can we play a game now the intrinsic benefits of tgfu
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Contents
Original Papers
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Can We Play a Game Now? The Intrinsic Benefits of TGfU mn
O)-o NP R#3"%/# R#66#/D R#6/)- !'p3 +o6%I
What do We Know about the Profile and Characteristics of University
Physical Education Students? Findings from a Pilot Study `m
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The Effects of a Tobacco Smoking Prevention Programme for Secondary
School Students n_
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The Relationship between Healthy Eating Beliefs and Food Consumption
in Adolescents ^C
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Trends in Overweight and Obese Pre-School and School Children
in Liechtenstein, 2004–2008 uC
Editorial Papers
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Obesity Diffusion among Children and Adolescents: Trends, Methodological
Problems and Countermeasures at European Level un
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Health Dimension of School Education CB_
Information for the Paper Authors
CCC
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ORIGINAL PAPERS European Journal of Physical & Heath Education, 2010, vol. 4(2), 57-63.
Can We Play a Game Now? The Intrinsic Benefits of TGfU
Ruan J.A. Jones
1
, Stephanie Marshall
2
, Derek M. Peters
3, 4
1 Institute of Sport & Exercise Science, University of Worcester, United Kingdom
2Nunnery Wood High School, Worcester, United Kingdom
3 Institute of Sport & Exercise Science, University of Worcester, United Kingdom
4 Universitetet i Agder, Kristiansand
4 (University of Agder, Faculty of Health & Sport, Norway)
Abstract As an instructional model Teaching Games for Understanding (TGfU) has been identified as impacting pre-dominantly upon the cognitive domain. The impact of exposure to a TGfU Physical Education (PE) instructionalmodel within the affective domain of learning, however, has been less well researched and calls have beenmade for further investigation. The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of TGfU versus a traditionalskills-based approach on the intrinsic motivations of 11–14 year old children in PE.Ninety-nine boys and one hundred and three girls from three schools were assigned to one of the treatment
conditions dependent on their current PE class. The intervention lasted for six weeks during which half of thesample was taught an invasion games unit of work using a TGfU approach and the other half was taught usinga traditional skills-based approach. PE teachers were trained to deliver the appropriate approach and lessonsin the first two weeks were observed to ensure consistency. The Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI) [Ryan,1982] – a six-subscale instrument that measures perceptions of interest/enjoyment, sport competence,effort/importance, choice, pressure/tension and value/usefulness – was administered pre- and post intervention.
A two way (group x gender) ANCOVA was used to adjust for the baseline subscale score. Significant group,gender and interaction effects were noted on all subscales.The results clearly illustrate the positive effects of a TGfU intervention, in terms of an intrinsically motivatingclimate, when compared to a skill-based approach; indeed these results have particular pertinence for a Na-tional Curriculum for PE recently revised to accentuate process, concepts and student creativity.Furthermore, longitudinal studies should investigate the efficacy of such approaches with respect to longer termphysical activity participation and engagement for young people.
Key words: Teaching Games for Understanding; affect; intrinsic motivation; creativity.
Introduction
Research has shown that as children grow
older their interest and participation in physical
education (PE) decreases [22]. More specifically,
The Health Education Authority (HEA) [13] has
indicated that the physical activity of young peo-
ple in the UK has shown a steady decline. Such
findings are extremely worrying given the contin-
ued concern expressed about increasing obesity
levels and sedentary lifestyles adopted by a sig-nificant number of children and adolescents [11].
However, prominent professional organisations [3]
still advocate the role of physical education pro-
grammes in promoting public health. Specifically,
one of the corporate objectives of AfPE is
to ‘raise awareness of physical education’s con-
tributions to public health and well-being’ (AfPE
online).
Since experts stress that lifestyle physical
activity habits need to be developed early in life
[29], there is little doubt that PE programmes
provide the appropriate setting for the promotion
of health-related learning and behaviours. Con-
sequently, early, positive, physical activity ex-
periences in an educational environment ought
to increase the likelihood of maintaining a physi-
cally active lifestyle [36]. Thus, as B.L. Alderman
et al. [1] espouse, ‘quality physical education
programmes and effective physical educators
play a vital role in providing youngsters with early
positive experiences of physical activity’ (p. 41). Allied to this positive environment is the need
to motivate individuals to initiate and maintain
a physically active lifestyle [1]. The belief that
motivation is a key component in active engage-
ment is well established and generally unques-
tioned [18, 32]. A primary goal, therefore, for all
physical education specialists is to ‘increase
youngster’s motivation to engage in, and enjoy,
regular physical activity’ [1, p. 44]. As J.R. White-
head and C.B. Corbin [38] explain:
throughout the development of school physical
education and youth sport, there has been
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a universal and intuitive belief held by profes-
sionals that such programmes hold tremen-
dous potential for developing self-esteem and
motivation in children… learning sports skills
and success in sports can lead to self-esteem
and that self-esteem can lead to a desireto persist in sports (p. 192–193).
Indeed, J.R. Whitehead and C.B. Corbin’s
contention might appear increasingly salient
in England considering the advent of the revised
National Curriculum for PE (NCPE) in September
2008 at Key Stage 3 (11–14 years) that could be
viewed as less prescriptive and more student-
centred [26].
Previous research has suggested that phy-
sical activity environments that promote intrinsic
motivation, perceived physical competence and
mastery-orientated physical activity tasks are key
components in determining physical activity mo-
tivation [1, 20]. More specifically, studies have
also shown that the intention to be physically ac-
tive after the school years is positively predicted
by intrinsic motivation [23]. Therefore, the envi-
ronment in which physical educators deliver their
programmes of physical activity and by infer-
ence, games, is of great importance and conse-
quently there has been much debate regardingthe delivery and learning outcomes of games
experiences [14].
The introduction of the tactical Teaching
Games for Understanding (TGfU) approach [5]
was a key catalyst for discussions of pedagogical
and theoretical aspects of games teaching.
D.J. Bunker and R.D. Thorpe [5] developed TGfU
in response to the typical and more prevalent
method of games teaching that relies heavily
on highly structured lessons where the teaching
of technique is predominant (i.e. skills based
teaching). Indeed, the central aspect of the de-
bate focused on the relative merits of the TGfU
approach over traditional skills-based teaching.
Research that has been undertaken to elucidate
upon the relative strengths of the TGfU approach
has, however, tended to focus mainly on cogni-
tive and psychomotor learning outcomes [2, 35],
with limited consideration of the affective domain
of learning in published literature.
C.C. Pope (2005) explains that there is
a degree of, “perceived vagueness or ambiguity
about the meaning of the term [affect]” (p. 273)
and the inability to provide an exact definition
of ‘affect’ is illustrated throughout social psycho-
logical literature. B. Moore & A. Isen [21] make
reference to the generic and all encompassing
nature of affect – distinct from the intense, focus-
sed and disrupting nature of emotions (for exam-ple, disgust, anger, pleasure). J.A. Beane [4],
meanwhile, explains that affect is also founded
on a range of dimensions including beliefs, aspi-
rations, attitudes and appreciations – individually
and collectively.
Irrespective of the supposed indeterminate
nature of the affective domain, young people
consistently associate principal reasons for PE
and sport participation in terms of fun and enjoy-
ment [1, 30]. Therefore, the inference from these
and other studies is that fun and enjoyment are
defined as positive affective responses by young
people, and, more saliently, intrinsic determi-
nants of participation [25].
Most of the published research associated
with TGfU focuses on outcomes in terms of the
performance outcome; nevertheless as Werner
et al. (1996) have suggested, the primary pur-
poses of teaching any game should be not only
to ‘improve students’ game performance [but
also] to improve their enjoyment and participationin games, which might lead to a more healthy
lifestyle’ (p. 32). R.J.A. Jones et al. [16] qualify
this point, by advocating such approaches
(TGfU) within the National Curriculum for Physi-
cal Education (NCPE), because of the potential
for the enhancement of student self-perceptions
that are closely associated with intrinsic motiva-
tion.
Some studies [12] have suggested that af-
fective outcomes, such as fun and enjoyment,
may be enhanced through TGfU, and that pupils
may be more highly motivated to participate due
to its games-orientated approach. For example,
children, coaches and parents all acknowledged
that games and game-like situations were more
fun than technically orientated drills [34]; while
D.J. Bunker & R.D. Thorpe in their original 1982
text highlighted that pupils often perceived
the skill development phase of a lesson as bor-
ing and irrelevant resulting in the commonly
asked question: “when are we going to play
a game?”
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Aim
The primary aim of this study was to inves-
tigate the impact of the employment of a TGfU
approach compared to the impact of a traditional
‘skills based’ approach on the intrinsic motiva-
tions of pupils in Key Stage three (11-14 year olds).
Materials and Methods
Participants
Two hundred and two Key Stage three (KS3)
pupils from three secondary schools in the West
Midlands, England, UK took part in the study
(School X n=85, 39 males, 46 females; School Y
n=48, 23 males, 25 females; School Z n=69,
37 males, 32 females). Participants were grouped
by their physical education classes in school and
taught by their physical education teacher. Two
teachers from each school participated in the stu-
dy, (one male and one female) and the male tea-
cher taught the male pupils and the female tea-
cher taught the female pupils. This was due
to the fact that within the selected schools
this was the standardised format for teaching
physical education.
Ethical Considerations
All three secondary schools were contactedprior to the commencement of the study, and fol-
lowing discussion and in accordance with the eth-
ics approval procedures of the University, the head
teacher and PE teachers involved gave written
informed consent.
Instrumentation
Intrinsic Motivation Measure
The Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI) was
used to measure intrinsic motivation. The instru-
ment contains six subscales assessing partici-
pant’s levels of interest/enjoyment, perceived com-
petence, effort, value/usefulness, felt pressure
and tension, and perceived choice while perform-
ing a given activity. Responses are rated on a li-
kert-scale from 1, not at all true, to 7 very true.
The IMI items have often been modified
slightly to fit specific activities without effecting its
reliability or validity [28]. For the purpose of this
study it was slightly reworded so participants
were able to respond specifically to physical edu-
cation e.g. ‘this activity’ was replaced with ‘PE’
throughout.
