bsc - mobile learning concretized - five pedagogical models

Mobile Learning Concretized Five Pedagogical Models

Pasi J. Eronen

August 30, 2006

University of Joensuu

Department of Computer Science and Statistics

Bachelor's Thesis

Abstract

This thesis observes mobile learning in its concrete settings, applied to five different

pedagogical models. The pedagogical models used in this thesis are Situated Learning,

Problem-based Learning, Project-based Learning, Performance-based Learning, and Tutorial

Learning. The vocational education and training creates the context, where mobile learning

takes place.

Mobile learning is a process, where learning is supported by suitable technologies including

the devices and wireless connection. The interplay between the learning and technology is

mediated by the software, which provides an interface to the pedagogical uses of technology.

When the technology is applied to various pedagogical models, the flow of activities in

pedagogical models create the needs for the suitable technologies. Therefore, these needs also

dictate the role in which the technology is applied in mobile learning.

The roles for technology, in which it is applied in the pedagogical models of this thesis

include: Contextualizing, Information explication support, Collaboration facilitation,

Problem-solving support, Artifact creation, Administrative support, Communication support,

and Interaction support.

ACM Classification: K.3.1. Computer Uses in Education, C.2.8. Mobile Computing1

Keywords: Mobile learning, pedagogical models, vocational education and training.

1 As in IEEE's extended version of ACM's classification. The extended version is available on-line in following web-address:

http://www.computer.org/portal/site/ieeecs/menuitem.c5efb9b8ade9096b8a9ca0108bcd45f3/index.jsp?&pName=ieeecs_level1&path=ieeecs/publications/author&file=ACMtaxonomy.xml&xsl=generic.xsl&

Acknowledgments

Most of the work in this thesis is based on my past work as a researcher in the SMILE project,

which was funded by European Union's Leonardo da Vinci program. During that time my

work was closely guided by Professor Kinshuk and Dr. Jarkko Suhonen, whose feedback and

suggestions helped me in my work greatly. Furthermore, the feedback that I received from the

project’s Greek partners, especially from Professor Demetrios Sampson and Pythagoras

Karampiperis, helped me to revise and refine my work. I was also lucky to have Niko Myller

as a coauthor in the original works helping me to overcome the sizable task that we then had.

Contents

1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 1

2. Mobile Learning in a Nutshell ......................................................................................................... 3

2.1. Mobility and Mobile Learning in General ................................................................................ 3 2.2. A Brief Overview on Wireless Technologies ........................................................................... 5

2.2.1. Personal Area Networks ................................................................................................... 6 2.2.2. Wireless Local Area Networks ......................................................................................... 6 2.2.3. Metropolitan Area Networks ............................................................................................ 7

2.2.4. Wide Area Networks ........................................................................................................ 7 2.3. Devices Used in Mobile Learning .......................................................................................... 10

2.3.1. Personal Portable Devices .............................................................................................. 10 2.3.2. Personal Static Devices ................................................................................................... 10 2.3.3. Shared Portable Devices ................................................................................................. 11

2.3.4. Shared Static Devices ..................................................................................................... 11

3. Pedagogical Models and Their Applications in Mobile Learning ................................................. 12

3.1. Situated Learning .................................................................................................................... 12 3.1.1. Educational objectives .................................................................................................... 13

3.1.2. Parameters that guarantee the implementation of Situated Learning ............................. 13 3.1.3. Application of Situated Learning in Mobile Learning .................................................... 15

3.2. Problem-based Learning ......................................................................................................... 23

3.2.1. Educational objectives .................................................................................................... 26 3.2.2. Parameters that guarantee the implementation of Problem-based Learning .................. 27

3.2.3. Application of Problem-based Learning in Mobile Learning ......................................... 29 3.3. Project-based Learning ........................................................................................................... 35

3.3.1. Educational objectives .................................................................................................... 38

3.3.2. Parameters that guarantee the implementation of Project-based Learning ..................... 39

3.3.3. Application of Project-based Learning in Mobile Learning ........................................... 41

3.4. Performance-based Learning .................................................................................................. 50 3.4.1. Educational objectives .................................................................................................... 51

3.4.2. Parameters that guarantee the implementation of Performance-based Learning............ 51 3.4.3. Application of Performance-based Learning in Mobile Learning .................................. 52

3.5. Tutorial Learning .................................................................................................................... 56 3.5.1. Educational objectives .................................................................................................... 61 3.5.2. Parameters that guarantee the implementation of Tutorial Learning.............................. 61 3.5.3. Application of Tutorial Learning in Mobile Learning .................................................... 63

4. Conclusions .................................................................................................................................... 68

References .......................................................................................................................................... 71

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1. Introduction

This thesis is based partly on the work done in pan-European Supporting Vocational

Education and Training through Mobile Learning Environments (SMILE) project's first phase

during spring and summer 2006. Project's main objectives are to promote access to the

vocational training and education (VET), improve the skill and competence acquisition of

people, and support linkage between VET and innovation creation. These objectives are to be

met by applying modern technologies, especially mobile technologies, to learning, and

supporting the creation of reusable learning materials. The SMILE project is part of the

European Union's Leonardo da Vinci program and it is continuing until the end of year 2007.

[Adv06]

Due to the works, namely the pedagogical models and their educational scenarios, related to

the SMILE project included in this thesis, the thesis deals with the mobile learning in VET

context. The mobile learning in this thesis is seen as a technological intervention embedded to

traditional pedagogical models. There are altogether five pedagogical models presented in this

thesis with exemplary educational scenarios in each of them. The educational scenarios are all

set in the VET context and the technological intervention is also included in the scenarios.

The selection of pedagogical models presented in this thesis was not originally made by the

author, but the selection came from those, who steer the activities in SMILE project.

From the research point of view this thesis is answering to a question: How mobile

technologies can be applied in different pedagogical models? The answer is based on an

extensive literature review both on pedagogical models and mobile learning. Literature review

is used as a basis for creation of an educational scenario with a flow of activities for each

pedagogical model. Educational scenarios serve as an example how mobile technology can be

used to support different stages in an activity flow. Applying the ideas of mobile learning to

different kinds of pedagogical models with different emphases supports first of all different

kinds of teachers and secondly reveals applicability of mobile technology to various contexts

in various ways.

Finally, the application of mobile technology in various pedagogical models enriches the field

of mobile learning by introducing concrete examples, how mobile learning can take place

with the traditional and widely spread pedagogical models. This facilitates the application of

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mobile learning in schools as the teachers do not need to learn previously unfamiliar ways of

teaching in addition to learning about new technological appliances.

The next chapter introduces the mobile learning in general level and from the technological

perspective. The third chapter presents five pedagogical models, in which the mobile learning

is concretized. The final chapter, conclusions, sums up the ideas presented in previous

chapters and suggests some the roles mobile technology can take in different learning

activities.

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2. Mobile Learning in a Nutshell

This chapter presents Mobile Learning and issues related to it from three different vantage

points. First of all, there is a section about mobility and some viewpoints to mobile learning.

Secondly, there is a brief overview to wireless technologies that enable people to become

mobile. Furthermore, there are various means of having a wireless connection presented.

There is also a table, where wireless technologies are compared with each other according to

the connection range, transfer speeds, and application areas they offer. Lastly this chapter

presents an overview to various gadgets that can be used as end-user devices in mobile

learning.

2.1. Mobility and Mobile Learning in General

" A first step in postulating a theory of mobile learning is to distinguish what is

special about mobile learning compared to other types of learning activity. An

obvious, yet essential, difference is that it starts from the assumption that

learners are continually on the move. We learn across space as we take ideas

and learning resources gained in one location and apply or develop them in

another. We learn across time, by revisiting knowledge that was gained earlier

in a different context, and more broadly, through ideas and strategies gained in

early years providing a framework for a lifetime of learning. We move from

topic to topic, managing a range of personal learning projects, rather than

following a single curriculum. We also move in and out of engagement with

technology, for example as we enter and leave cell phone coverage." [Sha05,

emphases by the author of this thesis]

As Sharples et. al. [Sha05] put it nicely in the previous direct quote, the mobility in mobile

learning can take various forms. Not only it is mobility or roaming in the physical space such

as school or workplace, or in the abstract space of ideas and various topics; it is also mobility

in relation to time both in its concrete sense and its sense of different spheres of life such as

work or leisure. Furthermore, mobility can also be moving to and from the engagement with

the technology allowing us be mobile.

Naismith et. al. [Nai04] have made in their literature review an interesting comparison

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between various learning theories and activities that can be made with mobile technology to

support the learning. It is especially interesting from the viewpoint of this thesis, as this

thesis's core interest is to combine activities in various pedagogical models to mobile

technology in order to create concrete scenarios for mobile learning.

Concrete applications of mobile technology in learning vary a lot from one learning theory to

another. The ideology in-built in learning theory is also reflected to the uses of mobile

technology. For example, in Behaviorist learning, the mobile technology serves as a platform

for a drill and feedback scenario disguised as a game in a hand-held game console. As a

contrast in Constructivist learning, the mobile technology was used to create a participatory

simulation about roaming in the savannah, where the personal digital assistant (PDA) carrying

students were put in the role of the lion. In Situated learning example, the important thing

supported by mobile technology was the contextualization, which took place in a museum.

The visitors were using PDAs with location sensing, while they were moving around in a

museum. The PDA then gave them appropriate information according to their location in a

museum. In Collaborative learning the mobile technology was facilitating the conversation

between the students locally. It was achieved by asking the student groups some questions

through networked PDAs, after which they had to find an answer they could all agree upon.

Lastly, in case of Informal and Lifelong learning, the mobile technology was used to support

activities outside the formal education. The young adults, who were being 'at-risk' because of

their low-level education and unemployment, were accessing interactive and contextualized

materials through their mobile phones. The material in turn supported the development of

literacy skills and other everyday skills among the target group. [Nai04] As previous

examples show, the mobile technology itself seem to be very flexible and adjustable to

various kinds of uses. In the previous examples the uses of technology were emerging from

the actual needs, not from the technology.

In case, if the situation is turned upside down and the mobile learning would be viewed from

the technology-first point of view, things would look a bit different. In that case the approach

would be to start from the possibilities that the technology is offering for the education. For

that purpose I shall use Patten et. al.'s recent paper [Pat06], where they have categorized

applications, which are available for handhelds, according to their functionalities. This

categorization also brings up an important issue that the technology (hardware) layer can

support the pedagogical layer in mobile learning only through the mediating application

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(software) layer.

First of all, there is an administrative use. PDA's and Mobile phones usually include programs

that are suitable for scheduling various things such as meetings. These can also be used in an

educational environment for example in time management. There can also be a connection to

a server, where students can obtain for example 'Due yesterday' information. Secondly, there

are referential uses, which aim at showing the student various kinds of information available.

For example, a student can download study material to a mobile phone or PDA and read it

from the screen of the device. The idea is to transfer various kinds of static information and

material to the student. In interactive use, there are small applications that require student to

be in interaction with them. These can include for example classic quizzes or other simple

action and response type of applications. Fourthly, there are some sophisticated applications

that are called microworlds. In those applications the interaction between the user and the

software takes place in the deeper level. The user can for example change parameters in a

simulator and then analyze the changes that took place. The data collection applications put

the user in a more constructive role. There the user can take an advantage of using the camera,

microphone, and other sensory inputs that the device at hand supports to collect various kinds

of data for later use and analysis. In most sophisticated mobile devices, there are tools for

location awareness. These kinds of applications help in contextualizing, for example by

roaming around in nearby nature or interacting in a locally created artificial space with

location-bound information. Finally, there are applications to support the collaboration

among the learners. Collaboration facilitation includes support for communication through

speech and text. It can also include an access to learning environment with further

communication and collaboration support tools such as forums or games that are played

collaboratively. [Pat06]

2.2. A Brief Overview on Wireless Technologies

The wireless connection allows users to be mobile, especially when thinking mobility in terms

of physical space. Variety of wireless connections span from infrared-based connections of

some centimeters between two devices to WiMAX connections [WiM06] allowing user to be

up to 10 kilometers away from the cell's access point. Wireless technologies create a layer or

'a bridge' for data transfer between two devices or devices and internet resources. One way of

dividing the connections into groups is to do it according to the area coverage of wireless

connection. In that case the division is done to Personal Area Networks (PANs), Wireless

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Local Area Networks (WLANs), Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs), and wide-area

networks (WANs). [Agr03]

2.2.1. Personal Area Networks

Personal area networks (PAN) consist of wireless connectivity for data exchange between

devices in close vicinity of each other. This can include a situation at home, where connection

to internet is provided by a wireless connection to a WiFi-enabled modem or router. PANs

take usually place at home, in an office room, or while at move creating an ad hoc network

between two or more devices. Connection distances between devices in a PAN can vary from

some centimeters2 in infrared connection up to some tens of meters with WiFi connection.

Data transfer speeds3 can vary from 1 Mbit per second in Bluetooth connection up to 54

Mbit/s speeds with modern WiFi equipment. [Agr03, Nai04]

An example of a PAN connection is a Bluetooth connection between a mobile phone and a

separate hands-free device. Similarly an exchange of information such as phone numbers by

using an infrared connection between two Personal digital assistant (PDA) is an example of

PAN in action.

2.2.2. Wireless Local Area Networks

Wireless local area networks (WLAN) are usually created to cover a geographically limited

area, such as an office building, university campus, or business property such as a hotel or

cafeteria. In case of a larger area, such as campus or large park, or structurally demanding

area, such as an office building in many floors, there is a need for many wireless access points

to cover the whole area. The idea in WLANs is that the users can roam freely within the reach

of WLAN and at the same time have an access to network and its services. [Agr03]

WLANs can be made public, where everyone with suitable WiFi-enabled equipment can

access the services made available in WLAN such as having an access to internet. In many

cases WLANs are made secure, where only those with authorized equipment or having a

network username and password can access the network and its services. Usually public

networks can be found from hotels or cafeterias, which want to give the internet service for

2 This is not to say that infrared connection can only provide wireless connection to distances of some centimeters. Infrared can provide

connections in longer range too, but generally infrared connections are used in shorter distances and they have to have a line of sight

between the connected devices. 3 Transfer speeds in this thesis are generally maximum download speeds. Upload speeds are always considerably lower than speeds

mentioned in text. Furthermore, maximum speeds are achievable only in optimal environment, in reality speeds obtained are lower than

maximum speeds due to for example amount of network traffic.

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their customers. Places, where there is a wireless access point to internet are often called as

hotspots. [Wik06c]

WLANs are based on WiFi technology, which in open areas offer connectivity on distances

up to 100 meters. The coverage area can be extended by adding more access points to cover a

larger region. Connection speeds in WLANs vary from 11 Mbit/s up to 54 Mbit/s, which is

the highest speed that wireless connections can offer [Nai04]. Nevertheless, wireless

connections are still far behind wired connectivity in LANs, where network speeds can be up

to 1 Gbit/s.

