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United States Department of Agriculture
21st Century Agriculture:
A Critical Role for Scienceand Technology
June 2003
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rops that are resistant to extreme weather or plant diseases, or that can producePreface Clife-saving vaccines, medicines, and vital nutrients. Farm machinery guided by
Global Positioning System satellites. New farming practices that improve air and
water quality, and reduce soil erosion. Instant market information via the Internet.The future of agriculture is not on some distant horizon; it is all around us today,
with innovations emerging at a breathtaking rate.
Science and technology helped revolutionize agriculture in the 20th century in parts
of the world. This report – 21st Century Agriculture: A Critical Role for Science and
Technology– highlights that transformation, and how these advances can be adapted to
benefit developing countries in this century.
It showcases a broad range of conventional and emerging technologies that can
increase farm productivity, enhance the nutrient content of foods, and utilize new pro
cessing and marketing strategies for crops and livestock. It also discusses advances in
soil, water, nutrient, pest, and risk management, and ways to improve food safety and
nutrition. And it emphasizes key issues of technology transfer, and the need for sustain-
able agricultural systems that can remain productive in the long run.
Many factors can help or hinder the promise of scientific progress, including
research, education, economic, financial, legal, and trade institutions and policies.
Science and technology, in a supportive policy environment, can drive agricultural pro
ductivity increases and economic growth to alleviate world hunger and poverty. Indeed,
they may be the most important tools in achieving these vital goals.
This report was developed for the International Ministerial Conference and Expo on
Agricultural Science and Technology, held June 23-25, 2003, in Sacramento, California.
It is intended to help frame discussions on how science and technology can help meet
our goals of increased agricultural productivity, enhanced food security, and stronger
economic growth.
Developed and developing countries must work in partnership to strengthen global
food security and reduce world hunger, and ensure access to the benefits of modern
agriculture. Concerted international efforts that facilitate the adoption of scientific and
technological advances will help expand market opportunities and ensure that all coun
tries have the capacity to participate in the global economy.
Ann M. VenemanSecretary, U.S. Department of Agriculture
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United Stat es Department o f Agr iculture
June 2003
21st CenturyAgriculture:
A Critical Role forScience andTechnology
Preface
Executive Summary 2
Introduction 4
I. Agricultural Productivit y: An Engine of Development 6
Science and Technology Cont ribut e to Productivit y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
• R&D Increases Productivity
• The Green Revolution
Unmet Needs for Food Securi ty and Income Grow th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
II. Potent ial Benef it s of Science and Technology 12
Agr icult ural Product ion Techno log ies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
• Soil Management
• Water Management • Pest Management
• Nutrient Management
• Crop Improvements
• Precision Farming
• Animals/Livestock
• Forestry and Biomass
• Aquaculture
Market ing , Processing , and Transport ation Techno log ies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
Innovations for t he Fut ure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
• Bioremediation
• Nanotechnology
• Genomics
• Bioinformatics
III. Support f or Technology Development and Transfer
Research, Healt h, and Educat ion Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
Economic Inf rast ructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
Financial, Legal, and Poli ti cal Instit ut ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
• Intellectual Propert y Rights (IPR)
• Germplasm Access
• Domestic Agricultural Policies
Natural Resource Qualit y and Environmental Sensit ivit y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
Internat ional Agreement s and Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
• World Trade Organization (WTO)
• Biosafety Protocol
IV. Continuing Opportunities 38
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Executive
Summary
If countries have
policy, regulatory,
and institutional
frameworks in
place to support
science and
technology, they
can increaseagricultural
productivity and
stimulate
economic growth.
Advances in science and technologycontributed to substantial gains in
global agricultural productivity inthe 20th century. Not all regions bene
fited equally, however, and it remains achallenge in the 21st century to ensure
that all countries have access to innovations and discoveries that could raiseincomes, reduce hunger, and improve
nutrition. If countries have policy, regulatory, and institutional frameworks in
place to support science and technology,they can increase agricultural productivity
and stimulate economic growth. Thus,chronic hunger would be reduced, andopportunities to participate in global mar
kets would increase.
Agricultural production technologiesand practices have been developed toimprove soil, water, nutrient, and pest
management. Crop improvements contributed to the successes of the GreenRevolution. Modern biotechnology tools
have been used to achieve higher levels of stability and sustainability in crop produc
tion. These innovations have increasedyields and reduced environmental
impacts. Advances in animal breeding andhealth have increased both the quantity
and quality of animal protein available toconsumers.
Improvements in marketing, processing,
and transportation technologies haveexpanded the choices of food that are read
ily available to consumers. These innovations can be adapted to preserve and delivervitamin-rich foods to help combat nutrient
deficiencies in all countries. In addition,technologies to reduce food safety hazards
can be used to increase the health of bothrural and urban populations.
Scientific and technological advances
in the 21st century will result fromresearch investments in both traditional
agricultural fields and other emerging disciplines. Agricultural production research
will be targeted to develop crops and animals that can tolerate a wider range of
environmental conditions and offer consumers desired characteristics. Molecular
methods will be used to diagnose diseases,locate pollutants in the environment, anddetect harmful micro-organisms in food.
Modern biotechnology holds promise for
the production of pharmaceutical compounds such as vaccines within locally
grown plants. Innovations in biologicaland information sciences have resulted in
several emerging fields that hold promisefor the development of future agricultural
technologies. The new fields of bioremediation, nanotechnology, genomics, andbioinformatics will increase knowledge
that can be shared and used to improvesustainable agricultural production and
protect ecosystem functions in developedand developing countries alike.
These advances hold great promise,but the full benefits of scientific breakthroughs will not be realized without the
dissemination and adoption of new tech
nologies. In each country, the successfullocal development of technologies or thetransfer and adaptation of innovations
from others will depend on incentives andbarriers faced by investors and producers.
Countries with strong research, health,and education capacity will offer a supportive environment for technology devel
opment and investment.Countries have many crucial decisions
to make in meeting their sustainable agricultural goals. These decisions need to be
made and implemented based on decisionmakers’ knowledge of their countries’unique environmental, social, and eco
nomic characteristics. There are manyways that developed countries, interna
tional institutions, and businesses canincrease the possibilities for all countries
to benefit from scientific and technological advances.
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Scientific breakthroughs and techno-logical innovations in the 20th cen
tury fueled substantial gains inagricultural productivity in many coun
tries. The development of new technologies and practices resulted from both
public and private investments inresearch. Countries that enjoyed highagricultural productivity growth were able
to increase incomes, participate in globalmarkets, reduce hunger, and improve the
quality of life of their citizens. For thecountries that were not able to benefit
from the advances in science and technology, agricultural productivity did notgrow quickly. This resulted in unmet
needs for income growth and food secu
rity—defined as access by all people at alltimes to sufficient nutritious food foractive, healthy lives.
With supportive policy, regulatory, andinstitutional frameworks in place, scienceand technology can increase agricultural
productivity and stimulate economic
growth in all countries, thus reducingchronic hunger and offering more oppor
tunities for participation in global markets.Expanded global trade, investment,
and economic integration could expandmarket opportunities for developing and
developed economies alike. The potentialbenefits of international trade and techno-logical progress are enormous. Integrated
capital markets and the free flow of information create opportunities for growth
and can have a significant impact onreducing poverty and hunger.
Industrialized nations, including theUnited States, have made a commitmentto increase the opportunities for all coun
tries to participate in the global economy.
One way is to help developing countriesstrengthen their capacity to conductresearch, develop regulations, and create
the economic and institutional environment to facilitate the transfer of science
and technologies appropriate to eachcountry’s unique needs. Investments made
Introduction
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through public/private partnerships andbetween countries can have a great long-
term payoff for all participants.Section I of this report, “Agricultural
Productivity: An Engine of Development,” describes how scientific and technological investments have resulted in
agricultural productivity gains for developed countries, and for those developing
countries that benefited most from theGreen Revolution that began in the last
half of the 20th century.Many technologies and practices devel
oped in the 20th century, and those thatwill be developed in the 21st century,could be adapted to meet the unique
needs of each developing country.
Scientific understanding about the inter-actions between agricultural productionand ecosystem health can also contribute
to the development of a sustainable agricultural system. The choice of an appropriate set of technologies and practices
should incorporate indigenous knowledge
of the local economic, social, and naturalresource environment. Section II,
“Potential Benefits of Science andTechnology,” describes these production
and postharvest technologies, along withpromising new scientific fields that may
lead to innovations in the future.The development and transfer of sci
ence and agricultural technologies will be
most successful if current impedimentsand barriers are reduced. Lack of infra
structure, poor natural resource endowments, and restrictive international
policies can all hinder technology development, transfer, and adaptation. Theseimpediments can also hinder farmers from
adopting sustainable agricultural prac
tices. Section III, “Support for TechnologyDevelopment and Transfer,” discusses economic, financial, and policy infrastructure
and presents examples of barriers to thedevelopment and transfer of the newest
science, such as intellectual propertyrights restrictions. It also includes exam
ples of public and private partnershipsthat can increase the capacity of develop
ing countries to create and implement ascience and technology program consis
tent with their sustainable agriculturalgoals and based on their unique environ
mental, social, and economic conditions.When countries can make choices based
on sound science and accurate information, the chances of attaining their individual national goals are high.
The challenges and opportunities forincreasing sustainable agricultural pro
ductivity are described in Section IV.Public and private partnerships can
increase the possibilities for countries tohave access to scientific and technological
advances. Indigenous development of technologies and transfer of innovationswill be enhanced when barriers to invest
ment are lowered.
Expanded global
trade, investment,and economic
integration could
expand market
opportunities for
developing and
developed economies
alike. The potential
benefits of
international trade
and technological
progress are
enormous.
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IScience and TechnologyContr ibute t o Productivity
Technological advancement, broadly
defined as any positive change in theway goods and services are produced, has
been recognized by economists as a critical
contributor to economic growth. Research is
necessary to innovate, but product develop-
ment and testing are needed before commer
cialization or transfer of technology can
occur. Producers need good market and poli
cy incentives to adopt new technologies, and
the skills to use them effectively. These basic
components of technology development and
dissemination are the same in developed and
developing countries.
Agricultural
Productivity:An Engine ofDevelopment
Research Priorites To MeetConsumers’ Needs
Consumer demands depend in part on
income level, and pub lic and private
research priorities change to meet those
demands. To supply the products
demanded in high -income countri es, the
private sector invests in research to
develop value-added products that can be
prof it ably t raded. Public-secto r agricul
tural research can develop technologiesand practices used to ensure food safety
and to lessen pot ential environmental
impacts of producti on. If consumer
demand is strong f or products that meet
food safety or environmental quality crite
ria, the private sector can provide these
products profi tably as well. In developing
countries, t he publ ic secto r may need t oAgricultural productivity
enhance its science and regulatory inframeasures the amount of agri- structure to ensure a safe food supply andcultural output produced a protected environment.with a given level of inputs.
R&D increases product ivit yNew technologies and innovative practices have been key factors in the eco
nomic development of high-income
countries. Investments in agriculturalresearch and development (R&D) byboth the private and public sectors haveresulted in a high level of productivity.
The production of more agriculturalgoods using fewer inputs frees resources to
be invested in other parts of a country’seconomy, thus increasing affluence.
Productivity increases occurred because ofinnovations in machinery, pesticides, fertilizers, information technologies, and
plant breeding. While there has been afocus on production improvements for
To meet demands in middle-income coun
tries, both publ ic and private agricultural
research programs focus on provid ing
increased quant it ies of aff ordable sources of
nut rit ion. There is less demand for value-
added and processed products than in high-
income countries.
In less-developed countr ies, demand for
imported products is low. R&D efforts wit hin
many of these countries are not sufficient to
substantially increase agricultural productiv
ity, and opportunities for profitable privateresearch investment are limited. The success
of publ ic research depends on f inancial
resources and educational levels (human
capit al), as well as on natural resource
endowments, adequate infrastructure, and
political stability, among many factors. Due
to constraints on many of these enabling
factors, less developed countries oft en do
not have the strong indigenous public
research capacit y needed to develop tech
nologies suited to their needs.