Procedure
Before the beginning of the study one re-
searcher held several meetings with the two tea-
chers from each school to outline the underlying
principles and procedures of the study. The na-
ture of the two teaching models was explainedthoroughly, through both written and verbal com-
munication to ensure that all teachers understood
how to deliver their invasion games unit of work
to both groups of pupils. The two approaches
were then piloted by the teachers prior to the start
of the study and observed by the researchers
to ensure validity and consistency in teaching
approach. The IMI was also piloted with a sam-
ple to make sure that KS3 pupils understood
the terminology used within the questionnaire.
Teaching took place over a six week pe-
riod, known as a unit of work in which the teach-
ers taught an invasion game dependent on their
timetables. The IMI was completed by pupils
at the end of their previous unit of work, in order
to obtain baseline figures for motivation in physi-
cal education.
Each teacher then taught their two groups
of pupils using either a skills based or TGfU ap-
proach – selected at random – for the duration
of the unit of work. The IMI was again adminis-tered at the end of the unit of work.
Results
Table 1 presents the pre- and post- inter-
vention mean scores and standard deviations
for all of the subscales included on the IMI and
interpretation of the outcomes of 2 (teaching
approach) by 2 (gender) ANCOVA for each sub-
scale using the baseline subscale score as
the covariate.
Two way (group x gender) ANCOVA ad-
justed for the baseline subscale identified: signifi-
cant main effects for teaching approach for inter-
est & enjoyment (F(1,197)=241.74, p<0.001, eta
squared=.55), effort/importance (F(1,197)=197.39,
p<0.001, eta squared=.50) and perceived choice
(F(1,197)=154.17, p<0.001, eta squared=.44)
with the TGfU group significantly higher on each
subscale; significant main effects for both teach-
ing approach and gender for value/usefulness
[group F(1,197) = 304.49, p<0.001, eta
squared= .61; gender F(1,197)=9.83, p=.002; eta
squared=.05] with the TGfU students significantly
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higher than the skill-based students and girls sig-
nificantly higher than boys in both conditions; and
significant interaction effects for perceived com-
petence (F(1,197)=5.99, p<.05, eta squared=.03)
with boys in the TGfU group responding signifi-
cantly more positively than girls and for pressure/
tension (F(1,197)=10.68, p<0.01, eta squared=.05)
with girls in the TGfU group responding signifi-
cantly more positively than the boys.
Table 1. Means (±SD) for subscales at pre- and post- intervention for the TGfU and skills-based groups
Pre Post
TGfU SB TGfU SB
Interest & enjoyment 4.65±1.04 4.89±1.00 5.98±.71 4.89±1.02a
Perceived competence 4.97±.82 4.94±.81 6.08±.68 5.07±.75c
Effort/importance 4.35±1.06 4.42±1.11 5.64±.72 4.50±.98a
Perceived choice 2.96±1.14 2.82±.96 3.79±1.00 2.88±.88a
Pressure/tension 3.44±1.00 3.26±.93 2.64±.94 3.31±.87c
Value/usefulness 3.84±.83 4.12±.92 5.48±.81 4.17±.87b
a/ Group main effect; b/ Group & gender main effects; c/ Group x gender interaction
Whilst statistically significant interaction
and gender effects were identified in relation
to the perceived competence and pressure ten-
sion subscales, the respective moderate to small
effect sizes [9] render these particular results
practically unimportant relative to the group ef-
fects. Consequently, these results will not form
part of the discussion.
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to investi-
gate the impact of the employment of a TGfU
approach compared to the impact of a traditional
‘skills based’ approach on the intrinsic motiva-
tions of pupils in Key Stage three (11–14 years
old). The results presented in table 1 identify
significant enhancement of each of the IMI sub-
scales as a result of exposure to the TGfU teach-
ing approach.
Significant main effects were identified
for the interest and enjoyment, effort and impor-
tance and perceived choice subscales indicating
that both males and females in the TGfU groups
had reported enhanced levels of intrinsic motiva-
tion. Increased levels of intrinsic motivation are
clearly desirable since the intention to be physi-
cally active after the school years is positively
predicted by intrinsic motivation [23]. This finding
is supportive of previous assertions [12] that
affective outcomes, such as fun and enjoyment,may be enhanced through TGfU as pupils may
be more highly motivated to participate due to its
games-orientated approach.
The results of the choice subscale reflect
the notion that perceived choice, or in this re-
spect, an autonomous physical educational envi-
ronment has a positive impact on intrinsic moti-
vation [10], since both male and female TGfU
groups illustrated a significant increase in per-
ceived choice over the six week teaching period(p < 0.001).
It is worth noting that whilst the mean scores
for choice and autonomy are relatively low, they
are congruent with previous findings [23] where
students also reported low scores for perceived
choice and autonomy. N. Ntoumanis [23] argued
that such findings could be attributed to the fact
that: ‘PE teachers in Britain have to follow a very
prescriptive National Curriculum which often
does not provide chances for student initiative
and leadership roles’ (p. 236), thus reducing
feelings of perceived choice in games and physi-
cal education1.
1 Since this study was conducted the NCPE has undergonerevision: 6 Areas of Activity (Games, Athletics, Swimming,Dance, Gymnastics and Outdoor & Adventurous Activities)have been replaced by a Range and Content strand thatdoes not refer to specific activities directly. Instead this strandis founded upon underlying principles (e.g. “outwitting oppo-nents”, “identifying and solving problems”). The Qualifications
and Curriculum Authority (QCA) [26] emphasises a dramaticparadigmatic shift from product, teaching and content toprocess, personalised learning and transferable skills.
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It is also possible, that PE teachers do not
feel comfortable experimenting with new teaching
models or styles, particularly ones that reduce
their control over the class and provide a greater
degree of student involvement. As J. Butler [6]
argues, ‘the rub is that change is not always com-fortable’ (p. 228) specifically referring to the gen-
eration of teachers who ‘teach the way they were
taught’ (p. 226). Moreover, the Skill Based ap-
proach to games teaching is still found to be
the prevailing teaching method used by PE prac-
titioners [8], despite the recommendation for criti-
cal oriented pedagogy in initial teacher educa-
tion [17].
Therefore, although the teachers in this stu-
dy carried out, what they interpreted as, a TGfU
unit of work with pupils, their understanding and
application of the TGfU process may not have
included a vast amount of choice. This is most
likely due to each teacher’s ‘value orientation’ [7];
furthermore, she contends that most teachers
carry a disciplinary mastery value orientation,
which is inherent in skills based teaching.
This would prevent teachers, at least immedi-
ately, from being able to reduce their control over
the class – control asserted possibly through
the use of closed or leading questions, and thusprovide fewer opportunities for choice and stu-
dent involvement.
The significant gender interaction on the val-
ue/usefulness subscale, indicated that girls per-
ceived TGfU related activities to fulfil individual
needs and provide satisfaction more than boys.
These findings support previous research
by J. Mandigo et al. [20] who found significant
gender variations in relation to TGfU lessons
taught in an autonomy supportive environment.
A. Lee [18] meanwhile, commenting on the work
of B.W. Pissanos and P.C. Allison [24] advises
that: “gender was more powerful than skill level,
academic achievement, participation level, physi-
cal size, creativity, timidity, popularity, verbal
ability, or impressionability in influencing how
students construct meaning of… physical educa-
tion (p. 143). She also maintains that the value
an individual affords a particular task is critical
in defining meaning, enjoyment and subsequent
engagement.
Typically, but not exclusively, activities that
are ego oriented in nature (competition, compari-
son) can have a general de-motivating effect [15]
others, however [28] reported girls, specifically,
valuing a task or mastery (autonomy supportive)
orientation. Interestingly, A. Williams and J. Bed-
ward [39] articulate, through relational analysis,
the desire of mid adolescent girls to participatein, and experience, traditional boys games in-
cluding football, rugby and cricket – denied them
in formal PE settings. Undoubtedly, with the revi-
sions – dare it be said improvements – made
to the NCPE and the dissolution of specific activ-
ity areas, there is a great opportunity for both
sexes to experience an array of games consid-
ered unfamiliar or novel in PE prior to 2008
(for example, Australian Rules football, Ultimate,
Floor ball, Kabaddi, etc).
Conclusions and Recommendations
The current findings lend support to previ-
ous studies [14], that affective experiences
(in this respect intrinsic motivation) can be sig-
nificantly enhanced through TGfU interventions
in PE. Furthermore, the apparent autonomy sup-
portive environment of such an approach [20]
has important practical implications for the teach-
ing of games within the NCPE. First, TGfU is
ideally suited to a PE Curriculum underpinnedby concepts and processes [26], and, hence,
the opportunity to explore the transferable na-
ture of a variety of game forms. Second, the re-
sults of this study advocate the implementation
of TGfU as meaningful and valued games peda-
gogy (especially for girls based on the results
of the current study) at a time when games
(typically team games) according to A. Smith
et al. [31] continue to predominate the NCPE
landscape. Notwithstanding this contention, cau-
tion must be urged considering the small sample
that participated in this study, and further investi-
gation of the mediating effects of gender on TGfU
interventions is warranted.
Limitations to this study include the fact that
participants were treated as a homogeneous sam-
ple, all pupils were from Key Stage 3 (11–14 years
of age) when subtle and dramatic variations have
been measured in the self-esteem of early to mid
adolescents [33]. Therefore future research should
look at the influence that TGfU has on pupils
from different age ranges and Key Stages and
examine developmental differences. Another sug-
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gestion includes carrying out a similar study but
within alternative categories of games (e.g. net/
wall, striking & fielding), in common with J. Man-
digo et al. [20].
Students’ subjective experiences within PE
classes are often affected by their perceptionof the skill needed to successfully engage
in an activity – invasion games were reported
by J. Mandigo and N. Holt [19] to significantly
diminish levels of motivation in their participants
with an accompanying increase in negative com-
ments.
Despite the limitations, the results of this stu-
dy have important practical implications. It is evi-
dent that TGfU has positive effects on the affec-
tive experiences of children (albeit, with respect
to a small sample) in PE. Lastly, therefore, a lon-
gitudinal research design is merited to examine
the long-term effects of a TGfU teaching model
on the interest and participation in games andphysical activity. Games will always dominate
the teaching landscape in England (especially
traditional team games) as it is a cultural legacy
of the nation. Consequently, it is a priority that
they are taught in a meaningful way that en-
gages and motivates young people.
