi'al form in Tetum as Xbelie/eF*

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! . =APTE; 1

allophone U V and a fri'ati/e allophone UhV* 6oth are freHuently pronoun'ed sofaintly that they are pra'ti'ally inaudible*

labial al/eo(dental

post(al/eolar

/elar glottal

Plosi/e

?i/ertedairstream

.ontinuant

p

m

f

t

n

s

d

l

r

k

Table 1*13: .onsonant phonemes

4n the domain of /o-els@ Makalero eIhibits a 'lassi'al fi/e(/o-el system asdepi'ted in Table 1*1 *

i 2i: u 2u:

e 2e: o 2o:

a 2a:

Table 1*1 : o-el phonemes

The mid(/o-els ha/e open(mid and 'lose(mid allophones* o-els are lengthened ina /ariety of 'onteIts@ -hi'h are largely predi'table: >irstly@ a seHuen'e of t-oidenti'al /o-els interrupted by the glottal phoneme may alternati/ely be pronoun'edas a long /o-el* 5e'ondly@ simple /o-el nu'lei of monosyllabi' morphemes arelengthened for the morphemes to 'onform to the bimorai'ity reHuirement@ andthirdly@ /o-el lengthening is a 'onseHuen'e of the resyllabifi'ation pro'essesasso'iated -ith e'ho /o-els* There are also some morphemes -ith unpredi'tablelong /o-els ` !*!*3* 2p* #" argues that these 'an most 'ommonly be assumed to

be 'ompounds@ in -hi'h one of the 'onstituent parts is monosyllabi'* The glides U-Vand U V are analysed as allophones of the high /o-els -hen they are used either as a

syllable onset@ as part of a 'ompleI nu'leus@ or in 'oda position*The most 'ommon syllable stru'ture is . @ although . . may be found* .onsonant'lusters are disfa/oured and epentheti' /o-els are freHuently inserted to a/oid them*At the end of a phonologi'al phrase@ an e'ho /o-el is 'ommonly added to a'onsonant(final morpheme* ` !*"* *1 2p* 93 sho-s ho- in that 'ase@ the nu'leus ofthe erst-hile final syllable is lengthened*The minimal leIi'al morpheme is bimorai' the 'oda does not 'ontribute to syllable-eight* >or this reason@ a monosyllabi' leIi'al morpheme must ha/e either a long/o-el nu'leus or a diphthong nu'leus* >urthermore@ there is a restri'tion on the

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4 T;O?&.T4O !1

number of hea/y syllables a simple morpheme 'an 'ontain one su'h syllable atmost*5tress on -ord(le/el is generally on the se'ond(to(last mora of a morpheme* 5tressassignment in the utteran'e is roughly tro'hai' ho-e/er@ more resear'h is neededon this*

1.6.! Le"ical categoriesAll 'ontent -ords in Makalero are analysed as either nouns or /erbs* 6asi'ally any

leIeme 'an be used for referen'ing and for predi'ating@ hen'e the 'lassifi'ation ofmorphemes into these t-o 'lasses is not straightfor-ard* e/ertheless@ 4 argue forthe reality of a noun,/erb distin'tion in Makalero based on the fa't that there aresome G largely unprodu'ti/e G 'ategory('hanging deri/ational pro'esses@ as -ell asa number of leIemes -hi'h re'ei/e -idely differing@ unrelated meanings if usedeither as prototypi'al /erbs or nouns* ` 3*1*1 2p* 1 and ` 3*!*1 2p* 1!" suggest asemanti' feature as a general identifi'ation 'riterion for nouns and /erbs:

prototypi'al nouns@ if used predi'ati/ely@ are generally translated as is an I *Prototypi'al /erbs in referring fun'tion@ on the other hand@ may denote the a't of I(ing @ the produ't of I(ing or an instrument or ob e't asso'iated -ith I(ing *Makalero is largely isolating* The most produ'ti/e morphologi'al pro'ess isredupli'ation* 4n some 'ases@ it appears to deri/e nouns from /erbs* Other-ise@ -ith

both nouns and a'ti/ity /erbs@ redupli'ation has a distributi/ity reading@ denoting a

/ariety of referents* With stati/e /erbs@ it is generally read as denoting a high degreeof the property eIpressed by the /erb* Other than that@ an unprodu'ti/e formati/e -r-'an be identified@ -hi'h appears to be broadly nominalising in fun'tion* The suffiI-ini is another -ay of deri/ing nouns from /erbs* Also@ there is an agent noun suffiI-door @ borro-ed ultimately from Portuguese* 5ome more morphologi'al /ariation isfound in the domain of /erbs* There is an unprodu'ti/e /erbaliser in the form of theglottal phoneme as -ell as some infle'tional morphology* A sub'lass ofsemanti'ally intransiti/e /erbs infle't for sub e't number* A more si eable group of/erbs eIhibits bound forms used in a 'omplement(/erb 'ompleI*4n the domain of nouns@ there is e/iden'e for the distin'tion of nouns -ith thefeature U+=&MV as opposed to those -ith the feature U(=&MV* The former 'an bemarked -ith a plural suffiI@ -hile the latter are not 'ommonly found -ith thissuffiI* Among U+=&MV nouns@ there is a subgroup of kinship terms@ -hi'h take a

spe'ial plural marker distin't from the one found -ith other human nouns* Another-ay of 'lassifying nouns is -hether or not they take nominal 'lassifiers* There isfurthermore a group of nouns -hi'h is obligatorily used in a possessi/e'onstru'tion these in'lude kinship terms and nouns that 'an be 'hara'terised as

parts of a -hole* ?espite the absen'e of spe'ial marking@ these nouns 'an be'lassified as inalienably possessed*4n the /erbal domain@ there is a ma or distin'tion bet-een stati/e /erbs and a'ti/ity/erbs* Most notably@ the P(internal ad/erb hau XallF is read as a marker of'ompletion -ith a'ti/ity /erbs@ but denotes high degree -ith stati/e /erbs* Withrespe't to synta'ti' /alen'y@ the ma ority of /erbs is di/alent* While the first of the