Agricultural productivity can
be defined and measured in a variety of ways, including
the amount of a single out-
put per unit of a single input
(e.g., tons of wheat per
hectare of land or per
worker), or in terms of an
index of multiple outputs
divided by an index of mult i
ple inputs (e.g., the value of
all farm outputs divided by
the value of all farm inputs).
6 21st Centur y Agricult ure: A Crit ical Role f or Science and Technology
Private Research — focuses on varied, fresh, convenient foods.
Public Research — focuses on food safety and improvedenvironmental quality.
Private and Public Research —focuses on high nutrition andincreased production efficiency.
Public Research — focuses on productivit y of l ocal staple products
ResearAs Incomes Gr
.
High Income
Middle Income
Low Income withFood Insecurity
High Income
Middle Income
Low Income withFood Insecurity
ch Priorities Changeow:
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farmers, consumers also benefit from theincreased production of basic commodi
ties at low prices. Innovations in foodstorage, processing, packaging, transporta
tion, and increasing shelf life resulted in awide variety of high-quality products
being available year round. Recent breakthroughs in information technology andlife sciences have expanded opportunities
to increase production efficiency and toprovide consumers with the safe, afford-
able, nutritious products they demand.Consumers are increasingly concerned
with the safety, variety, and nutritionalvalue of food products. In addition, thepublic demands that agricultural produc
tion practices protect the environment and
conserve natural resources. Some agricultural practices have had detrimental effects
on human health and the environment.Public research efforts have developed
technologies and practices that havereduced these negative effects, and it is
that set of technologies from which countries choose when trying to achieve theirsustainable agricultural goals.
The Green RevolutionThe dramatic breakthrough in agriculturalresearch in industrial countries, exempli
fied by yield gains and increases in agricultural productivity, took many years toreach some developing countries and
bypassed others altogether. Before the
Yield Indices for Developing Country Crops, 1951-2002Index (1965 = 100)
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Years
Cereal Production Per Capitakg/capita40 0
35 0
30 0
25 0
20 0
15 0
10 0
50
0
All CerealsWheat
RiceMaizeCassava
1 9 5 1
1 9 5 3
1 9 5 5
1 9 5 7
1 9 5 9
1 9 6 1
1 9 6 3
1 9 6 5
1 9 6 7
1 9 6 9
1 9 7 1
1 9 7 3
1 9 7 5
1 9 7 7
1 9 7 9
1 9 8 1
1 9 8 3
1 9 8 5
1 9 8 7
1 9 8 9
1 9 9 1
1 9 9 3
1 9 9 5
1 9 9 7
1 9 9 9
2 0 0 1
1960s, in developing countries, relativelylittle was invested in agricultural research,
particularly for food crops. At that time,the Rockefeller and Ford Foundations
helped establish an international agricultural research system to serve the research
needs of developing countries.The first efforts were in public research
for rice, wheat, and maize. By the late
1960s, the development and spread of high-yielding varieties of these crops,
combined with greater use of fertilizersand irrigation, led to notable increases in
crop yields that greatly expanded thescope of the Green Revolution. Thisaccomplishment reduced the incidence of
famines, particularly in densely populated
…the development
and spread of high-
yielding varieties of
[rice, wheat, and
maize], combined
with greater use of
fertilizers and irrigation, led to
notable increases in
crop yields that
greatly expanded the
scope of the Green
Revolution. This
accomplishment reduced the incidence
of famines….
Developing countriesAll countries
1 9 6 1
1 9 6 6
1 9 7 1
1 9 7 6
1 9 8 1
1 9 8 6
1 9 9 1
1 9 9 6
2 0 0 0
Years
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In both developing
and developed
countries, the farmerswho can absorb the
risks associated with
trying new
agricultural
technologies due to
their access to credit
or larger holdingsoften adopt first.
countries in Asia. High-yielding varietieswere developed by philanthropic or public
research institutions and then given awayor sold at low prices.
Yield growth for various crops in developing regions has been substantial duringthe past three decades. For example, since
1965, wheat, rice, and maize yields indeveloping countries have more than dou-
Summary of nearly 400 studies ofthe economic rate of return to agricultural R&D
Region Number Economicof studies rate of return
(median percent)
Asia 120 ~ 55
Lat in America 80 ~ 40
bled. The contributions made by agricultural R&D to increasing food production,
however, extend beyond yield increasesalone. One of the major contributions of
rice genetic improvement has been thedevelopment of varieties that produce yields
similar to those of older rice varieties, but inshorter periods of time and with less loss of grain. This has enabled double or even
triple cropping in areas that previously produced only one or two crops per year. For
other staple crops such as cassava, yieldgains have been relatively modest.
The net result of this R&D-driventechnological transformation has been anincrease in per capita food production in
developing countries taken in the aggre
gate. From 1960 to 2000, for example,developing countries’ population grew byaround 125 percent, while the production
Af rica 44 ~ 35
All developing 244 ~ 50
Organization fo r 146 ~ 45
Economic Cooperat ion
and Development
(OECD)
Source: R.E. Evenson; Handbook of Agricultural Economics
of cereal in these countries tripled. Overthe same period, agricultural land indeveloping countries increased by only
about 25 percent. Thus, increased yieldsper hectare, not the expansion of agricul
tural land, played the dominant role inexpanding cereal production. In some
regions, however, the expansion of agricultural land resulted in the loss of someecological assets, but conservation efforts
Not all countrieshave benefited
from agriculturalinnovations.
Labor productivityin developed coun-
tries was $5,400per worker in 1961and $25,000 in
1997.
Labor Productivity$ per worker
3,500
3,000
2,500
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
Eastern Europe & Central AsiaLatin America & CaribbeanMiddle East & North AfricaEast Asia & PacificSouth AsiaSub-Saharan Africa
0
1 9 6 1
1 9 6 3
1 9 6 5
1 9 6 7
1 9 6 9
1 9 7 1
1 9 7 3
1 9 7 5
1 9 7 7
1 9 7 9
1 9 8 1
1 9 8 3
1 9 8 5
1 9 8 7
1 9 8 9
1 9 9 1
1 9 9 3
1 9 9 5
1 9 9 7
Years
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have been successful in slowing thoselosses in other areas. India was able to
increase conservation efforts and actuallyexpand its forests and woodlands by 21
percent between 1963 and 1999.Economic studies have indicated that
the rates of return to investment in agricultural R&D tend to be high in bothdeveloping and developed countries.
Developing countries have made manyimpressive, scientifically based gains in
food production over the past 40 years.However, these successes have not been
universal.Yield gains have been distributed
unevenly among food crops that are
important in developing countries. Much
of the Green Revolution crop researchresulted in advancements in wheat andrice production. Some maize/corn
improvements were made that benefitedpart of Africa, but research did not focuson Africa’s primary staple crops: yams,
cassava, sorghum, and cowpeas. Thoughyields for root crops like cassava have risen
slowly since the 1960s, the rate of increasein yield has been much lower for these
crops than it has been for cereals.
Studies have shown that although smallfarmers lagged behind large farmers in
adopting Green Revolution technologies,in many cases they eventually did benefit
from the use of these innovations. In bothdeveloping and developed countries, the
farmers who can absorb the risks associated with trying new agricultural technologies due to their access to credit or
larger holdings often adopt first. Theirsuccess serves as a model for those farmers
who were initially uncertain about thenew technology.
Despite the many benefits to developingcountries that resulted from the GreenRevolution, there were some negative envi
ronmental impacts. To effectively grow
high-yielding crop varieties, fertilizers, pesticides, and water often were needed.Chemical residues were transported into
waterways in tropical regions, and built upin soils in arid areas. Some chemicalsleached into ground water. The use of syn
thetic pesticides had impacts on farm family health, and reduced the natural enemies
of some targeted pests. These negativeeffects were experienced at the same time in
developed countries, which led to researchon technologies and practices to avoid theproblems in the future.
Unmet N eeds forFood Securit y andIncome Grow th
Many developing countries have a greatneed for increased productivity growth.
Population growth rates in lower incomecountries are generally higher than in
developed regions. If current trends continue, the world’s population is expectedto increase by 737 million people by 2011,
and most of the growth will be in developing countries. Unfortunately, crop yields
are often substantially lower in these developing regions. Even though world food
production has been increasing faster thanpopulation growth, many people are
undernourished in less developed regions.In Sub-Saharan Africa, 43 percent of thepopulation is chronically undernourished,
consuming less than the minimum recommended nutritional requirements.
However, the greatest numbers of under-nourished people live in Asia, which is the
most highly populated region.With high population and low produc
tivity levels, many low-income countries
are not able to produce enough fooddomestically to meet basic nutrition needs.
Nor do they have adequate income to
Cereals Yield Indices for Developing Regions, 1951-2002 Food security is definedYield Index (1965 = 100)
as access by all people at 300
all times to suff icient food
for active, healthy lives. As
250
All Regions
Asia
Middle East/North Africa
Sub-Saharan Africa
Latin Americal/Caribbean
such, food security
depends not only on how
much food is available, but200 also on the access that
people have to
food–whether by purchas- 150
ing it or by producing it themselves. Access
100 depends in turn on eco
nomic variables such as
food prices and household50 incomes, as well as on
agricultural technology
and the quantity and qual- 0
ity of natural resources. 1 9 5 1
1 9 5 6
1 9 6 1
1 9 6 6
1 9 7 1
1 9 7 6
1 9 8 1
1 9 8 6
1 9 9 1
1 9 9 6
2 0 0 2
Years
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Given that 90
percent of the food
consumed in manydeveloping countries
is produced locally,
production increases
and product
diversification
could improve the
health and well-being of the poor.
import enough to eliminate these foodgaps. Agricultural productivity in develop
ing countries must grow more rapidly thanit has in the past decade, both to meet
increasing demands for food and to raiserural and urban incomes—which, in turn,
will lead to the possibility of increasedagricultural trade and earning foreignexchange. For example, since 1980, farm
worker productivity rose by nearly 50 per-cent in Thailand, nearly doubled in China,
and more than tripled in South Korea.These increases had significant effects on
Asia’s economies by stimulating growth,reducing poverty and malnutrition, andhelping to keep food prices down. The
development and adoption of new tech
nologies will be necessary to increase bothfood supplies and access to food.
Food-insecure countries with low
incomes, reliance on local staple crops, andlimited trade opportunities have benefitedless than other developing countries from
R&D-based advances in food production.Many of the most significant advances in
agricultural technology were made indeveloped countries where greater
resources were devoted to agriculturalR&D. Although food-insecure countries
can be found in all major developingregions, they are particularly concentratedin Sub-Saharan Africa. In the lowest
income countries, about one-third of food
consumption comes from noncereal commodities such as cassava, for which there
have been limited research investments andfew technological breakthroughs. In much
of Sub-Saharan Africa, per capita food production has declined in the last two
decades, a period in which public sectorinvestment in agricultural R&D stagnatedin this region.
The World Bank estimates that 75 per-cent of the very poor, or nearly 1 billion
people, live and work in rural areas anddepend on agriculture for their liveli
hoods, either directly or indirectly. Giventhat 90 percent of the food consumed in
many developing countries is producedlocally, production increases and product
diversification could improve the healthand well-being of the poor. Food securityis the foundation for social security.
Undernourishment% Chronically undernourished
50
40
30
20
10 Undernourishmentis a severe problem
0 in several regions.East Asia Latin America Middle East & South Asia Sub-Saharan& Pacific & Caribbean North Africa Africa
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Food Needed To Achieve Food SecurityThousand tons
14,000
12,000
10,000
8,000
6,000
4,000
2,000
0
Sub-Saharan Asia Latin AmericaAfrica & Caribean
2001
2011
Per Capita Gross National Product
$/capita, 19976,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
World East Asia Latin America Midd le East & South Asia Sub-Saharan
average & Pacific & Caribbean North Africa Africa
World Population, 2001 Estimate (Total = 6.1 billion people)Millions
2,500
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
0
North Asia South Asia Afri ca Latin America North & European Near EastSouth of & Caribbean Central Union (15)Sahara America
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IID
evelopments in science and technology have contributed to better soil,
nutrient, water, and pest management, and to more efficient methods of
harvesting, storing, processing, and trans-porting farm products to market.Scientific breakthroughs have also
occurred in our understanding of thecomplexity of sustainable agricultural sys-
tems, which has led to research into thedevelopment of sustainable crop manage
ment technologies and practices based onecological principles.
