BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1 (ARC 1523) Assignment 1 Tutor: Ms. Amanda

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1 (ARC 1523)

BSC (HONS) ARCHITECTURE 2013

ASSIGNMENT 1

TUTOR:

MS. AMANDA TAN

MR. LEE XIA SHENG

AR. CHIN TUCK HING

Amelia Michelle Bernard 0310316 | Chng Xing Yue 0310425 | Elaine Bong Poh Hui 0310432 |

Fam Li Kian 0310639 | Goh Chin Zhi 0314562 | Lau Ee Tian 0309596 |

Wesley Hew Xin Han 0307585 | Yaseen Fatimah Syed 0309021 Kathleen 1002P78214

No. Chapter Page

1. Introduction - Amelia

2.

2.1

2.2

2.3

Site

Site Layout - Ch'ng Xing Yue

Site Safety - Wesley & Lau Ee Tian

Site Machinery - Fam Li Kian

3.

3.1

3.2

3.3

External Work

Marking - Elaine Bong

Earthwork - Yaseen

Services - Goh Chin Zhi

4. Overall Structure - Fam Li Kian

5. Foundation (from site visit and reference) - Ch'ng Xing Yue

6.

6.1

6.2

6.3

6.4

6.5

Superstructure (from site visit and reference)

Beam - Fam Li Kian

Slab - Fam Li Kian

Column - Fam Li Kian

Floor System - Amelia

Wall - Elaine Bong & Lau Ee Tian

Staircase - Wesley

7.

7.1

7.2

Door and Window

Door construction process (from site visit and reference) - Kathleen

Window construction process (from site visit and reference) - Goh Chin Zhi

8.

8.1

8.2

Roof

Roof - Yaseen

Ceiling - Lau Ee Tian & Elaine Bong

9. Conclusion - Lau Ee Tian

10. References

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SITE MAP (SITE A) Glenmarie Cove, Klang, Selangor Darul Ehsan.

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Site A is located in Glenmarie Cove, Klang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia.

Glenmarie Cove is a high class residential living area. It is developed by

Glenmarie Cove Development. Glenmarie Cove is easily accessible from Jalan

Telok Gong and Pulau Indah Highway where it is located near townships such

as Botanic town and Bukit Tinggi Town. The architect in charge is LEOWYC

Architect and the owner is known as James A.A. While, Essential Design

Integrated as their interior architect. Besides that, its interior consultant

includes Essential Design Integrated Sdn. Bhd.

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SITE MAP (SITE B) Taman Bukit Segar, Cheras, Selangor Darul Ehsan.

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Site B is located in Taman Bukit Segar where it lies as a residential area in Cheras, Selangor Darul Ehsan. The developer for this area is Jaguh

Gemilang. Its architects are PPB Hartabina Sdn. Bhd, DMP Architects Sdn. Bhd. And Semangat Reka Sdn. Bhd. Besides that, their consultants in

mechanical and electrical consultants are Juaraconsults Sdn. Bhd. and Prudenergy Sdn. Bhd. And KPK Quantity Surveyors (Semenanjung) Sdn. Bhd as

their quantity surveyors. Lastly, Nissin Builders Sdn. Bhd as their contractor.

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Temporary toilet for the

workers.

Workbench to cut the pipes.

Open storage area for gravels and bricks and a lockable

storage hut for security and weather protection.

Electrical generator.

Sands and construction

materials are unloaded at

the main entrance of

building since it is easier

to transport the materials

to other parts of the

building.

Concrete mixer is located here

because it is near to where the

materials are unloaded.

Discarded construction wastes and soil

after excavation are placed at the vacant

land next to the site.

fences

hoardings

Glenmarie Cove, Klang

Only road access

to the site.

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Taman Bukit Segar, Cheras

Guard house is

located at the

only access to

the site.

Main entrance, only in

and out access for the

site.

Boundary line for the

site where it is

surrounded with

hoardings and fences.

Retaining wall for the

site to prevent

landslide since it is

located on the hill. Water tank

Electricity substation

Storage area for floor

tiles along the road

access.

Portable toilet located in the

middle of the site for the

convenience of the workers.

Dump site for the wastes.

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Slowest progress of all construction of the houses.

Materials are unloaded here

because it is near to where the

storage area.

Canteen and accommodation for

workers where the toilet is next

to it.

Site office The amount of materials

to be stored in this site is

a lot so there are a lot of

storage area distributed

along the site according

to where the materials are

needed the most.

Location to unload materials since it

has a bigger space and the buildings

here are mostly still in earlier stages.

Reinforced steel bars are placed

here as beams and columns are

still constructed in this part of

the site.

Location of steel bars cutter and bender.

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Security

The loss of construction equipment from theft being one of the major source that causes a construction

project to be more expensive and may also result in the delay of production whilst waiting for new

equipment as well as the paperwork of said stolen equipment. As such people with control of the workplace

are normally there to ensure that unauthorized personnel not be given access to the site.

Signboards

Construction sites are better known as one of the most dangerous environments to work in due to the high possibility of being seriously injured. With the presence of

high voltage areas, falling debris and heavy equipment, it's important to make sure that construction workers and anyone in or near the site are made aware of the

dangers there.

With that in mind, safety signs are normally present in numerous locations on both sites to remind the contractors or other people in the vicinity of the site regarding

the safety and restrictions.

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Meeting

To achieve their objective, Meetings should be structured communication sessions, with an agreed goal and outcomes. People have to be led in order to function efficiently

and reach decision appropriate to the organization.

A pre-start meeting are normally held by principle contractors on a specific location on site with each contractor in order to discuss the overall site safety plan through the

advance of commencement of work on site.

Meetings help the principle contractors to explain the role of safety, health and environmental management, together with any specific requirement related to the project.

A copy of the completed agenda should be signed off and retained on file for record and audit purposes.

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Equipment

Head protection :- Function to provide protection against sun and rain, and against impact damage to the head. A regular safety helmet has a life span of 3 years but can be

shortened by prolonged exposure to ultraviolet light and repeated minor or major impact damage.

Footwear :- Provide protection for feet especially for the toes, if material should drop onto them. Also provide protection against penetration from beneath the sole of the foot,

be reasonably waterproof, provide good grip and designed to comfort.

Gloves :- Carefully selected on consideration of cause and hazards likely to be encountered by wearer in order to ensure compatibility with field of construction.

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Equipment

Mask :- Use to purify the air by drawing it through a filter to remove contaminants, breathing apparatus, which supplies clean air for wearer from uncontaminated external source.

Making proper choice of mask provide efficiency when used correctly.

Harness :- Only use on platforms, nets or other access and personal suspension equipment is impracticable is their use permissible. Belts and harnesses are limit to the height of

any fall, and to assist in rescues from confined spaces. Belts are preferable compared to harnesses as for the movement needs of the work. Harnesses are to withstand the snatch

load of any fall, by basically attach the securing lanyard to a fixing point as high as possible over work area.

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Electricity

As electrical installations on construction and demolition sites may pose serious risks to the safety of construction and demolition workers., several simple precautions are normally

taken in order to reduce the risk of electrical injury to the contractors and people on site.

Regular visual inspection of electrical equipment will identify most faulty items, but not all faults can be seen. Because of this, testing at appropriate intervals is required, depending

upon the treating the equipment receives in use.

Work near overhead and underground lines requires planning. Carrying metal ladders and scaffolding tubing near overhead wires can provoke arcing safe clearance distance must

be obtained.

The best options in advert ant context can be prevented by choosing traffic roots to avoid, or building goal post or collapsible barriers beneath them on either side so that the barrier

is hit before the cable.

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Roadwork

Traffic management plan is an important aspect at a construction site and should be included in every project safety plan.

With main access and egress point to the site, there needs to be good visibility and room for manoeuvring wherever possible as it is important to keep pedestrian footways and

vehicle path physically separated. This is most commonly done by identifying and marking entry and exit point with reels or barrier.

Banksmen should allows assist drivers in reversing, and to be trained in traffic management plan and signalling. Additionally, high-visibility clothing should be worn by everyone

using pedestrian footways while crossing.

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Dumper

All construction sites should have a planned maintenance program by which dumpers will operate in enclosed areas within building structures, or in confined spaces, adequate

ventilation must also be ensured.