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!! . =APTE; 1

t-o arguments asso'iated -ith these /erbs is a sub e't@ the se'ond 'an take the formof either an ob e't or a 'omplement* The t-o instantiations of the se'ond argumentdiffer in position* ominal undergoers are 'ommonly asso'iated -ith the ob e't

position@ -hile lo'ations and goals are usually found in the 'omplement position*Pronominal undergoers 'an stand in either position* A small minority of /erbs isanalysed as being a/alent@ i*e* ha/e a /alen'y of ero and do not take any argument*These generally eIpress temporal or modal 'on'epts su'h as soohe" XyesterdayF@tone" XperhapsF@ oratanana XfirstF* Other /erbal subgroups are 'onstituted bynegati/e /erbs@ interrogati/e /erbs@ numerals@ dei'ti' /erbs@ Huantifiers@ /erbs of

physi'al and emotional states and /erbs -ith 'omplement 'lause eItensions*>urthermore@ there is a si eable group of /erbs -hi'h are marked -ith the third

person undergoer prefiI k- in the 'ir'umstan'es dis'ussed in ` "*!*!*#*3 2p* 3 7 * 4tis argued that these /erb forms are undergoing a reanalysis into free and bound /erbforms*.losed leIi'al 'ategories in'lude free personal pronouns and their adnominal forms@i*e* possessi/e pronouns refleIi/e and re'ipro'al pronouns@ the former also -ith anadnominal form t-o interrogati/e pronouns@ mu"a- X-ho 26? F and sa"a- X-hat26? F@ as -ell as their adnominal forms and an indefinite pronoun@ riparipa XanyF*A 'lass of determiners is made up of a series of demonstrati/es as -ell as ho"oXsomeF* They stand in the rightmost slot -ithin the P*There is also a /ariety of bound morphemes* Apart from the deri/ational morphemesmentioned abo/e@ these in'lude plural suffiIes@ a honorifi' suffiI@ an agent nounsuffiI@ a nominaliser suffiI@ an en'liti' relati/e marker and a pro'liti' attributi/emarker* All of the latter are asso'iated -ith the noun phrase* Within the /erb phrase@there is the abo/e(mentioned third(person ob e't prefiI k ( -hi'h is found -ith asubgroup of /erbs@ the aspe't marker hai and the negati/e marker nomo * >inally@there is a /ariety of phrase(le/el 'liti's* The ma ority of these are 'lause linkers@'liti'ised to the first 'lause in a seHuen'e@ that spe'ify the semanti' relation of that'lause to the one that follo-s it*

1.6.# The noun phraseThe noun phrase in Makalero is relati/ely straightfor-ard* The head noun is

pre'eded by a possessi/e phrase@ -hile all other dependents 2i*e* modifiers anddeterminers follo- it* Most /ariation is found in the domain of the modifier@ -hi'h

may be nominal@ /erbal@ or fully 'lausal* As -ell as unmarked modifiers@ there aremodifiers introdu'ed by the 'liti' attributi/e marker ki= * These are generally'ontrasting the referent in Huestion -ith other possible referents -ith respe't to theHuality they eIpress 2` *3* @ p* !9 * There are@ furthermore@ genuine relati/esenten'es 19 in Makalero* The marking of these is 'entred on the sub e't of therelati/e 'lause@ be it the head of the modifier or -ithin the modifier* 4n the latter'ase@ the head noun may be marked additionally* This results in a 'ombination of

19 They are 'alled re lati/e senten'es rather than relati/e 'lauses be'ause they may be multi'lausal*

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4 T;O?&.T4O !3

head(marking and dependent(marking patterns* The head of a relati/e senten'e may be either left(dislo'ated or in situ*

1.6.$ The verb phraseMost of the 'ompleIity of Makalero grammar is found in the domain of the /erb

phrase@ -hi'h is stri'tly head(final* The main 'hara'teristi' feature of the /erb phrase is that there are t-o distin't positions for the /erb phrase(internal argument2see ` "*!@ p* 317 * The first of these positions@ termed ob e't position@ is the leftmost

element of the P* 4t is follo-ed by the aspe't and negation markers as -ell as /erb( phrase(internal ad/erbials* The se'ond position@ labelled 'omplement position@immediately pre'edes the /erb and in fa't forms a morphosynta'ti' unit -ith it* Thisunit may be o/ertly marked by the use of a redu'ed form of the 'omplement or a

bound form of the /erb@ or both* The t-o argument positions are mutually eI'lusi/e*Either of them fills the /erbFs single non(sub e't argument position* While the ob e't

position holds only undergoer Ps@ the 'omplement position 'an 'ontain eithernominal or /erbal 'onstituents* The nominal 'onstituents eIpress either undergoersor lo'ations and goals* erbal 'omplements@ -hi'h are fully(fledged Ps eI'ept forthe fa't that the /erb may be in a dependent form@ generally 'on/ey lo'ati/e ormanner information* This 'onstru'tion type is also used in forming 'ausati/es@'omparati/es@ modal modifi'ations@ dire'tionality@ and the like 2` "*!*!*"@ p* 337 *There is some degree of fleIibility bet-een the ob e't position and the 'omplement