Many factors influence technologyadoption. Farmers choose from amongalternative technologies and practices
based on the biophysical characteristics of
their environment, such as soil qualityand access to water, as well as on socialand economic characteristics such as land
tenure, labor availability, income andwealth, profitability, and access to creditand information. Many of the scientific
and technological advances made inrecent years potentially could be adapted
to developing-country needs to increase
Potential
Benefits ofScience andTechnology
Agricultural research has contr ibut ed to increased crop yields, a
safer f ood supply, and imp roved envi
ronmental quality by:
• Developing new p lant varieties wit h
better resistance to cold and insects,
and wit h greater tolerance of
drought and flooding,
• Developing biological insect control
methods to reduce the use of chemical
pesticides,
• Eradicating major animal diseases,
including hog cholera and Avian
influenza,
• Developing a treatment f or milk
products that enables lactose-intol er
ant people to consume them,
productivity and environmental sustain-ability. Ultimately, the choice of appropriate
technology will depend on the contextin which it is used. It may not be the
“newest” technology, but it could stillfulfill the sustainable production goals of
the country in which it is used. Many of these technology adaptations that areappropriate for smallholders will need to
be provided by the public sector orpublic/private partnerships.
Agricultural ProductionTechnologies
Advances in soil and agronomic sciences
have shown that application timing andmethod can be as important as input quan
tity for the effective use of fertilizers, pesti
cides, and irrigation water. Efficient input
use results in fewer residues such as chemi
cals and salts accumulating in the environ
ment. Knowledge of crop biological needs
and resource conditions is often a critical
input in crop management systems. There
• Designing methods to help t rackfoodborne pathogens and
modernizing inspection of food
processing plan ts,
• Conducting organic farming experi
ments wi th novel cover crops,
mulches, soil solarization, and
biological cont rol agent s, and
• Developing soil management
practices to curb the erosion rate
of cropland.
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are many types of crop management sys
tems, ranging from chemical-intensive prac
tices to organic production systems. The
choice of appropriate practices to ensure a
sustainable agricultural system depends onthe characteristics of the environment in
which the practices are used. Indigenous
knowledge is important in designing an
appropriate technology development plan,
which needs to be in harmony with people,
their societies and cultures.
Soil managementSoil erosion is not always visible and dramatic. In many areas, erosion by wind orwater occurs slowly but steadily, and may
not be recognized until damage is severe.
In addition to the loss of productive soil,chemicals often adhere to soil particlesand are transported by the erosion process
to the environment. Tillage and land management systems have been developed toreduce soil disturbance, maintain optimal
water-holding capacity, and increase soilnutrients and organic matter. Many of
Organic Production
Organic production systems in the Unit ed
States are managed to respond to site-
specif ic condi tions by integrating cultural,
biological, and mechanical practices that
foster cycling of resources, promote eco
logical balance, and conserve biodiversity.
Organic Crop Production
Under organic farming systems, the
fundamental components and natural
processes of ecosystems, such as soi l
organism acti vities, nut rient cycling,
and species distribution and competi
tion, are incorporated as farm manage
ment too ls. For example, habitat needsfor food and shelter are provided f or
predators and parasites of crop pests,
plant ing and harvesti ng dates are care-
fu lly planned and crops are rotated,
and animal and g reen manures are
cycled in organic crop production sys
tems. The use of synt het ic chemicals is
virtually excluded in crop production.
Organic Animal Production
Organic livestock production systems
attempt to accommodate an animal’s
natural nut ritional and behavioral
requirement s. Organic livestock stan
dards address the orig in of each animal
and incorporate requirements for living
condit ions, access to the out doors, feed
ration, and health care practices suit -
able for parti cular species. Anti biot ic
and hormone use is proh ibit ed in live-
stock sold as organic.
Soil Management
Conservation tillage is a tillage sys
tem that leaves at least 30 percent of
the soil surf ace covered by crop residue
after harvest to protect t he soil f rom
erosion by water and wind. Types of
conservation ti llage include mulch
tillage, ridge tillage, and no-tillage. In
addit ion t o reducing soil erosion and
improving w ater quality, other benefits
of conservation tillage include improv
ing t he quality of agricultural soil by
increasing organic matter, sequestering
carbon, and providing habitat and
food for w ildlife.
Contour farming and terracing
refer t o farmi ng sloping land in such
a way that maximum plant ing area is
preserved f ollow ing establi shed
grades or construction o f earth
embankments or channels.
Cover or green m anure crops are
close-growing grasses, legumes, or small
grains grow n primarily for seasonal pro
tection or soil improvement . When these
crops are plowed int o the field, they add
organic matter and improve infilt ration,
aeration, and tilt h.
Grass and legumes in rot ation are
planted and maintained for a definit e
number of years as part of a conserva
tion cropping system.
Filter strips are vegetative areas for
removing sediment, organic matter, and
other pollut ants from runoff and waste-
water. Filt er str ips are typically appl ied at
the lower edge of f ields, on f ields, on pas
tures, or in manure-spreading areas adja
cent to water bodies.
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The observations of
an experienced
farmer may be as
effective as data
from soil probes
and meteorologicalstations in making
an irrigation
decision.
these technologies and practices can beadapted to meet the soil conservation
needs of a developing country.It is estimated that in 1996, U.S. conser
vation tillage reduced soil erosion caused bywater by about 66 million tons, and by wind
by about 31.5 million tons. The Global
Assessment of Soil Degradation (GLASOD)
estimated that 38 percent of the world’s
cropland has been degraded to some extent
as a result of human activity since World
War II (including 65 percent of cropland in
Africa, 51 percent in Latin America, 38 per-
cent in Asia, and 25 percent in North
America, Europe, and Oceania). GLASOD
identified erosion as the main cause of
degradation (affecting 4 billion acres, mostly
in Asia and Africa), followed by loss of soilnutrients (336 million acres, mostly in
South America and Africa) and salinization
(190 million acres, mostly in Asia).
Water managementThere are many demands for high-qualitywater supply for municipal, industrial,
agricultural, and, increasingly, environmental uses. In 2000, worldwide freshwa
ter use is estimated to have been about 70percent for agricultural, 20 percent forindustrial, and 10 percent for domestic
Irrigation Water Management
Gravity Flow System s
Many irrigation systems rely on gravity
to d istr ibut e water across the field.
Land treatments—such as soil borders
and furrows—are used to control lat
eral w ater movement and t o channel
water flow down the field. Gravity sys
tems are best suit ed to medium- andfine-textured soils with higher mois
tu re-holding capacit ies; fi eld slope
should be minimal and fairly uniform
to permit controlled advance of water.
Pressurized SystemsPressurized systems—includ ing sprinkler
and low-flow irrigation systems—use
pressure t o distribute water. With rare
exceptions, the pressure t o distr ibut e
use. However, Sub-Saharan Africa usesonly 2 percent of its freshwater resources
for irrigation. The productivity of irrigated land is very high in both developed
and developing countries.Water is the most common medium
through which contaminants are trans-
ported to the environment. Whetherthrough rainfall or irrigation, agricultural
chemicals and nutrients can flow beyondthe field or percolate to the water table.
Irrigation systems also can cause waterlogging, salinization, and groundwater
depletion. Therefore, efficient water management in all sectors is important forachieving a sustainable agricultural system.
For individual farmers, the choice of irriga
tion methods is often limited by the waterstorage and delivery capabilities of theregion, the quality of the land, water insti
tutions, and investment requirements.Irrigation technology innovations have
contributed greatly to agricultural pro
ductivity, particularly in arid areas and forspecialty crops. Technological improve
ments made in water storage and conveyance have reduced energy use and
water losses. In some areas, small-scaleirrigation projects have been very successful. On-farm low-volume systems such as
wat er result s from using pumps, which
requires energy. With sprinkler sys
tems wat er is sprayed over the field
surf ace, usually fr om above-ground pip
ing. Sprinklers may be operated on
moderately sloping o r rolli ng terrain
unsuit ed to gravity systems, and are w ell
suit ed to coarser soils with higher wat er
infiltration. Low -flow irrigation sys
tems —including drip, trickle , and
micro-sprinklers —use small-diametertubes placed above or below the field’s
surf ace. Frequent , slow applications of
water are applied to soil t hrough small
holes or emitters. Water is dispensed
directly t o the root zone, reducing
runof f or deep percolation and minimiz
ing evaporation. Pressurized systems,
whi le more flexible in meeting crop
water demands, require more energy
and higher investment costs.
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drip irrigation, which was developed inthe Middle East, have provided yield ben
efits in addition to per-hectare water savings. Currently, equipment sensitivity and
investment costs might make this technology inappropriate for some developing-
country applications, but fundamentallessons of water delivery efficiency andon-farm water management can be
adapted to local needs. For example, irrigation scheduling based on a crop’s evapo
transpiration rate and actual weatherconditions could conserve water while
increasing yields. Some low-cost irrigation
technologies may be more beneficial incertain circumstances than those with
higher investment or managementrequirements. The observations of an
experienced farmer may be as effective asdata from soil probes and meteorological
stations in making an irrigation decision.
Pest m anagementThe use of chemical pesticides in developed countries grew substantially after
World War II. However, concerns aboutenvironmental contamination, ecosystem
disruption, farm worker safety, and pestresistance led to substantial publicresearch on alternative methods of pest
management. If alternative pest control
measures are not available, reductions inpesticide use may result in high production losses.
The goal of integrated pest management (IPM) research is to design systemsfor controlling pest damage that are appro
priate for the site while reducing relianceon chemical pesticides. IPM programs
often incorporate traditional practices,such as crop rotations, with sophisticated
biological controls. Organic productionsystems do not use synthetic pesticides.Knowledge about pest biology and local
Integrated Pest Management
Techniques or practices collectively
referred to as Integrated Pest Manage
ment (IPM) were designed to address
some of t he health and environmental
concerns of pest icide use and to com
bat pest resistance to pesticides. IPM
pract ices that meet production and
environmental goals dif fer by crop,
region, and pest problem. IPM at tempt s
to capitalize on natural pest mortalit y
factors: pest-predator relationships,
genetic resistance, and the t iming and
selection of cultural practices such as
ti llage, pruning, plant density, and
residue management . In pract ice, how -ever, IPM is oft en based on:
• Scout ing f ields to determine pest
populations or infestation levels
• More precise tim ing and application
of pest icides based on scouti ng
• Better know ledge of the conse
quences of various levels of pest
and predator populations
• Rotat ions
• More precise timing of planti ng.
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Humans have
been altering the
genetics of their
food supply since
plants and
animals were
first domesticated
thousands of
years ago.
Nutrient Management
Several nu tr ient management prac
ti ces have been designed to help f arm
ers manage f erti lizer use more
efficiently while obt aining desired
crop yields:
N-Testing– Soil and plant ti ssue nit ro
gen tests used to estimate the residual
nitr ogen available for plant use in
determining fertilizer needs.
Split Nitrogen Applications– The
application of half or less of the
required amount of nitrogen for crop
production at or before planting, wit h
the remainder applied after emergence.
environmental characteristics is importantfor the effective use of IPM. The use of
biologically based pesticides such asBacillus thuringiensis (Bt) and the intro
duction (or reintroduction) of naturalpredators can be part of a sustainable pestmanagement system, but these technologies
require more knowledge and managementskills than simple pesticide application. In
addition, success of IPM programs requiresthat all farmers in the area work together.
Community action has been an effectivetool for implementing IPM plans in some
developing countries.