Dumpers must secure vehicles when loading, tipping or parked. Drivers must wear safety helmets, and dismount during loading.

Ladder

Ladders and step ladders must be checked to ensure correct length, type and condition for use. It should be subjected to a planned maintenance program. Length must be extend to a

sufficient height above the step-off point when used for access. Step ladder must be placed at right angles to the work and the users hips should be below the top platform to ensure

stability and prevent side loading. In Site A, uses wooden self-made ladder in the beginning to mobilize to the next level after a certain period, they use aluminium ladder using the

scaffolding to support the ladder. After realizing that the wooden ladder could no longer reach a certain height. For Site B, in comparison to the aluminium ladder in site A they use

the wooden self-made stairs in order to reach higher platforms.

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Fall

Fall prevention is far more effective than fall protection. Reliance on people to make the right decision about wearing personal protective equipment as to be shown by events to

be unsatisfactory they forget, decide to not wear it in view of the expected short exposure time, of wearing it incorrectly.

Methods to prevention :-

Use a working a platform fitted with guard rails and toe boards where practical.

Only when the situation is not practicable, or when protection has been removed for a period, a method of arresting falls must be used.

Harnesses and lines do not prevent falls but do provide protection for those falling.

An effective barrier can be provided by sheeting below the guard rails down to floor level.

All holes should be protected properly, either by guard rails if they are large enough, or by securing a cover above them that is prominently not Danger-hole beneath.

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Lorry Mounted Crane

Cranes are lifting devices designed to raise materials by

means of rope operation and move the load horizontally within the

limitations of any particular machine. (cite) Lorry mounted crane is one of the

example mobile cranes which can be found on site, where it consists of a lattice

boom mounted on a lorry. It has two operating positions, the front cab where

driver drove and another parts where crane is being controlled. It is suitable to

be used in short hire period because it took less time in site preparation process.

Backhoe Loader

Backhoe loader is one of the common construction plants that has been used in

site B. It is used in small excavation works. It is fitted with one excavating

front bucket and a rear backhoe attachment. When using the rear backhoe

attachment, the machine is raised off its axles by rear mounted hydraulic

outriggers. Most of them can be fitted with different size of buckets and various

attachments, such as bulldozer blades, scarifiers, grab buckets and post hole

auger borers.

Self-propelled Crane

This machinery is only used in

site B. Compare to Site A, Site B

has a larger scale in project size.

Unlikely to the lorry mounted

crane, self-propelled crane is a

mobile cranes mounted on a

wheeled chassis and have only

one operator position from which

the crane is controlled and the

vehicle driven. A variety of self

propelled crane formats are

available ranging from short

height lifting strut booms of fixed

length to variable length lattice

booms with a fly jib attachment.

Example of excavating front bucket

Highway Dumper

Dumpers are used for the horizontal transportation of materials on or off

the construction site. Highway dumper has a better function than a typical

dumper because it is larger in size. This helps the highway dumper in

carrying other materials such as excavated spoil along the roads. It has a

rear tipping skip which is useful in discharging the materials.

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Cement Mixers

Most cement mixers in general use will have a rotating drum designed to

produce a concrete without segregation of the mix. Output performances of a

cement mixer is always the main consideration in designing it. Generally a

batch mixing time of 5 minutes per cycle or 12 batches per hour can be

assumed as a reasonable basis for assessing mixer output. (cite)

Aluminium panel cutter

This cutter is a rare machinery used in construction site. Due to the special

design of Site As faade, which is covered by aluminium panels, the cutter is

needed for so. It is used to cut an edge by the sides of the panels so that it

could be bent into shape. Picture at the right shows how the workers use the

machine.

Face Shovel

The function of face shovel is to excavate above its own track or wheel level. This

builder plant is preferably to be used in excavating any type of soil but not hard

object such as rock. Basically, it requires a haulage vehicles nearby to carry the

spoil away. It has a limit where it could not reach 300mm-400mm below its wheel

level.

Rebar Cutter and Bender

Rebar cutter (left) and bender (right) are important tools in handling the

reinforcement bars. For example, when the bars need to be shaped, the bender

plays an important role on it. In another hand, rebar cutter helps in cutting the bars

into ideal length. Both of the machines need electricity supply to function.

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Electric Generators

The electricity supply is not always available on a construction site, therefore, portable generators are needed to provide electricity for some tools

application. In compare to site A, site B has a generator with higher voltage (Image in the middle) as to support the larger site electricity requirement. Care

is always needed while setting up the generators under advise of expert to ensure site safeness. For example, the location of placing the generators has to be

taken into consideration, such as, placing them away from drains or watercourses. Maintenance has to be frequently done to ensure the generators work

more effectively.

Hand Drill

Since Site A is more towards a finishing period, it uses more hand tools

compare to Site B. This is because less external works and structure parts are

to be done. Drill is one of the hand tools that can be used to drill holes on a

surface. As figure shown above, drill helps in making a small drainage for the

connection of wire.

Nail Gun

Nail gun is one of the hand tools that is used in driving nails into the surface of

some specific materials, which are mostly hard surface materials. In site A, this

tool is to be applied on concrete wall. Permit is needed in using this tool due to

the bullets contain gun powder inside. Picture above shows the bullet of the nail

gun. Two bullets at the middle with red colour tips are those which have not

been use yet.

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External Work -Marking

External work starts with plotting the site and site clearing. Based on plan drawn on paper, the boundaries of the

land has to be identified. The plotted land is the place where construction will be initiated. Before the construction

can begin, the trees and bushes within the boundaries have to be removed so that construction can progress

smoothly. Pay special attention to the roots of trees which might damage the structure in the future if they are not

removed completely.

Setting Out

Marking the excavation site by pegging in the ground OR to mark the floor for the erection of the walls.

Marking the boundaries requires a few steps.

3-4-5 Method

The idea of 3-4-5 method is the use the Pythagoras theorem

to acquire the right angle of the boundaries. The first

horizontal line that is peg on the ground is called front line.

The front line is measured 4 metres in total length. Then the

2nd line, which is 3 metres, is pegged vertically from the

starting point of the front line. To make sure that front line

and the second line is right-angled to each other, the ending

points of the front line and the second line has to be 5 metres.

This is the theory of Pythagoras theorem. It should be easy to

form a rectangle. If the marking is done correctly, the

diagonals should be equal.

Lining out

Determine the positions of the corners

and the distance between them. Then

mark the positions of foundations,

footings and walls (including the

thickness) by pegging in the ground.

Direct marking

For buildings that are small like the houses in site A

and site B may marked directly on the flat ground.

But for site B the uneven ground may have to be

flatten first.

Mark the location and measurement of the

foundation on the ground using the plumb bob and

dig the trenches.

Uneven Ground

During setting out in site B, the distance between 2 horizontal

points is used, not the distance along the slope. The points have

to be extended upwards using a plumb bob and then the

distance between 2 points is measured.

When setting a boundary along a slope, this method is used together with the 3-4-5 method. Right angle can be constructed as long as all the lines are straight. The length of the pegs might have to be different to keep the lines straight and off the ground.

EXCAVATION

Earthwork: the processes whereby the surface of the earth is excavated and transported to and compacted at another location.

It ranges from works such as the excavation of ditches and trenches for drainage and pits and

trenches for foundations.

It is usually carried out at an early stage in a construction project, completion of the earthworks within

the scheduled time is often the key to the completion on time of the whole project .

Before excavating any land , planning , designing , construction , environmental and geological conditions are taken into

consideration . The land must be cleared off well , before any type of construction can take place.

The stability of the slopes were controlled by the density and strength of the materials that were used to form the slope and the groundwater conditions. Successfully controlling the surface water and maintaining the moisture range can lead to a successful earthwork operation. ENVIRONMENTAL: The earthworks should not disfigure but rather blend into the environment. Transportation and minimize disruption of the local environment. Consider natural and waste resources in the area , such as are produced from the pits and quarries and other machinery used on the site.

Soil collapses: When the excavated material is not placed far enough away from the edge of the excavation. The recommended minimum distance for location of excavated soil (spoil) from the edge of the excavation is equal to or greater than the excavation depth.

Another one is when common in clay-type soils when excavation walls are too steep, or when moisture content increases rapidly.