position for nominal arguments* This holds parti'ularly for pronominal undergoers@the position of -hi'h /aries 'onsiderably* 4n many instan'es@ it is a leIi'al propertyof a gi/en /erb -hether a nominal argument is realised as an ob e't or as a'omplement*Any ditransiti/e /erb@ e/en those -hi'h are semanti'ally intransiti/e and thus notasso'iated -ith an undergoer parti'ipant@ is 'ompatible -ith a /erbal 'omplementeIpressing lo'ation or manner* 4f su'h ad/erbial information is eIpressed in the'omplement position@ the undergoer 2if one is asso'iated -ith the /erb in Huestion'an no longer stand in the same predi'ation@ but must be eIpressed in a separate

predi'ation -ith the help of the light /erb mei XtakeF* The 'omplement thus fills the/erbFs argument position* The fa't that e/en semanti'ally intransiti/e /erbs are'ompatible -ith a 'omplement sho-s that any /erb is synta'ti'ally di/alent*

erbal modifiers in'lude an aspe't marker hai @ eIpressing the beginning of a ne-

situation@ a negator nomo as -ell as a /ariety of P(internal ad/erbials* ` 3*!*3*3*12p* 1"7 analyses these as a sub'lass of full /erbs -hi'h 'an alternati/ely be used asmodifiers -ithin the P*

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! . =APTE; 1

1.6.6 The clauseThe unmarked -ord order in the 'lause is 5O * The sub e't argument generally haslittle reper'ussion on the rest of the 'lause* With a number of /erbs -hi'h infle't forsub e't number@ the number of the sub e't 2-hether o/ertly marked or notdetermines the form of the /erb* Apart from this@ the use of the refleIi/e pronoun nimarks 'oreferentiality -ith the sub e't* >urthermore@ the P 'liti' Y ini@ analysed in` 7*!*3*1 2p* " 1 as a 'ontrasti/e marker@ appears to be de/eloping into a sub e'tmarker@ -hi'h is used -hene/er a speaker 'onsiders -ord order alone not to beenough to 'larify the sub e't referent* This may be the 'ase in senten'es -ith non(

'anoni'al -ord order@ or if the sub e't argument is 'onsiderably lo-er on the topi'(-orthiness hierar'hy than the se'ond argument*As mentioned in ` "*! 2p* 317 @ the non(sub e't argument 'an synta'ti'ally berealised in t-o -ays@ namely either as an ob e't or as a 'omplement* Either of theseis a possible filler of the /erbFs synta'ti' argument position* Any additionalarguments need to be eIpressed in a separate 'lause* 5u'h multi('lause units aretermed Xsenten'esF and dis'ussed in ` 8 2p* 1 *Operators 2as defined by an alin and LaPolla 1778: that -ork on 'lause(le/elin Makalero are aspe't@ negation and status*

1.6.% The sentenceThe unit Xsenten'eF applies to eIpressions that pertain to one e/ent semanti'ally@ butmay 'onsist of one or more 'lauses synta'ti'ally* Many senten'es are bi'lausal dueto the mismat'h bet-een the rigid stru'ture of the Makalero 'lause@ -hi'h allo-s forthe eIpression of t-o synta'ti' arguments -ith a /erb at most@ and the semanti'

parti'ipant frames of /erbs@ -hi'h may 'ontain more than t-o parti'ipants* Thisleads to a situation -here all semanti'ally ditransiti/e states of affairs arene'essarily eIpressed in t-o 'lauses@ -ith the light /erb mei XtakeF pro/iding anempty argument slot for the supernumerary argument* Another important group of

bi'lausal senten'es in/ol/e /erbal 'omplements* These eIpress 'ir'umstantialinformation of manner or lo'ation and are synta'ti'ally treated like /erbal argumentsin that they fill a /erbFs non(sub e't argument position* 4n fa't@ ob e'ts and'omplements are /ariant eIpressions of the same synta'ti' fun'tion* A gi/en 'lause

'an 'ontain only one or the other@ but not both at the same time* .onseHuently@ if a'lause is 'onstru'ted -ith a /erbal 'omplement@ an undergoer in the /erbFs semanti' parti'ipant frame must be eIpressed in a separate 'lause* Again@ the light /erb meiXtakeF is used for this purpose* The last group of multi('lause senten'es in/ol/ea/alent ad/erbial predi'ates@ -hi'h are 'lausal by themsel/es@ but 'annot formutteran'es on their o-n* 5u'h ad/erbial predi'ates eIpress time@ aspe'tual notions@as -ell as epistemi' modality* ?eonti' modality as eIpressed by a /ariety of modal/erbs also generally takes the form of a senten'e@ as do /erbs of saying -ith their'omplement 'lause eItensions and a 'onati/e 'onstru'tion -ith fera XtryF* The

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'onne'tion bet-een the 'lauses in a senten'e may be unmarked@ or marked o/ertly-ith a 'lause(linking 'liti' 2` 3*"*3*1@ p* !" *The main formal 'hara'teristi' of the senten'e is the presen'e of a left(deta'hed

position 2L?P @ to the left of the first 'lause* 4t 'an hold either left(dislo'atedarguments@ non(argument topi's or ad/erbial 'lauses* The position is parti'ularly'onspi'uous in senten'es in/ol/ing ad/erbial predi'ates@ -hi'h may inter/ene

bet-een a /erb and its semanti' parti'ipant* An eIample is gi/en in 21 * 4n thissenten'e@ the ad/erbial 'lause mu"a hai kamu 2ground 54T night Xit is alreadynightF inter/enes bet-een the /erb ma"u X'omeF and its sub e't argument@ kiloo 23s *.onseHuently@ this 'lause is dis'ontinuous* The sHuare bra'kets in this senten'e/isualise its stru'ture* A senten'e su'h as 21 sho-s 'learly that the L?P fun'tionsabo/e the 'lause le/el*