Tunisian Success with IPM
Farmers in Tunisia reduced pest dam-
ages from the potato tuber moth by
select ing integrated pest management
(IPM) measures from a range of choices
provided by the International Potato
Center. Simple practices allowed the
farmers to p rotect t heir health and the
environment while cutt ing pesticide
import s. Losses to the moth dropped
by as much as 16 percent and the
yearly benefit s rose to US$3.25 mill ion.
Source: Consultative Group on International
Agricul tural Research (CGIAR)
Nitrogen inhibitors can also be
used t o release nit rates later in
th e grow ing season t o meet plant
nutrient needs.
Micronutrients– Applied to the field
either alone or mixed in b ulk blended
fert ilizer, micronu tr ient s are essenti al
to plant nu trit ion but are needed in
relati vely small amount s.
Legumes in Rotation– Nitrogen-fix
ing crops (soybeans or alf alf a) are
grow n in rotatio n wit h other crops to
improve soil fertility.
Manure– Animal wastes are appl ied
to th e field as a source of nut rient
replacement.
Nutrient managementSoil’s productive capacity depends on thenutrient content that is available to the
crop. Natural amendments to soil have
been used for centuries: ash, manure, cropresidue, and seaweed. However, the mostproductive balance of nutrients oftenwas not achieved. Even if the optimum
amount of one nutrient is met, othernutrients may be in excess supply and
leach into the environment. Improvements in chemical fertilizer technologies
have enhanced farmers’ ability to increaseproduction in developed and developingcountries alike. Increased fertilizer use
accounted for one-third of the growth inworld cereal production in the 1970s and
1980s. Among developing regions, per-hectare fertilizer consumption increased
most rapidly in land-scarce areas (such asin Asia) and most slowly in Africa. Excess
fertilizer components that were trans-ported to the environment caused concern and led to research on better nutrient
management practices.Knowledge about soil chemistry and
structure was used to design systems tosustain the productivity of the soil while
reducing nutrient losses to the environment. Technologies to test soil and planttissue nutrient content have been
Root Zone Application– There are
several fertilizer application methods
that ensure that the nut rients are
readily accessible to the plant.
Banded, side-dressed , and
injected applications are used in con
tr ast to broadcast metho ds.
Chemigation is used in conjunction
with irrigation.
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improved to give farmers timely information that can be used in making decisions.
These technologies can greatly enhancethe efficiency of the use of manure, which
is an important source of nutrients inmany developing countries.
Biological knowledge is used to tailornutrient applications to plant growthneeds, in terms of both timing and quan
tity. Application technologies have beenimproved to deliver the nutrients close to
the root zone, which increases the amountavailable for uptake by the plant while
reducing losses of nitrogen to air andwater resources.
Much of what has been learned about
the chemical and biological aspects of
nutrient management can be used todesign systems that are in harmony with acountry’s sustainable agriculture goals.
Crop improvementsIncreasing the yield potential and desir
able traits in crops has long been a goal of agricultural science. Humans have been
altering the genetics of their food supplysince plants and animals were first domes
ticated thousands of years ago. About half of all recent gains in crop yields are attributable to genetic improvements. Innova
tions in plant breeding made in the public
sector and international agriculturalresearch centers after World War II pro
duced the Green Revolution in manyparts of the world.
Plant breeders have succeeded in developing crop varieties with high yields that
will produce under particular pest pressures or environmental stresses. To obtainthese benefits, however, investments in
complementary crop management technologies such as irrigation or fertilizer use
may be necessary. In addition, there isusually a gap—and it may be wide—
between yields obtained in a laboratory ora controlled field trial and those actuallyexperienced by farmers in their environ
ment. Many innovations have to be
adapted through further research, experimentation, and farmer involvement. Evenwith these efforts, there may be a need for
major investments in complementary cropmanagement technologies before yield orquality goals are reached. In addition, any
new variety needs to be assessed withrespect to its potential impact on the bio
logical environment, such as its contribution to pest resistance, unwanted gene
flow, or loss of biodiversity.At the end of the 20th century, break
throughs in molecular biology led to mod-ern biotechnology and the development by
the private sector of crops that are disease-and pest-resistant or herbicide-tolerant.
Genetic engineering can increase productivity and achieve higher levels of stability
and sustainability. Current farm-levelbiotechnology research is focused on
developing crops that will tolerate a widerrange of drought, acidity, salinity, heat,
and flooding. These crops could con-tribute to productivity increases inresource-poor countries. For example, with
the help of genetic engineering, scientistsare developing a virus-resistant sweet
What Is Biotechnology?
Agricultural biot echnology is a collection
of scientif ic techniques, including genetic
engineering, that are used to create,
improve, or modify plants, animals, and
micro-organisms. Using conventional
techniques, such as selective breeding,
scientists have been working to improve
plants and animals for human benefit for
hundreds of years. Modern techniques
now enable scientists to move genes in
ways they could not before—and with
greater ease and precision.
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Precision Farming
Precision agricultu re t echnologies
result from innovations during the last
decade in the compu ter, telecommuni
cations, and satellit e industr ies that
have made more detailed spatial and
temporal management of nutrient s
and other input s wit hin f ields techni
cally f easible. The application of these
information technologies, known as
precision farming or site-specif ic farm
ing, enables producers to moni to r and
dif ferent ially manage small areas of a
field that have similar soil or p lant
characteristics. Components of a com
prehensive precision farming system
typically include:
• Methods fo r intensively testing soils
or plant ti ssues wi th in a field
potato and pest-resistant variety of cassava.In South Africa, where 7 of every 10 cot-
ton farmers have switched to biotechnology-derived varieties, farmers report that
their production costs have decreased, andthey use fewer pesticides. Also, the resulting reduction in tillage allows the soil to
retain more water. Insect-resistant maize isbeing grown successfully by some small
farmers as part of a pilot project supportedby a biotechnology company.
Biotechnology tools also can be usedfor much more than just the production
of bioengineered plants or animals.Tissue culture is the biotechnology toolused most frequently in developing coun
tries. Many improvements in staple crops
important to African people have beenmade recently with tissue culture.Molecular marker-aided selection meth
ods can greatly speed the traditional plantbreeding process, which can help cropsrespond more rapidly to pest pressures or
environmental changes. Desired traits canbe identified early in a plant’s develop
ment rather than having to wait untilmaturity to observe the trait. This ability
is particularly important for those plants
• Equipment f or locating a position
wit hin a field via the global position
ing system (GPS)
• A yield monito r
• A comput er to store and manipulate
spatial data using some form o f geo
graphic information system (GIS) soft-
ware
• A variable-rate appli cator fo r seeds,
fert ilizers, pesti cides, or ir rigat ionwater.
More i nvolved systems may also use
remot e sensing fr om satell it e, aerial, or
near-ground imaging p latforms during
the growing season to detect and treat
areas of a fi eld t hat may be experienc
ing nut rient stress.
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and animals that take years to reachmaturity. Monoclonal antibody technol
ogy uses immune system cells to makeproteins called antibodies, which can be
used as a diagnostic tool to locate sub-stances that occur in minuscule amounts.For example, monoclonal antibodies can
be used to detect harmful micro-organ-isms in food, to locate environmental
pollutants, or to diagnose diseases inhumans, animals, and plants more accu
rately than ever before. Another technology with similar uses for detecting and
monitoring involves biosensors, which arecomposed of a biological componentlinked to a tiny transducer.
Biotechnology can be used to create
bioengineered plants that can be used asmanufacturing “facilities” for pharmaceutical compounds such as therapeutic pro
teins and vaccines. For example,researchers have developed a vaccine forhepatitis B that is produced by a banana
for a fraction of the cost of a traditionalvaccine. Crop plant production of these
products may lower costs and increase
supply compared to current pharmaceutical production. For developing countries,
vaccine-producing plants might be easierto grow locally and make available to rural
populations than current vaccines.
Precision farmingPrecision agriculture is typically characterized as a suite of information technologies
used to monitor and manage sub-field spatial variability. Farmers use satellite tech
nology, computers, and robotics to managethe use of pesticides, fertilizers, and water
more efficiently by tailoring input amountsto the specific characteristics of the site.
The benefits of precision agriculture
technologies are greatest when field or
farm conditions vary widely and the uniform applications of inputs will result inproduction inefficiency. Each location is
tested and a site-specific management planis designed for individual conditions. Soiltesting and field mapping can be used to
identify places in a field where additionalnutrient use will increase yield, or where
input use can be reduced while maintaining yield. Variable-rate application of
seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, and irrigation
water has the potential to enhance producers’ profits by reducing input costs. It may
also reduce the risk to the environmentfrom agricultural production by tailoring
input use and application more closely toideal plant growth and management
needs. In addition, by improving the efficiency of input use, precision farming hasthe potential to reduce the transport of
agricultural chemicals through surfacerunoff, subsurface drainage, and leaching.
Because the investment cost is high relative to the value of information received,
current precision farming technologies arenot likely to be appropriate for use byfarmers with small holdings in developing
countries. The systems could, however, be
of great value for technology developmentplanners, especially in assessing the productive capacity of natural resources and the
appropriate suite of technologies and practices to sustainably increase production.For example, decisionmakers could use the
information derived from remote sensingor soil mapping to identify areas vulnerable
to erosion or deficient in essential soilnutrients. They then could offer incentives
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Low-cost diagnostic
technologies would
be a valuable tool in
the more isolated
rural areas in
developing countries
where livestock
health is critical for food security.
or provide technical assistance to thoseareas to encourage the adoption of tech
nologies and practices that would reduceerosion or increase soil productivity.
Animals/livestockSelective breeding has been used world-
wide to increase production of those animals that are most productive for the
environment in which they live. For several decades, a more reliable technology
has been used where the sperm and eggsare taken from bulls and cows with genet
ically preferred traits. These cells areunited in the laboratory and culturedbefore being implanted in surrogate cows.
The results of this breeding method are
more reliable in getting enhanced traits,and the quantity of desired offspring canbe increased.
Animal health research has been an
important factor in increasing productivity
and product quality. Particularly in an era of
global mobility, the rapid and accurate diag
nosis of disease can slow the spread of infec
tion. Quarantines and embargoes are most
Agroforestry InnovationsIncrease Dairy Production
Researchers from the International
Cent er f or Research in A gro forestr y
and nati onal part ners in Kenya
have ident ifi ed a legumino us fod
der tr ee that can substit ut e for
expensive comm ercial dair y meal.
Using t he calliandra t ree can
increase a farmer’s income by m ore
th an US$150 per cow per year. Wit h
an est imat ed 400,000 small-hold er
dairy farmers in Kenya, the pot en
tial benefit from cultivating t his
t ree exceeds US$100 mi lli on a year.
Simi lar benefi ts can be reaped in
hig hland coun t ries such as Eth iop ia,
Tanzania, Uganda, and Zimbabw e.
Source: Consultative Group on International Agricul tural Research (CGIAR)
effective before a problem becomes wide-
spread. Biotechnology-based diagnostic tests
are more sensitive and easier to transport
than older diagnostic methods. Diagnosing
diseases such as brucellosis, pseudorabies,avian leucosis, or foot-and-mouth disease
sooner and with greater accuracy means that
appropriate therapy can be started sooner,
thus decreasing the spread of the disease.
Low-cost diagnostic technologies would be
a valuable tool in the more isolated rural
areas in developing countries where live-
stock health is critical for food security.
Research is also being done to identify traits
associated with disease resistance.
Recent research in developed countries
has shown the benefits of integrating ani
mal and crop production systems. Bygrowing feed crops for their own animals,producers control the quality of the feed
and may save on the purchase of inputs. Inaddition, the livestock waste can be usedto increase soil quality. These integrated
systems have been used throughout thedeveloping world, but application of new
scientific findings can increase productiv-
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ity and contribute to higher environmentalquality. New technologies for nutrient test
ing and manure spreading reduce runoff and leaching of animal wastes and increase
fertilizer benefits to the crop.