2.2.3. Metropolitan Area Networks

Metropolitan area networks (MAN) are networks that offer wireless connectivity in larger

geographical area than WLANs. As the name suggests, MANs can be used for offering

wireless internet services in high population density areas such as cities [Agr03]. Another

application for MANs is to cover those rural areas, where it is otherwise impossible to have

high-speed broadband connections. An example of such area is an archipelago or a remote

location being too far from closest telephone central for wired broadband connection [Leh05].

From the technological perspective, MANs can be realized wirelessly by using either

WiMAX (IEEE 802.16) or Flash-OFDM technologies4. Both of them are at the time of the

writing still in testing and network building phases without wide commercial availability. In

MANs wireless distance to closest network access point can be from 10 kilometers [WiM06]

up to 30 kilometers in recent commercial trials [Dig06]. Similarly theoretical maximum

transfer speed can be up to 70 Mbit/s, but usual end-user connection speeds are similar to

those in wired DSL connection, some megabits per second, as the subscribers share the

transfer capacity [WiM06].

2.2.4. Wide Area Networks

Wide area networks (WAN) are networks that provide their customers nationwide wireless

access to network's services. Nowadays mobile phone networks provide their users

connectivity almost regardless of the location of the user. Modern mobile phone networks

support in addition to traditional calling and text messaging also data transfer. [Agr03] To be

4 It can a bit misleading to talk about WiFi or WiMAX technologies, where usually they are actually brands for industry standards

according which actual technological products are realized. Nevertheless, the discussion related to these standards seem to use those

terms also when talking about technology fulfilling the standards. Similarly in this thesis, these brands are used also to refer to the actual

underlying technology.

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able to access WANs and their services, the user must have subscribed the service from the

network operator. WANs data transfer services are in use for example when the users read

their e-mails through a mobile phone, or use the mobile phone for internet browsing.

For data transfer, WANs or in practice mobile phone networks, offer transfer speeds from

about 40 Kbit/s in GPRS enabled mobile network [GSM06] to more than 3 Mbit/s in HSDPA

enabled mobile network [NTT06]. Distance to nearest access point varies, but in WANs it is

not a major thing as the network coverage is usually nationwide. The physical location may

affect the speed of the data transfer, where the rural areas offer lesser speeds in comparison to

the cities. Furthermore, the mobile phone networks usually prioritize speech over the data

transfer, which decreases the data transfer speeds, when there is a lot of normal speech calls in

the network [Wik06].

Table 1. Comparison of Wireless Technologies [Agr03, Nai04]

Technology Range Speed Applications

PANs - Infrared,

Bluetooth, and Wifi

Infrared: from some

centimeters to the line of

sight distance

Bluetooth: Up to ten

meters

WiFi: Up to some tens of

meters (home

environment)

Infrared: from 9.6 Kbit/s

up to 4 Mbit/s

Bluetooth: Up to 1 Mbit/s

WiFi: Up to 54 Mbit/s

(802.11g standard)

Device to device ad hoc

networks are created

usually through infrared or

bluetooth connection.

Access to internet is

available through a

wireless connection to the

access point.

Connections are bound to

a certain and shared

physical location (devices

need to be close to each

other).

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Technology Range Speed Applications

WLANs - WiFi

Single access point: Up to

100 meters

Area coverage can be

made greater with adding

multiple access points.

Up to 54 Mbit/s (shared

transfer capacity)

Hotspots are offering free

or paid access to the

network. They are

available here and there,

for example at public

spaces, cafeterias, hotels,

or airports.

Wireless access to the

office or university

network is provided

through WLANs.

Offers the greatest speed,

but the network is still

patchy. The user needs be

near an access point or

other WiFi-enabled device

in order to access services.

MANs - WiMAX and

Flash-OFDM

WiMAX: Up to 10

kilometers

Flash-OFDM: Some tens

of kilometers

In theory up to tens of

Mbit/s (shared transfer

capacity)

Networks are still under

construction and testing.

At the moment mobility

from one network cell to

another poses a problem

(WiMAX), future

standards address the

problem.

Offers decent broadband

speeds also to less densely

populated areas, where

wired DSL or cable based

connections are not

available.

WANS - Mobile phone

networks

From hundreds of meters

in densely populated

urban areas to some

kilometers in rural areas.

Range in WANs is not as

important as in other kinds

of networks, since WANs

coverage should be

nationwide.

From tens of kbit/s

(GPRS) to more than 3

Mbit/s (Modern 3G

networks)

Access to the network is

available virtually

anywhere.

GPRS speeds that are

available anywhere are

enough for basic web-

surfing and instant

messaging.

3G speeds enable users to

use streaming media and

media-rich web-services.

Available speeds vary a

lot from a country to

another.

Data transfer speeds vary

depending on amount of

network traffic and

physical location.

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2.3. Devices Used in Mobile Learning

If the wireless connection in most cases creates a basis for mobility, it still is just an unused

delivery channel, if there is not any devices or gadgets that use it for data transfer and

communication. Typically, when speaking of mobile learning, the ideas that emerge include

various educational uses of mobile phones. In this thesis, the concept of mobile learning

includes also other kinds of devices that allow learning and teaching to take place in various

locations and at different times. The categorization of the gadgets, which is presented here, is

based on the division between personal versus shared and portable versus static axes [Nai04].

2.3.1. Personal Portable Devices

Personal portable devices are gadgets that are normally used by a single user. Additionally,

these devices are considered to be personal as they are usually in a possession of a one, single

person. As the devices are being portable, the users can carry their devices with them [Nai04].

This category includes traditionally devices such as mobile phones, laptop computers, PDA's,

and hand-held game consoles. Furthermore, this category can also include devices such as

GPS receivers, wrist-top computers, digital A/V recorders, and portable music and video

players, if programmability of the device is not considered to be necessary.

Usually these devices allow easy exchange of information between two or more devices, help

the user in data collection, storage, and analysis, and in some occasions also support in

internet connectivity. Furthermore, as these devices are often travelling with their users, they

allow working and learning in various contexts.

2.3.2. Personal Static Devices

Personal static devices are tools that allow personalized and interactive user experience, but

are located and available in a fixed location, such as at school. These tools are usually small in

size and they are used by a single user.

An example of these kinds of devices are classroom response systems, which allow the

learners to give anonymous response in the classroom situations. These situations can be for

example multiple choice questions presented by a teacher. With an application of these

devices in a classroom, the teacher can for example easily address any misconceptions among

the students without referring to any individual student but the feedback collected from all the

learners. [Nai04, Ros03]

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2.3.3. Shared Portable Devices

An information kiosk at the airport or an interactive guide display in the museum, those are

examples of shared portable devices. Even though in most cases both information kiosks and

guide displays are not likely to move much during the time users are using them, they are

considered to be portable as the user in on the move, while using these devices. [Nai04]

In the airport the user may move from one terminal to another using the information kiosk in

both of them to learn more about the services available in the surroundings. Similarly in

museums, each exhibition room may have its own guide display and the museum visitors

roam around in museum. The devices themselves are shared in a consecutive manner, usually

not at the same time as is the case in the following category of devices.

2.3.4. Shared Static Devices

Shared static devices allow multiple people to use the same device at the same place. The

device itself is stationary, or moved only occasionally, but the people come over to the device

to use it in a shared manner. These devices include tools such as videoconferencing tools and

interactive electronic whiteboards. These technologies for example allow the learner to

participate a learning situation at distant location and work locally in collaboration with those,

who share the same physical location. [Nai04]

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3. Pedagogical Models and Their Applications in Mobile Learning

This chapter presents five different pedagogical models. The pedagogical models presented

here in detail are: Situated Learning, Problem-based Learning, Project-based Learning,

Performance-based Learning, and Tutorial Learning. The reason for including pedagogical

models is to create some concrete examples of applied mobile learning. Therefore, each

presentation of pedagogical model ends with an example educational scenario, where the

typical flow of activities in each pedagogical model is combined with a suggestion, how

technology in general and ideas of mobile learning particularly can be applied there. The

context for the concrete examples is vocational education and training.

3.1. Situated Learning

Situated learning emphasizes the importance of authentic learning experiences taking place in

authentic settings or context (meaning here things such as culture, language, tools, habits,

etc.). [Bro89]

Situated learning belongs into the realm of social learning theories, where the focus of the

learning is in social interaction and participation. Here the interaction and participation is not

limited to certain engagement with certain people, but it is participation to communities,

interactions in those communities, and an individual growth taking place through that

participation and interaction. [Hei01]

Situated learning, which takes place in authentic context, allows learners to find out culturally

(in that particular context) appropriate ways of working and applying their knowledge. For

example, culturally appropriate ways means the shared and often tacit understanding about

mastery of certain profession among the professionals in that particular field. This growing

implicit understanding of one’s surroundings or a culture through active participation is called

enculturation. [Bro89]

Situated learning has its strongest roots in Vygotsky’s Activity theory and in anthropological

studies (e.g. Lave). Vygotsky’s Activity theory presents an idea that the mind, behavior, and

the social context of activities are intertwined. According to Vygotsky the knowledge is

socially embedded and the learning takes place in collaborative social interactions. The

anthropological studies in their turn have contributed to the idea that the professional

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expertise is embedded in the community of practice and learning takes place by participating

that community’s activities. These both approaches underpin the idea that the tacit,

unarticulated knowledge cannot be transmitted through descriptions or telling, but by

participating in the appropriate and authentic activities. [Cla95]

3.1.1. Educational objectives

In Situated learning the objective is to learn in real-world settings inside authentic work

culture or in other words in a community of practice [Kea06], such as nurses in the hospital.

The learning occurs in close collaboration with the experts of that particular knowledge

domain or community practice. Experts in this case mean those, who are considered to master

their profession. Furthermore, in Situated learning, the know-what and know-how knowledge

are considered to be inseparable and strongly intertwined taking place in certain context or

situation. The context means here for example a working environment and situation can be for

example a working procedure. See Table 1. to see which kinds of parameters affect reaching

the educational objectives and which kinds of measures can be taken in order to accommodate

those parameters.

3.1.2. Parameters that guarantee the implementation of Situated Learning

The overall availability of the apprenticeships and authentic on-the-job learning places is very

important. If the number of students is great, then there has to be an extensive network or a

pool of collaborating companies in order to enable students to undertake apprenticeship of on-

the-job learning. Furthermore, as the education is at least partly relying on the companies, the

economical cycles will affect the availability of apprenticeships and on-the-job training places

that are available (i.e. economic recession cuts the number of places available). [Wes03] In

addition, especially in the on-the-job learning, the role and availability of competent (trained)

and dedicated tutors is very important, they are the ones taking care of the learners at the work

place and being responsible that the learner is in appropriate role in the work place in order to

meet the learning goals set for the on-the-job learning phase. [Nat06]

The epistemological point-of-view in the prevailing culture of learning is important. Is the

conceptual knowledge (know-what) considered to be more important than the procedural

knowledge (know-how)? If the know-what is considered to be more important or superior

than know-how, then the introduction of apprenticeship or on-the-job learning phase as an

integral part of learners’ education may become problematic due to the internal resistance by

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the teachers. [Bro89]

Reflection as a tool for learning is in an important role in situated learning. The key idea in

reflection is that the learners actively reason their doings, recalling the motivations for their

actions, and evaluating the outcomes. The aim for reflection is to change one’s behavior and

find new insights. But the reflection brings in a question, how well the students are prepared

to reflect in general and especially on the cultural issues (the approved and disapproved ways

of working, collaboration with others, tacit knowledge, etc.) they face at the workplaces.

Furthermore, things done and learned at the work place should be mirrored to things learned

earlier in the educational institution. [Smi99]

The technological infrastructure and pedagogical framework, which are dedicated for learner's

use, should support the learners' reflection and communication with the peers learning in other

places. Here the technological infrastructure means for example the virtual learning

environment, which the learners can use during the apprenticeship. It also includes the

necessary technological appliances, such as computers, Internet access, or mobile devices,

which enable the learner to take full potential of the technological infrastructure. The

pedagogical framework includes in addition to the applied pedagogical model (in this case

situated learning) also the pedagogical support for learning received from the teacher, peer

learners, work colleagues, and work supervisor/tutor.

Table 2. How the educational objectives can be reached

Educational

objectives in

Situated Learning

Parameters affecting reaching

the educational objectives

Ways to guarantee reaching the

objectives

Learning takes place

inside authentic work

culture outside

school.

There has to be a number of

companies with competent work place

tutors offering places for

apprenticeships or for the on-the-job

learning.

The technological and pedagogical

framework should support

geographically dispersed learners in

their learning tasks.

Close collaboration is needed with companies

outside the school in order to secure enough

places for learners. The school also has to train

people coming from these companies to serve

as tutors supporting the learners at work places.

Learners are allowed an access to a virtual

learning environment, which supports learners

pedagogically in their learning tasks (allows

communication, study log keeping, etc), while

they are away from school. The virtual learning

environment can be accessed with various

technological devices, such as networked

computers or PDA devices.

15

Educational

objectives in

Situated Learning




objectives

Learning takes place

in close collaboration

with the masters or

experts of the

profession.

Extracting conceptual understanding

from the work tasks through reflection

is an important part of the learning.

Before entering the work place, the learners

should have set goals for their learning

experience and theoretical background from

school. At the work place, the learners should

reflect on the practices they observe and do

themselves. The reflection is partially based to

their previous knowledge. Reflection serves as

an learning tool helping to extract the

conceptual knowledge (for example work

process description) from the practices.

Learning of

conceptual

knowledge (know-

what) and procedural

knowledge (know-

how) is strongly

intertwined.

Epistemological viewpoints at school

are important.

Entering the situated learning to the school

cannot be just an administrative decision, since

it also includes an epistemological shift. The

shift can be described as accepting that the

know-how is at least as important as know-

what and that they are inseparable. Teachers at

the school should be encouraged understand

and accept this change.

3.1.3. Application of Situated Learning in Mobile Learning

This educational scenario depicts one alternative way of realizing situational learning in VET

context. This particular scenario is about on-the-job learning [Poh02] phase, where the

learners go to learn in real work places. Another alternative way of realizing situational

learning is traditional apprenticeship, which is shortly presented in the last part of this step.

On-the-job learning is usually associated with school-based forms of VET, where most of the

learning takes place in school in its classes and workshops. Nevertheless, similar kind of

process can be easily associated also with apprenticeship based VET. This particular example

scenario is inspired by the Finnish model for on-the-job learning. The scenario is an

adaptation from Pohjonen’s Ideal model (Finnish model for on-the-job learning) [Poh02] and

Griffit and Guile’s Connective model [Gri01] for VET.