21 7Kiloo85&6$ in L?P 7mu"a hai kamu8 .L5 Yte"e 7ma"u8 P *3s ground 54T nightYafter 'omeX=e 'ame after night2fall *F 2eli'#3

E/iden'e for an eHui/alent right(deta'hed position is slim 2` 8*#*!@ p* 3 *5enten'e types are de'larati/es@ interrogati/es@ imperati/es@ eI'lamations andoptati/es* These are in many instan'es not marked as su'h by an o/ert morpheme@

but by intonation patterns*

1.6.& The utteranceThe utteran'e is defined as beginning after a silen'e or a final 2falling intonation'ontour and ending on the neIt final intonation 'ontour* As su'h@ it may in'lude/ery short units@ 'onsisting only of a -ord or an eI'lamation@ and relati/ely longstret'hes of spee'h@ 'onsisting of long 'hains of 'lauses* The 'lauses making upthese 'hains are linked through 'lause linking 'liti's -hi'h atta'h to the right end ofthe first 'lause in a seHuen'e* The t-o most 'ommon linkers@ =ini and =isi @ are /ery

broad in meaning@ eIpressing only a /ery 'lose(knit 'onne'tion bet-een the 'lausesin the 'ase of =ini @ and a more loose 'onne'tion in the 'ase of =isi * The t-o linkersare 'ommonly asso'iated -ith topi' 'ontinuity and topi' 'hange@ respe'ti/ely* Otherlinkers eIpress ad/ersati/ity@ 'on'essi/ity@ 'ondition@ 'ompletion@ alternati/es@'onseHuen'e@ purposi/eness or reported spee'h* The latter t-o are analysed as

subordinating linkers@ on the basis of their possible positioning either on the first'lause in the seHuen'e@ or on the sub e't of the se'ond 'lause* All others are foundonly 'liti'ised on the first 'lause* These linkers sho- no e/iden'e of a synta'ti'hierar'hy bet-een the t-o 'lauses they link* They 'an be 'ombined -ithsubordinating 'lause linkers as su'h@ ` 9*3*# 2p* 99 argues that they areindeterminate as to a possible hiera'hi'al relation bet-een the t-o 'lauses they link*` 9*3 2p* 91 argues that se/eral 'onstru'tions in Makalero 'an be termedsubordinating the 'learest of these are relati/e senten'es* Like the subordinating'lause linkers@ these eIhibit a marking pattern -here the relati/e 'liti' is found oneither the head or the sub e't argument of the relati/e senten'e* On the basis of this

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!# . =APTE; 1

parallel@ the purposi/e and reported spee'h linkers are analysed as subordinating* Arather different@ yet also 'learly subordinated stru'ture are P 'omplements* Theseare full predi'ations and are able to stand -ith the same modifiers as an independent'lause* =o-e/er@ the /erb stands in a dependent 2possibly less /erbal form* A thirdtype of 'learly subordinated stru'ture are 'lausal arguments and ad/erbial 'lauses inthe left(deta'hed position of a senten'e* A some-hat tri'ky 'ase is presented by/erbs of saying and modal /erbs and their 'omplement 'lause eItensions* ` 3*#*!2p* 3*#*! argues that 'onstru'tions -here the 'omplementiser atta'hes to the /erb ofsaying@ introdu'ing its 'omplement 'lause eItension@ originate from a 'onstru'tion-here the 'omplement fun'tions as an argument of the /erb of saying* The'omplementiser looks in those 'ases like a determiner or definite marker@ sho-ingthat the 'lause fun'tions as a nominal 'onstituent -ithin that 'lause* As su'h@'omplement 'lause eItensions may Hualify as a type of subordinating 'onstru'tion*

1.6.' (iscourse structure5in'e Makalero has no 'ase marking and no /erbal agreement@ and allo-s for theleft(dislo'ation of parti'ipants@ the 'orre't interpretation of grammati'al roles is

potentially problemati'* =o-e/er@ there are se/eral de/i'es aiding the hearer in thisrespe't* An important indi'ator helping referen'e tra'king a'ross the teIt are the'lause linkers =ini and =isi * As noted in ` 9*1*1 2p* "8 @ the former is 'ommonlyasso'iated -ith topi' 2or sub e't 'ontinuity@ -hile the use of the latter normally

'oin'ides -ith a topi' 'hange* Another grammati'al item that 'ontributes toreferen'e tra'king is the refleIi/e pronoun ni@ -hi'h@ both as an P on its o-n as-ell as in adnominal use@ denotes 'oreferen'e -ith the sub e't parti'ipant* As su'h@any P 'ontaining this pronoun is ne'essarily a non(sub e't* >urthermore@ the'ontrasti/e marker Y ini appears to be de/eloping into a sub e't marker that is used to'larify sub e't referen'e in senten'es -ith non('anoni'al -ord order or 'ases -herethe sub e't argument is mu'h lo-er on the topi'(-orthiness hierar'hy than these'ond argument* Also@ the P 'liti' Y haka @ -hi'h ser/es to mark the 'ontradi'tionto a presupposition@ o''urs on sub e't arguments only* As su'h@ it has a se'ondarysub e't(marking fun'tion*The ma ority of senten'es in Makalero follo-s the unmarked 5O -ord order*=o-e/er@ either argument may be pla'ed in the left(deta'hed position* These left(dislo'ated arguments may be both topi's and fo'i* Most fo'i in the L?P are