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Septic Tank

Septic tanks consist of two chambers and do not fully treat sewage. Septic tank is better waste

water management compare to other system due to few reasons.

Advantage Disadvantage

Can be built and repair with locally available materials High cost compare to other systems such as dry or composting toilet

system

Little space require due to underground construction Sufficient amount of piped water is required constantly to send the waste

to treatment unit

No energy required Only suitable for

Name Function

Inlet Tee Decrease speed of incoming wastewater and reduce the disturbance of settled sludge

Effluent Filter - Prevent solid from leaving septic tank

- Protect drain field from clogging

Outlet Tee Maintain scum and solid waste in tank

Effluent Wastewater that sending drain field and broken down by aerobic process ,filter through soil and return to groundwater to

be reused

Scum - Contains of detergent, grease and other chemicals that less dense than wastewater

- Prevents oxygen from dissolving in the sewage and cause anaerobic process take place

(Sswm.info, 2013)

Inlet Tee Outlet Tee

Scum

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As volume of sludge and scum increase, the time and space for the solid to separate before wastewater leave the tank decreases. The septic tank has become less effective. Solids

should be removed by periodic pumping to avoid clogging and prevent overflow of drain field. Each septic tank has to be pumped every 3 years to 5 years. The cleaning period

depends on the size of septic tank, type of solid waste in septic tank and amount of solid waste in septic tank.

There are two types of method to set up of a septic tank:

1. Gravity-fed system

2. Alternative septic system

Site A and Site B share same method to set up septic tank which is gravity-fed system.

Gravity-fed system

1. Assemble equipment and machinery require for excavation such as backhoe tractor, shovel, contractors dummy level and rod.

2. Success permit process which include a test to determine type and size of drainage field require in the installing system in Site A and Site B.

3. Plan the flow to go downhill as gravitational force will make the flow to move faster and to discharge the waste from tank. Concrete aerobic divided tank and perforated pipe

embed in gravel.

4. Excavate a whole large enough to set the septic tank below ground. The size of septic tank is calculated to be at least twice the accumulating sludge volume. The maximum

amount of sludge that a septic tank can store is approximately a third of its volume (Iwk.com.my, 2013).

5. Place rock from nearby gravel pit around the pipe to hold the pipe in position.

6. Cover up the pipe and tank once

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Sump pump

Sump pump functions to collect water around the foundation and redirect it away from foundation. There are two types of sump pumps that are usually installed:

1. Submersible pumps

2. Pedestal

Name Function

Check Valve Allow fluid to flow in one direction

Discharge Pipe Direct the discharge away from foundation

Weeping Tile - Prevent overflow of water

- Connect to sump pit (Edmonton.ca, 2013)

The setting up begins after the foundation is complete. The drain pipe is installed under the gravel around the entire perimeter of the home.

(Southernfloridafoundationrepair.com, 2013)

1. Excavate sump pump pit for sump pump liner and sump pump to be placed.

2. Use jackhammer to break the floor around the edge of concrete flooring and a layer of clean stone is placed. Perimeter drain is installed at this place to collect water from

the wall floor joint and direct it to the installed sump pump pit.

3. A special outlet connects the perimeter drain to sump pump and gravel is placed around sump pump liner to keep sump pump as clean as possible. Airtight sump pump

lid around all pipes and wire prevent from rising out of sump pit and prevent anything to fall into foundation.

4. Connect the check valve and attach PVC discharge piping. Run the piping up the wall and out through the hole that drill in the rim joist.

7. Extend piping to outside to allow water to remove from foundation.

8. Seal around hole in rim joist with caulk.

9. Plug the sump pump into GFCI receptacle. Fill the basin with water and test pump.

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Wastepipes

There are many types of waste pipes in different dimension of sizes. Before installation of waste pipe, the degree of slope is an important aspect to be considered.

Piping from the toilet should take several precautions:

a. Piping should be 45 degree slope or more to vertical or at 2 to 3 degree to ensure the waste able to flow through.

b. Piping should not slope upward

c. Connections should be snug to avoid hang up where pipes meet connector.

d. Use sealant such as silicon for the connection of waste pipes to the connecting unit to ensure the composing unit is able to move

Process:

1. Cut a 2-inch hole through the bottom plate of the wall behind the toilet with a hole saw. Secure the toilet flange to the floor with deck screws. Be certain that the slots provided

in the flange for the base of the toilet are in the correct position to insert the bolts for the base of the toilet.

2. Cut a short section of the 1-inch pipe with the skill saw. Be certain it is long enough to fit from underneath the floor into the wall. Slip it through the 2-inch hole. The rest of

the drain line will be installed from under the house.

3. Apply PVC cleaner (or primer) to the elbow and the flange followed by the glue. Install the elbow onto the flange from underneath the floor giving it a slight twist. Be certain

it "seats" and is facing the correct direction.

4. Install the reducer to the short section of the reduced size vent pipe you cut in Step 2. Install the "T" on the end of the elbow so that one end of it points up for venting and the

other is down. Secure the reducer to the "T" facing up.

5. Install sections of the toilet drain pipes using the method described in Step 2. Break up the different sections of pipe as needed to connect to the line leading to the sewer or

septic tank. Be certain there is enough of a descent to keep the water flowing to its destination.

6. Install plumbers strap around the pipe under the house. Measure a piece long enough to reach around the pipe and secure to the floor joists. It can be secured with box nails or

screws.

7. Cut a hole through the top plate of the wall for the vent pipe. Secure a pipe coupler to the end of the pipe coming up from the floor. Cut a piece of vent pipe long enough to

reach above the ceiling. From there, cut and secure enough vent pipes to go through the roof.

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Piles

Ground beam

Ground Slab

First floor level

Roof trusses

Foundation

Roof

Column

Arrow shows the movement of loads being transferred into the foundation

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Window

Being the lowest part of a building, constructed partially or wholly below the ground surface, foundation is used to:

To support and anchor the superstructure above.

To transmit all the dead and imposed loads safely to the ground causing no or minimal settlement or other movement.

Problems faced by foundations:

Subsoil:

i) The subsoil beneath foundation is compressed and reacts by exerting an upward pressure to resist foundation loading. If foundation load exceeds maximum passive pressure of ground a downward movement of the foundation could occur. Solution for this is to increase the plan size of foundation to reduce the load per unit area or alternatively reduce the loadings being carried by the foundations.

ii) Subsoil movements are due to changes in volume when the subsoil becomes wet or dry and occurs near the upper surface of the soil. Compact granular soils such as gravel suffer very little movement where as cohesive soils such as clay suffers changes in volumes.

A chart on the bearing capacity based on types of soil

Uniform settlement Differential settlement which would

impair the building structure

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High compressibility: higher chances of settlement to occur.

Low permeability: Might retain water and make changes to the soft clay as it is very sensitive to the level of moisture content.

Low residual strength: The soil strength of soft clay decreased if it is disturbed.

Low soil strength: Could not withstand the heavy load from the building structure.

Trees:

Direct physical contact by tree roots could do damage to the substructure of buildings. The effect of the shrinkage or heave of moisture level in the soil, especially clay subsoil will also impair the foundation system.

Trees up to 30 m distance may have an effect on foundations, therefore reference to local authority building control policy should be undertaken before specifying construction techniques.

The soil type for both sites is generally soft clay or laterite soil which is common in

west coast of the peninsular of Malaysia.

Characteristics of soft clay

Low soil strength

High compressibility

Low permeability

Low residual strength

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Both sites used combined pilings and raft foundations.

Raft foundation normally consists of a concrete slab extending over the entire loaded. It is used to spread the load of a structure over a large base to reduce the load per

unit area being exerted on the ground. It is usually used when individual column loads or other structural loads are heavy.

Raft foundations have the advantage of reducing differential settlements as the concrete slab resists differential movements between loading positions. They are often

needed on soft or loose soils with low bearing capacity as they can spread the loads over a larger area.

Cross section of raft foundation with beam at the bottom

Plan for raft foundation

columns

The edge of the raft foundation is determined by the nature of the

loading applied.

1. Light load 2. Light load and point load

3. Heavy uniform load 4. Heavy and isolated point load

The raft foundation for the Glenmarie Cove site is the fourth because the

building structure is heavy and the columns are all isolated.