In Pohjonen’s Ideal model, the educational establishment, the learner, and the working life

create the core of the model. The core is surrounded by marginal factors and framing factors.

These factors are considered to be important for the success of the on-the-job learning phase,

and they include such factors as: the commitment of all participants, training of tutors, and

quality of the learning environment. (Fig. 1.) [Poh02]

In Griffit and Guile’s Connective model the emphasis is put on the reflexive processes, where

the learners conceptualize the experiences they have gathered from different viewpoints.

16

Furthermore, the learners should have an opportunity to develop themselves as well in their

personal qualities as in curricula matters. [Gri01]

In this particular scenario, the educational approach of situated learning is accommodated.

First of all, the idea of on-the-job learning is that the learner goes into the authentic work

place to work. Secondly, the work and thus also learning takes place in collaboration with

those, who already master that profession.

Figure 1. Pohjonen's Ideal Model

Traditional apprenticeship has been a tool for skill transfer since ancient times. Professions

such as medicine or skills such as language learning have been transmitted from generation to

another in a form of apprenticeship. The apprenticeship is based on being a member of

community and being able see how this community does its things and learning by working

side-by-side and at the same time being helped with more experienced members of that

17

community.

There are three things related to the learning environment that affect the learning in traditional

apprenticeship. First of all, usually the learning task involves physical artifacts, which makes

carrying out the learning process visible. For example, in the case of apprenticeship in arts,

the apprentices work in an artist's workshop cleaning it, preparing brushes, colors, and canvas,

and after a while they are painting themselves. Secondly, learning tasks emerge naturally at

the work place. For example, when an artist gets an order for a painting, certain routines, like

preparing the workshop for that task, have to take place. Thirdly, the skills that are needed at

work are learned while working in a real work place. For example, apprentices in arts are

doing various tasks that real artists also have to do. Thus, there is no need for transfer of

skills, such as in normal school system.

Traditional apprenticeship learning can be seen to include four processes: modeling,

scaffolding, fading, and coaching. The modeling means a process, where an expert shows to

an apprentice how certain task is done. The apprentice is learning by observing the more

experienced in their work. In scaffolding, the apprentice is doing some parts of the task or

even the entire task, but the expert is supporting the work by giving hints and tips to the

apprentice where needed. Fading is a part of the apprenticeship where the expert is gradually

removing the support from the apprentice and leaving the apprentice ultimately with full

responsibility over the task. Coaching means all the means that the expert can support the

apprentice's learning path to become an expert. The support can mean for example picking up

suitable tasks for the apprentice, helping with weaknesses and supporting the strengths, and

giving feedback. [Col91]

3.1.3.1. Scenario Objectives

In this scenario the learning activities are taking place at the authentic work place, where the

learners work in collaboration with their work colleagues. While they are working they get

involved into so called community of practice, in which the tools and practices are shared by

the experts working at that field. An important part of the learning process is the reflection

process, where the learners conceptualize and extract the knowledge from the practices and

share that knowledge with their peer learners. The learning process at the work place is

supported by the work place tutor, who is also the learner's contact person at the work place.

The overall learning process is supervised and supported by the teacher, who is mainly taking

18

supportive activities through the virtual learning environment (VLE), which serves a contact

point between the learners at the work places and the school.

3.1.3.2. Participating Roles

● Learners

● Colleagues at the work place

● Supporting (tutoring/supervising) person at the work place

● Teacher at the educational institution

Learners enter the on-the-job learning to learn how to apply their knowledge in appropriate

manner in comparison to real-life working settings. At the work places the learners have in

some occasions a person, who serves as tutor supporting the learners in their work. For

example, in the very beginning, the learners and tutors may go together through the tasks and

work roles that the learner should go through during their stay at the work places.

The learners actively learn from their colleagues, who have tacit knowledge about the culture

of their profession through their educational backgrounds and professional experience.

Learning can be for example structured so that the learner works in a pair with an experienced

colleague. This helps the learners to enculturate themselves to the culture of their coming

profession. The enculturation means learning the culture through collaboration with

colleagues and work place tutor. The enculturation often is informal and embedded in work

procedures.

The work place tutor serves as a contact and support person at the work place. Before

becoming tutors at their work places, the work place tutors participate to training, which given

by the educational institution. This training gives the work place tutors the idea of on-the-job

learning and tools, how they can support those students, who come to work place to undertake

their on-the-job learning phase. The work place tutor serves also as a middleman between the

work place and the educational institution.

The teacher's role is to support the reflection that should take place, when explicating the tacit

cultural issues and the gathered experiences in general. The teacher can for example ask

students to keep a log about the problems they have faced during their time at the work places

19

and the solutions of those problems. Similarly, logging the daily work routines can reveal

unspoken procedures, which take place in normal daily work. Furthermore, the teacher should

encourage the information and experience exchange among other learners to enrich the

learners' experiences. The reflection and experience exchanging should take place in a VLE,

since quite often the learners are geographically dispersed.

3.1.3.3. Flow of Activities

This flow of activities represents a typical on-the-job learning phase as a process, where one

activity follows another. Nevertheless, it is noteworthy that the activities number 2, 3, and 4

can take place simultaneously at the same time, where the activity number 2 is more work

oriented and 3 and 4 are more learning oriented.

1. Entering the on-the-job learning phase (or apprenticeship). In this phase the

learners go from school to work places. Before on-the-job learning phase can

take place, there has been collaboration between the school and work place to

ensure the place for learner and prepare the work place for on-the-job learning.

This also includes the necessary orientation that has to take place before the

learner can enter the on-the-job learning phase. Orientation prepares the learner

for the opportunities and challenges included in the learning experience that

will take place outside normal school environment.

In this activity, the interaction takes place in two ways. First of all, the teacher

has to be active towards the companies and the work place tutors in them in

order to secure on-the-job learning places for the learners. Furthermore, in case

of the company, which has not before participated to this kind of collaboration

with schools, the teacher has to prepare a person from that company to serve as

a work place tutor and a contact person in the company. Secondly, the teacher

has to prepare the learners for the on-the-job learning phase by giving them

some orientation before the learners leave the school for work place.

Orientation should include e.g. setting the individual goals for on-the-job

learning phase and training in the use of learning tools, such as virtual learning

environment.

In this activity the supporting virtual or mobile elements are mostly digital

information and materials that is made available for access in electronic

20

databases. For example, the school can have a database of all the available on-

the-job learning opportunities offering companies with all the necessary

information included. The role of the information and material is to help the

learners to access the work places more easily. School can also have a virtual

course for the new work place tutors that they have to take before their

company can participate in the on-the-job learning collaboration with the

school.

2. Enculturation to the work place (supported by the work place tutor). Learners'

are encultured to the work place, work tasks they will face, and work place's

ways of working and behaving. In this task the learners get help from the work

place tutors and their work colleagues. [Bro91] It is noteworthy that the

enculturation is not something that can be read from the book or web pages. As

mentioned earlier, enculturation is sharing the work context with real people

(the work place tutor and colleagues) and working side-by-side with them, thus

assimilating to the surrounding work culture and its inbuilt practices and

habits.

In this activity, the interactions between the learner and the work place tutor

and between the learner and the colleagues are important. The work place tutor

serves as a supporting person in the work place and makes it easier for the

learner to set in the work place. Furthermore, the work place tutor is also the

one, who helps the learner in the case of problems at the work place. The

colleagues serve as peers of the learner at the work place. It is the interaction

with them that should enable the learner to get deeper inside to the practices at

the work place.

Enculturation is a hard activity to be supported with technology as it has got an

implicit and abstract nature. Nevertheless, the learners can take digital videos,

audio recordings, and photographs of the daily work tasks they do with their

colleagues. These records become useful references later in the explication

activity.

3. Explication of culture of the profession (supported by the teacher, done in

VLE). Basically the explication [Bro96] of culture of the profession means

21

reflecting on the experience gathered from on-the-job learning and

conceptualizing it into some kinds of artifacts (such as study diaries).5

In this activity, the interactions take place between the teacher and the learners.

The teacher supports the learners to explicate their gathered experiences in

VLE. Support in this context can mean for example giving some problem

exercises that demand the learners to apply their gathered experiences in the

problem solution. Support can also be asking the learners to keep a study log

during the on-the-job learning phase. Nevertheless, the most important thing in

this activity is to turn the experience to some kind of conceptual artifact that

can be shared with other learners.

From the technological tools point-of-view the learner can have for example an

electronic on-line study log (blog) or the learner can work on the problems set

by the teacher in VLE. Furthermore, discussions and collaboration in VLE with

other learners, who are in the same situation, would enrich the learning

experience for all the learners. The learner can also in this activity take

advantage of referring to the material collected in previous activity that may

support the explication task.

4. Information and experience exchange with peers. The learners are encouraged

to exchange their knowledge, experiences and ideas with their work colleagues

at their work places and their peer learners at other work places. This activity is

supported by the work place tutor at the work place and by the teacher at the

school. The idea of information and experience exchange is to enrich the

experience that all the participants receive from on-the-job learning.

At the work place, the interaction takes place especially between the learners

and their work place colleagues. At the school, or more exactly in the schools’

VLE, the interaction takes place between the learners and their peers. In both

cases, the interaction can be encouraged and supported by either the work place

tutor or the teacher.

Technological tools that support interaction are especially needed to support

the information and experience exchange among the learners in various work

5 See also Griffit and Guile’s article [Gri01] for more information.

22

places. As the learners have made their gathered information, experiences, and

ideas explicit, it allows the learners to learn from each other and build

knowledge collaboratively for example through on-line discussions and

comments on each other’s work and achievements. At some work places, the

learners may have an access to the work place’s intranet, which can serve as a

place for sharing knowledge and new ideas. The learner can also take part in

the development work at the work place.

5. Exiting the on-the-job learning phase. The learners leave their respective work

places and come back to school to continue their studies there. In some

occasions, the learners may be asked to prove that they have met the goals that

they set for their on-the-job learning phase. This can be done in a form of the

end test that is done at the work place under the supervision of the work place

tutor and the teacher from the school. In addition to the end test, this activity

may include giving some feedback for the learner from the work place.

Interaction in this activity takes place in the end test, if the learner needs to do

such thing in order to prove that the goals for the on-the-job learning have been

met.

If the end test is more conceptual and can be done virtually, then for example

VLE can be used in this activity. The feedback from the work place can also be

input directly to the VLE, where both the learner and the teacher can have an

access in it.

6. Joint reflection on the outcomes of the on-the-job learning phase at the school

with the teacher and other learners. The learners will look back to the on-the-

job learning phase and conclude the outcomes of it. When the group shares

their experiences, it enriches the experience of each individual. Participating in

a joint reflection activity promotes the idea of learning in collaboration with

peers. This activity may also include an evaluation part in its end, where either

the teacher or the learner, or both of them evaluate the outcomes of the on-the-

job learning phase.

In this activity, the interaction takes place mainly among the learners, but the

teacher can facilitate the reflection for example by asking some questions. The

23

idea is to exchange all the cumulated knowledge and experiences among peers.

The exchange allows creation of multiple points-of-views to the outcomes of

on-the-job learning phase as the learners’ experiences may vary a lot.

In this phase, all the collected material and discussions serve as a basis to make

a synthesis of the outcomes of the on-the-job learning phase. Here it is

important that the learners have an access to their peers’ materials and are

encouraged to go through those in order to find new viewpoints. The learners

can also evaluate their own achievements for example with the help of an on-

line form.

3.2. Problem-based Learning

The history of Problem-based learning (PBL) dates back in its present form more than three

decades to late 1960's. It was found in North America in universities (especially in McMaster

medical school in Canada) teaching the field of Medicine to cope with the problems that

started to arose with ever-growing amount information that accumulated through rapidly

advancing research at the fields of Medicine and Technology. The rapid advancements also

had their impact on the demands that new practitioners would face at their future work places.

The problems were mainly related to the inefficiency of the old lecturing methods in

conveying all the contents and concerns that learning the ever-growing body of knowledge

would become inhumane to the students, when learning in a traditional way. [Bou97] If PBL

is put to its historical context in education, it closely resembles the Deweyian ideas, where it

was stated that students should be facing the real-life problems and be helped to solve them

[Spe99].

There are various definitions and realizations for PBL. In a general sense, PBL approach can

mean an administrative, curricular philosophy, where the whole curriculum is based on

putting the emphasis on solving problems. It can also be seen as an educational method,

where the problems are being solved by the learners, who are working in groups

collaboratively, which should lead learning concepts and underlying principles in that

particular problem-domain. In this scenario, we are interested in the latter case, where the

attention is put to PBL as an educational method. There the new knowledge is created by

solving problems in groups, which is very different from the traditional educational

viewpoint, where the individually acquired new knowledge is the basis for starting to work on

24

the problems. [Spe99]

There are certain things that are characteristic for PBL as an educational method [Bou97]:

● The problem, which is sparking the learning process, is bound to the real-life

situation, which is also meaningful from the learners’ professional

development point of view.

● There are some intellectually stimulating materials that are supporting the

learners in their task to solve the problems at hand.

● The learning and problem solving processes, such as limiting the problem

space, defining the problem, and creation of plausible solutions, are being

tutored by someone, who knows the problem domain (not necessary an expert)

and processes in PBL model.

● The learners work collaboratively as a group both inside the class room and

outside of it throughout the whole learning process (sometimes excluding the

information collection phase).

● The goals for the learning and usage of supporting materials should be defined

by the learners.

● The application of the learned new knowledge in the problem should lead to

the solved problem. After the problem is solved, the learning processes are

assessed.

There is also a well-known and often used seven step PBL process [Sch83], which is often

called in literature as Maastricht "seven jump" sequence [Spe99]:

1. Term clarification. If there are some terms or concepts that are

incomprehensible in the problem, they must first be clarified and agreed upon

in a group.

2. Problem definition. Before the problem can be started to be analyzed more

deeply, the group has to come into an agreement on the nature of the problem,

or what does the problem mean.

25

3. Problem analysis. In this step the learners can use for example brainstorming

as a method to collect ideas concerning the problem. The idea is to clarify the

situation by collecting as many explanations to the problem situation and its

embedded mechanisms as possible. Here the ideas can be drawn from the

previous experience or knowledge, or they can be hypotheses relevant to the

problem.

4. Arranging the explanations and hypotheses. Before the learning goals can be

derived, the explanations and hypotheses must be collected together and their

relationship to the problem at hand and to each other has to be made visible.

For example, here a mind map or a concept map can be used as a helping tool.