Forestry and biomassAlthough forests are harvested to producebuilding supplies and paper products,
there has been an increasing appreciationof standing forests as a valuable ecosystem
that can provide biodiversity, wildlifehabitat, recreational opportunities, and a
source of carbon sequestration. Low-impact logging practices are being developed to replace clear-cutting practices and
to preserve the integrity of the forest
ecosystem while harvesting wood products. Conversion of forests for agricultureaccounted for two-thirds of the world’s
deforestation during the last 20 years. Themost successful reforestation and agroforestry projects have resulted from long-
term planning by rural communities thatwere committed to improving the local
natural resource base.
In many developing countries, treesand other woody vegetation are the pri
mary source of fuel in rural communities.The need to gather wood in resource-poor
areas often causes women and children totravel long distances carrying heavy loads.
The production of accessible and sustain-able sources of fuel could free householdresources for other uses.
There is increasing interest in developing sources of biomass to substitute for
fossil fuels. Bio-feedstocks can be relatively clean-burning and have less waste
than petroleum-based fuels. In addition,extraction/harvest, when properly man-
aged, has a low environmental impact.The technologies developed to improvethe economic feasibility of biomass-
derived energy may be useful for developing countries.
AquacultureOne of the fastest growing segments of
the world’s food production is aquaculture. It represents an alternative to the
wild harvest of some fish species that are
threatened by pollution and overfishing,and provides an excellent source of protein. Aquaculture is the production of
aquatic animals and plants under con-trolled conditions for all or part of theirlife cycle. Sometimes the level of control is
minimal, while in other cases the environment is designed to mimic a closed
ecosystem. For example, in shallow coastal
Aquaculture Provides aSource of Protein
Research done by the World Fish
Cent er in M alaysia has produced an
improved strain of tilapia, a hardy
freshwat er fish from Afr ica.
Compared with other farmed strains,
the result ing t ilapia can grow 60 per-
cent f aster w ith bett er survival rates,
and can yield three fish crops per
year, rather than tw o. The fish pro
vides a source of aff ordable prot ein in
areas with limited resources. Tilapia
farming in Asia has contr ibuted t o a
rise in overall fish production for the
fi rst time in 5 years. The fi sh f armers
have received higher yields and prof -
its, with most overall benefits going
to relatively poo r consumers.
Source: Consultative Group on International Agricul tural Research (CGIAR)
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Increased production
on the farm will not
yield sufficient benefits if the
products are not
delivered in an
acceptable form and
a timely manner to
an end-user.
waters, a frame can be placed to catch natural oyster spawn and the shellfish mature
on the frame where they are easily harvested. In some areas, coastal oilrigs have
inadvertently become shellfish nurseries.The other extreme in aquaculture
technology is the use of “farms” wherefish are grown in tanks of constantlytested, filtered water. The feed is devel
oped to meet the nutritional needs of thefish, and the animals are monitored for
diseases that affect fish productivity andfor organisms that might pose health haz
ards to consumers. A variation on thistechnology system for the intensive production of fish is called aquaponics,
which combines the concentrated produc
tion of a vegetable or fruit crop as part of the recirculating system. Nitrogen wastefrom fish metabolites provides nutrients
to the crop. By removing these wastes, thevegetation filters and cleans the water,which promotes faster fish growth.
M ark eting, Processing,and TransportationTechnologies
In developed countries, the choices of foods that are readily available to con
sumers have expanded greatly in the pasttwo decades. Innovations in storage,
transportation, processing, and marketinghave made the increase in affordable products possible. In these countries, much of
the research on postharvest technologieshas been done in the private sector. Many
of these innovations can be adapted fordeveloping-country needs through collab
oration with a range of institutions fromdeveloped and developing countries.
Increased production on the farm willnot yield sufficient benefits if the productsare not delivered in an acceptable form
and a timely way to an end-user. Majorinnovations in transportation have
reduced the costs of long-distance tradeand have increased opportunities for
expanding markets. These reductions in
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transportation cost will lower the price of help combat micronutrient deficienciesthe product and make it more available by ensuring an adequate diet throughout
both geographically and economically. the year. Technologies are also needed toThe objective of product transportation is accumulate, treat, and deliver perishable
to get products to market while maintain- commodities such as milk that are proing quality and reducing handling and duced on many geographically dispersed
time in transit. The use of large, standard- small holdings.ized containers that can be transported by Foodborne illnesses are caused prima-truck, train, and ship without repacking rily by micro-organisms such as bacteria,
has significantly lowered transportation viruses, molds, and parasites. Food safetycosts in developed countries. For develop- hazards can come from unclean water,
ing countries, containerization allows lack of refrigeration, and unsanitary con-ports to greatly increase shipping capacity. ditions for food transport, storage, mar-
The shelf life of fresh fruits and veg- keting, and preparation. Food safety canetables and their durability for transport be increased by the use of new technolohave been increased, although in the past gies. The use of biosensors in processing
these traits often came at the expense of plants reduces contaminants and
taste. Edible food films have been devel- enhances quality. Also, product qualityoped to reduce spoilage and dehydration characteristics can be identified with theof fresh fruits and vegetables. Recent use of sensory panels. Irradiation will
genetic research is focused on targeting reduce food-borne pathogens and may bethe desired traits that consumers demand. an effective method to use for fresh pro-In developing countries, affordable, duce, especially when pre-harvest con-small-scale technologies for preserving tamination from the use of manurevitamin-rich fruits and vegetables can fertilizers may occur.
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Enhancing the
amount of essential
amino acids,vitamins, and
minerals in foods
is particularly
valuable for
countries where
food sources are
limited.
Computer and communication technologies have improved quality control for
production and the ability to market agricultural products efficiently. Food safety
monitoring technologies and sanitarypractices have greatly reduced microbial
contamination. Rapid testing for mycotoxins, pesticides, and other environmental contaminants is extremely important in
meeting international quality standards.Production wastes are being reduced or
recycled more frequently than in the past.Food-processing technologies have been
used to transform raw agricultural com
modities to meet consumer demands.
Convenience is one characteristic that con
sumers have requested, along with enhanced
flavor and nutritional content. Raw materials are being produced from traditional
plant breeding and biotechnology methods
to have higher contents of desired process
ing traits such as oils or starch, and lower
amounts of other traits such as allergens.
In developed countries, several staplefoods, such as bread and milk, are rou
tinely fortified with vitamins. These additions have drastically reduced the inci
dence of rickets, scurvy, goiter, and otherafflictions caused by nutritional deficien
cies. Research is active in the area of functional foods that contain biologically
active components that impart health benefits, which will eliminate the need to addthe components later. This breakthrough
would be particularly valuable for ruralpopulations who consume food locally
rather than purchase processed food. Forexample, a new tomato variety has been
developed with three times the amount of the cancer-fighting antioxidant lycopene.Scientists in Europe have found a way to
create nutritionally enhanced rice that
could provide a source of vitamin A. ThisGolden Rice could reduce the number of children afflicted with vitamin A defi
ciency-caused death or blindness.Enhancing the amount of essential aminoacids, vitamins, and minerals in foods is
particularly valuable for countries wherefood sources are limited.
Innovations for t he Future
Many have described the beginning of the21st century as the Information Age.
Precision farming and biotechnologyresulted from the increased ability to ana
lyze information. Innovations in computing capabilities and low-cost access to
computers have dramatically enhanced theability to store and analyze data. In addi
tion, today’s communication networksallow the rapid exchange of information.Firms can assess consumer demands world-
wide, farmers can produce value-addedcrops for specific markets, and scientists
can collaborate with researchers around theworld to gather and analyze data.
Developments in multiple scientificdisciplines have led to exciting discoveries,and to the origin of several new fields:
bioremediation, nanotechnology,genomics, and bioinformatics. There is no
way to predict exactly how these willaffect developing-country agriculture, but
they will all add to the foundation of knowledge on which scientific and technological discoveries are made.
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BioremediationResearch in both natural and physical sciences has shown that plants and microbes
can be used to remove contaminants from
the environment. Bioremediation techniques are being developed to clean up oilspills, hazardous wastes, and other pollutants. Enhancing the biocatalytic charac
teristics of some plants would be valuablein particular developing regions where
harsh environments, depleted resources,or unusual habitats preclude production
with current technologies.
NanotechnologyThe development of microscopic tools for
imaging and manipulating single molecules
has led to the exciting new field of nanotechnology. Ultra-small structures and machines
are being made of as few as one molecule.
Bio-nanotechnology may give molecular
biologists even greater opportunities to
investigate the physiological functions of
plants and animals, which can increase the
speed and power of disease diagnosis.
GenomicsGenomics is the study of the genomeand the biological roles genes play, indi
vidually and collectively, in determining
structure, directing growth and development, and controlling biological functions. Public and private projects havegenerated genome maps and complete
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) sequencesof several organisms. Two biotechnology
companies donated research results tothe international effort to produce a
complete genetic map of rice. Geneticsequence information can be used todevelop diagnostic tests, find genetic
markers, identify genetic susceptibilities,and develop therapeutics. The role genes
play in biological functions involves protein production. Genes exert their effects
through proteins, but less is knownabout the link between proteins and bio
logical function. Proteomics is the studyof the structure, function, location, andinteraction of proteins within and
between cells.
BioinformaticsThis technology uses statistical software,graphics simulation, and database man
agement to consistently organize, access,
process, and integrate data from differentsources. Specific activities may includescreening chemical compounds, identifying potential pharmaceutical drugs, and
determining plant and animal genes toimprove sustainable agricultural produc
tion. Bioinformatics has already beenused to form international databases that
are available to scientists around theworld via the Internet. In this way, thequality of the data on plants, animals,
and microbes can be assessed, and theinformation made accessible to research
ers in both developed and developingcountries.
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IIII
n any particular country, a variety of economic, social, environmental, and
institutional factors can create high barriers to technology development and
transfer. These factors will be discussedunder broad headings:
• Systems for providing scientificresearch, public health, and education,
• Economic infrastructure, such as transportation and communications net-works,
• Financial, legal, and political institutions, including intellectual propertyrights,
• Natural resources and environmental
regulations, and
• International treaties and trade policies.
Support for technology development
and transfer includes contributions toreducing barriers and increasing incentives.
Support for
TechnologyDevelopmentand Transfer
business endeavors, or other ventures. The
cess of technology t ransfer acti vit ies,
oping country t hat w ill determine t he suc
There are many characteristics of a devel
The Importance ofInfrastructure
term “ inf rastructure” is oft en used to rep
resent these characteristics. Webster’s
Dicti onary defines infrastructure as “ the
underlying foundation or basic frame-
work, and … the permanent installations
required fo r operation.” The insti tut ional,
Research, Health, andEducation Capacity
Research systems—both public and pri
vate—play a critical role in developingnew productivity-enhancing agricultural
technology, as well as in facilitating technology transfer and adaptation to devel
oping countries. Scientists withknowledge of local crops and environments are crucial for ensuring the selec
tion and development of appropriatetechnologies. Issues of finance and gover
nance are relevant to the performance of agricultural research, just as they are in
other areas of public investment or publicpolicy. Developing political support for
public sector agricultural research, findingthe means of financing such research, andsetting priorities that are reflected in the
allocation of research budgets are important policies that support technology
development and transfer.
economic, and physical condi t ions of a
count ry (it s infrastructure) represent the
environment i n which act ivit ies can suc
cessfully take place. In the context of the
role o f science and technology f or increas
ing t he capacit y of developing countries tobenefit f rom global t rade, there are three
types of critical inf rastructure:
• Research, health, and education systems
• Transportation and communication
networks
• Financial, legal, and political insti tut ions.