Perspective of raft foundation

Ground beam

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Why raft foundation with pilings are used?

inadequate bearing capacity of shallow foundations

to prevent uplift force

to reduce excessive settlement (Consolidation - soils decrease in volume when stress is applied to a soil that causes the soil particles to pack together more tightly)

Glenmarie Cove, Klang:

The poor soft clay soil condition of Port Klang

The site is very near to the river

The building is 3 storeys in height which exerts huge loads on the foundation

Taman Bukit Segar, Cheras:

low bearing capacity of soft clay soil at the site

situated on the hill top and have slopes

Heavy loads as the buildings range from three to four storeys in height

There are two ways on how the piling system works to transfer loads to the ground:

i) End Bearing

Piles are driven down to a point where they bear on bedrock or dense granular soil at the foot of the pile.

ii) Friction

Piles can be driven into soil far enough that the friction of the soil against the sides of the pile is enough to resist any downward movement.

End bearing pile Friction pile

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There are two methods on how the piles are installed:

i) Driving

Driven pre-cast pile: The pile is casted in a yard brought to the site and driven by some mechanism into the soil

Driven Cast-in-situ pile: A casing plugged at bottom is driven into the ground and then the pile is casted by removing or retaining the casing

ii) Boring

Bored Pre-cast pile: A bore is made and the soil inside is removed and then a pile casted in some yard is put into the bore

Bored Cast -in-situ pile: A bore is made the soil is removed and the pile is casted at site in the bore.

Both sites used driving method with hydraulic jack-in pile machine for the piling system, as the site at Taman Bukit Segar, Cheras used pre-cast concrete piles.

Both sites used end bearing piles.

The reasons hydraulic jack-in pile machine is used:

i) Lower noise and vibration as both sites are located in the middle of the residential areas

ii) Faster construction rate

iii) Higher quality control

iv) Lower damage to the piles

v) Cleaner construction method

Hydraulic jack-in pile machine

Concrete piles

Main jacking

cylinder

Patented grip jacking

system

Heavy counter weights to

prevent the rig from being

lifted when the piles are

jacked into the ground

Support sleepers

Main support

frame

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Driving shoe to drive

the pile into the soil

Reinforced steel bar used in the foundation, 250mm in

diameter.

Reinforced cages used for pile caps.

Ground beam can be seen in the picture.

Taman Bukit Segar, Cheras

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Pile Cap

Pile caps are linked together with reinforced concrete ground beams.

The usual minimum spacing for piles is:

i) Friction Piles

1100mm or not less than 3x pile diameter, whichever is the greater.

ii) Bearing Piles

750 mm or not less than 2x pile diameter, whichever is the greater.

For the site at Glenmarie Cove,

the distance between the piles on the site is 400mm each, twice the diameter of one pile which is 200mm, as they are end bearing piles.

No pile cap was used but through the drawings, extra reinforced steel bars were added into the concrete ground beam structure to increase the strength of that particular part

that has piles.

Concrete pile

Concrete slab approximately 10cm

thick

Anchor bolt

Starter bars from the pile

Reinforced steel cage

Starter bars to make column stump to

join the foundation with the column

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piles

Extra reinforced steel bars

Section of the raft foundation

Elevation of the raft foundation

16mm reinforced steel bars are used in the foundation.

The thickness of the ground beam is generally 600mm as it needs to increase the surface area in contact with the soil to be more stable while the concrete slab is only 150mm in thickness. The reason why the concrete slab doesnt need to be as thick as the ground beam because its not the supporting structure for the building.

Hardcore is the infill of materials such as broken bricks, stone or concrete, which are hard and do not absorb water or deteriorate. It is spread over the site within the external walls of the building to a required thickness to raise the finished surface of the foundation concrete. Hardcore bed is usually 100 to 300 mm thick.

Hardcore should be clean and free from old plaster or clay that sticks on broken bricks as those materials might decrease in volumes over a period of time.

Lean concrete is used to prevent the direct contact of the foundation concrete with the soil.

Steel mesh

Reinforced steel bars

Walls/ columns

soil

50mm lean concrete

Concrete slab

hardcore

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Process of constructing a foundation:

1. Soil tests are being conducted before excavation is started. 2. Appropriate site investigation works need to be carried out to determine

depths of filled ground, bearing capacity of soils, soil type and any existing

workings or services that may clash with pile locations.

3. Topsoiling (removal of a desirable soil

surface) is carried out because topsoil

contains organic matter which makes it

unsuitable to be load bearing soil.

5. The soil is marked and concrete piles are driven into

the ground according to the ground plan using hydraulic

jack pile driver.

6. Holes are dug for the pile caps and formworks are set up so that the concrete can be mold. Reinforced cage are installed. Reinforcement for column stump is

installed.

Pile caps are then casted with concrete on top of the piles. Pile cap is left till the concrete hardens and formworks are removed.

7. Formworks for stump are set up and stumps are formed. Trenches are dug and lean

concrete is poured to form a

layer on the ground. Reinforced

steel bars are placed in it.

Concrete is poured to form the

ground beams and concrete slabs

and steel mesh are placed in

between the slabs.

Once the foundation is done,

columns and walls can be erected.

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In both Site A and Site B, they share

a similar building process of

constructing building frameworks,

which is built in-situ reinforced

concrete. Before any construction of

beams and slabs, a column stump is

needed to be built on top of a pad

foundation which extended from the

piling below foundation.

Column stump is a lower structure which is built above a foundation pad

and its located in the ground below the waterproof layer at ground floor

slabs. The column stump are useful in transferring the loads of a building

into the foundation and it acts as a supporter for ground beams and ground

floor column construction.

First of all, ground beam are first built before any structures. Ground must be cleared before ground beam is built followed by a blinding layer on top of the surface. The ash

blinding plays a role in preventing the concrete from losing moisture.

After the blinding process, the reinforcement will be tied to the column stump to hold them in position. Reinforcement steel

bars is useful in providing the tensile strength which plain concrete lacks off. Formworks which are made from plywood are

then set at the surrounding of the reinforcements of the ground beams together ground floor slabs. Plywood is one of the

most convenience materials of formwork and it has a lower cost, hence, it is widely used in construction including both

Site A and B. Lastly, concrete mixed will be poured into the formworks. The curing period will took around 2 to 3 weeks. Once

the concrete are dried up, the formworks can be taken off and are reusable for up to three time at least.

Example of ground beams in Site B

Process of beam construction layering

Example of beam formwork structure Set up of beam reinforcement.

As reinforcements inside the ground beams set before, they are tied with extended reinforcement bar for a better

connection to the ground floor slabs. Such extended reinforcements are called starter bars. A new reinforcement

mesh is then places between the ground beams and is tied to the starter bars of the ground beams. Similar process

is repeated, where the concrete is poured into the reinforcements which are surrounded by the plywood formwork.

Compare to any other slabs at different levels, ground floor slab will usually have damp proof property. This is

very useful in withstanding the forces of the slabs and to prevent greens grow underneath them.

Reinforcing steel mesh

Scaffoldings set below the first floor slab acts as a supporting system

In Site B, there is one feature

that is different from Site A

which is the houses have

overhang slab at the top

ceiling area which near the

roof level. The slab is

extruded from indoor ceiling

to outdoor. It has a function of

blocking rain water from

spreading to the house.

Stretched,

twisted and

ribbed steel bars

are used in both

site

Starter bars are extruded out from

the formwork to provide connection

for the next structure.

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Reinforcing steel bars

Image above shows how reinforcing steel mesh are tied to beams reinforcement

Columns are the last framework that will be built in the on the ground floor area. Although they have the similar construction process as both beams and slabs, but column is a

vertical structure whereas the other two are horizontally built. Since columns are built above the column stump, reinforcements steel bars of columns will be tied to the starter

bars on column stump. This can ensure that the beams load and weight are transferred down to the foundation. Columns are usually built in storey height, therefore it is

important to ensure the structural continuity of the reinforcements. Steps that have been applied on beams and slabs are repeated again at where formworks are set up continued

with concrete pouring into it. Although the plywood formworks are taken off after the curing period, they are once again set of the edge of the built column. These formworks set

play an important role in continuing the construction of the formworks for building first floor beams.