5. Formulating the learning goals. From the structured set of explanations and

hypothesis to the problem, the learners have to prioritize certain topics that

they find most relevant to solving the problem. At the same time, they define,

what needs to be learned in order to be able to justify their explanations and

hypothesis.

6. Collection of information. In this step the group collects (usually individually)

and analyzes the information, which was decided to be needed in the previous

step. This can include for example studying books or online databases; it can

also include consulting experts on that particular topic.

7. Synthesis and application. In the last step the group comes together and makes

a synthesis of the collected information. After the synthesis, the group applies

this newly constructed knowledge to the problem and sees, whether they have

been able to solve the problem successfully. In case the group or its tutor is not

satisfied with the results, the group can go back to previous steps to find the

solution to the problem.

PBL can be seen also as a compound educational method, where various kinds of educational

approaches meet. First of all, it is closely related to the concept of contextual learning (cf.

situated learning presented earlier), where the learning takes place in a context, which closely

resembles its true application context. In PBL the context is created with real-life problems.

[Alb00]

26

Secondly, it is said that seven step process of the problem-based learning is based on the

information-processing theory. The information-processing theory includes three phases: prior

knowledge activation, encoding specificity, and elaboration of knowledge. In the problem-

based learning prior knowledge activation takes place, when learners are creating their own

explanations and hypothesis to the problem. Encoding specificity states that the closer the

learning situation is to the application situation, the more likely the knowledge transfer takes

place. In problem-based learning the problems are closely related to the real-life situations.

Elaboration of knowledge is an important part of the last three steps of the seven step process.

[Sch83]

Thirdly, PBL involves the idea of cooperative learning, where the learning outcomes are

achieved through working as a group. In PBL, the most of the steps in the learning process

involve working and communicating as a group. Fourthly, if the motivational theories are

involved in the picture, the PBL process involves ideas from the Self-determination theory,

where the autonomous motivators support achieving better learning results. As it can be seen

from the PBL process, the students are supposed to work autonomously setting their own

goals for learning. Finally, PBL can be seen to involve some flavors from control theory,

where satisfying needs such as freedom, power, love and belonging, fun, and survival are

considered to explain human actions. In PBL freedom comes in form of freedom to choose

when to meet and what to do next, power is the power to decide the learning goals and needs,

love and belongingness are important factors when working closely in the group, fun is

enjoying one's learning in PBL process, and lastly survival comes in a form of reciprocal help

that students offer to each other. [Alb00]


In PBL the task for a group of learners is to collaboratively define, analyze, and discuss the

real-life problems that they face. Furthermore, their task is to formulate some tentative

hypotheses or explanations to the problem by revealing some underlying mechanisms or

processes in the problem. According to these tentative hypotheses and explanations, the

learners define their learning goals. To achieve the learning goals, the learners have to study

external sources of information. Finally, the learners do the synthesis of the material they

have studied and may attempt to solve the problem. [Sch83, Nor92]

Apart from process step related objectives, PBL has also got more general educational

27

objectives. First of all, PBL should support the development of general problem-solving skills

and strategies through continuous exposure to real-life problems. Secondly, the knowledge

that the learners acquire should be more easily remembered and applied as the learning and

application contexts are having certain resemblance. Thirdly, PBL should also have its effect

on learners' learning skills, such as self-directed learning skills. Fourthly, PBL should support

the intrinsic motivation of the students, thus making the learning more motivating and

meaningful for them. Lastly, the learners that go through PBL oriented curricula should

become more inclined and well-equipped to lifelong learning than their counterparts gone

through traditional teaching. [Nor92]

3.2.2. Parameters that guarantee the implementation of Problem-based Learning

Familiarity of the PBL process to the learners should be assured. Even nowadays most of the

learners are not exposed to PBL or any non-traditional educational approaches during their

years in compulsory education. Therefore, before PBL can be applied with the learners, they

should be trained to the PBL model and its application.

There should be real-life problems available for the learners. The problems need to be

prepared beforehand and they should be as close to the real-life situations as possible. The

real-life situation means here a situation, where the learners will most probably find

themselves later in their professional careers.

Problems should be of suitable level. In order to proper learning process to take place, the

problems should be suitable for the anticipated level of students. The suitable level means

here that the learners do not have all the needed prior knowledge that is needed to solve the

problem, so that the need for further learning will emerge. The problem should not be too

hard either, so that the learners will be able begin working with the problem.

There should be supporting material available. The problem solving process can be supported

with extra material. There should be enough material that will help the learners to start

working on the problems, but not enough to carry them to final conclusions.

Central role of the learners in the learning process should be encouraged. PBL can be seen as

a learner centered educational method. The key idea is that the learners are having the

responsibility over their learning and that they are supported in their learning process both by

material and a tutor.

28

Role of the facilitating tutor should be made clear. The tutors, who facilitate the learning

process, should understand their role as facilitators of the learning process. The tutors should

not be in the experts' role trying to impose their knowledge over the topic, but let the learners

to do their learning and guide them in the matter and keep the learning process going on long

enough.


Educational objectives in

Problem-based Learning




objectives

The success of whole PBL

process

Familiarity of PBL process to the

learners

In order to ensure that the learners are

aware of the demands that the PBL

model puts on them, they should be

trained to apply the PBL model in their

learning.

Students are learning through

solving real-life problems.

Learning in contexts that

support later transfer to real

situations

Availability of real-life problems

Real-life problems can be collected

from the students that are doing their

apprenticeships at real work places, or

they can be found together with the

companies that are collaborating with

educational institutions. Furthermore,

other educational institutions or

teachers that have based their curricula

or teaching to PBL in the same field

can share their problems. Also

literature can offer some problems.

Students are learning through

solving real-life problems.

Generation of general

problem-solving skills

Problems of suitable level

The problems can be tested for

example with teacher colleagues

before they are applied with learners.

The problems can also be analyzed

earlier in way that reveals the

knowledge that must be uncovered

before the finding a suitable solution

on those problems is possible. Later on

testing the problems with various

student groups will reveal, if there are

serious problems with the difficulty.

Collection of information step

Acquisition of learning skills

Availability of supporting material

There should be some supporting

material that will help the students to

start solving the problem and collect

the necessary information. All the

necessary material should not be made

readily available so that the learners

will have to practice their knowledge

acquisition and research skills.

29

Educational objectives in





objectives

The success of the whole PBL

process

Intrinsic motivation of the

learners


Role of the learners

It is very important that the learners

can have a power to do their own

decisions in the PBL process. It

supports the learners’ intrinsic

motivation and thus motivates them to

find a solution to the problem at hand.

It is also beneficial to the learners'

acquisition of learning skills.

The success of the whole PBL

process


Intrinsic motivation of the

learners

Role of the facilitating tutors

The tutors should understand that the

learning process in PBL is strongly

learner centered, which means that the

tutors should not impose their expert

opinions to learners. The imposing the

expertise in an authoritarian manner

would easily cease the learners'

learning process as the learners would

be satisfied with the knowledge

received from the tutor.

3.2.3. Application of Problem-based Learning in Mobile Learning

This educational scenario is based on the seven step PBL process (Fig. 2). In this scenario the

learners are learning at their educational institution. The whole course that they are taking is

based on the PBL process, which puts the learners in the central position. The learning

process is facilitated by a tutor, whose main interest lays in the quality of learning process and

not in the dissemination of her own expertise or knowledge. In this educational scenario, there

is also a teacher, whose role is to prepare the course by preparing a relevant problem,

preparing supporting material, and in the end of the course participate in the assessment

process.

The advantages of PBL are that it is based on active participation of the learners, which in

turn supports activation of prior knowledge, building of new knowledge, improved

understanding, and later retention of learned things. It is also considered that the active

problem solving supports the skills needed in lifelong learning during the professional years

after school. Furthermore, as PBL is learner-centered, it is considered to be highly motivating

for the learners and tutors alike, which facilitates the engagement to the learning process.

[Woo03]


The ultimate objective for this scenario is that the learners, who are working collaboratively in

a group, are able to solve the problem successfully and at the same time meet both the

30

learning goals that they have set for themselves and the goals set by the curriculum. Other

objectives that help in reaching the main objective include preparing proper questions of

suitable level and supporting materials for the learners, preparing learners for PBL, and

assigning a proper tutor to facilitate the learning process.

Figure 2. Seven steps of PBL


● Teacher

● Learners

● Tutor

The teacher of this course is in a key role preparing the whole PBL process for the learners

and a tutor. It is her role to set the course objectives, to find and write proper real-life

problems that will accommodate those objectives, to prepare needed support material, and

31

lastly to participate in the assessment process. The teacher is also the one, who prepares the

tutor for PBL. The teacher is usually a different person as the tutor. The separation of the

administrative and learning facilitation roles supports the idea that the learners are guiding

their learning process and its goals.

The learners are in the very core of the PBL process. They do all the learning activities

(concept clarification, problem definition, problem analysis, information collection, synthesis

and application) working collaboratively. The real-life problems set by the teacher spark the

activities, but the learners are in charge of their learning activities. While they are working,

their work is facilitated by the tutor, who is mostly supporting the learning process, not

imposing her expertise to the learners.

The tutor is the one, who has to facilitate the learners' learning process. She is prepared to her

facilitation task by the teacher. Facilitation means here preparing students for the PBL

process, ensuring that all the members of the learner group participate to the activities,

prevents the learners from sidetracking too far away, asks questions to make sure that the

learners understand what they are doing and what they have learned. In addition to facilitating

the learning process, the tutor will support the teacher in her assessment process. Most often

the assessment process should be of formative nature taking place throughout the course

instead of being summative and taking place only in the end [Woo03].


This flow of activities is basically based on a typical seven step PBL process described in

detail earlier in this document. In addition to those seven steps, there are two additional steps

in this flow of activities. Those two steps have been added in order to incorporate also the

administrative side of the PBL process. Even if the tutor’s role seems to be very invisible in

the following steps, it is noteworthy that the tutor basically does the same things in each of the

steps, she facilitates the learning through various activities such as asking questions and

directing the learning process as explained earlier.

1. Preparatory activities. In this activity the teacher sets the overall, curricular,

learning goals for the course, where the PBL is applied. When the learning

goals are set, the teacher needs to write or otherwise find suitable real-life

problem(s) to be used during the course. Suitable means here problems, which

proper solutions will cover the learning objectives and which are not too

32

difficult or easy to the learners. In addition to the questions, the teacher needs

to prepare the support material that will help the students at the beginning of

their problem solving process. The preparation of questions and materials are

very important activities that create a solid basis for the meaningful learning

process to take place and thus ensure the quality of learning in their part.

Furthermore, the teacher has to train the tutor, if the tutor is not familiar with

the PBL model. The tutor in turn has to prepare the learners for the PBL

process in case they are not familiar with the process.

This phase can be supported with technology for example by having a shared

electronic problem and material database at the educational institution. The

problems can include some metadata, which will include more exact

information about their proposed usage and anticipated educational outcomes.

Supporting materials can be linked with various problems that they can be

helpful with. Database can be accessed also from outside of the educational

institution through internet. Mobile use of the materials can be supported by

having a separate material portal for mobile devices, where the content is

electronically tailored for devices with small screens.

2. Term clarification. When the learners first encounter the problem, they will

start with term clarification. They have to discuss about the terms and concepts

used in the problem. After discussion and possible information collection they

have to come into shared agreement about the meaning of previously unknown

terms and concepts in problem definition.

The learners can use on-line dictionaries or information databases to support

their term clarification process. They can also use any other external sources of

information, for example they could ask more information from an expert in

this particular topic through some channel of communications (e-mail, SMS,

video conferencing, etc.).

3. Problem definition. During this phase, the learners will start to define the

problem itself. This is done in the similar manner as the previous term

clarification, but this time the group of learners has to find an agreement on the

meaning of the problem. It is noteworthy that in the previous step the attention

33

was put to the terms and concepts that the problem definition includes, but in

this step the attention is put to understanding the problem. From the technology

use point of view this phase is very similar to the previous one.

4. Problem analysis. This phase is often related to the brainstorming method in

the PBL literature. The idea is that the learners collect all the explanations and

hypotheses they can come up with based on their prior knowledge and that

they think are related to the problem and its internal structure and mechanisms.

Here the tutor can facilitate the learning for example by asking some questions

that would lead the learners to take a certain viewpoint to the question that

might have otherwise been missed by the learners.

In problem analysis it is important to make sure that all the different

viewpoints to the problem are recorded. If the learners are geographically

dispersed, but still doing group work, they could use for example an online

Wiki system to share ideas and comment on the others' ideas.

5. Arranging the explanations and hypotheses. In this step the learners have to

elaborate the outcomes of the previous step. They need to figure out the

relationships between the various explanations and hypothesis they have

created. In addition to the structure inside the outcomes the learners have

produced, they have to look also more closely to the relationship that their

ideas have to the original problem. Once the learners have organized their

outcomes, they have to come to an agreement on deciding which of their ideas

sound the most plausible starting points to begin finding a solution to the

problem.

From technology point of view, a mind mapping or concept mapping tool

would support the arranging process. With use of such tool it would be easier

to categorize the explanations and hypotheses into groups of related concepts.

Furthermore, there can be applications that help the learners in hypotheses

creation and testing in a simulated environment. After that the students could

decide, which group seems the most plausible and prioritize that for further

study.

6. Formulating the learning goals. After the learners have organized and

34

prioritized their tentative explanations and hypotheses, they can be used to

define the learning objectives. Defining learning objectives means that the

learners identify what they do not know about the matter or what more needs to

be known in order to credibly justify and support the explanations and

hypotheses to become a solution to the problem. Here the learner group has to

divide the work to its participants, so that everyone in the group has got an

information collection task.

7. Collection of information. As the learners have identified their learning needs,

it is time to start collecting the material that would cover the topics that are

imperative to find a justified solution to the problem. The collection and

studying of information is mostly an individual process, but goals for this

inquiry were decided in a group. At the beginning of their information

collection process, the students may begin with the supporting material that

was prepared for them by the teacher. The tutor can also give some useful tips

and hints, where the students can find the information they need. Some

information sources can be for example books, articles, audio and video

materials, experts, or on-line databases.

The collection of information phase is rather trivial to support with technology.

Internet searches are everyday activities for technology-savvy learners. The

institution can also hold various in-house information databases and access to

external databases that can be useful for the learners. Furthermore, electronic

databases can be supported by search agents or wizards, which may help the

learner to find the relevant information and things related to it (cf. application

help wizards, citation databases).

8. Synthesis and application. In this phase the learner group comes together and

synthesizes the results of individual studies into one coherent entity that should

provide the solution to the problem. The learners also have to argument, why

the solution that they provided would be good for the problem at hand. In case

that the solution does not seem to fit to the problem, or the synthesis process

reveals needs for further studies, the tutor or the learner group can decide to go

back to previous steps. This does not mean that the process would start all the

way from the beginning, since the learners can use the knowledge and ideas

35

that they have created during the previous steps.