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18. Lee A. (2009). Contributions of research on student thinking in Physical Education. In: R. Bailey, D. Kirk(Eds.), The Routledge Physical Education Reader (135–150). London: Routledge.
19. Mandigo J., Holt N.L. (2006). Elementary Students’ accounts of Optimal Challenge. In: Physical Education.
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21. Moore B., Isen A. (1990). Affect and social behaviour. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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Quarterly for Exercise & Sport , 64, 425–435.25. Pope C.C. (2005). Once more with feeling: affect and playing with the TGfU model. Physical Education
and Sport Pedagogy, 10, 271–286.
26. Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) (2009). PE and the National Curriculum aims. Retrievedon May, 12, 2009, from http://curriculum.qca.org.uk/key-stages-3-and-4/subjects/physical-education
27. Ryan R.M. (1982). Control and information in the intrapersonal sphere: An extension of cognitive evaluationtheory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 450–461.
28. Ryan R.M., Connell J.P., Plant R.W. (1990). Emotions in non-directed text learning. Learning and IndividualDifferences, 2, 1–17.
29. Sallis J.F., McKenzie T.L. (1991). Physical Education’s role in public health. Research Quarterly for Exerciseand Sport, 62, 124–137.
30. Smith A., Parr M. (2007). Young people’s views on the nature and purposes of physical education: a socio-logical analysis. Sport, Education and Society, 12, 37–58.
31. Smith A., Thurston M., Green K., Lamb K. (2007). Sports Participation and the ‘Obesity/health Crisis’: Reflec-tions on the Case of Young People in England. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 39, 457–464.
32. Solmon M.A. (2003). Student issues in physical education: Attitude, cognition, and motivation. In: S. J. Silver-man and D.D. Ennis (Eds.), Student Learning in Physical Education (147–163). Champaign, IL: Human Ki-netics.
33. Stiller J., Alfermann D. (2007). Promotion of a Healthy Self-Concept. In: J. Liukkonen, Y.V. Auweele, B. Ve-reijken, D. Alfermann, Y. Theodorakis (Eds.) Psychology for Physical Educators, 2
nd Ed., 123–140. Cham-
paign, IL: Human Kinetics.
34. Strean W.B., Holt N.L. (2000). Players’, coaches’ and parents’ perceptions of fun in youth sport. Avante,6, 84–98.
35. Turner A.P., Martinek T.J. (1999). An investigation into teaching games for understanding: Effects on skill,knowledge and game play. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 70, 286–296.
36. Weiss M.R. (2000). Motivating kids in physical activity. The President’s Council on Physical Fitness andSports Research Digest, 3, 1–8.
37. Werner P., Thorpe R., Bunker D. (1996). Teaching Games for Understanding: Evolution of a Model. Journalof Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 67, 28–33.
38. Whitehead J.R., Corbin C.B. (1997). Self-esteem in children and youth: The role of sport and physical educa-tion. The Physical Self. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
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Received: January 2010
Accepted: April 2010
Published: June 2010
Correspondence
Ruan J.A. JonesInstitute of Sport & Exercise Science, University of Worcester, UK
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ORIGINAL PAPERS European Journal of Physical & Heath Education, 2010, vol. 4(2), 65-72.
What do We Know about the Profile and Characteristicsof University Physical Education Students?
Findings from a Pilot Study
José M. Cancela Carral, Carlos Ayán Pérez
Universidade de Vigo(University of Vigo, Faculty of Education and Sport Sciences, Spain)
Abstract
The purpose of this pilot study was to compare and to analyze defining the profile of Spanish university stu-dents who register, study and complete either a Higher Degree in Physical Activity and Sport Sciences (PASS)or a Bachelor’s Degree in Specialized Physical Education Teaching (SPET). A 59-item survey was distributedamong 346 university students (246 from PASS and 100 from SPET). Results showed that a liking for sport wasthe fundamental reason why students choose a PE-related degree. SPET students were mainly oriented to-
wards teaching, while PASS students considered a wider range of orientations, although in both cases theirchoices depended greatly on current job opportunities available in their country. Men tended to opt for teachingand women for other sport-related aspects, such as training, while other options like management or sportsmarketing become clearly a minority choice. Although this study may contribute with some information about PEuniversity students’ profile, more and better research in this regard is needed.
Key words: physical education, university students, teachers.
Introduction
University degrees in Physical Education
(PE) have experienced a great deal of change
during the last years in such a way that qualifying
as a PE teacher is not their main objective any-more but also specializing in new domains like
health, training or recreation [16]. In recent years
various studies have examined the profile
and expectations of students from different coun-
tries registered in different health-related univer-
sity degrees such as medicine [8, 13], nursing [4, 5]
or physiotherapy [9, 19] but to the authors’ know-
ledge there is hardly any information about
the profile of those students who register in PE-
related university degrees and wish to specialize
in health.
Lately it has been commented that there
has been much criticism of how PE teachers are
prepared to teach [18] and indeed very little is
known about what forms of professional develop-
ment PE teachers have undertaken in their ca-
reers or about their views on their professional
learning requirements [1]. In this regard A.M. De-
war and H.A. Lawson [6] stated that understand-
ing the subjective warrants that people have
for the profession of physical education is crucialfor a complete understanding of recruitment into
the profession. Furthermore, H. Lawson [14]
suggested that if we had a better understanding
of who our recruits were and what their beliefs
about physical education are, we may be ableto better design a more robust teacher education
program.
Several studies have sought to identify rea-
sons why people wish to become physical educa-
tion teachers but these have all been primarily
concerned with the socialisation process [12, 16].
Because of that and bearing in mind the different
specializations that PE-related degrees are cur-
rently offering it seems that there is a need
for studies to clarify the issues that have influ-
enced students to choose a degree in PE and
it also seems necessary to analyze if the infor-
mation acquired during university training matches
the student’s initial expectations on the matter
which is an important aspect for the future devel-
opment of a career as a physical education
teacher [22].
In Spain university degrees in Physical Edu-
cation are organized into two categories: higher
degree (licenciatura) and bachelor’s degree (diplo-
matura). A Higher Degree in Physical Activity andSport Sciences (PASS) offers a possibility to spe-
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cialize as a high school PE teacher (12–17 years)
and to obtain specific training in the fields
of health, recreation and high performance train-
ing as well as management and sports market-
ing. A Bachelor’s Degree in Specialized Physical
Education Teaching (SPET) offers mainly a pos-sibility to specialize as a primary school Physical
Education teacher (6–11 years) and to acquire
basic training in the fields of health and sports
recreation.
Recently it has been suggested that under-
standing the reasons given by the students that
affect their decision to choose physical education
and to consider their expectations and aspira-
tions will aid teachers in their assessment of what
is successful in attracting students and what
would be useful in marketing the subject [17].
However to the author’s knowledge there is a lack
of studies of this kind carried out with physical
education Spanish university students.
In the light of all this, this study aims at ana-
lyzing and defining the profile of Spanish univer-
sity students who register, study and complete
either PASS or SPET with the objective of de-
tecting possible changes in the curriculum in order
to match the degree’s contents with the student’s
initial expectations and improve their academictraining as much as possible.
Methods
The Faculty of Education and Sports Sci-
ences of University of Vigo was purposefully
chosen to conduct the research, since both de-
grees (PASS and SPET) can be studied there.
A 59-item survey was distributed among all
the students who were registered in the faculty
during the academic year 2003/2004 and who
were doing SPET (Group A) or PASS (Group B).
The items of the survey were selected based
on a literature review and consultations with physi-
cal education students and teachers who were
working in the university at the time.
The survey was divided into six sections
regarding Access Profile, Working Situation,
Sports History, Job Expectations, Opinion about
the plan of studies and Ideal Working Situation.
Each section was composed of a variable num-
ber of items which offered several possible an-
swers for the students to choose the one which
best reflected their reality. The survey was car-
ried out during the last part of the first four-month
term during teaching hours. In order to reduce
the number of statistical comparisons, the an-
swers were grouped according to the three main
working environments in which students of both
degrees may specialize: Teaching (TE), Sports-Recreation (SR) and Health (HE). A fourth group
was added under the name of “Others” including
minority options such as management or sports
marketing.
The data was analyzed using SPSS soft-
ware version 16.0 (SPSS Inc.). Given that this
study has an exploratory purpose, the obtained
results are presented in percentages, since
the analyzed variables are qualitative. The only
quantitative variable is age, which is presented
through the measurement of the central trend
(median and standard deviation).
Results
Out of 550 eligible students for the study
(400 registered in PASS and 150 in SPET),
346 questionnaires were obtained (246 from PASS
and 100 from SPET), which meant a response
rate of 62,9%. Survey respondents ranged in age
from 17 to 38 years, with an average age
of 20.73±3.16 years for SPET and of 21.64±2.87years for PASS. The majority of these respon-
dents were male (68% in SPET; 69,1% in PASS),
while 84% of SPET students and 62,6% of PASS
students entered university directly from high
school.
In general, it is apparent that the number
of male students is more than double the number
of female students and that between 64% and
73% live in cities – table 1.
Approximately 30% of men in Group B stud-
ied another university degree while in the case
of women this figure is slightly higher (35%) and
so is the percentage of completed studies
(53% women vs. 42% men). Around 33% of stu-
dents in Group A mentioned a liking for teaching
as the main reason for choosing their studies
although a liking for sport seems to be the key
factor, especially for men (48% vs. 39%).
This seems to be also the fundamental reason
stated in Group B especially by women (63% vs.
73%), while the liking for teaching shows lower
percentages (12%). Regarding the pupils’ sport
history, it can be observed that in every case
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more than half of the students already practised
some kind of sport before entering university,
showing the males of the Group B the highest
percentage (82%).