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First floor column are set above the beams

Structure of column formwork

Image shows the structural

continuity of the concrete

reinforcement from foundation, to

ground and level and followed by

first floor level.

Figure above shows the relationship between beams, columns and slabs.

Ground Floor

First floor slab

First floor beam

Starter bar that connect

column reinforcing bar to

foundation

R.C. Foundation

Main Bar

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CONCRETE

Concrete is a heavy, rough building material made from a mixture of broken stones or gravels, sand, cement

and water spread and hardened.

PROCESS

Through self-placing and self-leveling concretes (concrete that is placed without vibration).

Step 1 :

The site needs to be cleared.

Step 2 :

Forming. Once the sub base is prepared, forms can be set.

Forms are attached to stakes with screws or special nails to allow easy removal of forms after the concrete

has cured.

Step 3 :

After the sub base is compacted and the forms are set concrete mix are placed. Concrete is poured directly

from the chute of the ready mix truck, wheeled into place with a buggy, or pumped into place with a concrete

boom pump. Concrete is normally specified at a 4-5 slump.

Step 4 :

Once wet concrete has been placed into the forms, a large metal or wood board is used to screed the top of

the concrete. This screeding process helps compact and consolidate the concrete, and begins the smoothing

and leveling of the top of the concrete. Once the surface has been screeded, the concrete is floated. This

involves using a special trowel called a float. Floats can be a small hand held trowel for edges and detail

work, or a large trowel called a bull float for working large areas of the concrete surface.

Step 5 :

Floating and troweling is a process of compacting and smoothing the surface which is performed as the

concrete starts to harden.

Step 6 :

Once all the troweling (float or steel) is complete the final finish can be applied to the concrete. The most

basic type of finish is known as a "broom finish". A special broom is pulled across the concrete surface

creating a rough textured surface.

Step 7 :

Once concrete has been placed and consolidated it must be allowed to cure properly to develop good final

properties. As the concrete hardens and gains strength it becomes less and less vulnerable, so the critical

time period is the first hours and days after it is placed. Proper curing of concrete generally comes down to

two factors, keeping it moist and keeping it supported. To cure properly, the cement paste much be fully

saturated with water.

PROCESS

ADVANTAGES

Durability :

Tough and resilient and is able to withstand heavy pressure.

Materials are in high quality and wont get damage easily.

Easy To Maintain :

Need to be sealed every 3 to 9 months depends on how often it is step on.

Use a neutral cleaning agent to mop the floor.

Long Lasting :

A sealed and properly maintained concrete floor can last indefinitely.

DISADVANTAGES

Uncomfortable :

The hardness of concrete also makes it uncomfortable to stand on for long periods of time.

Environmentally Unfriendly :

Due to the presence of cement, it requires a significant expenditure of energy and carbon dioxide in order to manufacture.

IS THIS METHOD APPLICABLE FOR INDOOR?

Yes. It uses the same method indoors.

Glenmarie Cove, Klang.

Indoor flooring in bungalow unit. Stable land.

Taman Segar, Cheras.

Stable land. Bungalow units.

TILES INSTALLATION

Step 1 :

Remove old floorings.

Step 2 :

Ensure the subfloor is level and solid.

Step 3 :

Spread a layer of thinset on the floor.

Step 4 :

Tape and mud all the seams. It helps to solidify the floor.

Step 5 :

Now substrate is in place. Lay out the tiles.

Step 6 :

Mix thinset, trowel and spread out thinset and start placing the tiles.

Step 7 :

Wait for it to dry and pull out tile spacers and clean out the grout joints prior to grouting. Now that the joints are clean, it is time to mix and spread the grout. Let grout set up for

about ten minutes after spreading and start wiping off with clean water and sponges.

Step 8 :

After tile has been grouted, wait for it to harden. Wipe it off with clean water. Grout sealer should be applied one week after installation.

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TILES

General characteristics are brittle, do not conduct heat or electricity very well and can withstand

high temperatures.

Marble Tiles

Made from limestone or dolomite rock. Colour of marble ranges from purest white to

black.

Travertine Tiles

Is a natural stone such as marble, granite and Slate.

Formed in hot springs or limestone caves. Standard size is 0.5 inches thick.

Granite Tiles

Granite is a hard, coarse-grained rock. Contains three main minerals such as quartz,

alkali feldspar, and plagioclase feldspar.

Strong and durable. The most size of granite used for domestic

applications is 305x305x10mm.

Glenmarie Cove, Klang, Selangor Darul Ehsan.

Taman Segar, Cheras, Selangor Darul Ehsan.

Marble tiles are used as the flooring in the bathroom in the main bedroom.

Based on my knowledge, I do not think it is suitable to make it as the

flooring in the bathroom. Because when it gets wet, someone might trip and

fall down. On the contrary, it is suitable as the wall tiling.

Travertine tiles are used as the flooring in the bathroom of the other

bedrooms. It is suitable to be used as the flooring in the bathroom since it

has a rough surface which prevents people from slipping over the floor.

Granite tiles are used as the flooring in the

master bedroom and the other bedrooms.

Granite tiles are used for the flooring outdoor. It is used widely as an

elegant and many practical solution to design issues.

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Wall structure is important for every construction as it carries the weight of the whole building. There are many ways to construct the wall based on the requirement of the

client along with the design from the designer. Judging from our sites, we were able to learn more on the types of wall structure and how unique each construction is.

There are 2 types of walls: Load-bearing wall (Site A and B) Load-bearing wall is a structural element. It carries loads from the roof and upper front floors and its own weight. This type of wall have to be able to resist side pressure from wind and sometimes imposed loads within the building. With trussed roof construction, external walls are known as part of load-bearing wall.

Non load-bearing wall A non load-bearing wall can be removed or altered. It is free standing and only carries own weight The wall is mostly built internally and is described as a partition. Being part of internal wall, piers and slabs are not required.

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Material

Autoclaved Aerated Concrete (AAC) Blocks (SITE A) Material was chosen for its greener advantages Non-toxic and energy efficient as it consumes less energy in manufacturing process Made from recycled aggregate Good thermal insulation and low thermal conductivity Made from a mixture of inert aggregate and cement (causes the formation of bubbles and expand around 5 times its original volume) and cured by natural

weathering or in a pressured autoclave

Has a higher fire resistance Has better water permeability, making it suitable for its site by being by the lakeside

Clay Brick (SITE B)

A basic and cheaper alternative from SITE A, with contractor being more familiar with material

Used in general work with no special appearance Type of brick used, solid clay bricks were used in site Absorbs moisture easily thus plastering or rendering and finishing are required

Does not require skilled labour to assemble

Mortar

Good workability Adequate strength A mixture of sand and lime or sand and cement with or without lime ratio and composition:

Cement mortar (cement : sand)

1:3 suitable for brickwork in exposed conditions such as parapets and

brickwork in foundation.

Lime mortar (lime : sand)

1:3 for internal use only

Gauged mortar (cement : lime : sand)

1:1:6 suitable for most conditions of severe exposure;

1:2:9 suitable for most conditions except those of severe exposure;

1:3:12 internal use only

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Constructing a Brick Wall

Lay a solid footer or foundation wall and

then allow footer to cure for at least 2 full

days before beginning to lay brick.

Hose the bricks down before beginning

laying the brick to stop the bricks from

absorbing moisture from the mortar.

Measure the two point as guideline

to keep the wall centred.

Mix the mortar according to the

acquired ratio.

A mortar line is added to the

foundation.

Bricks are lay on the mortar. Starting

from the second brick, mortar is applied

to head joint end of each brick.

Level is used to make sure bricks

are levelled.

When removing brick, trowel handle

is gently tap on to avoid breaking the

bond.

SITE A The use AAC bricks Technique of using thin-bed mortar is used making construction process to be skimming it. Clay bricks are also used on site, creating man hole. It is done this way to save cost.

SITE B

Mortar work is not neat as some parts the can drooling out. Brick work is roughly done, with some bricks popping out Excess mortar isn't removed as plastering will be done later onto brick wall, avoiding any unwanted sight of brick wall.