9. Assessment. This phase is the phase, where all the participants have an

opportunity to tell their point of view to the learning process that took place

while solving the problem. First of all, the learners should self-assess their own

learning process and the outcomes that they were able to produce. In some

occasions, it is also possible to apply some peer-review to make sure that

everyone has equally participated to the group work. Secondly, the tutor, who

has followed and facilitated the learning process throughout all the steps,

assesses the learners according to their activities and outputs during the whole

PBL process. Assessment should take place in a formative manner, which

means that the tutor can give feedback to learners throughout the process and

not only in the end. The teacher also participates to the assessment with the

tutor and makes sure that the learning outcomes are fulfilled through the

learning process. What is important in PBL is that the assessment is not

interested solely about the final outcome, i.e. the problem solution, but the

whole process and the learning activities during it are even more important.

3.3. Project-based Learning

In Project-based learning, the project, its goals, and its internal processes create together a

foundation for collaborative learning to take place. In other words, learning is organized in

multidisciplinary projects, where the work is done collaboratively. It greatly differs from the

traditional, classroom-based teaching, where learning is an individual’s own process based on

study subjects and their curricula, which are kept apart from each other.

The projects in Project-based learning are challenging and complex tasks that are based on

some topics, questions, or problems that are driving the working in projects. Challenging and

complex tasks means here that the tasks must be such that they cannot be accomplished

successfully without new learning taking place. The nature of the tasks have to be such that it

involves learners in various kinds of activities that support the learning, such as designing,

problem-solving, decision making, and active investigation. In projects, the learners work

autonomously and collaboratively in small groups, whereas the teacher is more in a role of the

tutor facilitating the learning process. The learning is reflective, which means that learners

have to reflect on the activities that they have taken and to the outcomes that they have

36

reached. The project at hand usually also involves elements from various subjects, which

makes them multidisciplinary and not bound to any particular subject domain. The working in

projects is usually a lengthy process that can last a semester or even a year. Further features,

that define the working and learning in projects, are the authenticity of both the content and

ways of working, and educational goals that are visible for the learners from the beginning of

the project work. It is also mentioned, that learning in projects involves learning of so called

"adult skills", which means the skills needed in working life, such as being able to work in

teams. [Tho00] Belonging partially to the context of adult skills, one important aspect of

Project-based learning are the outcomes of the projects, in which usually multiple forms of

representation, such as pictorial, verbal, concrete, and abstract, are used at the same time

supporting each other [Hel06].

Project-based learning can be seen to belong partially to the pedagogical models that put

emphasis on the learning-by-doing, where the activities in authentic context are strongly

emphasized. What differs Project-based learning from traditional learning-by-doing, is that in

Project-based learning the doing for the sake of doing is not the core of the learning

experience, but the creation of understanding through collaborative activities such as

problem-solving or reflection. In historical context, learning in projects is not particularly new

idea, the earliest documented mentions of projects as an aid for learning date back to early

20th century. However, during those times the definition of project was more superficial and

wide, for example watching a spider to spin its net, or writing a letter were considered to be

"projects". Nevertheless, the idea behind was more or less the same as nowadays, to bind the

learning experience closer to its application area, namely the real life. [Bar98] From

motivational point of view, it is suggested in the literature that the motivational elements,

such as ownership over the learning process, self-guidance, and challenging tasks, are central,

when thinking of the positive learning outcomes in Project-based learning [Hel06]. Lastly,

Project-based learning is also often compared to problem-based learning. These two differ

from each other in two significant manners. First of all, in Project-based learning the aim is

always to produce an artifact using multiple representations as an outcome, whether it is

physical or virtual. Secondly, in Project-based learning the working goes as in "real projects"

by doing plans for the activities, conducting those activities, and at the end reflecting on

produced outcomes (see Table 4. below for more detailed comparison).

37

Table 4. Comparison of Project-based learning and Problem-based learning

Similarities

Both Project-based learning and Problem-based learning can be based on a

problem, which creates a basis for working.

Problem-based learning can be a part of Project-based learning, when there is

special attention put on conceptual learning before practical learning (see the

SMART blueprint presented later).

Project-based learning may also include problem-solving elements during the

project work, when students encounter problems that they need to solve in order

to progress in their project.

Both Project-based learning and Problem-based learning put an emphasis on

learning collaboratively in groups in a self-guided manner.

Both Project-based learning and Problem-based learning aim at integrating

several study subjects together in a natural way in an authentic context, where

they all co-exist.

Differences

Project-based learning is not necessarily based on a problem; it can also be based

on a shared topic, or a challenge of some kind.

Project-based learning may not include problem-based learning as a part of it, if

more attention is put on the sheer project working and generation of practical

knowledge.

Project-based learning aims at creating an artifact as its outcome. The artifact can

be either physical or virtual, and it may have many representations. In Problem-

based learning outcome is solution to the problem, which is usually end-result of

shared knowledge generation.

Project-based learning is strongly based on working in a project manner, which

includes elements such as planning, implementing, evaluating, etc. Problem-

based learning is more centered on learning activities.

Project-based learning takes usually a lengthy period of time, even one year,

whereas Problem-based learning usually takes place during one course.

To put the Project-based learning in a nutshell, it can be defined through the following

characteristics [Hel06]:

● Projects include or aim at finding a solution to a question, challenge, or

problem, which may have been set by the learners themselves. Thus, the

question or problem drives the activities in a project. The project can also be

bound to a certain topic, which in turn drives the activities.

● The learners are in an active, initiative role, where they carry the greatest

responsibility over the learning outcomes. Furthermore, the learners work in

groups in a collaborative manner.

38

● The teacher is in a facilitating role supporting the learners in their learning

activities instead of being in an authoritarian role deciding the activities and

outcomes.

● The project leads to the end product or a solution of some kind. The end

product can be physical such as a rocket in a rocket project or more virtual,

such as a working model or a computer program.

● The working in a project tends to take considerably lengthy time, even up to a

year.

If Project-based learning is realized in the institutionalized VET, it usually takes one of the

three different general models for project work in educational context [Hel06]:

● Project exercise, where the learners only need to apply the knowledge and

skills that they have already acquired earlier in their education. Usually the

project exercises are small in size, lead by the teacher, and the processes during

the exercise and their outcomes can be tightly scripted already beforehand.

● Project component, where the project-oriented component is embedded for

example as a separate course into the traditional curriculum. The project-based

courses can be offered in parallel to traditional ones.

● Project orientation, where all the learning activities are based on the project

approach and where the educational institution has based its entire curriculum

on Project-based learning.


In Project-based learning the students work collaboratively in projects, that are as close to the

real world working as possible. During the projects, the students are active and self-guided,

while the teacher is in a tutoring role ensuring the educational value of the project. The

projects are organized in a manner that they are complex and challenging enough to

encourage the students to learn. Furthermore, the projects are not bound to any one topic area,

such as a study subject, but the projects are usually multidisciplinary containing various

subject areas.

39

On the more general level, Project-based learning aims at giving students a highly motivating

learning experience, which is closely related to the tasks and challenges of the real world.

Project-based learning also supports learning so called “adult skills”, which include skills

such as working in teams, working in self-guided manner, and assessing of own actions.

Project-based learning is also connected to the idea of attaining transferable skills such as

problem solving.

When looking the concrete objectives in Project-based learning, the process is aimed at

producing an outcome of some kind, which can be either in a physical or in an abstract form.

Examples of such outcomes are physical miniature models in a modeling project or a piece of

software in a software engineering project. Project-based learning is usually organized in a

manner, where both learning of factual and procedural knowledge are present.

3.3.2. Parameters that guarantee the implementation of Project-based Learning

Familiarity of the Project-based learning process to the students and the teacher should be

ensured. Most of the teaching is usually arranged in a traditional manner based on study

subjects and individual working of students. Therefore, before Project-based learning can be

applied with the students, they should be trained to the Project-based learning model and its

application. Similarly, the teachers may need support and training before they can start using

Project-based learning in their courses.

Suitable and authentic real-life topics for projects should be made available. In case if the

teacher prepares some topics for the students’ projects, they must be prepared beforehand.

The real-life situation means here a situation, where the students will most probably find

themselves later in their professional careers. Projects should also be challenging and complex

enough so that they would encourage the students to learn new things. Additionally, projects

should be such that they support in addition to learning factual knowledge learning of

procedural knowledge.

Role of the learners should be central. Project-based learning can be seen as a learner centered

educational method. The key idea is that the students are having the responsibility over their

learning and that they are supported in their learning by the teacher. Taking responsibility

over ones’ activities also supports the acquisition of the so called “adult skills”.

Role of the teacher should be facilitating. The teacher, who supports the learning process,

40

should understand his role as a facilitator of the learning process. The teacher should not be in

the experts' role trying to impose his knowledge over the topic or directing the activities of the

learners, but let the learners to do their learning and decisions in projects. Teachers’ key

responsibility is to follow the projects and support their progress in a way that the students

both acquire the knowledge and skills that the curricula demands, and meet the goals that they

have set to themselves.


Educational

objectives in

Project-based

Learning

Parameters affecting reaching the

educational objectives


objectives

The success of whole

Project-based learning

process

Familiarity of the Project-based learning

process to the students and the teacher.

In order to ensure that the learners are

aware of the demands that the Project-

based learning model puts on them, they

should be trained to apply the model in

their learning.

Similarly, if the teacher is not aware of

the Project-based learning and how to

apply it in his teaching, he should acquire

some knowledge about it before

beginning to apply it with his students.

Students are learning

through working in

authentic, real-life

projects.

Learning in authentic

contexts that support

learning skills later

transferable to real

situations.

Availability of suitable and authentic

real-life topics for projects.

The topic or the challenge, in which the

project work is based upon, defines also

the content of the learning. Therefore it is

important that the projects are based on

topics, questions, or challenges that

ensure the working in an authentic

context.

One way of getting relevant topics for

projects is to collaborate with companies,

which can give some projects to be done

by the student group in an educational

institution.

And as it was mentioned earlier, topics

can be also proposed and designed by the

students themselves. Then it is important

that the teacher makes sure that they are

such that are beneficial for students’

learning. In some occasions, the also

literature can offer some good examples

for projects.

Lastly, the projects should be such that

there is something new to be learned for

each student participating to the projects.

In addition to that, learning in projects

should support both acquiring factual

knowledge and procedural knowledge.

41

Educational

objectives in

Project-based

Learning




objectives

The success of the

whole Project-based

learning process

Intrinsic motivation of

the learners

Role of the students

It is very important that the students can

have the power to do their own decisions

in the Project-based learning process. It

supports the learners’ intrinsic motivation

and thus motivates them to work on the

project and to produce the outcomes of it.

Responsibilities such as designing a

project, doing team work, following the

project progress, and lastly assessing own

activities are all such skills that are

important in normal working life.

The success of the

whole Project-based

learning process

Intrinsic motivation of

the learners

Role of the teacher

The teacher should understand that the

learning process in Project-based learning

is strongly learner centered, which means

that the teacher should not impose his

expert opinions or directions to the

students working in their projects.

The teacher should ensure that the

students will get the knowledge and skills

that the curricula demands from them.

Furthermore, the teacher should help the

students to achieve the goals that they

have set themselves in a project plan. This

can be assured by supporting the students

to find a complex and challenging project

topic. The teacher is also in the one that

has to make sure that the students follow

the schedules and plans they have done.

This he can do by asking relevant

questions from the students, which make

them to notice the possible problem areas

in their projects.

3.3.3. Application of Project-based Learning in Mobile Learning

This example scenario of Project-based learning is based on application of the SMART

(Special Multimedia Arenas for Refining Thinking) blueprint presented by Barron et. al.

[Bar98] in their paper in secondary education context. The original SMART blueprint (Fig. 3)

was developed especially to be used in primary schools as a scaffold for students and teachers

to support their working in projects.

42

Figure 3. SMART blueprint scaffold (adopted from Barron et. al.)

In SMART blueprint the problem-based component ensures learning of the conceptual

knowledge, which lays a foundation for project-based component, where procedural

knowledge is acquired and outcomes created. The conceptual knowledge means here

knowledge about concepts, facts, or topics, and their relations to each other, whereas the

procedural knowledge is knowledge related to activities taken in real world. Even if the

SMART blueprint separates the problem-based and project-based learning in its original

representation, in this scenario they are considered to be an integrated project-based learning

approach.

The SMART blueprint can also be seen suitable to VET context, when the actions are seen as

general actions needed for ensuring the learning during the project-based learning. As it was

earlier mentioned, the SMART blueprint supports the idea of “Doing with understanding” as

Barron et. al. put it [Bar98], instead of mere doing for the sake of doing. The key point in the

SMART blueprint is to bind the conceptual learning with its practical applications. To support

its applicability to the VET context, the SMART blueprint can be compared to the German

six-step model [Tip03] especially developed for the VET use. In the German model, the

43

project-based learning starts with Informing phase, which includes activities to create a

conceptual foundation for the project and preparing students for the project work. In the

SMART blueprint, this phase is included in the problem-based learning phase, where students

create their conceptual understanding. The following five steps in German model are practical

steps needed in project work; Planning, Deciding, Implementing, Controlling, and Evaluating.

These five steps are similar to the project-based learning phase in the SMART blueprint. The

biggest difference between these two models is the more on-going, formative evaluation in

the SMART blueprint. Both models put strong emphasis on having learners in the focus of the

activities and decision making and supporting collaborative way of working.

The context for learning in this educational scenario is the institutionalized VET environment,

where the project takes place. The institutionalized VET environment as a context does not

mean that all the activities take place only inside a physical building of educational institution,

but that the activities are all related to accomplish a course in an educational institution. If

compared to the typical realizations of project-based learning in normal school environment,

this scenario is an example of a project-based component approach in a VET context. In this

approach, the curricula and the goals it sets for students’ learning are usually traditional, but

the curricula can also involve full courses that follow the project-based learning model in their

realization.

It is also noteworthy that project-based learning can be a higher level process, which can

include some other processes inside of it. For example, a project-based learning in software

engineering could be organized in the project-based learning manner at the general level.

Then within the project-based learning process, especially in its project work phase, for

example the waterfall model for software engineering can be applied.


In this scenario the students’ learning takes place in the project, where they are working in

groups collaboratively. Students work first on creating conceptual understanding of the

challenge that they are having, after which they continue by working on a solution to the

challenge to be presented to the others in the end of the project. During this process the

students work in an autonomous and self-guided manner with support from the teacher

working in a tutoring role.

44


● Student

● Tutor

Students work collaboratively in small groups to create and finalize their project. Working in

the project that is bound to the authentic context serves as a motivating way of learning.