relati/ely long and may be taken up in situ by a pronoun* As su'h@ ` 7*!*1*! 2p* 79'on'ludes that the issue in those 'ases is the length of the 'onstituent in Huestionrather than its fo'ality* .onseHuently@ the main fun'tion of the L?P is to hold topi's*` 7*!*! 2p* " dis'usses an eIpli'it fo'us 'onstru'tion in -hi'h a 'lause -ith anempty position is follo-ed by the same or a /ery similar 'lause -ith that positionfilled* This fo'us 'onstru'tion Huite ni'ely implements the 'ommon definition offo'us as the part of a proposition by -hi'h the assertion differs from the

presupposition*Makalero disposes of a number of 'liti' or ad/erbial markers -hi'h ha/e to do -ithinformation stru'ture* The most important of these is the 'ontrasti/e 'liti' =ini * This

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4 T;O?&.T4O !8

is found on both topi'al and fo'al parti'ipants* 4t is likely an eItension of the 'lauselinker Y ini and appears to separate the 'ontrasti/e argument from the rest of the'lause* As su'h@ these 'onstru'tions display a high degree of similarity to 'left'onstru'tions* The 'liti' =haka marks the 'ontradi'tion of a presupposition* 9a"a-muni% -hi'h is predi'ati/e in status@ eHui/alent to a/alent ad/erbial predi'ates@appears to mark the beginning of a ne- s'ene or e/ent* The 'liti' =oo XtooF is afreHuently used 'on'essi/e linker* =o-e/er@ it also o''urs in a /ariety of 'ases@often in pairs@ -here this translation does not make sense* As su'h@ it appears toha/e some information stru'turing use@ -hi'h reHuires further resear'h*On a higher le/el of teIt organisation@ it is noti'eable that narrati/es are normallyintrodu'ed by a senten'e stating the 'ontent of the teIt* These senten'es are /eryfreHuently asso'iated -ith a parti'ular -ord order* TeIts are normally 'on'luded bya 'losing senten'e@ -hi'h states that the speaker is finished*A 'onspi'uous feature of Makalero narrati/es is the use of tail(head linkage* Afeature 'hara'teristi' of ritual spee'h@ leIi'al parallelism@ has in some eIpressionsalso found its -ay into e/eryday spee'h*

1.$ %re&ious 'or" As a 'onseHuen'e of its debatable linguisti' status as a diale't of Makasae@ Makalerohas pre/iously re'ei/ed little attention from linguists* o mention of it is made inthe founding -orks on the languages of the island 2e*g* .apell 17 3a@ 17 3b@ 17 *

The probably earliest Makalero data 'ome from the notes of prof* Ant nio deAlmeida@ head of the Portuguese Miss o Antropol gi'a de Timor from 17"3* Thesedata 'onsist of hand-ritten -ord lists and eli'ited senten'es as -ell as a tapere'ording of an eli'itation session -hi'h partly 'oin'ides -ith the -ritten materialsand in'ludes an eli'ited dialogue bet-een a do'tor and a patient* 4t is not 'lear -heneIa'tly the data -ere 'olle'ted G Almeida /isited Timor se/eral times in the period

bet-een 17"3 and 178"* either is there a re'ord of -here they -ere 'olle'ted* Anumber of leIi'al items used seem to be 'loser to Makasae than to the Makalerospoken around 4liomar as des'ribed in the present thesis@ suggesting perhaps that thedata -ere 'olle'ted to the north of the Makalero(speaking area* 17 The materials arekept at the 4nstituto de 4n/estigaN o .ientRfi'a Tropi'al 244.T in Lisbon and are

partly published in Almeida 2177 * ! sa- the publi'ation of =ullFs'omprehensi/e The Papuan Languages of East Timor @ -hi'h gi/es a -ealth of

information* =o-e/er@ the Makalero data sour'es on -hi'h this arti'le is based are'learly s'ar'e and in'lude se/eral fa'tual errors and in'onsisten'ies*The $apanese(founded Timor Loro 5aFe ippon .ulture .enter 2T .. @ founder ofthe 4liomar library 2see ` 1*!@ p* " @ brought forth se/eral -orks in and aboutMakalero by nati/e speakers* Among them are a monolingual Makalero di'tionary

by Tomas Mariano Pinto@ a Makalero language 'ourse -ith translations in Tetumand English by the same author@ and a treatise of 4liomar 'ustoms and traditions by

17 An eIample is the -ord XbodyF@ -hi'h de Almeida re'ords as am+ere * 4n the Makalero 'orpusunderlying the present thesis@ only afur is used* The 'orresponding Makasae is amu or amu +ere *

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!9 . =APTE; 1

Caspar 5eiIas 2the latter@ as -ell as a Tetum translation@ 'an be a''essed online athttp:,,---*geo'ities* p,hkbtls,hakerek,=akerek13,iliomar makalero*htm *Lastly@ .hamberlainFs ! 9 monograph XThe struggle in 4liomarF gi/es in/aluablenon(linguisti' 2mostly histori'al information*