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Bond

Running bond

Used in both Site A and B Most common bond Simplest pattern Consists of stretchers only Usually uses reinforcing ties to strengthen the bond because there is no header involved Top levels brick are placed 45 degree slanting upward in order to joint both wall and beam together as this is the solution to the lack of space that prevents using 2 layer of bricks.

Rendering

Give extra protection against penetration of moisture or to provide desired texture on the outside of the wall

Process

Wall is left for 3-5days to cure to for the first coat of render. Wet the wall thoroughly to prevent the bricks from absorbing moisture. Avoid rendering in full sun as the finish will

dry up before it can be worked with. Mortar mixture is mix until acquired mixture is obtained based on client's need. Level pack is placed onto brick wall as a guide for the

workers as a marking to indicate the plaster's thickness. Along with the angle bead, placed on the corner of the wall to ensure the vertical of the wall. Rendering, starts from the

corner, working on combining the brickwork with the rubber grout float by filling the joints. After finishing the first coating, allow coat to dry. Scratch" the plaster in a cross-

hatch diagonal design before the plaster cures making sure the first coat bonds well with the second coat. As for the second coat, it's not important to have a thick coat like the

first coat, cause it's just as an additional cover. The number amount of coat depends on the designer, as to achieve the acquired wall.

Internal Plastering

Plastering is the mixture of gypsum with sand and

water that provides durable hygienic surface to wall.

Applying layers of mortar to masonry, wood, or

metal lath will form a finished wall surface. The 3

coat work is where the background requires an extra

coat of material and when the background is uneven,

with the mortar not evenly spread during the brick

wall process. Or background is lathing. The

background has variety of different materials, using

clay bricks, mortar and more.

Process

Dampen the wall before beginning the work as there

is a risk of plaster drying up quickly resulting a

friable and deleterious material

Scratch coat (First coat)

Its important to wet the substrate. Because if plaster is

applied to a dry masonry wall, the plaster will be dried

quickly resulting in possibility of shrinkage cracks and de-

lamination. Using hawk and trowel to apply the plaster to

masonry. Fix level pack (ensure the plaster reach enough

thickness) and angle bead at the corner of the masonry

before plastering starts. Truing up takes place at the second

coat. Scratch coat is to put material on the wall in

preparation for the truing coat. Scratch" the plaster in a

cross-hatch diagonal design before the plaster cures making

sure the first coat bonds well with the second coat. The

plaster need 7 days to cure depending on the conditions, so

second coat can be apply.

Brown Coat (Second coat)

Before applying the second coat, its important to

control the suction. If the plaster dries out too fast

proper bonding between 2 coats cannot take place.

at least 7 days needed to ensure slow cure of the

work.

Finish Plaster (Third coat)

The wall thoroughly dampen before finishing the

plaster. Thin layer of plaster is applied using the

"putting on and taking off" technique for 3 layers to

have a smooth and flat surface. Ensuring a "tight"

plaster with good bonding. And when the plaster is

taking up, apply some water and polish the plaster

with a trowel to have a soft glass like finish.

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Finishing

Wall Tiling

Using sand paper to smoothen out the wall, vacuum away the dust. A thin set of

mortar layer onto the wall, using a tiling trowel to spread the mortar around the

wall. First few tiles are installed along straight edge to ensure that tiles would

not be crooked. Align the first tile along the edge of wall, then press it into

mortar after making sure its straight. Process is then repeated. Excess tiles are

then cut using machineries to fit into pattern. By marking the tile using a

pencil, holding it up to the installed area. This is then repeated. When its done,

installed wall are then left for 24 hours until the joint of the tiles are then grout.

Type of grout is based on the requirement of the client. Excess grout are then

cleaned out using sponge and water by gently rubbing it and often rinse.

Painting

Prepare the wall for the painting. By using sand paper to smoothen out the wall.

Then vacuum away the dust. Wall is firstly covered with a coat of primer.. It help

absorb the colour well. Start off from the edge of the wall and using an angled

brush to help ease the painting. Roller is then used for the centre part of the wall.

Wet the roller with different liquid for different paint based. Paint is then poured

onto tray. Excess paint are rolled out on tray to achieve even coat. Paint is then

left for hours to dry. Wall is then touched up using the second coat of paint. For

wall at the roof or swimming pool where it is expose to water, waterproof

membrane is applied to wall before painting.

Wood Veneer

Ensure the surface of the wall is cleaned and smooth and then cut the

veneer into specific shape and size by marking the cutting lines first and

run painters tape along the planned seam. After cutting, remove the tape.

This reduce breakage of veneer. Use glue roller to spread veneer glue onto

the wall and also the backside of the wood veneer. Place the veneer on the

surface and ensure that its set properly. Lastly gently apply pressure on

the veneer to remove air bubbles.

Aluminum Cladding

Aluminum sheets are measured and drawn using pencil then cut using the

aluminum panel cutter. Grooving and cutting the corner side of the panel to

enable us to fold it. After being folded it will be caulked to stabilize the

panel. Panels have been riveted interiorly, to secure it. Wall brackets, hold up

the sheets and jointing the aluminum sheets together, being bolted on the

wall. With galvanized steel tie hooked onto the aluminum sheets are then

inserted into the hook from bottom to top. Apply force upward to secure the

sheet onto hook. Sheets are bent 90 degrees to get the desired shape when

sheets reach the edge of faade.

Types of Stairs

a ) Straight Stairs

Stairs that has no change in direction on any flight between two successive floors.

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Stairs come in the various following types :

Straight Stairs

A stair is a structural consists of a numbers of steps leading from one floor to another. The main function of a stairway being to provide means of communication

between the various floors for everyday use. As well as an escape route from upper floors in the case of a fire. A lot of measurements and calculations are required to

be done when constructing the staircase as to allow maximum comfort for the users which includes a suitable width as well as step sizes.

Introduction

Stairs may permit a change in direction at an immediate landing such as parallel stairs, angle stairs, and scissors stairs.

L Stairs Double L Stairs U Stairs Pie Stairs

b ) Curved Stairs

Stairs that when viewed from above appear to follow a curve with

two or more centers of curvature, such as an ellipse..

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Curved Stairs

Spiral Stairs

All the stairs present in both site A and B whether indoor or outdoor are all half-turn stairs but differentiate in material and aesthetic qualities.

c ) Circular/Spiral Stairs

Stairs that when viewed from above appear to follow a circle with a single enter

of curvature and large radius. A spiral stair is slightly similar to the circular

stairs except that the radius of curvature is small and the stairs maybe supported

by a center pole.

The stair case in site A is a half-turn open riser stairs that rises up 3 story. The supports are first attached onto the wall following the initial measurements of riser and

thread. The solid timber threads are then added onto the surface of the support followed by the black anodized carbon steel hand and guard rail.

Both stairways in Site B are concrete inclined, one-way reinforced slab with the addition of steps on the upper surface. After the measurements in terms of risers,

thread and landing is determined through the general method as stated. The frame can then begin to be assembled.

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Prior to the construction of the stairway, several rules are established in order to make the stairs as comfortable to use as possible.

a) All the risers in the same flight must be equal; the same rules apply to threads.

b) Maximum height of riser is 8 and 9 for thread excluding the nosing.

c) The formula Minimum R + T = 17 and Maximum R + T = 18 is the most common stair ratio being used.

These rules being used better known as The International Residential Code which includes the change of allowable thread width and height of risers is updated every three years.

Main stairways are usually not built or installed until after interior wall surfaces are complete and nish ooring or underlayment has been laid.

The dimension for the stairs are then measured in order to find the accurate riser and threads. The stringer layout is first determined by the riser height being measured through the use of a story pole to mark the height of the top of the finished floor above. A straight piece of 2 x 10 or 2 x12 is then used to draw out the layout using the framing square with the riser height and the step is repeated until complete.

Construction Process

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Completed example of indoor stairs on site B

Half completed example of outdoor stairs on site B

Wooden thread is then lastly added onto the thread of the stairs as a finisher and adds to its aesthetic properties.

When the form of the frame has been completed, concrete is then poured into it complete its basic structure for the stairs.

The handrails and guardrails are then added to the stairs within the cast-in-place sleeve. Using stainless steel for the handrail and tempered glass for the

guardrail as per design. Piece of cardboard are measured and cut to a exact size of the glass panels to be slotted into the in-cast sleeve at a later period.