Learning in the project involves in addition to conceptual knowledge activities that are needed

to create an outcome to be presented to others. Working in the project includes elements such

as team work, communication, design, realization, and assessment that are often considered to

be important “adult skills” needed later in the working life. The way of working for students

is an active and self-guided, where the teacher serves as a tutor helping students in their

progress to the finalized project. Working in the projects usually takes a bit lengthy time, even

up to one year.

Tutor is in this scenario mostly in a facilitating role. The tutor’s tasks include preparing the

students for project-based learning, especially if the working model is not familiar to them.

The tutor may also have to prepare the project topics for the students, in case the course is

designed to be more tutor-lead. Usually the student groups can decide the topic for their

project and it is approved together with the tutor. During the learning process tutor’s role is to

make sure that all the members in the student groups have enough to do, groups progress in

their projects, and that both the expected learning outcomes and the project outcomes become

fulfilled.


This scenario’s flow of activities is based on the SMART blueprint presented earlier. There is

an additional preparatory step, which was inspired by the German six step model. There are

also some changes in the names of the phases to make the processes more generally

applicable, but the core ideas of both the whole process and its steps are kept the same. In this

flow, the students go first through the phases, where they build up their conceptual

understanding over the topic of their project work, after which they start realizing it in more

practically oriented phases.

1. Preparations. In this phase, all the necessary preparations for the project-based

learning take place. In case the students’ projects are based on the tutor’s

45

suggestions, the tutor should prepare topics, challenges, or questions that drive

the students’ working in the projects. What is important with topics for project

work is that they should be as authentic and close to real-life cases as possible.

Secondly, an important part of the preparations is preparing and motivating the

students for project-based learning and its demands, especially if all the rest of

the courses are taught in a traditional manner. Also if the tutor is unfamiliar

with the process, he should get himself familiarized with the topic, especially if

the student-centered learning processes are new to him. Furthermore, if the

projects are done in collaboration with companies, which is very likely

especially in VET context, this phase includes communicating with companies,

collecting the project ideas from them, and preparing their contact persons for

the collaboration with student groups responsible for the project. This can also

be done by the students themselves, as it was earlier presented in the Finnish

case. The preparations step ensures that the project-based learning can take

place (e.g. there are some ideas and collaborating partners for projects) and that

all the participants are prepared and motivated for the learning in projects.

From the technology point of view the educational institution could have a

database dedicated for the project-based learning in their intranet. The database

would include supporting materials for realizing the project-based learning in

that institution. Such materials could include guides for tutor and students,

some previous project examples, and ideas for new projects. The material

should be available for access also from outside the educational institution.

2. Definition of the Project Goal. In this phase the students decide a goal for their

project. The decision can be based on the list of available project ideas offered

by the tutor, or the students can decide it in the group after which it is

discussed with the tutor and decided, if the suggested project work is suitable

for that course. The project work can be based on the topic that needs

clarification, a question that needs an answer, or on a challenge that requires a

solution. Here it is important that everyone in the student group shares the

common understanding of the task and its demands. The definition phase

includes also a collection of ideas that are related to the project work. The

collection of ideas is done in a group for example in a brainstorming session.

46

Technology can support this phase for example with a mindmapping or

brainstorming support application that can be used to record the ideas coming

up in shared brainstorming session. The mindmapping tool can also be such

that it supports geographically dispersed student group working collaboratively

over internet by inserting their ideas to a shared virtual space. Furthermore, if

the tutor has prepared some project seeds for students, they are available for

access in a database with all the necessary metadata.

3. Collection of Information. In this phase the students collect more information

about the topics they found out to be related to their project work. Especially

important topics are those that they did not have much of earlier knowledge.

Usually the collection tasks are divided in the group, so that each group

member carries the collection task individually on the topic that he is assigned

to research. Collected information needs also be elaborated in a way that it can

be presented to other group members in the following synthesis phase. The

tutor can support the students in this phase for example by pointing out with

questions some topics that the students might have given little or no attention.

Furthermore, the tutor may have prepared some material for students that

serves as a starting point for further inquiries on those topics.

Similarly to the earlier problem-based learning scenario, the collection of

information phase is rather trivial to support with technology. Internet searches

are everyday activities for technology-savvy students. The educational

institution can also hold various in-house information databases and grant an

access to external databases that can be useful for the students in their search

for information. If the tutor has prepared some materials for the learners, the

materials should be made available for the students in an electronic format

accessible through internet.

4. Synthesis of Information. After the students have collected the information

according to the research tasks that they together decided in previous step, they

come back together to synthesize the collected pieces of information to the

coherent knowledge. The synthesis is needed to make sure that the student

group has achieved its goal to create a solid conceptual foundation for the rest

of the project. The tutor can support the synthesis process by asking questions

47

about various concepts and topics and their relations to each other.

As the synthesis phase needs more rigid way of representing conceptual

knowledge and structures, the students use a computerized concept map editor

to bring the pieces of information into the one solid structure, which also has

got information about how different concepts and topics are related to each

other. That important property separates concept maps from mind maps that

were used earlier.

5. Assessment of Conceptual Understanding. In this phase the students and the

tutor go through the outcomes that were achieved during the beginning of the

project. Assessment means here that the students self-evaluate their progress in

their group and decide, whether they have managed to gather all the necessary

background information for the working phase. From the tutor’s point of view

the assessment process is deciding, whether the students have met the goals set

for the conceptual learning in the course’s curricula. If both the student group

and the tutor agree on that the project can progress, the students continue to the

next step. Otherwise, the student group continues building their background

knowledge by returning to some of the previous steps.

6. Planning the Project Work. In this phase, student groups create a blueprint in a

form of the project plan for their project work. In addition to deciding the

expected outcomes of the project, the students define the anticipated schedule

for their project; the tools that they will be using during the project work to

support achieving the outcomes; and the means to assess their progress and the

outcomes. The tutor’s role is to ensure that the student groups also plan to use

methods that will support their learning while doing the project work. An

example of such method is keeping web-based project diaries, which include

done activities, reasoning behind the activities, and opinions of the made

progress. The methods supporting the learning can also be used from the very

beginning of the project, not only in project work phases.

The project planning is based on the outcomes of the previous steps. The

students can use the concept map as a basis to writing and representing project

plan with suitable office applications. The students can also search internet for

48

more information about project design models to support their work in phase.

If the project is done in higher education, the students may choose to begin

using some project management application or digital learning environment to

support both their planning process and later their working.

7. Doing the Project Work. During this phase, the students working in groups are

doing the project work. Doing the project work includes working to create the

outcomes of the project, which can be either physical or more abstract. Usually

there are various kinds of outcomes, which can also be referred as multiple

representations. For example, a project aimed at creating a piece of software

can also include as its outcomes the documentation of that piece of software, a

user guide for that software, and a presentation to promote the software.

Multiple representations support viewing the project work from different

viewpoints and thus enrich the learning experience. This phase also includes

following the plans that were done on previous step and comparing the

progress in the project to that of mentioned in the plan. From learning point of

view, it is important in this phase that the student groups reflect on their

activities, reasoning the work that they are doing. Furthermore, the tutor should

support the groups in their progress and make sure that all groups stick to the

schedules that they have set for themselves. Even though the assessment will

be done officially in the next step, the tutor and the students can use method of

formative assessment in their work. That would ensure the assessment of on-

going work instead of relying only on the outcomes in the end.

Technologies that support project work are useful in this phase of the project.

Groups can take for example an advantage of having a project diary in a form

of a blog in the net. Groups can also use shared on-line calendars, to-do lists, or

a learning environment with some other collaboration tools to support their

work. Furthermore, tools that are needed to compose various representations of

the project outcomes, such as office applications, programming environments,

or video editing tools can be used by the groups.

8. Assessing the Project Work and Its Outcomes. When the students consider that

they have met their goals, it is time to assess the outcomes. The assessment

procedure should include in addition to summative elements (the end

49

assessment) some formative elements (on-going work assessment). The

assessment itself is done both by the student groups themselves and by the

tutor. When speaking of formative kind of assessment, it can be supported for

example with semi-structured questionnaire that the students fill in weekly. It

helps both the students and the tutor to see how things are progressing and

notice early, if something is becoming a problem in the project work.

Formative assessment supports assessing the process and its progress in

addition to the outcomes they produce. What it comes to the summative

evaluation in the end, it can be done for example by assessing the outcomes of

the project both in comparison to the students’ own goals in the beginning and

to those demands that the course’s curricula sets to the outcomes. For example,

in software engineering project, the program as a project outcome with its

quality and functionality would be under assessment. If both the student group

and the tutor agree on that the project has reached its objectives, the students

can continue to the final step, presentation of the outcomes. Otherwise, the

student group continues refining the outcomes of the project work by returning

to one of the previous steps in their project work.

9. Presentation of the Outcomes to Others. After the project work is concluded

successfully and the outcomes match those that were expected both in the

project work and in learning sense, the student groups present the outcomes to

others. The presentations phase can take place in class room, but it can also be

done in internet, where all the student groups collect their works. An important

part of this phase is learning from the works of the other groups, relating own

work to the works of the others, and giving and receiving constructive

feedback for the outcomes. The presentation phase should also appear as an

educational event, instead of being just a peripheral showing of one’s work.

In the presentation phase, the student groups transfer their accomplished

outcomes to a shared web space, where the project outcomes are available to

everyone taking that course. The web space should support giving feedback to

other groups and having discussions about the outcomes and the processes that

lead to those. For example a virtual learning environment would support these

activities. Going through the works of others, sharing own knowledge, and

50

relating one’s own experiences to others’ experiences enrich the learning

experience.

3.4. Performance-based Learning

This pedagogical model is based on Electronic Performance Support. Electronic performance

support is usually realized with help of a dedicated computerized system. Therefore, the

whole supporting environment is called Electronic Performance Support System, which is

usually abbreviated to EPSS. The term EPSS and the idea behind it were developed by Gloria

Gery in the beginning of 1990’s.

EPSS can be seen as a network of on-line and off-line resources, which support the workers to

perform their tasks by giving them the information, advice, training, and tools needed at the

right time and in the right place [Kas00]. Information can be for example safety regulations at

that particular work task or spot, advice can be for example a solution to the particular

problem situation that worker has encountered, training can be for example a short work task

related piece of training material (cf. learning object), and tool can be for example an

embedded input tool, with which worker can suggest new practices or ask help from their

peers. EPSS system can also have some inbuilt intelligence, with which it can for example

infer and solve the gaps between workers' present performance and the optimal performance

in that particular work procedure [She96].

Ways of justifying EPSS at work places are usually depicted with three C's: faster learning

curve from novice to master (Competence), decreased training costs (Costs), and a higher

quality of outcomes by the workers (Consequences) [Ger91]. It can also be linked to a

concept of organizational learning, where an ever-evolving EPSS with its connections to the

organization's information databases and the knowledge of workers lead to whole

organization's learning [Ray95].

In VET context, the applications of EPSS belong most clearly into an informal in-work

training domain, which is in Europe often taken care by the employers [Tes04]. In mobile

context, EPSS can be realized for example with wearable computing, where the workers carry

the necessary equipment, such as a small screen and wireless communication device with

them wherever they work. The connection to EPSS is wireless and the interaction with the

system can take place through the touch screen [Gob02].

51


EPSS systems are meant to decrease the amount of pre-work training and support in-work

training and learning. In addition to or even, in an extreme case, instead of learning, special

emphasis is put on performing, which means successful and efficient accomplishment of the

work tasks at hand [Col97].

3.4.2. Parameters that guarantee the implementation of Performance-based Learning

Just-in-time learning may lead to learning just bits and pieces, which does not contribute to

the wider understanding of the whole subject matter. For example an advice, which a worker

gets to a certain work phase, is not necessarily connected at all to the whole work process and

its outcome.

Very demanding work environment, where the work is very fast paced, may not give enough

time for learning to take place. In this case, workers do not have enough time to use tools or

training modules of EPSS, but can just use the system as a set of instructions how to do their

job.

Workers can become discouraged away from learning, because of the EPSS that they can use

at the work place. The learning can be seen as unnecessary, when all the work related

information can be found from the supporting system. [Bas99]

How EPSS is seen at the work place and what is its impact on organization, its culture, and

expertise? This includes for example how workers will feel, when the support in their work is

mostly coming from an electronic source, will EPSS change the hierarchies among the

workers, when expertise is freely available for everyone, and how will EPSS change the

social interaction among workers at the work place [Ger91].

52


Educational

objectives in EPSS




objectives

Instead of being just

facilitating plain

performing, the EPSS

should encourage the

workers to actively

learn.

Just-in-time learning may lead to

learning just bits and pieces, which

does not contribute to the wider

understanding of the whole subject

matter.

Very demanding work environment,

where the work is very fast paced, may

not give enough time for learning to

take place.

Workers can become discouraged away

from learning, because of the EPSS that

they can use at the work place.

There should be enough time reserved

for the workers at their work spots to

get to know the relationship between

the tasks at hand and the whole process

with its outcomes. The material should

also include motivational elements that

give worker a clearer picture about the

relationship his work has got with the

quality outcome. Furthermore, the

workers should not be reduced to mere

users of the system, but they should be

welcomed to actively develop it further

with their ideas and experiences.

The EPSS system

should support the

performing by enabling

access to the company’s

collective know-how

and cumulative

experience.

How EPSS is seen at the work place

and what is its impact on organization,

its culture, and expertise.

Usually at the work places, the more

experienced workers are respected by

the younger and less experienced

workers, which contributes to the

internal social structure at the work

place. Not to destabilize the internal

social structure at the work place, the

system should support both entering the

expertise in the system and enabling the

users to share their know-how in real-

time.

3.4.3. Application of Performance-based Learning in Mobile Learning

Educational approach in this example educational scenario is based on the application of

EPSS by the worker in his work. EPSS is responding to the worker's immediate performance

needs, where the worker is the most receptive for the training the system is providing. To

support the actual learning and to overcome previously mentioned potential shortcomings of

the EPSS, the work the worker does is put in its larger context, the worker's own reasoning is

encouraged as well as worker's communication through EPSS with his peer workers at the

working community [Bro00, Wil93]. The context of the educational scenario is the in-work

learning at work place. Therefore, learning takes place in a normal work situation through

worker’s interaction with an EPSS and his peers.


The objective in this scenario is to describe a situation, where workers learn through the EPSS

system installed to their work place. In this scenario, special emphasis is put on including

such elements to EPSS system that should facilitate both the learning and social structures at

53

the work place. EPSS is seen to appear in this scenario in a role of a facilitating system that

triggers the learning to take place and supports the communication among the workers.