Agricultural R&D Expenditures as Percent of GDP, 1995Percent of GDP
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Private
Public
China Other Asia LatinAmerica/
Caribbean
Sub-SaharanAfrica
MiddleEast/
North Africa
All DevelopedDeveloping
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Most low-income countries do nothave large financial resources to invest in
the training of scientists, maintenance of research facilities, or many other compo
nents of a strong agricultural R&D pro-gram. Asian countries have been able toinvest more than most countries in
Africa, as is reflected by the relative levelsof per capita food production in the two
regions. The average level of agriculturalR&D expenditure in Asia, however, is
still below the world average. Sinceresources may not be available for
domestic investment in research, thereis a need to transfer technologies toincrease agricultural productivity and
income. But technology transfer entails
more than just shipping machines, seeds,or blueprints. Experts with knowledge of their country’s characteristics are needed
to adapt technologies and to developeffective incentives to ensure adoptionand efficient use.
Internet-Based University
A recent innovation in higher educa
tion is the development of Internet-
based university programs. The earli est
experiments were in business-related
fields. One U.S. on-line university has
about 60,000 students att ending
classes th rough t he Int ernet, and 4,000
of these are f rom overseas. For some
f ields, part icularly in t he bench sci
ences, personal interact ion and exten
sive classroom and laboratory t ime are
still important for part of the training.
Current on-line programs are expen
sive, but may be cost-effect ive for
developing-country students, com
pared with int ernational travel andtime away from jobs and family.
The Consultative Group onInternational AgriculturalResearch (CGIAR)
CGIAR is an association o f publ ic and pr i
vate members supporting a system of 16
Future Harvest Centers that work in more
than 100 count ries to mobili ze cut ti ng-
edge science to reduce hunger and poverty,
improve human nut rition and health, and
prot ect the environment . The CGIAR part
nership includes 24 developing and 22
industrialized countries, 4 private founda
ti ons, and 12 regional and int ernational
organizations that provide financing, tech
nical support, and strategic direction.
Individual members make voluntary contri
but ions to t he Centers and programs oftheir choice, allowing funds to be targeted
to areas of research and regions that align
with development priorities. All benefits of
CGIAR research are kept within the public
domain, f reely available to everyone.
The 16 Future Harvest Centers
of CGIAR are:
CIAT – International Center for Tropical
Agriculture, Colombia
CIFOR – Center f or Internat ional Forestry
Research, Indonesia
CIMMYT – Internat ional M aize and Wheat
Improvement Center, Mexico
CIP – International Potato Center, Peru
ICARDA – International Center forAgr icultural Research in Dry Areas,
Syrian Arab Rep.
ICLARM – World Fish Center, Malaysia
ICRAF – World Agrof orest ry Center, Kenya
ICRISAT – International Crops Research
Inst itute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, India
IFPRI – Int ernational Food Policy Research
Institute, USA
IITA – Internat ional Inst itute of Tropical
Agriculture, Nigeria
ILRI – International Livestock ResearchInsti tu te, Kenya
IPGRI – Internat ional Plant Genetic
Resources Inst itute, Italy
IRRI – International Rice Research Institute,
Philippines
ISNAR – Internat ional Service for National
Agricultural Research, The Netherlands
IWMI – Internat ional Water Management
Institute, Sri Lanka
WARDA – West Af rica Rice Development
Association, Côte d’Ivoire
ICARDA ICRISATISNAR Aleppo Patancheru
ICRAFNairobiKenya
CIFORBoyorIndonesia
IWMIColomboSri Lanka
WARDABouakéCôte d’ Ivoire
CIATCaliColombia
CIPLimaPeru
CIMMYTMexico City
Mexico
IPGRIRome
Italy
Washington DCUSA
Netherlands Los BañosPhilippines
ICLARMPenang
MalaysiaIITA
IbadanNigeria
ILRINairobi
Kenya
IFPRIThe Hague Syrian Arab Rep. India IRRI
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Labor quality may
vary with differences
in experience and education, making
investment in basic
education another
potential complement
to investment in
agricultural research.
Research infrastructure in the poorestregions can be improved through direct
investment in facilities and education inthe developing country, and through the
support of such organizations as theWorld Bank, the Rockefeller Foundation,
and the Consultative Group onInternational Agricultural Research(CGIAR). International collaboration in
public agricultural research has been verysuccessful in transferring basic and
applied knowledge throughout the world.Complementary public investments
may also influence the success of agricultural research and technology transfer. Astrong public health system is important to
the success of new agricultural technology
and to the development of agriculture generally. If the agricultural labor force is inpoor health, it will be much more difficult
to raise agricultural productivity with orwithout new technology. Malaria, tuberculosis, and other chronic diseases as well as
the prevalence of micronutrient deficienciescompromise food and nutrition security.
Education is important at all levels tosupport the development and transfer of
science and technology. In addition to the
scientists directly involved in research,there is a need for trained individuals to
develop and implement regulations thataffect technology use. Qualified people
are also needed to represent their country’s interests in international negotia
tions. Decision-makers need the expertiseto understand the positive and negativeimplications of their actions within the
complex human and ecological environment of their country.
Labor quality may vary with differences in experience and education, mak
ing investment in basic education anotherpotential complement to investment inagricultural research. Particularly for
knowledge-intensive technologies such as
precision agriculture, farmer educationmay be crucial to adoption. It is important that educational opportunities be
nondiscriminatory, for example on genderor ethnic grounds. Women often makethe agricultural production decisions, and
their knowledgeable input into technology choices is essential.
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Economic Infrastructure
Economic infrastructure includes servicesfrom public utilities such as power,
telecommunications, water supply, andsanitation and sewerage; and from public
works and transport systems such as damsand canals for irrigation and drainage,
roads, railways, airports, ports, and water-ways. Infrastructure can be highly complementary to science and technology in
increasing agricultural productivity, andlack of infrastructure can seriously con-
strain agricultural development.For example, those countries that had
poor transportation, irrigation, andfinancial systems did not benefit from
the Green Revolution technology asmuch as those countries that did. GreenRevolution technology was most closely
associated with new crop varieties thatwere combined with increased use of fer
tilizer in areas with irrigation or morerainfall. The countries in which high-
yielding varieties were most successfulalso had functioning roads, irrigationsystems, options for credit, and markets
and distribution channels.
A functioning agricultural market isdependent on a strong communication
infrastructure. Rural areas rely on publicinformation to be integrated into the
national economy. Basic communicationthat needs to be made available includes
information about health and sanitationhazards, weather, public transportationschedules, labor and market opportuni
ties, and rights to public resources.Information from scientists and agricultural experts about production practices needs to be disseminated as widely
as possible. Moreover, as farmers varyproduction to include horticulture, vegetables and fruits, and other products
that must be delivered quickly, there is a
These innovations can also serve to pro-vide educational opportunities and
timely transmission of critical information. For those farmers in developing
countries with Internet access, agricultural extension information and research
results can be disseminated widely.Farmers could also alert researchers toemerging pest pressures and environmen
tal conditions. To make this technologymore effective in smallholder agriculture,
however, literacy and physical infrastructure, such as electrical power, must be as
widely accessible as possible.
premium on real-time informationabout markets.
Information and communications
technology has been transformedthroughout the world, by computer andInternet use and by wireless telephone
technology. These innovations can helpfarmers in all countries by providing up-
to-date market and labor information.
Cell Phone Use in Bangladesh
The Vill age Phone concept in
Bangl adesh was developed by a not -
fo r-prof it company called Grameen
Telecom (GTC). In part nership w it h
GrameenPhone Ltd and t he Grameen
Bank, GTC has establ ished t he cell
phone equivalent of the public pay
phone in remot e areas wit hout land-
line phone service. A Grameen Bank
member obtains ownership of thephone under a lease-financing pro-
gram and provides the services to the
people in t he adjoining area. The
operator receives an income from t he
use of the cell phone. GTC supp lies
the necessary hardware and provides
training for operating the phone.
Wit h t his service, each vil lager has
access to labor and agricultural mar
keting inf ormation. Women all over
Bangladesh are buying cell phones
using loans from a network of microfi
nance loan insti tu tio ns that t he U.S.
Agency for International
Development (AID) helped establish.
Grameen estimates that one VillagePhone covers approximately 2,500
people in a village, and t he tot al cov
erage is currently 12.5 million rural
people in Bangladesh.
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Domestic expertise
that is fostered by
strong research and
education capacity
will be needed to
make decisions that
are based on sound
science and that
meet the needs of
the country.
Financial, Legal, andPolit ical Instit utions(Institutional Infrastructure)
The introduction of new technologiesrequires new policies to ensure health,safety, or environmental quality. Stableinstitutions are important for long-term
planning and investment in technologydevelopment. Open and transparent
investment regulations that are compatible with global trading rules will encour
age both domestic and foreigninvestment. Perceived fairness will also
encourage participation at all levels, whichwill encourage foreign investment as wellas farm-level cooperation with technology
development plans. Well-functioningmarkets that operate internationally and
locally depend on the strength of a country’s financial, legal, and political institu
tions. Private investment in technologydevelopment and transfer from domesticand foreign sources will not be forthcom
ing without a strong demand by farmersand a well-functioning infrastructure.
Financial institutions provide capitalfor research, physical infrastructure, and
farm credit. Devising agricultural creditsystems that fit the needs of smallholdershas been difficult in many countries, espe
cially those with large income gaps, complex land ownership, weak banking
systems, and under-employment. This isan important barrier because many new
agricultural technologies require the use of purchased equipment or inputs, making
credit essential to their widespread use.Legal institutions often reflect a coun
try’s social history. Rights and private asset
ownership will determine who has accessto institutional assets such as education,
finances, or the right to participate in thepolitical process. For agricultural produc
ers in developing countries, control of land is often a critical determinant of technology adoption. Investment in agri
cultural technology is often related to afarmer’s security of land tenure. In addi
tion, natural resource conservation effortswith long-term benefits may be hampered
without land tenure security. As men
tioned above, contracts that could facilitate better access to inputs or improved
markets need to be legally enforceable.Political institutions need to be stable
to support opportunities for agriculturaldevelopment. Yet the political environment of a country is more than just the
formal deliberations of a national leader ora legislative body. It includes the planning,
administrative, regulatory, and enforcement functions that are often dismissed as
“merely bureaucratic.” These functions, if performed efficiently, are critical to the
research, development, dissemination, andadoption of science and technology.
Development planning must have the
support of government leaders and the
general population so that agricultural production and environmental quality goalsreflect the true needs of the country. The
benefits of any development plan willincrease when science and technology policies are integrated in the plan, and when
there is a framework to implement thedecisions. Technical support for planning
from other countries may be needed, butthe goals and objectives must be national.
In support of planning and implementation, there is a need for a regulatoryprocess that is designed to protect the
health and well-being of the people andthe environment. The assessments of new
technologies need to be done quickly andthoroughly. Domestic expertise that is fos
tered by strong research and educationcapacity will be needed to make decisionsthat are based on sound science and that
meet the needs of the country. Regulatoryframeworks and testing protocols from
other countries can be used as models.Domestic scientists and technical experts,
however, are needed to monitor and adapt
implementation to regional circumstances.In many countries, a tension exists
between agricultural and environmentalinterests, even within the government.
With increased understanding of the complex interactions between agricultural pro
duction and environmental assets,opportunities arise to develop a science
and technology plan that supports a country’s agricultural development and environmental quality goals. In some
countries, there is no regulatory system
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within which science-based decisions canbe made. Without such a system, poten
tially beneficial innovations and technologies are not being considered for
investment or adoption.Several specific components of the
institutional infrastructure are particularlyimportant for understanding barriers toscience and technology transfer: A nation’s
system of intellectual property rights,access to germplasm for research, and the
body of domestic agricultural policies willall influence relative prices and incentives
for public and private research.
Intellectual propertyrights (IPR)
This is one set of legal rights of particularimportance to research and technologytransfer. As the United Kingdom’s
Commission on Intellectual PropertyRights stated, “(t)he critical issue inrespect of IPR is perhaps not whether it
promotes trade or foreign investment,but how it helps or hinders developing
countries to gain access to technologiesthat are required for their development.”