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Advantage Disadvantage

Conform s to any figure and structure Foundation or exterior surface damage

over time

Cheap for amount of volume Not as visually appealing as other

materials

Water proof, no flood damage Difficult to repair if damaged

Can be finished with a variety of

material

Can be decorated with colors and

design to match surroundings

Materials

Concrete stairs

Advantage Disadvantage

Naturally beautiful wood textures and

color

High cost to build

Easier to clean and maintain Can be slippery

Long lasting and durable Expensive maintenance

Lightweight Relatively weaker

Good sound and heat insulation Fire hazardous

Wooden thread and stairs

Advantage Disadvantage

Lightweight and strong Require more maintenance

High strength to weight ratio Easy to rust

Corrosion resistant

Stainless Steel &Anodized Carbon Steel Hand railing

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Measurements

Guardrail and Handrail Thread 250mm, Riser 167mm

Site A - Indoor Stairway

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Site B - Outdoor Stairway

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Site B - Indoor Stairway

There are many different types of doors that would suit different functions and styles, depending on the type of building they are used in.

Diagram 1: Anatomy of a door

Types of door found in Glenmarie Cove Klang Site 1

1. Double Leaf Hinged Door

2. Single Leaf Hinged Door

3. Sliding Glass Door

DOORS

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

A door is an opening or closing structure used to block off an entrance. Doors typically consists of a panel that swings on hinges or that slides or spins inside a space. It is held

in position by doorframes, the members of which are located at the sides and top of the opening or doorway. The main function of a door in a building is to serve as a

connecting link between internal parts and to allow free movement to the outside of the building. They admit people, animals, ventilation and light. Doors have many uses

ranging from shutting out noise, to shutting out the atmosphere, to preventing fires from spreading, or simply separating two spaces.

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Installing Door Frames and Openings

For this site, the installation of the doors and doorframes were postponed until most of the construction is completed to avoid and prevent the woodwork from being damaged.

The measured to detail openings were made as the brick walls were built and left to be fitted later with frames and doors.

The head of a small opening like the one above is supported by a concrete lintel. It is to bear the load from above the opening. It is a structural horizontal block that spans the

space between the two vertical supports.

picture 1 - 2: Openings for doors during construction

Picture 3: Exposed concrete lintel

Diagram 2: Lintel sitting above door frame.

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Alternatively, the head of any sized opening can also be supported from the floor above. This allows openings of any length. It requires the head to be aligned with the underside

of the floor slab or beam above. This is the case for one of the openings in Site 2 (Cheras), as shown below.

Door Opening in Brick Wall Construction

Picture 4 - 6: Unfinished opening in brick wall after temporary timber struts are removed.

In this case, the opening goes up to the beam (full height of the floor). To hold up the

temporary timber formwork in position during the following building operations, the workers

use struts. These are braces against blocks on the ground and lean up to the head of the frame,

where they are secured with two nails. The temporary formwork to make the opening are cut

to finished size and sanded. Nails are used to assemble the temporary door frame which is

then is raised into correct position. Bricks are then laid up to the frame on each side.

Diagram 3: Temporary formwork and

struts for door opening construction

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Once the bricks are laid and the wall is done, the struts and temporary timber frame is removed. The brick wall is cemented and tiled with bathroom tiles on one side. Full

size tiles are laid leaving the access to be cut off later.

picture 7 - 9: Temporary timber door frames

A doorstep is then made with cement and tiled. When the access tile is cut and the opening is cleaned and ready, a selected door with its frame is chosen and installed. For

this opening, a hinged door would most likely be used.

The installation of the frames is postponed until most of the construction is complete in order to reduce the risk of damage to the woodwork. As seen in the picture above,

temporary timber door frames were used for most openings throughout the construction process until the door frames and doors were ready to be fixed.

Picture 10 -11: Bathroom tiles before excess is cut

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Timber Frames for Openings

A door frame provides a secure attachment for the door. Depending on the type of door, its function, and its location, different types of door frames can be constructed. The most

common door frame consists of three members;

Two posts (a)

One head (b)

One member on the floor, called the threshold (c)

Diagram 4: Members of a timber door frame

However, there were also openings in the house that were just timber frames with no doors. For these frames there are no door jambs needed as no door is needed.

Picture 12 -13: Openings with Casings only

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Hanging an Internal Hinged Door

Once an opening in a wall is ready, the door frame and door can be fixed. A simple timber door frame, painted in white, is used for all the hinged doors found. A hinge is selected according to the size and weight of the door. The height and distance between each hinge is measured before it is screwed to the frame. The top hinge is marked 6 inches (150mm) down from the top and the bottom hinge 8 inches (210mm) up from the ground. The hinges are placed inside of the markings and a pencil is used to draw around the hinge.

The hinges are then screwed on and made sure and the hinges and screws are flush. The door is then propped up into the frame while resting on wedges and not on the ground so that there is a correct gap at the bottom. Once the markings are made on the door frame, a single screw can be used to fasten the door first so that adjustments can

be made later.

Picture 14: Entrance door hinge

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For most doors in residential construction, the residential grade butt hinge is adequate. It s neat looking and consists of two rectangular leaves with screw holes.

The leaves are joined by a pin. Withdraw this pin and the leaves will separate. Both leaves are recessed; one into the door, the other into the jamb or framework.

When the door is closed, the leaves meet, as shown above, with only the pin showing.

Diagram 5: An assembled hinge Diagram 6: A dissembled hinge Diagram 7: Hinge when the door is

closed

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Types of doors found in Taman Bukit Segar Site 2

1. Sliding Doors (Interior Sliding Glass Door)

2. Bi-fold Sliding Door.

3. Hinged doors for entry, store rooms, bedrooms, and smaller spaces.

4. Timber top-hung sliding door for wardrobe.

5. Openings only (with timber frame).

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Interior Sliding Glass Door

The mechanism used to operate a sliding door is called sliding door gear. The first type of sliding door found on site is a bottom rolling system sliding door. When the weight

of the door cannot be supported from above, a bottom rolling system is used, such as in this case.

picture 14: Bottom tracks of the sliding door

This system consists of two rollers at the bottom of the door, running on a track, and two rollers at the top running in a guide channel. All the weight of the sliding door is

concentrated on the bottom two rollers, therefore more force is needed than on a top hung system.

To be more specific, a sliding glass door, as shown in the picture above, is a large framed glass in a structure that

provides door access from room to room or to outdoors.

There are two types of sliding glass doors found on site:

i) 2 panel sections

ii) 4 panel sections

In a two panel section sliding glass door, as sketched below, one panel is fixed while the other is mobile to slide open

and close. In a four panel section sliding glass door, the two outer panels are fixed, while the inner two are mobile to

slide open and close.

Picture 15: 4 section sliding glass door

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Assembling and Installing a Sliding Door

When installing a sliding door, there are two situations; the first being the sliding door is readily assembled and the other is having to assemble it on site.

An opening in the wall would be cut or made to size. Once the opening is done, a header is placed above the opening. If the opening is made directly under a beam, this is not necessary.

A timber frame was used in this case and was lifted and set into the opening. A nail gun was then used to nail the top right side or the frame then the flanges.

Wood shims are then used and shoved into any small gaps to make sure the frame is level and has right angle corners. Once the opening is done and ready, the assembled sliding door and frame is lifted and fit into place. The sliding door will be secured with 12 inch screws. Lastly, the shims are trimmed and the timber frame is covered with

cement or plaster and painted.

Advantages of Sliding Doors

1. Sliding doors let a lot of sunlight in while being aesthetically pleasing.

2. Saves a lot a space as it does not require any space except for the opening.

3. Can see through from room to room or indoor to outdoor.

4. Also, creates the illusion of more space.

5. Allows larger objects to be moved in and out of the home or rooms.

Bi-fold Sliding Door or Bi-folding Door

The bi-folding doors on site have a white aluminium frame. There are two types found;

i) Four Panel Sections

ii) Eight Panel Sections

A bi-fold sliding door is a type of door that opens by folding back in sections, while sliding to the side. On site, they are used as entrance doors, separating indoors from

outdoors. They are designed to provide quick and easy space division.