3.4.3.2. Participating roles

● Worker (being at the same time also in a role of the learner)

● Peer helper (supporting the worker both in performing and in learning)

The worker in this scenario is doing his work. While he is working, he is able to learn more

about the context of his work, solve the problems he may encounter, get needed training when

needed, and use tools necessary for his work. What is important is that the activities that lead

to learning are the same authentic work related activities needed to perform the work task at

hand. It means that learning takes place during the working without any external, out-of-the-

work training sessions taking place. Even though the worker is in a role of the learner, the

learning takes place by using the EPSS and the services it provides. EPSS's role is to support

worker's learning through giving him support through appropriate information, advice,

training, and tools. Appropriate information can be creating the context, for example in the

mobile work the information could be brief description of the next work spot, its tasks, and

some common problems that need special attention by the worker. Advice that EPSS may

offer to the worker can for example solutions to the problems in company's problem database.

If the solution is not clear enough, or the task at hand is new or especially demanding, EPSS

may have special training material such as a short tutorial or a simulation for that task, which

it offers to the worker. EPSS can also include tools such as chat or forums, where workers can

share their expertise with all the peer helpers. It is also noteworthy that quite often the

learning that the worker experiences can be initiated by the EPSS, which has noticed

problems with the worker’s performance. In some occasions the help can come in a form that

the worker does not know that he is being helped by the system.

The peer helpers are important part of this scenario. The peer helpers are also workers

working for the same company as the worker is and using the same shared EPSS. They can

input their expertise to EPSS, which can then be later found and applied by the worker. They

can also be contacted through EPSS so that they can offer their support to the worker either on

real time, for example through chatting, or through non-real-time tools, such as message

boards. It is noteworthy that EPSS may be geographically dispersed, which means that the

peer helpers can be located for example in physically different place than the worker, but still

54

doing the same tasks.


The flow of activities is an imaginary one, which is based on the EPSS application examples

presented in Gery's book [Ger91] and in Stone and Endicott's book chapter [Sto00]. Its idea is

to represent a general EPSS use case in in-work learning context. Furthermore, in this

example the worker is a mobile worker, whose work spot may change during the day. It is

also noteworthy that EPSS may support the worker even in a way that the worker does not

know that he is being supported. For example, the user interface can be altered by EPSS in the

fly in a way that only those options that are needed by the worker at that moment are shown.

The worker is also supported in his work by the peer helpers in various ways, such as chatting

through EPSS.

1. The worker enters the work spot. As the worker enters his work spot, he accesses

at the same time the EPSS, which identifies the worker (virtual profile) and his

present work spot (geographical position). If it is the first time for the worker to

be in that particular spot, the EPSS offers him information concerning the safety

issues in that work spot and a short training session for the coming tasks, and

perhaps some information about common problems and their solutions. EPSS also

shows the relation between the present task and the whole process to help the

worker to see the wider picture. Start can also be motivating in a sense that the

worker is given information on the importance of his tasks in relation to good

quality end outcomes.

From technology point of view in this scenario, the EPSS is an integrated system,

which is connected to the databases such as user-profiles and content such as

information about work tasks or interactive tutorials. It also includes wireless

connectivity with location sensing, which allows the contextualization of the

content according to worker’s location. User profiling is bound to each user’s

individual recognition, which can be done for example by radio tags such as

RFIDs or by using individual PDA’s, which are carried around, while working. In

addition, the system supports communication between the workers thus supporting

the social structures at the work place. It is also important to notice that EPSS is in

an active dialog with the worker, it is not just a passive portal to the static

55

information located in corporate databases.

2. The worker begins his work at the work spot. While he is working, EPSS may be

observing the way the worker performs or supporting his performance for example

through dynamic representation of the workflow or tailored user interface. EPSS

can collect the necessary information about the performance for example by

following the feedback coming from quality control, which can be in a form of

machine vision following outcomes coming from the worker’s work spot. It

important to notice here that the EPSS does not need to be intrusive to be effective,

the EPSS can be very effective without worker even knowing that he is being

supported in his work. This can be realized for example with an actively adapted

or tailored user-interface that shows only those options that are needed by the

worker. It is noteworthy that it is not possible to define any general rules for the

assessment of the worker’s performance. It is something that is very

contextualized (for example: which work task is assessed, who is the worker

working at that task, what are the set performance goals, etc.) and work place

dependent. The rules for assessment and means to collect the data necessary for it

are defined locally as EPSS is introduced to the work place.

3. Having a problem situation. The worker may find out that he is in a problem

situation that he cannot solve by himself or EPSS may have noticed a problem in

his performance. The worker can search through the problem-solution database,

where is also some additional comments inserted there by his peer helpers.

Furthermore, the worker can contact more advanced peer helpers through a

suitable tool such as chat to receive personal help. The worker can also send a

message to the forums, if the answer for his question is not time-critical. This kind

of peer-support tool supports the social interaction and creation of shared expertise

inside the company. In some occasions, when the system has seen a problem, for

example with information received from quality control, the system can interrupt

the worker’s work procedures and guides him through a tailored tutorial that helps

with the problem that he is having. The tutorials are such that they are designed to

be used within the system without any external human aid. The problem situations

are collected to company’s databases in order to help in development of

problematic work spots and development of EPSS.

56

4. Entering best practices and experiences. If the worker finds a new, efficient way

of working or finds a solution to an unsolved problem, EPSS offers him an

opportunity to enter this new knowledge to the system so that the peer helpers and

other workers can also benefit from it. This also supports the social structures of

the work place, the more experienced workers can share their expertise with others

and be respected for that. It also supports new employees, so that they suggest

fresh ideas and viewpoints that might have gone unnoticed by the other workers.

5. The worker exits the work spot. EPSS updates the worker's profile with the

information about his latest performance. This profile later aids the system to offer

more individualized help to the workers. It can also help for example the people

responsible for the work place ergonomics by showing which work spots or phases

are especially difficult for the workers so that the spots or phases can be

developed. This can also lead to updates in the EPSS itself, for example by

creation of new tutoring materials based on gathered suggestions and experiences.

3.5. Tutorial Learning

This part is largely based on Alfred Bork’s work and vision on tutorial learning, which

Professor Bork has been developing since 1960’s at the University of California. In Bork’s

vision, the most effective way of learning comes in a form of dialog between a learner and a

tutor, who is an expert on the field of study subject. The dialog between the learner and the

tutor typically takes place in a form of natural, usually spoken, language and preferably in a

native language of the learner. Learning takes place in tutorials, where the learner discovers

the content knowledge through answering the questions that the tutor asks from him.

Throughout the learning process, the progress of the learner is closely observed, so that the

questions directing the learning are of suitable difficulty and leading the learner to expected

outcomes. This part of tutorial learning is strongly influenced by the Zone of Proximal

Development (ZPD) [Rid99] theory developed by Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky. The

core idea in Bork’s vision, since Bork is having a background as a Computer Scientist, is to

replace an expensive human tutor with a computer application that serves as a tutor. [Bor00]

There are certain things that are considered to be important factors for successful tutorial

learning [Bor01]:

● Highly interactive. In tutorial learning the learner is supposed to have a high

57

rate of interaction with the tutor, similarly to natural discussion. This is quite

antithetical for example to normal lectures, where the rate of interaction is very

low or in the worst case non-existent.

● Individualized. The learner should be able to progress in his own individual

speed by taking advantage of his personal ways and styles of learning.

Learning styles in this context refers for example which kind of output media

the learner can have an access to. Same material can be available in different

formats such as spoken, text, pictures, animation, or simulation to support

different kinds of learners and learning styles. For example, from cognitive

learning style point of view, the imagers, learners using pictorial

representations while learning, suffer if the learning material is only presented

in textual form. [McL99] Similarly, the input from the learner should support

also other forms of delivering dialog than spoken or written input.

● Adaptive. The teaching in tutorial learning should be adaptive to the learner’s

need at each particular moment. This adaptivity is attained by storing records

of learner’s past achievements and progress. This is linked with the idea of

ZPD, where the previous progress defines learner’s possible learning space at

the present moment.

● Mastery. In education at the moment, the usual acceptance rate for a study

course in an educational institution is around 50 or 60 per cent of the maximum

performance, which indicates that only partial learning is taking place. In

tutorial learning, the aim is at full mastery of any content by all the learners.

This is achieved through individualization and adaptivity.

● Creative learning. In tutorial learning, the learners actively construct their own

knowledge through interaction with the tutor. During this interaction, the

learners will by themselves discover for example the phenomena of

temperature.

● Learning content. As tutorial learning differs a lot from the traditional learning,

special emphasis has to be put on the creation of suitable learning material and

curriculum. The content and curriculum should be based on the mastery instead

of mere memorization, and obtaining more generally applicable skills such as

58

problem solving6, creativity, and use of intuition in learning. In some

occasions, the learning material produced for problem-based learning could be

used to support the creation of content for tutorial learning. The foundation for

learning is in both approaches based on the question or questions directing the

learners’ activities.

● Distance learning. One of the leading visions in tutorial learning is to enable

everyone to learn regardless of the place and time. Therefore, the distance

learning is the natural way of realizing tutorial learning in practice.

● Peer learning. In tutorial learning the interaction is not restricted to that of

between the learner and the tutor, but also interaction among the group of

learners is encouraged both in same geographical position and through virtual

environments. The idea is to bring together learners that are facing the same

learning tasks to learn together.

As the dialog is in the key role in tutorial learning, it needs further specifications. Dialog in

learning can take place in either intrapersonal or interpersonal manner. Intrapersonal dialog

means the dialog in which the learner engages, when trying to learn actively. This means for

example situations, where the learner is reading self-study material, watching educational

videos, or is using a simulation in a computerized environment. Additionally, intrapersonal

dialog also includes moments, when the learner is not directly in contact with any study

material available, but is thinking the study topic for example while doing dishes or walking

alone. Intrapersonal dialog can be described as mental processes, such as assimilation or

reflection, taking place, while learning. [Gor05]

Interpersonal dialog takes place as a communication between the participants, such as

students, tutors, and teachers, in learning situation. It may be subject or social oriented, but its

meaning is to facilitate the learning. The subject oriented interpersonal dialog involves

participants in discussion, where the study subject is in a key role guiding the interaction.

Dialog can for example take a form of debate or instruction in the context of the study subject.

An example of subject oriented interpersonal dialog is the Socratic dialog [Wik06b], where

the learner and the tutor are engaged in a discussion of deepening inquiry. In Socratic dialog

the tutor guides the discussion and learning by asking questions from the learner. The most of

6 Here it is noteworthy to recognize that the problem solving is here in a role of an obtainable and applicable skill, not as an educational

method as depicted in one of the earlier scenarios and in the latter content transfer example.

59

the discourse is done by the learner by answering the questions presented by the tutor. The

questions asked by the tutor become more detailed and demanding as the dialog progresses.

Social oriented interpersonal dialog includes all the interaction among the participants,

including the subject oriented interpersonal dialog, but it also includes dialog that is not

necessary subject oriented. An example of such dialog is the interaction related to relating

oneself in the learning community. Dialog can take place in face-to-face situations or it can as

well be mediated by the technological means. [Gor05]

The success of tutorial learning is strongly depending on the adaptivity of the material to the

personal needs of each individual student and their learning styles. The learners can be

roughly divided into different kinds of learners according both to their ways of organizing the

information and gathering the information (See Table 7.). In information organizing there are

two separate dimensions, serial-holist dimension and analytical-relational dimension. In

information gathering, the dimensions are visual, auditory, and haptic/kinesthetic. [Aye05]

Table 7. Effects of learning styles to content [Aye05, Jon93]

Information Organizing

Serialist-holist dimension

Learners, who are more serialists in their learning prefer going

through the material in a serial manner, one piece at the time and

pieces following each other in order.

The holistic learners prefer having the big picture first. After that they

are able follow several learning paths serving different learning goals

at the same time.

Analytical-relational dimension

Analytically oriented learners want to go deep inside the concepts

and ideas presented in material. While going more deep, they at the

same time divide the concepts into small categories based on the

internal content and structure of each concept.

Relationally oriented learners are not as interest of the internal

structure of presented concepts or ideas, but they accept them as they

are. These learners prefer dividing concepts into more rough

categories based on their external qualities and their relation to each

other on higher level.

Information Gathering

Visual

Visualists prefer having the material with pictorial input.

Furthermore, they are good at transforming textual input into pictorial

representations. Visualists are also good at remembering and

reproducing pictorial content of the learning material.

60

Auditory Learners with auditory preference prefer to have an access to verbal

representations. These verbal representations can take form either in a

spoken or in written form.

Haptic/Kinesthetic Haptic/Kinesthetic learners prefer to have a manipulative access on

the material they are using. They prefer an interactive media, such as

simulations or controllable animations.

Tutorial learning has got some similarities to Performance-based Learning (based on EPSS)

approach presented earlier. Similarities include for example supporting the learner to progress

step by step correcting the problem areas he is having in his learning path to mastery.

Furthermore, it was also mentioned that in some occasions EPSS may offer the worker a

tutorial over the work task at hand to facilitate worker’s performance. Nevertheless,

regardless of the similarities between these two, EPSS and tutorial learning are not the same

concept. In tutorial learning the tutoring and dialog during it are in the focus of the learning,

whereas in EPSS tutorials are just a method for supporting the accomplishment of the task at

hand. Secondly, EPSS is usually not interested of facilitating the full mastery or complete

understanding of the topics at hand, but the emphasis is put on high performance in the job at

hand. In tutorial learning, the learning and comprehension, or even the full mastery of topic at

hand is one of the leading ideas. Additionally, a great emphasis is put in tutorial learning to

try to reach all learners and offer them an individualized learning experience, whereas EPSS

in the industry offers an environment, which is the same for all the employees, except for

some minor adaptation such as user interface changes. Finally and perhaps the most

importantly, tutorial learning is a holistic approach to learning, which means that all the

learning can take place in a similar manner for example throughout the curricula, whereas

EPSS is more concentrated on very context depended just-in-time and in-place learning.

Bork’s vision for tutorial learning has also got higher level goals that he believes to be

achievable through wide application of tutorial learning throughout the world. First of all, he

stresses that the education should attain everyone in the world regardless of their age, race,

geographical position, or wealth. In Bork’s opinion, conventional means of delivering

education won’t be able to achieve this in near future, but computerized tutorial learning

might solve this problem [Bor02]. Attaining education for all means also that everyone learns

to master the content fully, not only partially. Secondly, tutorial learning aims to make

learning affordable. If it is realized in traditional manner with a personal human tutor, it is

very expensive, but with computerized solution scalable to reach millions and millions of

learners throughout the world, the per capita price for learning becomes very affordable.