Table 1. General characteristics of the sample
PE Bachelor’s Degree
(SPET)3 years
Sport Sciences High Degree
(PASS)4 years
Men Women Men Women
n=68,00 n=32,00 n=172,00 n=78,00
Entry age
Age (years) 21,05±3,52 20,03±2,10 21,82±3,01 21,31±2,46
Size of hometown population
Hometown population>20.001 hab 65,83% 64,60% 65,55% 72,90%
Previous academic training
University studies 8,40% (12,5%)* 4,43(0,0%)* 29,98(42,45%)* 35,20(53,03%)*
Reasons for registering
Easiness to find a job 18,40% 27,17% 24,63% 13,85%
Liking for sport 48,00% 39,10% 63,25% 73,90%
Liking for teaching 33,60% 33,73% 12,13% 12,25%
Pre-entry sport experience
Sport practice (associated or other) 62,22% 67,10% 82,60% 64,78%
No sport practice 37,78% 32,90% 17,40% 35,23%
Current sport practice
Practising(associated or other) 49,93% 56,17% 71,40% 58,58%
Not practising 50,08% 43,83% 28,60% 41,43%
Family sport experience
Practising(associated or other) 49,65% 68,07% 63,10% 67,75%Not practising 50,35% 31,93% 36,90% 32,25%
Family profession linked to sport
No 96,68% 72,825% 95,255% 94,30%
Studies and job
Percentage of working students 29,98% 31,10% 46,55% 35,15%
Preferred working category
Employee 46,30% 26,60% 9,85% 9,175%
Freelancer 22,70% 17,60% 44,05% 66,82%
Civil servant 31,00% 30,80% 46,10% 24,00%
* Percentage of pupils who have finished their studies.
However, the level of practice falls once they
start their studies. Also practically in every case,
more than 50% of students have sport antece-
dents in their families although, in general, they
are hardly ever linked to sport in a professional
way. The preferred working status varies accord-
ing to gender and education. Thus, in Group A,
the professional category of employee seems
to be the first option for men (46%) and the sec-ond option for women (26%), while the category
of civil servant is the first chosen by women (30%)
and the second chosen by men (31%). In Group
B, the option clearly chosen by women is free-
lancer (66%) while men seem to opt for being
civil servants in the first place (46%) or do free-
lance work (44%).
Figure 1 shows the different options
by groups and genders. In Group B teaching is
the first option followed by training, recreationand health. Men prefer to opt for teaching more
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than women (54% vs. 40%), while women usu-
ally choose in a greater proportion the sport-
recreational field (33% vs. 46%) and that related
to health (8% vs. 12%). In Group A, a similar
trend can be observed. Teaching is the first op-
tion more chosen by men than by women
(56% vs. 46%), while the second option is still
the sport-recreational field, mainly preferred by
women (13,9% vs. 24%). The third option is still
the health field, which is chosen by 26% of men
and women.
54,41
33,8
8,82
2,94
12,5
0
56,4
13,95
2,91
24,36
40,63
46,88
26,74
46,16
26,92
2,56
0
10
20
30
40
50
Teaching Training and recreation Health Others
Men-PASS Women-PASS
Men-SPET Women-SPET
Figure 1. Different options for groups and genders
The evolution of working preferences along
the academic years is shown in table 2. In Group
A, the percentage of students who wish to work
in teaching increases progressively at the ex-
pense of a noticeable fall in the other options.
The same is true for working forecast, since
the preferred category is employee at first (47%)
and later civil service ends up being the predomi-
nant option. In group B teaching is still the pre-
ferred option, although this percentage falls
slightly along the academic years (47,9% vs.
44,1%), whereas the field of health is the only
one which increases despite being the third op-
tion (7,6% vs. 18%).
Table 2. Evolution of working preferences along the academic years
PE Bachelor’s Degree (SPET)
(3 years)
Sport Sciences High Degree (PASS)
(4 years)
n=100 n=250
Field you would preferto work in
1º 2º 3º 1º 2º 3º 4º
Teaching 48,20% 65,00% 79,00% 47,90% 45,70% 43,10% 44,10%
Sport-recreational 25,90% 19,50% 13,56% 37,90% 34,56% 35,10% 28,70%
Health 14,90% 10,10% 4,97% 7,60% 13,00% 16,00% 18,00%
Others 11,00% 5,40% 2,47% 6,60% 6,74% 5,80% 9,20%
Field you foreseeto be working in
1º 2º 3º 1º 2º 3º 4º
Teaching 56.00% 70,57% 82,50% 51,60% 43,70% 46,69% 49,51%
Sport-recreational 30,18% 17,96% 12,45% 40,90% 42,36% 33,90% 27,65%
Health 12,58% 10,67% 4,89% 7,20% 13,00% 17,43% 19,87%
Others 1,24% 0,80% 0,16% 0,30% 0,94% 1,98% 2,97%
Working category you wouldprefer to work in
1º 2º 3º 1º 2º 3º 4º
Employee 47,80% 43,12% 40,44% 12,15% 13,18% 14,70% 15,60%
Freelancer 9,20% 4,08% 3,22% 52,18% 43,70% 39,70% 40,22%
Civil servant 43,00% 52,80% 56,34% 35,67% 43,12% 45,60% 44,18%
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Table 3 shows the way last year students
of both degrees perceive the academic training
they have received according to their chosen
specialization. Lack of theoretical basics of sport-
recreational aspects is pointed out by over 40%
of pupils in every case, and it is also mentioned
when they are asked about their practical training.
In Group A, 27% of pupils specialized in teaching
claim to have no psycho-social or pedagogical
fundamentals. In Group B, 26% of pupils special-
ized in health acknowledge that they have no
practical training in this field.
Table 3. Perceived academic level and training needs foreseen by last year PASS and SPET students
PE Bachelor’s Degree (SPET)
(3rd course)
Sport Sciences High Degree
(PASS)
(4th course)
Teaching Training Health Others Teaching Training Health Others
n=24 n=16 n=14 n=9 n=19 n=21 n=18 N=9
Sport- recreational 48,9% 43,6% 48,6% 41,7% 43,1% 41,89% 41,7% 43,0%
Psycho-pedagogicaland social
27,1% 22,9% 21,6% 22,6% 16,0% 19,3% 21,1% 19,8%
Biomedical 11,5% 10,3% 12,1% 10,1% 16,3% 17,01% 15,2% 16,1%
What kindof basictraining doyour stud-ies lack?
Methodological 12,5% 23,2% 17,7% 25,6% 24,6% 21,8% 22,0% 21,1%
Sport- recreational 45,1% 44,4% 48,6% 47,6% 43,3% 41,1% 41,4% 43,5%
Psycho-pedagogicaland social
16,5% 12,4% 12,3% 15,9% 18,1% 20,6% 17,1% 19,1%
Biomedical 24,9% 26,3% 23,2% 22,6% 17,6% 20,0% 26,9% 11,6%
What kindof basicprotocolsdo yourstudieslack? Methodological 13,5% 16,9% 15,9% 13,9% 21,0% 18,3% 14,6% 25,8%
Attending congressesand courses
34,5% 36,8% 33,2% 33,2% 35,4% 30,8% 29,3% 29,9%
Studying a seconddegree
24,7% 31,6% 26,1% 30,1% 15,4% 18,2% 25,9% 25,3%
In the work market 24,7% 22,3% 24,9% 25,6% 32,9% 35,1% 36,5% 34,2%
How do youthink thiscomple-mentarytraining canbe acquired
Personal training 16,1% 9,3% 15,8% 11,1% 16,3% 15,9% 8,3% 10,6%
In order to obtain complementary training,
attendance in congresses and courses seems
to be the most recurrent option in Group A, while
students in Group B expect to obtain it in their
working environment. 31% of Group A students
specialized in sport and recreation and almost
26% of Group B students specialized in health
propose studying a second university degree asa solution in this respect.
Discussion
The results of our study show that the num-
ber of male PE university students is more
than double the number of female students and
that a liking for sport is the main reason why
pupils of both sexes choose these degrees, es-
pecially PASS. The first aspect can be explained
on the grounds that in Spain boys practise sport
more frequently and intensely than girls, which is
specially true during pre-university years [20] and
therefore it seems logical to think that men feel
more attracted than women to choose a univer-
sity degree related to this field. On the other
hand, different studies explain the interest to study
a degree in PE based on a process of “socializa-
tion into and via sport” which implies that positive
experiences acquired during the sport practice
become an important factor to choose a particu-lar kind or university studies [6, 7, 10].
In fact over half of the students in this study
claim to have practised sport throughout their
lives. Thus it seems reasonable to think that
a liking for sport is the most important cause
of studying PE at university. In this respect, it is
interesting to note that although the level of sport
practice falls once the pupils start their studies,
which is a common finding [2, 3], this fall is not
too dramatic, which confirms the liking for sport
in this kind of students. It is also important to point
out the fact that SPET pupils mention a liking
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for teaching as a second reason for studying
the degree more often than their PASS mates,
which can be explained on the grounds of the tea-
ching-oriented training that the SPET degree
offers.
P. Dodds et al. [7], showed a model for so-cialization into sport-related occupations which
suggested that early sports situations act concur-
rently with personal attributes (such as family
background) and the influence and expectations
of significant others (parents) could influence
young people to participate in sport and later
to make decisions about entering sport-related
occupations. In our study over half of the stu-
dents claim that practising sport is a habitual
activity in their family environment, although it is
usually not linked to work. This is probably due
to the scarce variety of sport-related jobs avail-
able when the students’ parents had to decide
about their working future.
As far as the preferred working category is
concerned, it has been pointed out that some
of the main attractors to develop a career in the PE
are job security and a good income [15, 18].
If this was so, most of the interviewees would
have chosen civil service as their working prefer-
ence, which is not reflected in our study.This could be explained on one hand by the fact
that in Spain the only option for pursuing a pro-
fessional career related to PE in the civil service
is becoming a PE teacher, which is rather difficult
due to the demanding entrance requirements and
the decreasing number of available positions
every year. All these factors may well have dis-
couraged students from considering civil service
as their main working category. On the other
hand, the percentage of people who wish to work
in the field of sport recreation is rather high,
which would mean a prevalence of the students’
professional interests over the supposedly ideal
working situation.
In several countries entry to university
courses in the physical activity field is highly com-
petitive [16] and Spain is not an exception. Ana-
lysing the students registered in PASS it can be
observed that over 30% have started other uni-
versity degrees and more than half of them have
actually finished those studies. A possible reason
for this is the fact that those people who do not
have access directly to the PASS degree start
doing SPET which is easier to enter and then
they gain access to PASS through a complemen-
tary course. It is also very frequent for those
students who cannot access PASS at the first
attempt to start some other studies while they
wait for a new opportunity. This determinationto end up registering in this degree agrees
with the findings of P. Dodds et al. [7], who proved
that PE students did not view entrance require-
ments of PE programs as a barrier for their aspi-
rations. The fact that high percentage of students
is currently living in cities agrees with the distribu-
tion of Spanish population which is basically cen-
tered there. Thus, 78% of the population is ur-
ban, mainly due to young people’s migration
to the cities [11].