1.( #ethodology and corpusThe 'urrent grammati'al analysis of Makalero is mostly based on a 'orpus 'olle'tedduring t-o field trips to East Timor in ! 8 and in ! 7@ respe'ti/ely* The first of

these trips -as fi/e months long@ -hile the se'ond -as only three months* The timein East Timor -as partly spent in 4liomar@ the 'entre of the Makalero(speaking area@and Lospalos@ the main to-n of LautQm distri't* The latter has a si eable Makalero

population and offers better infrastru'ture* .on'retely@ the MQdi'os do Mondo team based in Lospalos kindly let me take ad/antage of their generator* The -ork -asdi/ided a''ording to the opportunities offered by these t-o settings* While in4liomar@ 4 spent my time making re'ordings@ eli'itating@ taking notes and so'ialisingin Lospalos@ 4 put the materials 'olle'ted in 4liomar into order@ trans'ribed andtranslated my re'ordings* This di/ision of -ork allo-ed me to periodi'ally organiseand update my analysis and form theories@ -hi'h 4 then tested on subseHuent trips to4liomar*4n the Makalero(speaking area@ 4 operated in a relati/ely restri'ted 'ir'le* 4 stayed-ith 5r* .arolino AssunN o and his family@ -ho li/e neIt to the primary s'hool in

4liomar to-n* With the s'hool nearby@ there -ere al-ays numerous people around totalk to* 5r* .arolino and his -ife $oana also introdu'ed me to their friends andfamily@ -ho are mostly based in the /illages of Ailebere@ Osuhira and Tirilolo 2seeMap * 4 /isited these /illages repeatedly and 'olle'ted a large range of data*The 'orpus of re'orded teIts is made up of personal memoires@ folk tales@ pro'eduralteIts@ and some 'lan and an'estor legends and a small amount of 'hat* Also re'ordedare se/eral retellings of MayerFs 217#7(178" frog stories* 4n total@ it adds up to o/er7 hours*4n trans'ribing@ preferen'e -as gi/en to re'orded teIts that -ere fluently deli/eredand seemed 'oherent* More than 9 hours -orth of re'ordings are trans'ribed andform the basis for the present thesis* Less fluent teIts -here left for a later date and anumber of them@ eHualling approIimately 1 hour of re'orded spee'h@ is as yetuntrans'ribed* Table 1*1" gi/es a list of trans'ribed and translated re'ordings*

TeItno*

Title 5peaker Age Origin 5eI Length2mins

1#18

!

My father The e/a'uation to MountMatebian=o- to get to Tirilolo

$oana da 5il/aOlinda Pinto

$oana da 5il/a

!9"

!9

Tirilolo4liomar 44

Tirilolo

>>

>

1:3 1:"7

:33

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4 T;O?&.T4O !7

!1

!3

!

!"

!#

3

31

3!

333"

39

"

"1

"!"

""""a

"#"8"9

"7

#1

#!#3

#

The 'ustoms of 4liomar

My an'estorFs life

The story of the Loorasa'lanTraditional healing

Life during the hungerseasonMy life and religion

My 'hildhood as an orphan

My 'hildhood as an orphan44My fatherFs life

The history of Ailebere

>rog story 1A restless night=o- to 'ook mung bean

porridgeThe tale of Laapo and thekingThe tale of a naughty 'hild=o- 4 mistakenly used upmy un'leFs massage oil>rog story 1Wedding 'ustoms in4liomar My an'estorFs life=o- to make 'o'onut oil=o- 4 suffered amis'ariage

=o- 4 got together -ithmy husband=o- -e 'aught a huge seaturtle=o- to make yarn=o- 4 nearly died as a

babyThe tale of Lerenene andthe snake

Mateus 5eiIasMirandaEugenio]a/ier >ran'is'o ;osa

TheodoroAraj oAlfredo de$esusMaria daCloriaAlfredo de$esusAlfredo de$esus5al/ador da5il/aEuri'o$er nimo$oana da 5il/a$oana da 5il/a$oana da 5il/a

4gildo ]imenes

4gildo ]imenesMaria da 5il/a

Mafalda ;osaAleIandre5erba ;osa$oana da 5il/a$oana da 5il/aMarmelindaEste/es

MarmelindaEste/es$oana da 5il/a

$oana da 5il/a$oana da 5il/a

Mar'os da.osta

7

#"

#"

""

#9

9

#9

#9

9

3!

!9!9!9

!9

!933

!3

!9!9!1

!1

!9

!9!9

Osuhira

Tirilolo

Osuhira

Tirilolo

Tirilolo

Tirilolo

Tirilolo

Tirilolo

Tirilolo

Ailebere

TiriloloTiriloloTirilolo

4liomar 4

4liomar 4Tirilolo

OsuhiraOsuhira

TiriloloTirilolo4liomar 4

4liomar 4

Tirilolo

TiriloloTirilolo

\

M

M

M

M

M

>

M

M

M

M

>>>

M

M>

>M

>>>

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>>

M

1 :1#

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My youth

=o- 4 earned money to goto s'hoolA di/or'eMy life

The /illage of =iitali

The prin'iple foods in4liomar A disagreement in thefamilyMy lifeMy life

The 4ndonesian o''upation4ndependen'e

Edu'ation in Timor

The tale of the king of4liomar and the snake

The importan'e of theMakalero languageA dangerous monkey , myan'estor My life>rog stories 1 !An episode from my lifeA message to the authorFsfather

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Table 1*1": Trans'ribed re'ordings

EIamples from re'orded teIts are referen'ed in the grammar part by the number ofthe re'ording and the number of the senten'e in my trans'ription* An eIample is ! (!@ -hi'h refers to the se'ond senten'e of re'ording ! *Eli'itation sessions -ere not re'orded* 4ndonesian -as used as the meta(language inthese 'ases* The referen'e Xeli'F@ along -ith the number of a gi/en senten'e in mynotes@ marks eli'ited senten'es@ senten'es 4 'onstru'ted myself to eli'itgrammati'ality udgements from nati/e speakers@ as -ell as senten'es 4 o/erheard indis'ourse* A number of senten'es -ere eli'ited -ith pi'tograms based on 5kopeteaset al* 2! # * These are designed to lo'ate markers of information stru'ture and aremarked as XfisHuestF*4n ! 9@ 'ourtesy of the >ataluku Language Pro e't 2 http:,,fataluku*'om, and 5r*