Picture 16 - 18: Opened and closed Bi-fold sliding doors used on site

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Advantages of Bi-fold Sliding Doors

1. Allows maximum or 100% clear opening.

2. Keeps doors out of the way and safe for children to run in and out.

3. Lets more air for ventilation into the house.

Diagram 8: Showing how a bi-fold door slides open

There is a track stopper or door stop at each end, as shown in the picture below, to absorb any impact if the door is slammed and to hold the door in an open or closed position.

Diagram 10: Longitudinal section through tracks at the top of top hung sliding door.

Diagram 9: Section cutting through tracks at the top of top hung sliding doors

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Top-hung Timber Sliding Door

This single panel, top-hung sliding door is used on site for all the bedroom wardrobes. It uses the top-

hung system and the door is hung by two trolley hangers at the top of the door, running on a concealed

track. All the weight is taken by the hangers therefore making it easy to move. There is not track at the

bottom of the sliding door and there is a slight gap between the door and the floor to ensure there is no

friction and obstruction in its mobility.

Picture 19 - 20: Opened and closed top hung sliding door

In most cases, a top-hung system also requires a guide at the bottom to prevent the sliding door from swinging sideways. In this case, a floor-fixed

plastic guide is fixed below the door at the mid-point of its run (marked in the picture below), and a groove is cut into the bottom of the door which

runs over this guide. This prevents any lateral movement. Because the door is always engaged in the guide, when the door is open the floor is clear

leaving a clear threshold.

Picture 21: Showing position of the plastic floor guide

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Hinged Doors

These doors are hinged along the side to allow the door to pivot away from the opening in one direction but not the other. There are no swing doors that are also hinged doors, on

site. There are four types of hinged doors found on site;

ii) Timber Entrance Door (Double Leaf)

iii) Maids Room Door

(Single Leaf)

iv) Store Room Door

(Double Leaf)

i) Timber Bedroom Door (Single Leaf)

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Hardware, Fixtures and Fittings

The various fixtures used are:

1. Hinges

2. Bolts

3. Locks

4. Handles

Door Handles

It is an attached mechanism used to open or

close a door. The keyhole is located below the

handle.

Door Handle

This is an interesting type of

door knob which can be pushed

in and out to open and close the

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Strike Plate

It is a metal plate affixed to a door jamb with a hole or holes for

the bolt of the door. When the door is closed, the bolt extends

into the hole in the strike plate and holds the door closed.

Lockset and keyhole

This consists of components that comprise the locking or latching

mechanism that can usually be found on a door or other hinged object

but can also include sliding doors.

Door Hinge

This is the hinge used for the bedroom doors. It is

shorter than the ones used for the heavy timber

entrance door which has 5 screw holes. It is the

device that allows the turning or pivoting of the

door.

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Window System

The windows of houses in Site A and Site B have been installed by using sub-frame system.

Window type Pro Con

Sub-frame system - More stables

- To minimize damage during construction stage

- Sub-frame can be installed before the main frame is readily available.

Hence, speed up the construction

- More expensive compare to cast in system and

lug system

Lug system - Cheaper

- Conventional

- Extra care is needed to avoid damages during

construction stage

Lintel

Rough

Opening

Head

Jamb

Sash

Sill

Figure 1: Early Construction Stage Figure 2: Complete Installation of Fixed Window

No. Explanation

1 Rough opening Space is required at the top sides, and bottom for leveling and shimming of the unit

2. Lintel Concrete post beam to support the brick above of the rough opening

3. Head Uppermost member of a window frame

4. Jamb Two side member of a window frame

5. Sill Horizontal member beneath a window opening, having an upper surface sloped to shed rainwater

6. Sash Fixed or movable framework

Site A and Site B

There are two stage in installing the windows:

1. Sub-frame

2. Main frame

Sub-frame

Sub-frame has been installed by using lug system. Lug system is an installation of windows on brick wall. Several precautions should be taken before installing the

windows on brick wall. Lug system frame can be differentiating by the following properties:

Strap

V-shaped timber wedge Frame

Figure 3: Sub-frame

Precautions:

- Wall opening should be checked for any physical defects. Any defects should be rectified before installation proceeds

- Wall opening should be cleaned and wetted

- Window frame should be checked for any damages, and should come with the correct number / spacing of galvanized straps. Defective frames should be

replaced

Marking of

frame Metal straps

1. Setting out of sub-frame

a. Check number of straps, dimensions, spacing of galvanized strips

b. Check dimension of ram setting

c. Checking the plumb, levelness and alignment of window frame

d. Use thread to mark position of sub-frame to ensure proper alignment shows in figure

e. Positioning of sub-frame using ride up block and aluminum shin plate

1. Fixing of window frame

a. Ramset the straps to the wall after confirming the positioning of the frame

b. Check diagonal dimensions after installation

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Internal Wall (Smooth wall)

External Wall (Rough wall)

Sub-frame inside the

plastering wall

3. Plaster the sub-frame with brick wall

Main frame

1. Setting up of main frame

a. Check sub-frame for any damage before putting on main frame

Screwing main frame into

sub-frame

Installation of main frame

a. Verifying setting up of sub-frame

b. Clear dust and debris on sub-frame

c. Fit the main frame onto sub-frame

d. Fitting in the finishing trim, millet used to knock the finishing trim in the place

Specific case

The installation of main frame is usually done after completing plastering of sub-frame. In this case

as shown in figure above, the designer has planned to place the tiles on the wall, hence plastering

work cannot be done yet before that.

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Inserting glass panel

onto the window frame

Use of spacer blocks to

hold the glass panel in

place

Splice the gasket to fit the

corners of the glass panel

Estimate the length of

gasket required

Glazing of glass to inner frame

a. Inserting glass panel onto the window frame

b. Use of spacer blocks to hold the glass panel in place

c. Securing the glass panel with beadings

Installation of gasket

a. Estimate the length of the gasket required

b. Splice the gasket to fit the corners of the glass panel

c. Tooling the gasket in place

Finishing work

After setting out the window frames to the wall opening, there is gap between the frame and the wall.

The gap has to be properly sealed to avoid water leakage. Different type of sealant is used according

to size of the gap.

Gasket

Silicon

Sealant

7-10mm gap - Sealant

1. Clean the aluminum frames with white spirit by using rag

2. The aluminum frame and wall surfaces around the gap should be sealed with protection tape

- To avoid sealant from staining these surfaces

- To obtain neat sealant joint.

1. Backer rod can be used

- To have better compactness of the applied sealant.

1. Push the bead forward into the joint cavity to seal completely

2. The joint should have continuous caulking

- To ensure that all areas are filled.

1. Remove the excess sealant and tool the joint

- To achieve a smooth surface.

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11-25mm gap - Grouting

1. Ensure the protective tape on the window frame is intact

- To prevent staining on the frame

1. Wall surface that will receive the grout should be cleaned with water

- To minimize water absorption from the grout by the concrete wall

- To remove dust

1. Non-shrink grout should be used

- To prevent cracks and water seepage around the window.

A layer of waterproofing casing can be applied over the external surface of the joint areas between the wall and window frames before plastering or skim coating of the external

walls to improve water tightness.

Installation of Window Inner Frame

1. Top Hung Window/ Lower Hung Window

Friction stay

Top hung window has sash that swings outward on hinge attached to the top of the frame. The

ventilation can be directed when the sash is open.

The glass type of the windows is laminated glass, which is good in term of safety.

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Stainless

Steel Screw

Installation of inner frame

a. Check the position and function of window panel before and after installation

b. Fix the friction stay inner frame by using stainless screw as shown in the figure in sufficient sizes, depending the size and weight of inner frame.

2. Frameless Window

Frameless window consist of a frame and stationary sash. It consider as one of the fix window. The

frame of frameless window has blended into the wall and surround by window. This type of window

has maximized the exposure of sunlight and does not interrupt the view to exterior. The glass that

used for this type of window is laminated glass.

U channel frame

U channel frame is one type of sub-frame that used to construct frameless window. From the figure

above, the plastering layer is as thick as the frame in order to conceal the frame into wall.

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3. Sliding Window

There are two construction stages involve in installation of sliding window:

1. Installation of main frame with sliding track

1. Installation of sliding panel

a. Orientation of panel should be checked according to the labels

b. Clean the debris and dust on the track before installation of sliding panel