61

Thirdly, Bork emphasizes that the learning should be enjoyable, which will be realized by

individualizing the learning experience. Enjoyment experienced in learning also encourages

learners to take part in life-long learning. [Bor98] Lastly, wrapping all the previous visions

together, he foresees tutorial learning leading to a society, where learning and education is in

the core focus of the society, and where everyone loves to learn [Bor00b].


In tutorial learning the educational objective is to help the learner to master the study subject.

The mastery of the study subject is achieved through highly interactive and individually

adapted dialog with a tutor. The tutor can be either a real person or a computerized system.

Learning is not only individual knowledge construction through creative discovery, but it can

also take place in a group, where all the learners are facing the same learning tasks and work

together to master the topic. In tutorial learning, the learning is not bound to certain place and

time, but it should be accessible by anyone, wherever and whenever needed.

3.5.2. Parameters that guarantee the implementation of Tutorial Learning

High interactivity instead of low interactivity is preferred. To keep the learner involved and

active in the learning process, there should be tight interaction between the learner and the

tutor. Preferably the interaction should take place in the natural, spoken language (native

language of the learner).

Tutorial learning involves different kind of content from the traditional approach. In tutorial

learning, the content and the curricula should be adaptable to the pace and current needs of the

learner in contrast to static and uniform materials and methods in traditional approach.

Furthermore, the representation of the content should fit to the learning style of the learner as

it was discussed earlier. It is antithetical to the present situation, where everyone learns the

same content at the same pace with same methods.

Achieving mastery level in learning is important. Learning always aims in tutorial learning at

full mastery of each topic instead of only partial learning and memorization. The mastery idea

also involves learning generally applicable skills such as problem solving and intuitive

thinking.

Support for learning, which is taking place regardless of time and place. One of the key aims

of tutorial learning is to reach as many as possible to get education. This must involve distant

62

learning with help of suitable technologies.

Learning takes place preferably in groups instead of learning alone only. Tutorial learning

involves elements of collaborative group learning in addition to individual learning. Learning

in groups involves learners facing the same learning tasks.


Educational objectives

in tutorial learning




objectives

Interactive learning

experience

High interactivity instead of low

interactivity

Learning in groups instead of learning

alone only

Learners in tutorial learning should

be engaged in highly interactive

learning environment. Bork suggests

that the maximum interval between

each case of approaching and

activating the learner should not be

more than 20 seconds. This differs

greatly for example from lecture-

based learning.

Interactivity can also be supported

with group of learners working

collaboratively on the same task with

help of a tutor.

Full mastery of content

instead of partial

understanding.

Achieving mastery level in learning

Content different from traditional content

and curriculum

The key idea in tutorial learning is to

support each learner and learner

group as individually as possible.

This means finding way to facilitate

each learner’s own style of learning,

and adapting the material and the

course of tutoring in individually

meaningful way. It is also important

that the learning takes place in an

individual pace. All these combined

open an opportunity for accessing the

full mastery.

As tutorial learning is strongly based

on dialog between the learner or

learner group and the tutor, also the

material has to support the method.

The present material based on sheer

information transfer is not suitable

for tutorial learning, but the material

needs to be arranged in a way that

through continuous inquiry it leads

the learner to discover the key ideas

in content material.

63

Educational objectives

in tutorial learning




objectives

Attainable education Support for learning regardless of time

and place

It is in the heart of philosophy of

tutorial learning to make education

accessible to all regardless of their

financial position, place of living, or

age. Furthermore, the education

should available when needed,

regardless of the time and the place.

This can be done with help of

computerized tutorial learning, where

the on-line learning environment with

its tutorials can accessed with help of

various kinds of technological tools

connected to the internet, such as

mobile devices

3.5.3. Application of Tutorial Learning in Mobile Learning

This educational scenario is based on Bork’s “A Story about Learning” [Bor02b] paper,

where he describes a future scenario, where computerized tutorial learning is used both by

children and adult users.

The original scenario in Bork’s paper was based on language learning. In this scenario, Bork’s

example is abstracted from language learning into the more general level, to make it also

applicable to other subject domains. The example is bound to the institutionalized VET

context, where learning takes place both in educational institution settings and outside of it in

the real world.

The learning in institutionalized forms of VET does not usually follow principles of tutorial

learning, but in this scenario the learning taking place in educational institution is

supplemented by the computerized tutoring system, which can offer the learner with the

necessary personalized learning experience. The focus in this scenario is to follow the

learning taking place outside the educational institution. Therefore, the educational scenario is

applicable in informal forms of VET as well.


The objective for this scenario is to depict tutorial learning taking place outside the

educational institution. In this case, the interaction and dialog takes mostly place between the

student and a computerized tutoring system. In some occasions, the student also interacts with

his peer-learners and the teacher at the educational institution.

64

3.5.3.2. Participating roles

● Student

● Peer-learners

● Teacher

In this scenario, the student is the key figure. He is having a shared learning task with his

peer-learners. In order to learn the topic at hand such as foreign language, the student has

enrolled to a course in his educational institution. Some of the learning takes place in a

traditional manner at the premises of the educational institution, but the student has also got

an access to use a computerized tutoring system helping him to get personalized support to

achieve the mastery level.

The peer-learners in this scenario are in similar situation as the student. They are participating

in the same course with the same goal of mastering a study topic. In this scenario the peer-

learners are important because they form the peer group with which the student collaborates

to tackle the learning tasks.

The teacher is in this scenario both in administrating and tutoring role. In his administrative

role, he is observing the progress the students are making in their learning. This information

he can obtain from logs of the computerized tutoring system. He can apply the progress

reports in his assessment duties, but also in directing and individualizing his tutoring efforts

with the student. In his tutoring role, he may access the system to facilitate learning of the

students by asking some activating questions from them, or just to communicate with them to

support their progress.


The flow of activities in this example scenario includes altogether five steps. The steps

include Entering tutorial learning, Initial communication, Practicing, Assessment, and Exiting

tutorial learning. From these five different steps, Practicing and Assessment take place

simultaneously affecting each other. The learning session and its expected outcomes are also

strongly bound to the interplay of those two steps. Furthermore, as it is illustrated in the flow

of activities in more detail, practicing and assessment cycle can take place iteratively, many

times in a row. The steps in this scenario were extracted and abstracted from Bork’s paper

65

[Bor02b].

1. Entering tutorial learning. As the student enters tutorial learning, he has to

login in to the computerized tutorial system. During the login process, he

enters his information to the system by answering to the questions that the

system asks from him. The questions can include in addition to plain personal

information, such as name and age, questions concerning the learning goals of

the student and the motivation for the student to study this particular subject.

This information can later be used for example in match making, when

preparing the students to work in groups. The teacher can also access this

information and take advantage of using it as a tool for course planning. In

addition to asking questions from the student, the system can introduce itself in

a way that it will help the student to start using and communicating with the

system. From the learning point of view, this step helps learner to better

acknowledge his own motivations for learning and set some goals for learning

outcomes. The entering phase may also include questions, which purpose is to

find out students’ learning preferences i.e. his personal learning styles. This

information given by the student himself can later be supplemented and

sharpened by collecting the actual usage data of the system.

From technology point of view, the idea in this step is that the system creates a

profile for the student, who starts to use system. The profile is later used to

store the information about the progress student is making. The communication

can take place both in natural language or in textual format.

2. Initial communication. After entering his information to the tutoring system,

the system stores the student profile in its internal databases. After the creation

of the profile is ready, the system begins its dialog with the student. The

purpose for this initial communication is that the system finds out the amount

of background knowledge that the student is having in the study subject. The

collection of background information defines in part the learning needs of the

student.

After this step the tutoring system has created a student profile that shall serve

as a basis for the learning session taking place. The learning is based on the

66

goals that the learner has mentioned to be important and interesting to him and

the background information, which reveals the needs for further knowledge

building. Furthermore, the student’s learning styles affect the way, how the

content is provided to him.

It is noteworthy that tutorial learning is directed to mastery, which in turn

means that special emphasis is put on the student’s weaknesses. Nevertheless,

during the longer period of time in tutorial learning, the student goes through

all the necessary content.

3. Practicing. This is the step, where the learner enters into the learning dialog

with the tutoring system. The content of the practice is based in part on the

information gathered earlier from the student and in part on the curricula and

goals of the course set by the teacher. In practice, a learning session can go for

example in a case of language learning in a way that the tutoring system asks

the student to talk about some topic in a foreign language. The system then

reads back the talk that the student just gave and shows the same text in

written. The tutoring system can then point out some mistakes that the student

had made and asks the student to correct them together with the system. The

previous situation can also be applied generally; the idea is that the student and

the tutor are engaged in the interaction, where the most of the communication

is done by the student. The tutoring system observes the student answers, gives

feedback, and guides the learning process with further inquiries.

Similarly, the system can suggest a group learning situation, where the student

collaborates with his peer-learners. The collaboration can for example be a

discussion through an on-line environment, which is facilitated and observed

by the tutoring system. Practices can also take place from the initiative of the

teacher, who can ask the student to communicate directly with him to make

sure that the student has obtained the needed knowledge and skills.

Usually tutorial learning consists of multiple practice sessions that are

following each others. The content of each session changes, as the system or

the teacher assesses the student feedback and decides the next step needed for

the student’s learning.

67

4. Assessment. At the same time as the student does his practices either alone or

with his peer-learners, the assessment takes place. The idea of assessment is

that it is on-going, formative, in its nature. It takes place at the same time with

the practices, where the assessment of the student inputs and the previous

student progress guides the tutoring system. For example, the student is helped

to master the topics he has problems in with more practice, until he is able to

master the topic. The assessment plays here an important part as it detects the

problems the student is having and based on that information offers more

practice for the student. The assessment is based on the feedback received from

the student to the inquiries presented by the tutor. The student feedback’s

analysis and comparison to the expected answer defines how the tutorial will

progress.

In case of the human tutor, such as the teacher in this case, the process is

similar, but the assessment is usually not an explicit process, but the human

tutor assesses with his intrinsic expertise. As it is in the case of the practice,

also the assessment takes place many times, or more exactly constantly, during

the tutorial learning session. Assessment is a tool to facilitate student’s learning

and define the suitable learning path leading to mastery of the content. There is

no need for special summative assessment in the end of tutorial learning

session, as the on-going formative assessment and the practice based on its

outcomes ensure the successful learning.

5. Exiting tutorial learning. After the student has accomplished the goals that he

or the tutoring system has put for the learning session, the student exits the

system. While the student is exiting the system, the system saves the outcomes

of the learning session. These outcomes are added to the student’s personal

profile and used to guide the learning next time the student enters the tutoring

system.

68

4. Conclusions

As it became apparent in the second chapter and in previous chapter's exemplary educational

scenarios, the mobile technologies can take various roles, if embedded as a part of learning

activities in different pedagogical models. The information concerning the pedagogical

models in thesis is collected in this chapter.

In Situated Learning the mobile technology takes mainly a contextualizing and information

explication role. The contextualization takes place by the activities, where the students are

getting to know the environment that they are working in by using various tools offering data

collection functionality. The explication happens, when students are reflecting upon their

experiences by using the contextually bound information that they have gathered during their

time at the work place. The explication here is making implicit ideas and experiences visible

to fellow students.

The mobile technology is in collaboration support and problem-solving facilitation role in

Problem-based Learning. The collaboration support includes helping students to

communicate with external experts or within group, or creating a shared conceptual

representation over the problem they are having at hand. Furthermore, mobile technology

facilitates the problem-solving by offering tools to test the different hypotheses for example

with the help of simulation software.

In Project-based learning the role for the technology is to support an interactive collaboration

and artifact creation. The support for interactive collaboration takes place, when the students

create together concept maps or use brainstorming software to create ideas. In project-based

learning the artifact creation is also very important as the learning outcomes usually are some

kind of physical artifacts created by learners. Examples of artifact creation range from

keeping a project diary to creating an end presentation for the project.

Performance-based learning puts mobile technology in an administrative and communication

support role. In administrative role technology keeps track over the performance of the

worker and occasionally intervenes with learning content to support the performance. In

communication support role the technology supports the communication and knowledge

sharing among the worker in the work place. The support includes both real-time

69

communications and on-line forum based communication in non-time intensive cases.

In Tutorial learning the mobile technology takes the administrative and interactive role.

Technology creates an administrative opportunity to keep up-to-date student profiles with

updates, when student has achieved the learning goals or is in need of further learning

interventions. The interactive role is very dominant throughout the learning experience that

the learner has got as the interaction with the system leads to the desired learning outcomes.

Interactions can be as simple as answering to presented questions, but as complex as studying

and controlling a multi-variable microworld.

Table 9. The role and function of mobile technology in the pedagogical models

Pedagogical Model

How Mobile

Technology Supports

Learning Activities

Functions of the

Mobile Technology7

Role of the Mobile

Technology

Situated Learning

Allows access to materials

in databases and VLE in

general

Supports recordings of

daily activities and

uploading the material to

VLE

Supports blogging and

discussions with other

students at the same

situation

Supports collaboration

with other students for

example in shared

problem solving

Referential, Data

collection (multimedia),

Data collection

(reflective), Interactive,

and Collaborative

Contextualizing and

information explication


Allows access to problems

and their supportive

materials

Supports communications

within the group and the

people outside of it

Facilitates problem-

solving and hypothesis

creation with suitable

software

Supports creation of

conceptual presentations

Referential, Collaboration,

Interaction, Microworlds

Collaboration and

problem-solving support

7 According to Patten et. al. [Pat03]

70

Pedagogical Model

How Mobile

Technology Supports

Learning Activities

Functions of the

Mobile Technology7

Role of the Mobile

Technology

Project-based Learning

Allows access to

supporting materials

throughout the project

work

Supports in mindmapping

and concept mapping

Offers tools for artifact

creation and project

management

Supports groups' and

individual learner's

reflective actions

Interaction, Collaboration,

Data Collection

(Reflective),

Administrative

Interactive collaboration

and artifact creation

Performance-based

Learning

Keeps track of the

whereabouts of the worker

Keeps track of the

performance of the worker

Allows access to learning

materials related to a

particular work tasks

Offers learning

interventions when

necessary

Supports both real-time

and forum-based

communications between

the workers

Location-awareness,

Administrative,

Referential,

Collaboration/communicat

ion

Administrative and

communication support

Tutorial Learning

Keeps student logs and

follows their progress

Supports communication

both with the system and

fellow students

Offers interactive

elements for the learner to

support the learning

process

Administration,

Collaboration/communicat

ion, Interaction,

Microworlds

Administrative and

interactive

71

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bsc - mobile learning concretized - five pedagogical models

Documents

mobile learning

tutorial learning

projectbased learning

performancebased learning

problembased learning

pedagogical models pasi

different pedagogical

various pedagogical