Rtor ;osado MarHues of the 4nstituto de 4n/estigaN o .ientRfi'a Tropi'al 244.T @ 4tra/elled to Lisbon to e/aluate the re'ords on Timorese languages kept in the 44.T*?uring this trip@ 4 -as thus able to /ie- the earliest Makalero data 'olle'ted some to # years ago 2see ` 1*8@ p* !8 * These data are Huite different in some respe'tsfrom those gathered by myself in Timor* 4t is not 'lear to -hat eItent thesedifferen'esare due to lo'al /ariants of the language and to -hat eItent language'hange is in/ol/ed* As a 'onseHuen'e@ -here/er su'h eIamples are used in thefollo-ing@ they are marked as su'h -ith the referen'e XalmeidaF* 4 'ombined this tripto Lisbon -ith a short stay in Porto@ -here 4 had made 'onta't -ith Ol /io .abral@-ho -as at the time a student at Porto uni/ersity and originates from Tirilolo in the

http://fataluku.com/http://fataluku.com/

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3! . =APTE; 1

4liomar subdistri't 2see Map * Ol /io helped me immensly in trans'ribingre'ordings and ans-ering numerous Huestions 4 had prepared* ?uring the last t-oyears of the pro e't@ Ol /io -as /ery often a/ailable online@ so that 4 'ould ask himmore Huestions to test hypotheses through email and 'hat* 5enten'es 'olle'tedduring my /isit to Porto are marked as Xpeli'F* Also@ Ol /io did another run of theinformation stru'ture pi'tograms 2marked as XisHuestF * 5enten'es gained throughemail or from an o''asional online 'hat are referen'ed to as X'hatF*

1.) *rthographyWhile Almeida0s data are in Portuguese orthography@ all other earlier sour'es listedin ` 1*8 2p* !8 use a phonemi' orthography* 4n fa't@ MakaleroFs phonologi'alsystem is fairly straightfor-ard and in/ol/es little arti'ulatory /ariation* As a'onseHuen'e@ the orthography used in the present thesis manages -ithout the use ofnon(A5.44 symbols* All of the earlier -orks@ ho-e/er@ are more or less in'onsistentand idiosyn'ra'ti' in their treatment of /o-el length@ e'ho /o-els and the glottalstop* The orthography used in the present thesis is based on the analysis of these

phenomena as brought for-ard in ` ! 2p* 38 and aims to gi/e e/ery morpheme a'onsistent standardised graphi' representation* 4t is solely based on my o-nunderstanding and has not been dis'ussed -ith members of the Makalero'ommunity* As su'h@ it is not meant to be a proposal for a formal Makaleroorthography*

The fi/e members of the Makalero /o-el in/entory are adeHuately represented bya e i o u * ` !*!*3 2p* #! identifies long /o-els as a marginal phenomenon in

Makalero* The large ma ority of long /o-els are predi'table* One su'h reason is the bimorai'ity reHuirement for leIi'al morphemes monosyllabi' leIi'al morphemesmust ha/e a 'ompleI nu'leus 'onsisting of either a diphthong or a long /o-el*5e'ondly@ /o-el length o''urs in the 'onteIt of the resyllabifi'ation asso'iated -ithe'ho /o-els* This pro'ess is dis'ussed at length in ` !*"* *1 2p* 93 * >inally@ long/o-els are a possible realisation of a seHuen'e of t-o identi'al /o-els interrupted

by the glottal morpheme* 4n su'h predi'table 'onteIts@ /o-el length is notrepresented in the orthography* 2! illustrates the t-o former pro'esses 2for the long/o-el realisation of the glottal morpheme@ see belo- * ote also that the regular

pro'ess of e'ho /o-el addition is not represented in -riting*

2! ni XmotherF Uni:V fat XfourF Ufa:tVla"it XoldF U0la itV@ Ula0 i:tiVmasan Xs'aredF U0masanV@ Uma0sa:naV

=o-e/er@ some leIemes in'lude long /o-els -hi'h 'annot be predi'ted by theabo/e rules* 4n these 'ases@ /o-el length is indi'ated by a double /o-el grapheme@as sho-n in 23 *

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4 T;O?&.T4O 33

23 puulata XheadF U pu:0lataVteersu XrosaryF U0te: suV

o-el length is not represented in the trans'ription used in the ma ority of thesour'es dis'ussed in ` 1*8 2p* !8 * An eI'eption are the Timor Loro 5aFe ippon.ulture .enter /erna'ular publi'ations@ -hi'h G in'onsistently G appear to use theapostrophe F follo-ing a /o-el graph for the purpose*The glides are in the present thesis analysed as allophones of the respe'ti/e high/o-els as su'h@ i and u @ respe'ti/ely@ are used to represent U V and U-V*EIamples 2 through 29 illustrate the 'orre't reading of the high /o-el graphemesas either /o-els or glides in different 'onteIts* 4n syllable(initial position@ ,i, and ,u,are normally onglides* T-o su'h eIamples are illustrated in 2 * 5ee ` !*!*! 2p* # @ho-e/er@ for the flu'tuation of the onglides bet-een onset and syllabi' status* otethat the onset position 'an hold one element at most* 4n the eIamples in 2" @ this

position is o''upied by a 'onsonant@ and as a 'onseHuen'e the follo-ing high /o-el'annot be read as an onglide* The su''ession of the t-o /o-els in these morphemesis thus disyllabi'@ as sho-n in the phoneti' trans'ription in sHuare bra'kets*Offglides form a 'ompleI nu'leus together -ith the pre'eding /o-el* As su'h@ high/o-el graphemes are read as glides in all 'onteIts -here they follo- another /o-el@-hether or not they are follo-ed by a 'onsonant@ as in 2# and 28 @ respe'ti/ely*>inally@ 29 sho-s that morpheme(internally bet-een /o-els@ high /o-els areassigned as onsets to the se'ond syllable*