Currently, the lack of comprehensivelyspecified and enforceable intellectualproperty rights constitutes a major bar
rier to the sharing of knowledge andtechnology among countries, and a disin
centive to local and foreign researchinvestment in new technologies. In gen
eral, nations that generate technologyprefer strong intellectual property protection, while those that depend on
imported technologies prefer few restrictions on the use and imitation of that
technology.Over the past 20 to 30 years, intellec
tual property systems have become
increasingly important factors affectingresearch in industrialized countries.Intellectual property mechanisms, such aspatenting, confer exclusive rights to
inventions for a limited time, to offer anincentive for research and to protect pri
vate sector investment in new technologies and products by restricting the use,
sale, and manufacture of these innovations. Research investment can be costly,and the probability of success low. Many
firms would not risk funding research if
Local Company Sells Seeds toSmall-Scale Farmers
Pannar is the oldest domestic maize
seed company in Sout h Afr ica, and it
has just over half of the market. The
privately held company has prospered
because the strong Sout h Af rican laws
prot ecting in tellectual property right s
have encouraged companies to invest
in t he agricultural secto r. Pannar pro
vides the latest hybrid seeds to com
mercial grow ers at compet it ive prices.
In addit ion, the company has main-
Plant Variety Protection
Rules and regulations governing plant
variety protection, or plant breeders’
right s, and patents for b iological inno
vations differ widely among countries.
Plant Breeders’ Rights in t he U.S.
In the U.S., the Plant Variety Protection
Act (PVPA) w as adopted in 1970. The
main f eatures of plant breeders’ righ ts
legislation are the:
• definit ion of a distinct variety (as
opposed to an “ essential derivat ive” )
• righ ts of farmers to save seed for
their own use (or t o re-sell it)
• research exemptions fo r use in other
breeding programs
• time period covered by the grant of a
certificate.
These provisions are consistent wit h
the International Union for t he
Prot ection o f New Variet ies of Plants
(UPOV), which t ook eff ect in 1968. In
1985, utilit y patent prot ection in t he
U.S. was extended t o p lant s.
tained cheaper maize seed products
that are a generation behind t he latest
hybrids but are nonet heless productive
under South Afr ican grow ing condi
tions. Pannar provides these seeds at
affordable prices to small-scale farmers,
wh ich has increased agricultural pro
ductivit y. Sout h Af rica provided the
investment environment that off ered
incent ives for pri vate businesses to sup-
port national goals.
Plant Breeders’ Rights
Outside the U.S.
Most Western European count ries
passed plant breeders’ rights legisla
tion in the 1960s and 1970s. Australia
and Canada adopted plant breeders’
righ ts around 1990. Other industrial
ized countr ies have been more reluc
tant than t he U.S. to g rant patent
protection to living organisms,
although t he European Patent Off ice in
1999 moved to grant patent s on genet
ically engineered crops. Most key elements of intellectual property
pro tecti on systems in Europe and Japan
are similar to those in the U.S.,
although import ant di stinctions remain
wit h respect t o the treatment of plants
and animals and the scope of
patentable matt er.
Some developing coun t ries such as
Argentina i nstit uted plant breeders’
right s as early as the 1930s, but most
do not have intellectual property pro
tection systems that are comparable to
those in developed count ries.
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Developing countries
may not have the
resources in research
and legalinfrastructure to
obtain needed inputs
for scientific
developments.
African Agricultural TechnologyFoundation
In concert w it h the Rockefeller Foun
dation, four agricultural technology
giant s, Dow Chemical, DuPont , Mon
santo , and Syngent a, have agreed to
share their patented technologies for
free w ith the Af rican Agr icultural Tech
nology Foundat ion (AATF). The U.S.
Agency for International Development
is cont ribut ing t o t he effort . The AATF
is an experiment —a new concept
designed t o aid in the t ransfer of
promising new technologies devel
oped by the privat e secto r to advance
Afr ican agriculture. The f ocus wi ll beon f acilit ating research on improve
ments in staple crops of vital impor
tance to A fr icans, including cowpeas,
chickpeas, cassava, sweet potatoes,
bananas, and maize.
The AATF is a nonprof it organiza
tion designed t o f acilit ate the transfer,
adaptation, and adoption of agricul-
Public Sector IntellectualProperty Resource forAgriculture
An ef fo rt called t he Publi c Sector
Intellectual Property Resource for
Agr icult ure (PSIPRA), developed by the
Rockefeller and M cKnight Foundations,
is designed t o support plant biot ech
nology research in developing coun
t ries. The PSIPRA will encourage publi c
universit ies that l icense their patented
agricultural technologies to private
tu ral t echno logi es by small f armers in
Sub-Saharan A fr ica. The o rganization
is cont rolled by a majorit y Afr ican
board t o ensure that sustainable devel
opment and agricultural ecology goals
of Africans are met. The organization’s
key role wil l be in licensing t echnology
from t he private sector and contract
ing wi th Af rican and other organiza
ti ons to ensure t hat l icensed
technology is appropriately adapted
and reaches farmers.
Finding technological solutions to
many of Af rica’s problems—such as
drought, insects, and plant diseases—
oft en involves a thicket of patent r ights,
licensing and cross-licensing arrangements, and private int erests that run
counter to solving these prob lems. The
AATF wi ll cut t hrough this thicket by
making royalty-free license agreements
wit h the four firms and get t he new
technologies and improved seed vari
eties int o the hands of small f armers of
local staple crops.
fi rms to retain some righ ts to the technologies fo r humanitarian purposes. In
some cases, these technologies would
be appl ied t o small specialty crops. The
fi rst ob jective o f PSIPRA i s to establi sh a
clearinghouse to facilitate access to
biotechnology innovations by provid
ing info rmation on existing pat ents
and emerging t echnologies and to pro-
vide educational and information serv
ices to help instit ut ions implement
effective licensing strategies.
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they were unable to obtain a return on theinvestment. Therefore, new technologies
become available earlier than they wouldwithout intellectual property protection.
While intellectual property protectionhas been a feature of chemical and
mechanical innovation in industrializedagriculture for some time, changes inintellectual property protection that have
had the greatest impact on agriculturalR&D have involved biological innova
tion. The two major forms of protectionare plant varietal protection, or plant
breeders’ rights, and the application of utility patents both to plants and to biological research tools.
Although intellectual property protec
tion may speed some inventions to themarket, exclusive rights to fundamentalinnovations may impede further techno-
logical progress. Often, technologydevelopment is cumulative, and scientificadvances depend on past innovations.
Restrictions on the use of innovations forresearch could limit future research or
needed adaptations of past inventions.This barrier to research is an issue in
developed as well as developing countries. Partnerships between public insti
tutions and private companies ofteninclude provisions to grant access to pub
lic research results.Many are concerned that private com
mercial research will not be done on cropsthat are important for local staple crops,and that public research entities will not
have access to the basic discoveries necessary to develop technologies to fill small-
holder needs in developing countries. Forexample, in the case of enhanced vitamin
A rice, the innovation is based on technologies protected by around 70 patents
originally held by about 30 different institutions. To use the research innovation,
scientists (or their organizations) wouldhave to negotiate with each patent holderfor use of the rights. Developing countries
may not have the resources in researchand legal infrastructure to obtain needed
inputs for scientific developments. Insome circumstances, opportunities mayexist to create public-private alliances and
joint ventures to develop appropriatetechnologies in developing countries.
Germplasm accessCrop improvement through traditionalplant breeding methods and modern
biotechnology depends critically on crop
genetic resources. Pests, pathogens, and climates change continually, so breeders neednew genetic resources from which to choosedesired traits. For example, germplasm is
used in a research program to search forresistance to or tolerances of biotic stresses.
Even though many sources of germplasmare located in developing countries, the use
fulness of these resources to these countriesdepends on research funding and infrastructure to utilize the materials.
International use of the U.S. NationalPlant Germplasm System (U.S. NPGS)
collection of seeds, plants, and othergermplasm materials plays an important
role in providing public germplasm free ofcharge to scientists and institutions inother countries. During the past decade,
the U.S. NPGS distributed 162,673germplasm samples of 10 major crops
(barley, beans, cotton, maize, potato, rice,sorghum, soybean, squash, and wheat) to
scientists in 242 countries.
International Distribution of U.S. National Plant GermplasmSystem Germplasm for 10 Major Crops, by Region, 1990-99
Africa
Asia 13%
23%
Meso and South America15%
Mexico5%
CanadaEurope 10%
34%
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Given economic and
environmental
constraints oncropland expansion,
the bulk of increased
crop production in
the future must come
from increased yields
on existing cropland.
The International Plant GeneticResources Institute also shares genetic
resources with the scientific community,and has helped to establish over 1,300
national and regional genebank collections. Enhanced availability of genetic
resources and increased indigenousresearch capacity will make it easier forcrops to be developed to meet the unique
needs of each developing country.Historically, plant genetic material was
freely collected and shared. Developingcountries—with a wealth of biological
diversity in situ (in the wild and onfields)—often provided raw genetic mate-rial to public genebanks worldwide.
However, international policy has moved
toward a system in which countries retainrights over their own genetic resources,and the services of farmers in the selec
tion, development, and conservation of their traditional varieties—the foundationon which plant breeding is based—are
better recognized. The goals of grantingnational ownership to genetic resources
were to provide incentives for the conservation of diverse germplasm and to
address perceived economic inequitiesbetween suppliers and demanders of
germplasm. This new policy approach isrepresented by the International Treaty onPlant Genetic Resources for Food and
Agriculture, which the U.N. Food andAgricultural Organization approved in
November 2001 and which now awaitsratification. This international treaty will
govern international exchange of germplasm among countries participating
in a multilateral system. Issues of particular interest to developed and developingcountries that remain to be resolved, how-
ever, include the implementation of benefit sharing, financing conservation, and
the list of crops in the system.
Domestic agricultural policiesIn many developing countries, the agricultural sector makes an important contribu
tion to the gross national product (GNP).
However, domestic policies often penalizeagriculture and distort markets, and maybe counterproductive in the long run.
Farmer and investor choices of technologies and practices are based on prices andcosts. If these economic signals are dis
torted by fiscal or monetary policies, thetechnology adoption incentives will not be
optimal. Market price supports, directpayments to farmers, input subsidies, agri
cultural taxes, or monetary and trade policies can mask the “true” prices and costs ofproduction and product, thus distorting
incentives for the adoption of technology.
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Nat ural Resource Quality andEnvironmenta l Sensitivity
A country’s natural resource base andenvironment are crucial factors in deter-
mining realistic sustainable agriculturedevelopment goals. Although climate and
natural disasters are not under a planner’scontrol, the vulnerability to these factorscan be mitigated.
There are striking regional differences incropland quality. Among the countries of
Sub-Saharan Africa, an average of 6 percentof cropland has soils and climate that are of
high quality for agricultural production.The proportion of high-quality cropland is
higher in other regions, ranging from anaverage of 20 percent among Asian countries, to 28 percent among the countries of
Latin America and the Caribbean, and 29percent among high-income countries. In
countries with poor soils and climate, basicinputs such as fertilizer and water are more
important than they are in countries thatare better endowed.
Given economic and environmental
constraints on cropland expansion, thebulk of increased crop production in the
future must come from increased yieldson existing cropland. In some areas, yield
increases may be constrained by soil ero-
Land degradation refers to
changes in the quality of soil
and water that reduce the abil
ity of land to produce goods
and services that people value.
Some forms of land degrada
tion, such as nutrient depletion,
can be halted and even reversed
relatively easily, for example, by appropriate application of fertil
izers. Other forms of land
degradation, such as erosion or
salinization, can be slowed or
halted through appropriate
management practices, but are
generally very costly or time-
consuming to reverse.
Land Quality AffectsAgricultural Productivity
Increased resource use and imp rove
ment s in t echno logy and eff iciency
have raised global f ood produ ctio n
more rapidly than population
increases in recent decades, but 800
million people remain f ood insecure.
Meanwhile, growth in agricultural
productivity appears to be slowing,
and land degradation has been
blamed as a contributing factor.
Esti mates of land degr adati on’s
impact on productivity vary widely.