Some of the interviewed students were
combining their studies with a job, although it
was not a sport-related position, since most
of them were working in the field of health care.
This is probably due to the fact that there is
an ever-increasing demand for sport instructors
in the field of fitness, physical activity for the eld-
erly and so on in places such as gyms, town
halls, recreational businesses or similar activi-
ties. Another topic of possible interest is beliefs
and perceptions about the skills and abilitiesrequired to obtain and develop a specific occu-
pation, which is known as the subjective war-
rant [10].
In university studies it is possible that
the students’ orientations and working expecta-
tions change as they successfully complete their
program of study [21]. Indeed in the field of physi-
cal activity it has been observed that a different
curriculum to that expected by students could
have impact on them in a significant way when
they already have preconceived ideas about what
is expected from the subject [17]. In our study,
it seems that the option of teaching PE prevails
along the academic years, which is a somewhat
contradictory finding, since some authors found
that some PE students are firmly committed
to teaching even 5 years or so after graduation [7],
while others are not [2].
Although there are plenty of stereotypes
regarding PE students’ academic ability, our
results detected that students themselves did not
see great weaknesses in their training, except
in those aspects regarding both practical and
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theoretical sport-recreational contents, which
could be a consequence of an ill-structured plan
of studies and the fact that PE degrees have not
been available in Spain until recently. It is also
important to note the fact that although it has
been commented that many teaching recruitsbelieve they already know how to teach without
professional training [10], 27% of Group A – TE
students acknowledge a lack of training in psy-
chological, sociological and pedagogical con-
tents, therefore they seem to be aware of their
academic needs.
Lastly, it is worth mentioning that 31%
of Group A – SR students and 26% of Group B
– HE students consider it necessary to study an-
other degree to complete their training. This leads
us to think that it is necessary to analyze the plan
of studies and the curriculum of both specializa-
tions.
It must be noted that the ability to general-
ize the results and implications of our findings
to other settings is limited, since several weak
points have been detected. First, the data of the
study comes from those students who attend
their classes regularly; therefore it does not
comply adequately with the typical PE student
profile. On the other hand, there are other facul-ties which offer PE degrees in the north of Spain,
so possible differences between those students
and the interviewees could exist. Furthermore,
although this study was not approached through
the framework of socialization, some important
data, such as socio-economic family situation,
age at which PE studies were chosen or more
specific discrimination between career attractors
and facilitators is missing. Therefore, althoughthis study may contribute with some information
about PE university students’ profile, more and
better research in this regard is needed.
Finally it should be pointed out that the ex-
ploratory study reported here was conceived
as a previous phase for the later development
of a longitudinal piece of research with larger
samples. If possible, comparative work with col-
leagues at other universities will be initiated.
Conclusion
This study confirms that a liking for sport is
still the fundamental reason why students choose
a PE–related degree and that, while SPET stu-
dents are mainly oriented towards teaching,
PASS students consider a wider range of orien-
tations, although in both cases their choices de-
pend greatly on their current working situation.
On the other hand, it seems that men tend to opt
for teaching and women for other sport-related
aspects, such as training, recreational activitiesor health care. Thus, other options like manage-
ment or sports marketing become clearly a mi-
nority choice.
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Received: March 2010
Accepted: May 2010
Published: June 2010
Correspondence
José Mª Cancela Carral, Ph.DEmail: [email protected]
Tel. 00 34 986 801 799Web. webs.uvigo.es/chemacc/
Campus A Xunqueira s/nE-36005 Pontevedra
Spain
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!"#$#%&' )&)*"+ European Journal of Physical & Heath Education, 2010, vol. 4(2), 73-80.
Effects of the Tobacco Smoking Prevention Programmefor Secondary School Students
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Introduction
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&,2=45H= 18.A 925:/-9 _T6 P6 LQ6 LY` =8@-
83H5-: 2=82 C=A9/E8, -F-3E/9- /9 .-H82/@-,A E433-K
,82-: G/2= =8I/258, 914>/.H6 2=- ,/2-38253- 4B 914>K
/.H [email protected]/4. 9=4G9 3-,82/@-,A B-G [email protected]/4.
C34H3811-9 2=82 8/1 C3/.E/C8,,A 82 C34142/.H
C=A9/E8, -F-3E/9-6 8.: 2=82 G45,: I- /1C,-K
1-.2-: 9C-E/B/E8,,A IA C=A9/E8, -:5E82/4. 2-8E=K
-39D <=-3-B43- G- =8@- 822-1C2-: 24 :-9/H.
8 914>/.H [email protected]/4. C34H3811- B43 2--.8H-396G=/E= G45,: I- /1C,-1-.2-: 89 C832 4B 2=- C=A9/K
E8, -:5E82/4. E,899D <=- I89/9 4B 2=/9 C832/E5,83
C34H3811- :-9/H. /9 8 E41I/.82/4. 4B 2G4 2=-4K
3/-96 2=82 4B ),8..-: J-=8@/453 _L`6 8.: 2=- 2=-43A
4B )-39589/4. _LP`D & E41I/.82/4. 4B 2=49- 2G4
2=-43/-9 =89 I--. 59-: /. 8 C3-@/459 925:A
IA *D ]491/:45 _LT` E4.E-3./.H 2=- /1C,-1-.28K
2/4. 4B 8 914>/.H [email protected]/4. C34H3811- OB/HD LRD
822/25:-9
X/H53- L^ e41I/./.H )-39589/4. <=-43A 8.: ),8..-: J-=8@/453 <=-43A _LT`
/.B43182/4.
95IW-E2/@- .431
C-3E-/@-: E4.234,
/.2-.2/4.B43
914>/.H
914>/.HI-=8@/453
1-998H-
NQ
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Aim
<=- 4IW-E2/@- 4B 2=/9 925:A G89 24 -FC,43-
2=- -BB-E2/@-.-99 /1C,-1-.2 4B 8 914>/.H C3-K
@-.2/4. C34H3811- :53/.H )=A9/E8, *:5E82/4.
E,899-9D <=- 3-9-83E= =AC42=-9/9 G89 2=82
2=- 925:-.29 C832/E/C82/.H /. 2=- C34H3811- G45,:/1C34@- 2=-/3 >.4G,-:H-6 2=-/3 822/25:-6 2=-/3 C-3K
E-/@-: E4.234,6 2=-/3 95IW-E2/@- .431 8.: 8,94
2=-/3 /.2-.2/4. 24G83:9 2=- 914>/.H =8I/2D
Methodology
Participants
<=- 9E=44, G=-3- 2=- /[email protected]/4. G89 /1K
C,-1-.2-: 8.: 2=- E4.234, H345C 9E=44, G-3-
38.:41,A 9-,-E2-: IA :38G/.H ,429 814.H 8,,
9E=44,9 ,4E82-: /. 53I8. 83-89 4B 2=- e-.238,
$3--E- 3-H/4.D <=- /.@-92/H82/4. /.@4,@-: LMN
925:-.29 ONM B-18,-6 PQ 18,-R 822-.:/.H S2= H38:-
OT.:
H38:- 4B +-E4.:83A *:5E82/4.RD <=- -FC-3/K
1-.28, H345C E41C3/9-: PS 925:-.29 8.: 2=- E4.K
234, H345C Pc 925:-.29D %4.- 4B 2=- 925:-.29 =8:
C3-@/459,A 822-.:-: 8.A =-8,2= -:5E82/4. C34K
H3811-D
Measurements
0828 G-3- H82=-3-: IA 1-8.9 4B 8 9-,B
3-C432 V5-92/4..8/3- E4.9/92/.H 4B 2G4 C8329D#. 2=- B/392 C832 925:-.29 3-C432-: 2=-/3 :-14K
H38C=/E C34B/,- 8.: /. 2=- 9-E4.: C832 2=-A 3-K
9C4.:-: 24 V5-92/4.9 3-,82/.H 24 914>/.HD
+14>/.H ].4G,-:H-
<=/9 G89 899-99-: IA 1-8.9 4B TT V5-9K
2/4.9 3-H83:/.H >.4G,-:H- 4B 9-@-38, C832/E5,83
89C-E29 4B E/H83-22- 914>/.H6 -8E= 92832/.H
G/2= 2=- 92-1 gDid you know that …hD <=- 925:-.29
8.9G-3-: 4. 8 MKC4/.2 9E8,-^ “Yes (3) – I am not
so sure (2) – No (1)” D <=- 8@-38H- 4B 2=- TT 9E43-9
3-C3-9-.2-: -8E= 925:-.2\9 914>/.H >.4G,-:H-
9E43-D e34.I8E=\9 8,C=8 G89 DPc 8.: DPQ B43
2=- 2G4 1-8953-1-.29D
&22/25:- 24G83:9 914>/.H
<=/9 G89 899-99-: IA 1-8.9 4B P V5-9K
2/4.9 3-H83:/.H 822/25:- 24G83: 914>/.H6 95E= 89
gFor me, not smoking at all during the next three
months will be …hD <=- 925:-.29 8.9G-3-: 4.
8 NK C4/.2 I/C4,83 8:W-E2/@-9 9E8,- B341 N (Easy)
to 1 (Difficult) or from 7 (Healthy) to 1 (Unhealthy)D
<=- 8@-38H- 4B 2=- P 9E43-9 3-C3-9-.2-: -8E=
925:-.2\9 914>/.H 822/25:- 9E43-D e34.I8E=\9 8,K
C=8 G89 DST 8.: DSU B43 2=- 2G4 1-8953-1-.29D
+14>/.H /.2-.2/4.
<=/9 G89 899-99-: IA 1-8.9 4B T V5-9K
2/4.9 3-H83:/.H 822/25:- 24G83: 914>/.H6 95E= 89“I intend not to smoke in the next three months”.