2 uaro" X-ashF U0-arohViar X'ryF U arV

2" nua XeatF U0nu*- aVtia XsleepF U0ti* aV

2# faut XenterF Ufa-tVheil XpullF Uhe lV

28 leu X'allF Ule-Vrei Xout-ardsF U e V

29 ouar XmasterF U0o*-arV saia XskirtF U0sa* aV

Pre/ious publi'ations generally use - and i for these sounds*The ma or diffi'ulty in the domain of 'onsonants is the graphi' representation of theglottal phoneme* This phoneme is alternati/ely realised as UhV@ U V@ or as /o-ellength if it o''urs bet-een t-o identi'al /o-els* The distribution of theseallophones 'an be predi'ted for some instan'es in others@ there appears to be free/ariation* 4n some morphemes@ only one or the other realisation is used@ apparentlyas a leIi'al property* ` !*1*!*1 2p* "1 argues that preglottalisation of phrase(initial/o-els is not phonemi'* either does morpheme(initial UhV 'ontrast -ith its absen'e*

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3 . =APTE; 1

=o-e/er@ the o''urren'e of the fri'ati/e allophone morpheme(initially does notseem regularly predi'table as that of the preglottalisation* As su'h@ a morpheme(initial glottal fri'ati/e is taken to be a leIi'al property and is represented by thegrapheme h @ as in the eIamples in 27 * >ree /ariation bet-een all possiblerealisations of the glottal phoneme is found in the 'ase of the glottal /erbaliser 2see` 3*!*!*1*1@ p* 1!9 * The addition of an e'ho /o-el to su'h a /erb results in aseHuen'e of t-o identi'al /o-els interrupted by a glottal phoneme@ -hi'h eIplainsthe long(/o-el realisation* This /ariation is not refle'ted in the orthography thegrapheme F is used to represent this /erbal ending@ as sho-n in 21 * 4n all other'ases@ either h or F are used depending on the unpredi'table realisation of theglottal phoneme in a gi/en morpheme* ote@ ho-e/er@ that -ord(internal UhV isrelati/ely rare in simple 2non('ompounded morphemes* 4n fa't@ of the eIamplesgi/en in 211 @rihun XthousandF is an Austronesian loan@ -hile elehaa Xold manF islikely a 'ompound* 4n 'ases -here a glottal phoneme o''urs bet-een t-o identi'al/o-els -ord(internally@ generally all three possible realisations are found@ as sho-nin 21! *

27 hofar Xne-F U0h farV@ U0 farVhifa" X'at'hF U0hifa V

21 lafu" Xli/eF U0lafu V@ U0lafuhV@ Ula0fu:V2from lafu Xlife

mutu" Xbe insideF U0mutu V@ U0mutuhV@ Umu0tu:V2from mutu XinsideF

fani" Xbe likeF U0fani V@ U0fanihV@ Ufa0ni:V

211 mu"a XgroundF U0mu aVto"i XdigF U0to iVrihun XthousandF U0rihunVelehaa Xold manF U qlq0ha:V

21! da"al XbreakF U0da alV@ Uda:lV@ U0dahalVna"an 2 EC*E] U0na anV@ Una:nV@ U0nahanVne"et XthinkF U0nq qtV@ Unq:tV

All earlier trans'riptions are more or less in'onsistent in their representation of this phoneme@ refle'ting its phoneti'ally diffi'ult status 2` !*1*!*1@ p* "1 * A morpheme(initial glottal phoneme is either unrepresented or indi'ated by h in all sour'es* 4nall other 'onteIts@ the graphemes h or F are used@ neIt to 'ases -here the glottal

phoneme is unrepresented* 4n the domain of the loan 'onsonants@ ' and areused to represent the affri'ate phonemes@ follo-ing 4ndonesian orthography* represents the /oi'ed al/eo(dental fri'ati/e@ / the bilabial 'ontinuant@ and ngthe /elar nasal*As dis'ussed in ` !*# 2p* 98 @ stress is largely predi'table* As su'h@ it is notrepresented in -riting* Aberrant stress as found in some loan -ords is marked -ithan a''ent@ as e*g* in portu*$s XPortugueseF*

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4 T;O?&.T4O 3"

1.1+ *rganisation of the grammar The present des'ripti/e grammar is organised into eight 'hapters* The first of these@` ! 2p* 38 @ dis'usses the phonology* LeIi'al 'ategories and the morphologyasso'iated -ith them are defined in ` 3 2p* 78 * ` 2p* !83 and ` " 2p* 318elaborate on the noun phrase and the /erb phrase@ respe'ti/ely* The remaining'hapters dis'uss the 'lause and units larger than the 'lause ` # 2p* 393 is on the'lause and its 'onstituent parts@ ` 8 2p* 1 on senten'es and ` 9 2p* "3 onutteran'es* >inally@ ` 7 2p* 71 treats some issues on the dis'ourse le/el*