Research indicates that land degra
dation do es not t hreaten productivitygrow th and f ood securit y at t he
global l evel. Nevertheless, problems
do exist in some areas, especially
wh ere fragile resources are fou nd
along wit h poverty and poorly fu nc
tio ning m arkets and instit uti ons.
Recent analysis shows that potential
yield losses to soil erosion vary widely
by crop and region, but average 0.3
percent per year. Yield losses on such
a scale could reverse recent improve
ments in th e number of people w ho
are fo od insecure. But actual yield
losses are likely to be low er to th e
extent th at f armers have incenti ves to
adopt technolo gies and practi ces t o
reduce soil erosion . Also, ho ldin g
ot her f acto rs constant , th is analysis
find s that the pro ductivity of agricul
tu ral labor is generally 20-30 percent
higher in countr ies wit h good soils
and climate t han it is in countries
wi th poor soils and climate. The qual
it y of l abor (measured by lit eracy andlif e expectancy), insti tu ti ons (meas
ured b y the absence of armed con
fl ict), and in fr astr ucture (measured by
the extent of roads and agricult ural
research expenditures) also affected
agricultu ral productivity.
World Food Production and PopulationFood producti on index Population (billion)300
Source:FAO
1 9 6 1
1 9 6 6
1 9 7 1
1 9 7 6
1 9 8 1
1 9 8 6
1 9 9 1
1 9 9 6
Food producti on
Food-insecure population
Total population
9
8
250
7
200 6
5
150
4
100 3
2
50
1
0 0
Census Years
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Trade liberalization…
brings about
important transfersof technology, capital
investment, and
knowledge across
borders.
sion and other forms of land degradation.Recent U.S. Department of Agriculture
studies show that yield losses (or lack of gains) due to soil erosion vary widely by
crop and region, and the losses criticallydepend on the agricultural practices that
are used. To lower these losses, improvements in resource-conserving technologiesin some developing countries, and in
incentives to farmers to use appropriatepractices, may be needed.
In developing countries, increasedyields have come at the cost of negative
environmental impacts. These impactsmay include water pollution, salinizationand land abandonment, lowering of
groundwater levels, and loss of biodiversity
with more uniform crops. However, largeareas of environmentally fragile land,which might have been pressed into pro
duction had yields not increased in themore favored areas, were saved.Nonetheless, in recent years many devel
oping countries, including those that havebenefited the most from the Green
Revolution, have been showing signs of aslowdown in agricultural productivity
gains. At least part of this slowdown mightbe attributed to environmental problems
related to intensive agriculture. Therefore,greater research emphasis on environmental concerns is increasingly important.
International Agreementsand Policies
The effectiveness of a country’s science
and technology policy will depend, tosome extent, on international agreements
and policies. These international policiesare largely out of the control of a single
nation, but domestic policy developmentmust take them into account. The complexity of many of these agreements, how-
ever, makes it difficult to accurately assessthe extent and timing of impacts.
The World Trade Organizat ion(WTO) is a multilateral institutioncharged with administering transparent
rules for global trade among membercountries. The WTO fosters trade liberalization that, in turn, brings about
important transfers of technology, capital investment, and knowledge across
borders. The WTO was established in1995 as a result of the Uruguay Round,
where countries agreed to initiate a morefair and market-oriented agriculturaltrading system. At the 4th Ministerial in
Doha in 2001, WTO members engagedin new multilateral trade negotiations.
For agriculture, the Doha Declarationcalls for substantial improvements in
market access, and the reduction of allforms of export subsidies and trade-distorting domestic support.
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The Agreement on Trade-Related The Biosafety Protocol to the Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) was United Nations Convention onpart of the WTO negotiations, and covers Biological Diversity provides a regulapatents, copyrights, trademarks, industrial tory framework for transboundary
designs, plant varieties, and trade secrets. movements of living bio-engineeredSeveral developing countries expressed the organisms. The Protocol requires thathope that scientific and technological regulatory decisions to deny entry of acooperation between developed and devel- product in order to avoid or minimizeoping countries in accordance with the potential adverse effects must be basedprovisions of the TRIPS Agreement on risk assessments and sound science.would support public interest issues such The importation and use of someas health, nutrition, environmental pro- biotechnology applications may betection, and natural resource conservation affected. The Protocol also establishes ain developing countries. Industrialized biosafety clearinghouse to help countriescountries and international organizations assess potential risks from geneticallywere asked to help developing countries engineered organisms. This provisionimplement the TRIPS Agreement by may be useful in addressing the concerns
2006, but national expertise is needed to of many countries that believe their cur-weigh the benefits and costs of each rent regulatory systems are inadequate tooption. TRIPS will affect the science and deal with the potential implications of technology that will be available to the technology on the nation’s environincrease productivity. ment. Even with a clearinghouse in
place, many developing countries willThe Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) need local expertise to make knowledge-
Agreement established a multilateral mecha- able decisions consistent with nationalnism to protect human, animal, and plant sustainable agriculture goals.health in WTO member countries. SPS
measures are required to be based on scien
tific principles, and the nature and magni
tude of the perceived risk must be clearly
established. Technologies and practices used
in the production of agricultural commodi
ties for trade may be restricted under SPS
rules. The science- and research-based
requirements of the SPS Agreement can be
substantial for a developing country.
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IVS
cientific breakthroughs and techno-logical innovations in the 20th cen
tury fueled substantial gains inagricultural productivity in many devel
oped and developing countries. Thedevelopment of new technologies and
practices resulted from both public andprivate investments in research. Countriesthat enjoyed high agricultural productiv
ity growth were able to increase incomes,participate in global markets, reduce
hunger and poverty, and improve thequality of life of their citizens.
For the countries that were not able tobenefit from the advances in science andtechnology, agricultural productivity did
not grow quickly, which resulted in unmet
needs for income growth and food security.Many technologies and practices devel
oped in the 20th century could be adapted
to meet the unique needs of each developing country. Scientific understandingabout the interactions between agricultural
production and ecosystem health can alsocontribute to the development of a sus
tainable agricultural system. The choice of an appropriate set of technologies and
practices should incorporate indigenousknowledge of the local economic, social,and natural resource environment.
Agricultural production technologiesand practices have been developed to
Continuing
Opportunities
improve soil, water, nutrient, and pest management. Crop improvements contributed
to the successes of the Green Revolution.Tools of modern biotechnology have beenused to achieve higher levels of stability and
sustainability in crop production. These
innovations have increased yields andreduced environmental impacts. Advances
in animal breeding and health haveincreased both the quantity and quality of
animal protein available to consumers.Improvements in marketing, processing,
and transportation technologies haveexpanded the choices of food that are readily available to consumers in developed
economies. These innovations can beadapted to preserve and deliver vitamin-
rich foods to help combat nutrient deficiencies in developing countries. In addition,
technologies to reduce food safety hazardscan be used to increase the health of bothrural and urban populations.
Scientific and technological advances
in the 21st century will result fromresearch investments in both traditionalagricultural fields and other emerging dis
ciplines. Agricultural production researchwill be targeted to develop crops and animals that can tolerate a wider range of
environmental conditions and offer consumers desired characteristics. Molecular
methods will be used to diagnose diseases,locate pollutants in the environment, and
detect harmful micro-organisms in food.Modern biotechnology holds promise forthe production of pharmaceutical com
pounds such as vaccines within locallygrown plants. Innovations in biological
and information sciences have resulted inseveral emerging fields that hold promise
for the development of future agriculturaltechnologies. The new fields of bioremediation, nanotechnology, genomics, pro
teomics, and bioinformatics will increase
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knowledge that can be shared and used toimprove sustainable agricultural produc
tion and protect ecosystem functions indeveloped and developing countries alike.
Scientific and technological advanceshold great promise, but the full benefits of
scientific breakthroughs will not be realized without the dissemination and adoption of new technologies. In each country,
the successful local development of technologies or the transfer and adaptation of
innovations from other countries willdepend on incentives and barriers faced by
investors and producers. Countries withstrong research, health, and educationcapacity will offer a supportive environ
ment for technology investment. Financial
resources are needed to train scientists,enhance and maintain research facilities,develop agricultural markets, and provide
adequate health and education systems tothe population. External funds could beused to fund these efforts, but the priori
ties for development must come fromwithin developing countries to ensure that
their unique economic, social, and environmental needs are met. Inadequate pub
lic utilities, transportation systems, andother infrastructure will impede the devel
opment of agricultural markets by limitingthe availability of affordable inputs andinhibiting the timely delivery of high-
quality agricultural products.Financial, legal, and political institu
tions have profound effects on technologydevelopment and transfer and on the evo
lution of agricultural markets. Incentivesfor domestic and foreign investment are
tied to the stability and perceived fairnessof the institutional infrastructure within a
country. Domestic agricultural policieswithin developing countries may affect
prices and costs, thus distorting incentivesfor research investment and technology
adoption. The sharing of knowledgebetween countries currently is hindered insome cases by intellectual property rights
systems that differ between countries.Innovative public/private partnerships are
being designed to help developing countries gain access to new technologies.
It may be difficult to achieve development goals for a sustainable agricultural
system in countries that have a poor natural resource base or an environment that is
vulnerable to degradation. These conditions limit the choices of technologies andpractices that are appropriate to use. In
addition to domestic circumstances, inter-national treaties and trade policies have
impacts on the success of science andtechnology policy in developing countries. The liberalization of global trade will
affect prices and incentives to invest. TheTRIPS Agreement has the potential to
enhance the science and technologies thatwill be available to increase agricultural
productivity, and the Biosafety Protocolcontains provisions for a clearinghouse tohelp developing countries make science-
based decisions about trade in bio-engineered products. International
deliberations can have an effect on decisions regarding investment in technology,even if the country does not actively
participate in global markets.
Financial, legal,
and political
institutions have
profound effects
on technology
development and
transfer and on
the evolution of
agricultural
markets.
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Scientific and
technological
advances hold great promise, but the
full benefits of
scientific
breakthroughs will
not be realized
without the
dissemination and adoption of new
technologies.
Increasingly, research investments andtechnology transfer will depend on coop
erative endeavors between developed anddeveloping countries and between public
and private institutions. Developingcountries have many crucial decisions tomake in meeting their goals for sustain-
able agricultural systems. These decisionsneed to be made and implemented based
on the knowledge of each country’sunique environmental, social, and eco
nomic characteristics. Local expertise isneeded to take advantage of indigenousknowledge, and to establish environmen
tal and food safety safeguards to ensurethat both the positive and negative
potential impacts of a new technology
are adequately assessed.There are many ways that developed
countries, international institutions, and
businesses can increase the possibilities fordeveloping countries to benefit from scientific and technological advances. They
can continue to train scientists and offerthe expertise needed to help develop work-
able plans to achieve productive and sustainable agricultural systems. Investment
incentives can be increased directly, and byhelping developing countries establish andmaintain the legal, financial, transporta
tion, and communications infrastructurenecessary to encourage investment.
Public and private investment in research
to increase agricultural productivity of the
poorest nations can have many benefits.
With supportive policy, regulatory, and
institutional frameworks in place, science
and technology can drive agricultural pro
ductivity increases, alleviate hunger, and fos
ter economic growth in developing
countries. Incentives for private investment
will increase as regions gain the economicresources to participate more actively in the
global marketplace. Higher incomes and
better nutrition will improve food security
and allow more developing countries to
share in the growth that many countries
have enjoyed for the past half century. Thus
science and technology can play a critical
role in helping to prevent famine, improve
nutrition, and move countries closer toward
a goal of ending world hunger.
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Thus, science and
technology can play a
critical role in helping
to prevent famine,
improve nutrition, and
move countries closer
toward a goal of ending
world hunger.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all it s programs and activities on the basis of
race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status.
(Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities who require alternative means for
communication of program information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA’s TARGET Center
at (202) 720-2600 (voice and TDD).
To f ile a complaint of discrimination wr ite USDA, Director, Off ice of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitt en Building,
14th and Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call (202) 720-5964 (voice or TDD).
USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer.
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United States Department of Agriculture