<=- 925:-.29 8.9G-3-: 4. 8 NK C4/.2 '/>-32 9E8,-
B341 7 (Likely) 24 1 (Unlikely)D <=- 8@-38H- 4B 2=- T
9E43-9 3-C3-9-.2-: -8E= 925:-.2\9 914>/.H /.K
2-.2/4. 9E43-D e34.I8E=\9 8,C=8 G89 DPT 8.: DNN
B43 2=- 2G4 1-8953-1-.29D
)-3E-/@-: E4.234,
<=/9 G89 899-99-: IA 1-8.9 4B M V5-9K
2/4.9 3-H83:/.H 822/25:- 24G83: 914>/.H 95E= 89
“Not to smoke in the next three months depends
only on me”. <=- 925:-.29 8.9G-3-: 4. 8 NK C4/.2
'/>-32 9E8,- B341 7 (Yes) 24 1 (No)D <=- 8@-38H-
4B 2=- M 9E43-9 3-C3-9-.2-: -8E= 925:-.2\9
914>/.H C-3E-/@-: E4.234, 9E43-D e34.I8E=\9
8,C=8 G89 DPQ 8.: DNY B43 2=- 2G4 1-8953-K
1-.29D
+5IW-E2/@- .431
<=/9 G89 899-99-: IA 1-8.9 4B Q V5-9K
2/4.9 3-H83:/.H 822/25:- 24G83: 914>/.H6 95E= 89“If I smoke my friends would consider it as…”.
<=- 925:-.29 8.9G-3-: 4. 8 NKC4/.2 9E8,- B341 7
(Wrong choice) 24 1 (Right choice)D <=- 8@-38H-
4B 2=- Q 9E43-9 3-C3-9-.2-: -8E= 925:-.2\9 95IK
W-E2/@- .431 9E43-D e34.I8E=\9 8,C=8 G89 DSU
8.: DNN B43 2=- 2G4 1-8953-1-.29D
<=- V5-92/4..8/3- G89 8.4.A1459 8.:
2=- 3-9-83E=-39 89953-: 2=- 925:-.29 2=82 2=- 3-K
95,29 G45,: I- 59-: B43 3-9-83E= C53C49-9 4.,A
8.: .-@-3 E4115./E82-: 24 9E=44, B8E5,2A 43
C83-.29D
<=- /[email protected]/4. C34H3811-
<=- C34H3811- -F2-.:-: 4@-3 LU G-->9D
<=- /[email protected]/4. 244> C,8E- 4.E- 8 G--> :53/.H
)=A9/E8, *:5E82/4. E,899D #. 2=- B/392 1--2/.H
2=- 925:-.29 B/,,-: 2=- V5-92/4..8/3- 8.: G-3-
I3/-B-: 8I452 2=- C34H3811-D <=- 925:-.29 G-3-
8,94 H/@-. 8 ,-22-3 B43 2=-/3 C83-.296 :-9E3/I/.H
2=- C34H3811- 24 I- 822-.:-: IA 2=- 925:-.29D
<=- -/H=2 ,-994.9 2=82 B4,,4G-: E4.9/92-: 4B 2G4
C8329 -8E=D 053/.H 2=- B/392 C8326 G=/E= ,892-: LU
1/.52-96 2=- 925:-.29 3-E-/@-: /.B43182/4. 8I452
NY
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2=- -BB-E29 4B 914>/.H 8.: -F-3E/9- 4. 2=- I4:A6
2=-A 98G 9=432 @/:-49 8.: 2=-A ,-83.-: 24 C-3K
E-/@- /.:/3-E2 8:@-32/9/.H 4B 24I8EE4 C34:5E296
2=-A G-3- 238/.-: 24 9-2 H48,96 8.: 24 B4315,82-
8 C,8. 24G83: /1C,-1-.282/4. 4B 2=- H48,9j 2=-A
G-3- -.E4538H-: 24 I-,/-@- 2=82 2=-A E8. 3-9/92914>/.H6 G=/,- 914>-39 G-3- -.E4538H-: 24 I-K
,/-@- 2=82 2=-A E8. V5/2j 8.: 2=-A G-3- 285H=2
IA -FC-3/-.2/8, 1-8.9 =4G 24 98A gNoh /B 4BB-3-:
E/H83-22-9D &2 2=- -.: 4B 2=49- /./2/8, C832 2=- 925K
:-.29 24H-2=-3 G/2= 2=- )=A9/E8, *:5E82/4.
2-8E=-3 E3-82-: 8 1-998H- 8H8/.92 914>/.H 8.:
4.- /. B8@453 4B -F-3E/9-D 053/.H 2=- 3-18/./.H
E,899 2/1- 2=- 925:-.29 G-3- 285H=2 14243 9>/,,9
89 C34@/:-: /. 2=- E533/E5,516 8.: /. 2=- ,892 2-.
1/.52-9 4B -8E= E,899 C,8A-: 8 H345C H81-
G=/E= E41I/.-: C=A9/E8, -F-3E/9- G/2= 8 1-9K
98H- 2=82 G89 82 2/1-9 4.- 8H8/.92 914>/.H 8.:
82 42=-3 2/1-9 /. B8@453 4B C=A9/E8, -F-3E/9-D 053K
/.H 2=- ,892 E,899 4B 2=- 9-3/-96 2=- 925:-.29 G-3-
89>-: 24 B/,, 4.E- 8H8/. 2=- 981- V5-92/4..8/3-9
89 82 2=- 92832 4B 2=- 9-3/-9D
+282/92/E8, &.8,A9/9
<=/9 /.E,5:-: :-9E3/C2/@- 9282/92/E8, 8.8,AK
9-9 B43 /./2/8, :828 E=-E>/.H O/.:-C-.:-.2 2K2-92R8.: 3-C-82-: 1-8953-9 8.8,A9/9 4B @83/8.E-D
Results
7-8.9 8.: 928.:83: :-@/82/4.9 4B 8,, @83/K
8I,-9 83- 3-C432-: /. 28I,- LD <K2-929 G-3- 8CK
C,/-: /. 43:-3 24 E=-E> G=-2=-3 2=-3- G-3- :/BB-3K
-.E-9 I-2G--. 2=- H345C9 I-B43- 2=- 8CC,/E82/4.
4B 2=- C34H381D <=- 3-95,29 :/: .42 9=4G 9282/92/K
E8,,A 9/H./B/E8.2 :/BB-3-.E-9 I-2G--. H345C9 3-K
H83:/.H 2=-/3 >.4G,-:H- 4B 914>/.H B8E29 O2OLMYR Z
DUTS6 CZDcNR6 2=-/3 822/25:-9 O2OLMYR Z KLDSQ6 CZDUPNR6
/.2-.2/4.9 O2OLMYR Z KDQP6 C ZDPQR 8.: C-3E-/@-: E4.K
234, 4@-3 2=- 914>/.H =8I/2 O2OLMYR Z KDcN6 C ZDMMRD
<8I,- LD 0-9E3/C2/@- +282/92/E9 B43 8,, @83/8I,-9 8E3499 H345C9
*FC-3/1-.28, H345C e4.234, H345C
)3- )492 +/F 14.2=9 ,82-3 )3- )492
M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD
+14>/.H >.4G,-:H- TDQS DTQ TDNY DTM TDNN DMc TDQS DTL TDYP DTN
&22/25:- 24G83:9 914>/.H YDNS LDYQ PDLY LDML PDTT LDTU PDTL LDTL PDTN LDTQ
#.2-.2/4. B43 914>/.H PDQU LDTY PDQc LDMT YDYP TDUQ PDYU LDML PDTM LDYc
+14>/.H C-3E-/@-: E4.234, PDQP DcN PDYN LDUT YDNS LDNU PDPL DcT PDPL LDUU
+5IW-E2/@- .431 PDMP LDUc PDQN LDUT PDQY DSY PDNQ DQS PDPc DPT
Smoking knowledge
& 3-C-82-: 1-8953-9 &%!k& G/2= 2=- H345C
89 2=- I-2G--. H345C9 B8E2436 8.: 914>/.H
>.4G,-:H- 9E43- 89 :-C-.:-: @83/8I,- G/2= 3-KC-82-: 1-8953-9 OC3-KC492R 9=4G-: 8 9/H./B/E8.2
-BB-E2 B43 H345C OX OL6LMYR Z NDSM6 C [ DUYR6 8 9/HK
./B/E8.2 -BB-E2 B43 914>/.H >.4G,-:H- OX OL6LMYR
Z YQDcc6 C [ DUULR 8.: 8 9/H./B/E8.2 $345C l
+14>/.H ].4G,-:H- /.2-38E2/4. OX OL6LMYR Z LPDLS6
C [ DUULRD )8/3-: E41C83/94.9 9=4G-: 8 9282/92/K
E8,,A 9/H./B/E8.2 /[email protected] OCZDULNR B43 2=- e4.K
234, $345C OTR 8.: 8. -@-. H3-82-3 /[email protected]
OC [ DUULR B43 2=- *FC-3/1-.28, $345C OLR i B/HK
53-TD
Attitude towards smoking
& 3-C-82-: 1-8953-9 &%!k& G/2= 2=- H345C
89 2=- I-2G--. H345C9 B8E2436 8.: 822/25:- 24K
G83:9 914>/.H 9E43- 89 :-C-.:-: @83/8I,-G/2= 3-C-82-: 1-8953-9 OC3-KC492R :/:.m2 9=4G
8 9/H./B/E8.2 -BB-E2 B43 H345C OC n DUYR .-/2=-3 8 9/HK
./B/E8.2 -BB-E2 B43 914>/.H 822/25:- OC n DUYR .43
8 9/H./B/E8.2 $345C l +14>/.H &22/25:- /.2-38EK
2/4. OC n DUYRD )8/3-: E41C83/94.9 9=4G-: 8 928K
2/92/E8,,A 9/H./B/E8.2 /[email protected] I-2G--. C3-
8.: C492 2-92 B43 2=- -FC-3/1-.28, H345C OLR
OX OL6 LMYR Z QDUP6 C [ DUYR I52 8 .42 9/H./B/E8.2
/[email protected] B43 2=- e4.234, $345C OTR OX OL6 LMYR
Z DUNY6 C n DUYR i B/H53- MD
NP
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measurements
21
s m o k i n g
k n o w l e d g e s
2,80
2,70
2,60
2,50
2,00
1,00
group
2,80
2,70
2,60
2,50
1,00
2,00
group
S m o k i n g k n o w l e d g e s
1 2Measurements
X/H53- TD +14>/.H >.4G,-:H- 8E3499 1-8953-1-.29 8.: H345C9
measurements
21
A t t i t u d e s
t o w a r d s
s m o k
i n g
6,30
6,20
6,10
6,00
5,90
5,80
5,70
6,30
6,20
6,10
6,00
5,90
5,80
5,70
A t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s s m o k i n g
groupgroup
2,00
1,00 1,002,00
1 2Measurements
X/H53- MD &22/25:- 24G83:9 914>/.H 8E3499 1-8953-1-.29 8.: H345C9
Smoking intention perceived control
subjective norm
<=3-- 3-C-82-: 1-8953-9 &%!k&
G/2= H345C 89 2=- I-2G--. H345C9 B8E243 8.:
914>/.H /.2-.2/4.6 C-3E-/@-: E4.234, 8.: 95IW-EK
2/@- .431 89 :-C-.:-.2 @83/8I,-9 G/2= 3-C-82-:
1-8953-9 OC3-KC492R :/:.m2 9=4G 8 9/H./B/E8.2
-BB-E2 B43 H345C6 .43 B43 :-C-.:-.2 @83/8I,-9 .-/K
2=-3 8. /.2-38E2/4. -BB-E2D
Retention measures
<=- -FC-3/1-.28, H345C 5.:-3G-.2 8 3-2-.K
2/4. 1-8953- 9/F 14.2=9 ,82-3D & 3-C-82-: 1-89K
53- 4.-KG8A &%!k& 9=4G-: 2=82 2=- 925:-.29
NN
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=8: 3-28/.-: 2=- >.4G,-:H- X OL6 PUR Z MMDLN6
C [ DUUL 8.: 2=- 822/25:-9 X OL6 PUR Z NQDQM6
C [ DUUL E4.E-3./.H 914>/.H6 G=/,- /.:/@/:58,
C8/3-: E41C83/94.9 /.:/E82-: 9282/92/E8,,A 9/H./B/K
E8.2 :/BB-3-.E-9 I-2G--. 2=- B/392 8.: 2=- 9-E4.:
1-8953- OC [ DUULR6 8.: 8,94 I-2G--. 2=- B/392
8.: 2=- 2=/3: 1-8953- OC [ DUULRD o- :/:.m2 .42-
9/H./B/E8.2 :/BB-3-.E-9 I-2G--. 2=- 9-E4.: 8.:
2=- 2=/3: 1-8953-96 .-/2=-3 E4.E-3./.H 2=- >.4G,K
-:H- 4B 914>/.H B8E29 .43 2=- 822/25:-9 24G83:
914>/.H i B/H53-9 Q6 YD
X/H53- QD "-2-.2/4. 1-8953- 4B 914>/.H >.4G,-:H- B43 2=- -FC-3/1-.28, H345C
X/H53- YD "-2-.2/4. 1-8953- 4B 822/25:-9 24G83:9 914>/.H B43 2=- -FC-3/1-.28, H345C
Discussion and Conclusions
<=- 8/1 4B 2=/9 925:A G89 24 -FC,43-
G=-2=-3 8 914>/.H [email protected]/4. C34H3811- 2=82
=89 I--. 9-2 5C 8B2-3 2=- C3/.E/C,-9 4B 2=- <=-43A
4B ),8..-: J-=8@/43 8.: )-39589/4. <=-43A /1K
C,-1-.2-: :53/.H C=A9/E8, -:5E82/4. E,8996 E45,:
4BB-3 -BB-E2/@- 914>/.H [email protected]/4. B43 925:-.29D
#2 G89 =AC42=-9/9-: 2=82 2=- C34H3811- G45,:
/.E3-89- 2=- 925:-.29\ >.4G,-:H- 4B 914>/.HB8E296 2=- 925:-.29\ 822/25:- 24G83:9 914>/.H6
2=- C-3E-/@-: E4.234, 4@-3 914>/.H6 /1C8E2 2=-/3
/.2-.2/4. 24G83:9 914>/.H 8.: 2=-/3 95IW-E2/@-
.431 B43 914>/.H I-=8@/453D <=- 3-95,29 9=4G-:
/[email protected] /. >.4G,-:H- 8.: /. 2=- 925:-.29\
822/25:-6 I52 .42 /. 914>/.H /.2-.2/4.6 C-3E-/@-:
E4.234, 4@-3 914>/.H 8.: 94E/8, .431 B43 914>/.HD
J89-: 4. 2=- 2=-43A 4B C,8..-: I-=8@/453 _L`6
8E2/4. :-C-.:9 4. /.2-.2/4. G=/E= /. 253. /9 B43K
15,82-: I89-: 4. 822/25:-6 4. C-3E-/@-: E4.234,8.: 4. 95IW-E2/@- .431D 0-9C/2- 2=- B8E2 2=82 822/K
Measurements32
6,5
6,0
5,5
5,0
4,5
1
Measurements321
S m o k i n g k n o w l e d g e
2,8
2,7
2,6
2,5
2,4
A t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s s m o k i n g
NS
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25:- G89 /1C34@-:6 2=-3- 9--1-: 24 I- .4 E=8.H-
/. C-3E-/@-: E4.234, 8.: /. 95IW-E2/@- .431D
&9 8 3-95,2 G- G45,: .42 I- 8I,- 24 83H5- 2=82
2=- 925:-.29\ /.2-.2/4. =8: E=8.H-:D #2 9--1-:
2=82 2=- E41I/.82/4. 4B /.B43182/4. G/2= @83/459
1-998H-9 8H8/.92 914>/.H 8.: /. B8@4532=- -F-3E/9- G89 8I,- 24 /.B,5-.E- 2=- 822/25:-9
4B 925:-.29 I52 .42 2=- C-3E-/@-: I-=8@/4538,
E4.234, 4@-3 914>/.H .-/2=-3 2=- 925:-.29\
95IW-E2/@- .431 B43 914>/.HD
<=- 95EE-99 4B 2=- C34H3811- ,/-9 /. 2=-
B8E2 2=82 /2 G89 C499/I,- 24 E41I/.- )=A9/E8,
*:5E82/4. 2-8E=/.H G/2= 8 914>/.H [email protected]/4.
C34H3811-D <=- E533/E5,51 4B $3--> C5I,/E
9E=44,9 :4-9 .42 C34@/:- E,899 2/1- B43 a-8,2=
*:5E82/4. /. $38:-9 N 2=345H= c 4B +-E4.:83A
*:5E82/4.D <=-3-B43-6 C34H3811-9 4B 2=82 2AC-
83- /1C,-1-.2-: 4. 8 @4,5.2--3 I89/9 4529/:-
3-H5,83 E533/E5,51 2/1- IA 8.A .51I-3 4B 925:-.29
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
LD &Wp-. #D6 &,I8338E/. 0D6 a43./> "D OTUUNRD )3-:/E2/4. 8.: e=8.H- 4B a-8,2= J-=8@/436 &CC,A/.H 2=- "-894.-: &E2/4. &CC348E=6 '8G3-.E- *3,I851 &994E/82-96 '4.:4.D
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MD &5:38/.K7E$4@-3. dD6 "4:3/H5-p 0D OTUUQRD <-81 +C432 )832/E/C82/4. 8.: +14>/.H^ &.8,A9/9 G/2= $-.-38,$34G2= 7/F253- 74:-,/.HD d453.8, 4B )9AE=/823/E )9AE=4,4HA6 Tc6 TcciMUSD
QD J82-9 eD6 d83@/9 7D6 e4..4,,A $D OLcccRD <4I8EE4 &::/E2/@-9^ e/H83-22- *.H/.--3/.H 8.: %/E42/.- &::/E2/4.D=22Crr^ .4K914>/.HD43H O"-23/-@-:^ 4. 78A6 TULURD
YD J34G. JDJD6 e,89-. 0D"D6 */E=-3 +D&D OLcSPRD )-3E-C2/4. 4B C--3 C3-9953-6 C--3 E4.B431/2A :/9C49/2/4.6 8.:
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PD e89235EE/ JDeD6 e-3,8E= ]D]D6 ]85B18. %DdD6 !3,-8.9 eD<D OTUUQRD <4I8EE4 59- 8.: E-9982/4. I-=8@/43814.H 8:4,-9E-.29 C832/E/C82/.H /. 43H8./p-: 9C4329D &1-3/E8. d453.8, 4B a-8,2= J-=8@/436 TSOLR6 PMiSLD
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SD *5349282 ;-83I44> OTUUTRD %-G9 3-,-89-D %4D PTrTUUTKTN 78A TUUTD =22C^rr-534C8D-5D/.2rE411r-5349282r O"-23/-@-:^ 4. 78A6 TULURD
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LYD )82- "D"D6 <3492 +D$D6 '-@/. +D6 04G:8 7D OTUUURD +C4329 C832/E/C82/4. 8.: =-8,2= 3-,82-: I-=8@/439 814.H?+ A452=D &3E=/@-9 4B )-:/823/E9 q &:4,-9E-.2 7-:/E/.-6 LYQ6 cUQicLLD
LPD )-22A "D*D6 e8E/4CC4 dD< OLcSPRD <=- -,8I4382/4. ,/>-,/=44: 14:-, 4B C-39589/4.D &:@8.E-9 /. *FC-3/1-.28,+4E/8, )9AE=4,4HA6 Lc6 LTMiTUYD
LND +=-318. *DdD6 )3/18E> JD&D OTUUcRD o=82 G43>9 24 [email protected] 8:4,-9E-.2 914>/.Hf & 9A92-182/E 3-@/-G4B 2=- %82/4.8, e8.E-3 #.92/252-\9 "-9-83E=K<-92-: #[email protected]/4. )34H3819D d453.8, 4B +E=44, a-8,2=6 Nc6McLiMccD
Received^ &C3/, TULU
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ORIGINAL PAPERS European Journal of Physical & Heath Education, 2010, vol. 4(2), 81-90.
The Relationship between Healthy Eating Beliefsand Food Consumption in Adolescents
Jordi Pich1,2 , Lluís Ballester 3, Mònica Thomàs4, Ramon Canals4, Josep A. Tur 1,5
1 Research Group for Community Nutrition and Oxidative Stress (Palma de Mallorca, Spain)
2 Universitat de les Illes Balears
1 (University of the Balearic Islands, Department of Psychology, Spain)
3 Universitat de les Illes Balears
1 (University of the Balearic Islands, Department of Education, Spain)
4 Universitat de Girona
1 (University of Girona, Department of Psychology, Spain)
5 Universitat de les Illes Balears
1 (University of the Balearic Islands, Department of Fundamental Biology & Health Sciences, Spain)
Abstract
Purpose: This paper investigates the nutritional information of adolescents and their attitude towards everydayfoods. These beliefs are contrasted with the declared frequency of consumption of these foods.Methods: Adolescents’ opinions about healthy eating were studied in a school survey. A sample of 1663 sub-
jects ranging from 11 to 18 years of age expressed their opinions about suitable eating habits and ratedthe quality of their own diet; they later classified 43 everyday foods as bad or good from a nutritional pointof view and declared the frequency with which they consumed them.Results: Results demonstrated an adequate understanding of current dietary recommendations. Eating a rangeof foods was the most frequently mentioned principle of a healthy diet, which should be low in fats and sugarsand include large amounts of vegetables, fruits and fish. In fact, attitudes towards the healthiest foods were allpositive, while typical fast foods, sweets and alcoholic drinks received negative ratings. High calorie foods wererated lower by girls. However, consumption seemed to be barely affected by these attitudes.Conclusions: The influence of psychological mechanisms, such as adolescents' concern for health and for fu-ture or comparative optimism in these results is discussed, as is the use of these aspects in promotingthe healthiest eating habits in this population.
Key words: nutritional beliefs; food attitudes; adolescents’ nutrition.
Introduction A study of the adolescent diet in Spain in-
dicated the need to reduce the level of saturated
fats and sugars, moderate the consumption of red
meat and encourage the consumption of fish
and vegetables [22].
To correct these habits, first we must as-
certain whether or not adolescents have enoughinformation on current dietary recommendations
and whether this information translates into op-
erational knowledge to identify the healthiest nutri-
tional options.
Their motivation in applying this knowledge
to their own diets must also be determined,
i.e., if taking care of one’s diet for health reasons
is a concern shared by adolescents. Nowadays,
education in Spanish schools includes informa-
tion on an inadequate diet and indicates the spe-
cific foods consumption of which should be in-creased or decreased. This knowledge should
reinforce recommendations customarily provided
by parents at home.
A satisfactory degree of assimilation
of this informational pressure has been con-
firmed in a number of different countries [2, 21].
In a study carried out in four European countries
with children ranging from 8 to 15 years of age,81% of the subjects believed that diet is directly
related to health [10]. Moreover, several proto-
typical fast food items were considered “bad
for me” as follows: soft drinks (59%), chips (47%),
ketchup (46%) and beef hamburgers (46%). Fur-
thermore, negative attitudes towards high-calorie
foods also appear to consolidate during adoles-
cence, especially in girls, whereas the concepts
of health and weight seem to merge. Thus, higher
calorie foods are considered worse for health:
girls between the ages of 11 and 16 consideredthese foods to be less healthy than boys did,
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and considered low calorie items healthier [28,
29].
Unhappily, these studies noted how little
these beliefs and attitudes affected actual con-
sumption, while other studies underscore the nega-
tive correlation between preferences and atti-tudes [2, 11, 21].
Present study analyses the relationship
between nutritional beliefs and habits in a sam-
ple of Mediterranean adolescents. Specifically,
their nutritional attitudes are explored and re-
lated to the declared frequency of consumption
of the most customary foods in this region.
Methods
A survey on food was applied to 2,000
schoolchildren in Balearic Islands between No-
vember 2003 and March 2004. The survey was
administered during a one-hour class period
under the direction of a survey administrator.
Two hundred subjects retook the survey two
months later to validate the stability of the re-
sponses. Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient
between the two applications was significant,
while the range of coefficients obtained in the re-
sponses in the first application oscillated between
r=0.897 (P=0.000) and r=0.658 (P=0.000). Reli-ability was determined by means of Cronbach’s
alpha and the Guttman coefficient, both values
indicating high internal consistency (Cronbach’s
alpha=0.9771; Lambda=0.9444). The final num-
ber of valid subjects in the sample was 1,663
with a confidence level of 2 sigmas (95.45%)
and a margin of error of ± 2.5%.
The questionnaire included an open-ended
question: “What advice do you think a nutrition
specialist could give you to help you achieve
a healthy diet?” The respondents also indicated
whether or not they would be interested in ac-
quiring more information if offered by an expert.
Satisfaction with their diets was determined
with the statement: “I believe my diet is very
good for my health.” Subjects were asked to indi-
cate their degree of agreement by marking a cross
on a 9-cm line, the end of which on the left read
“Very much” and the end on the right read “Not
at all.” The marks closest to “Strongly agree”
(0 to 4.5 cm.) were classified as “Satisfied” and
those closest to “Strongly disagree” (4.6 to 9 cm.)
were classified as “Unsatisfied”.
Subjects also classified 43 foods on a list
as “Good for me” or “Bad for me” (annex 1).
The survey administrator had previously told
the subjects not to consider their real consump-tion or preference for a food, and so “good” would
mean that a food could be eaten in large amounts,
whereas “bad” meant that consumption of the item
in question should be kept to a minimum.
They were later requested to note the frequency
with which they consumed each food by selecting
one option: "Daily", "Three or more times a week",
"Two or few times a week", "Never or not very
often each month". The responses to the first two
options were classified as "Frequent Consump-
tion" and the latter two options were classified
as "Infrequent Consumption".
Results
Table 1 shows the practices that the sub-
jects selected as the basis of a healthy diet.
No differences were found between boys and
girls. The most frequently mentioned principle
was a varied diet and the need to eat “a little bit
of everything”, whereas the concept of “nutritional
balance” was mentioned by 7.4% of the subjects(data not shown). Both statements were grouped
for subsequent analysis. Students also pointed
out the need for large amounts of vegetables
as well as the regular consumption of fish, fruit
and meat. Not skipping meals was a concern
that appeared more often in the oldest group.
Interest in receiving more information on diet
grows with age (30% at 11–12 years compared
to 54% to 17-18; Chi square=43.475; d.f.=6;
p<0.001). Moreover, the percentage of girls who
were interested doubled the percentage of boys
(45% compared to 26%; Chi square=64.193;
d.f.=2; p<0.001).
75% of the subjects declared that they were
satisfied with their diets without any differences
with age being noted. The percentage of boys
who were satisfied was slightly higher than girls
(78% compared to 72%; Chi square=6.827; d.f=2;
p<0.05).
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Table 1. Principles mentioned in order to carry out a healthy nourishing. Total percentages and percent-ages inside each age group
PRINCIPLE Total 11-12 13-14 15-16 17-18 Z test
Varied food, balanced diet 30.1 26.3 24.8 44.5 59.2 *
To include vegetables 27.8 32.9 29.2 22.9 17.3 *
To include fish 13.0 14.4 14.6 10.9 8.9 *
To include fruit 12.9 12.2 14.0 14.0 10.1 NS
To include meat 10.6 12.7 11.8 8.9 4.5 *
Not to skip foods 5.0 2.0 2.4 8.7 14.0 *
To avoid fats, cholesterol 4.8 4.8 3.4 5.3 7.3 NS
To include milk 4.0 5.4 5.3 1.5 1.1 *
To avoid excesses 4.0 3.2 3.4 5.1 6.1 NS
To Include pulses 3.4 4.2 2.4 3.3 3.4 NS
To drink much water 3.0 2.3 3.7 3.3 2.8 NS
Doesn't know, doesn't answer 30.4 39.8 32.0 20.9 15.1 *
* Results of the Z test of contrast of proportions for a level P < 0.05
Table 2 shows the percentage of subjects
who defined the different foods in the as "Good
for me". The highest opinion by category corre-
sponds to fruit, cereals (except bread), pulses,
fresh vegetables and dairy products. Meat and
fish were positively evaluated by 60% of all sub-
jects. On the other hand, prototypical fast food
(hamburger, chips and pizza) and continentalbreakfast (jam and butter) only obtained between
33% and 43% positive ratings. However, the worst
opinion corresponded to sweets, soft and alco-
holic drinks (beer and wine), which were posi-
tively rated by 20% or fewer. The breakdown
by age group records the increase in nutritional
value attributed to healthy foods (vegetables,
pulses and fish) and wine, as well as the decrease
in sweets and fast food. Moreover, girl’s lower
opinion of higher calorie foods such as bread,
nuts, sweets, fast food and alcohol is reflectedin table 3.
Table 4 show that the food consumed most
frequently is bread. More than 70% also con-
sume healthy products such as cereals, fruits,
dairy products, salad and eggs almost on a daily
basis, although the same percentage also con-
sume less recommendable foods such as chips
and soft drinks with the same frequency. Half
of adolescents consume pulses and dried fruits
almost every day. Less enthusiasm was voiced
for boiled vegetables, which were frequently
consumed by 40% of the sample, whereas
the regular consumption of fish fell to 23%.
34% also declared that they consumed foods
rich in fat and/or sugar such as butter, jam, ice-cream or chocolate on a daily or almost daily
basis. Finally 8% of those over 15 years of age
consume wine and/or beer three or more times
a week.
Although this pattern of consumption re-
mains very stable throughout the entire age pe-
riod contemplated, the consumption of sweets,
fish and vegetables tends to decline.
Finally, table 5 shows that girls consumed
the most protein-rich foods (meat, fish) and
higher calorie foods such as nuts, pastries, but-ter, jam, pizza and soft drinks with a lower
weekly frequency. Nevertheless, the most nota-
ble difference can be seen in alcoholic bever-
ages, which are consumed several times
a week by 12% of all boys, as opposed to 4%
of all girls.
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Table 2. Attitudes to food items. “Good for me” answers: Total percentages and percentages by age group
Age groupCATEGORY Food item Total
11 to 14 15 to 18Z test
CEREALS Hot soup 89,97 87,63 92,31 *
Bread 69,43 69,11 69,76 No sig
Corn flakes 84,29 80,29 88,29 **
Boiled rice 85,33 81,67 88,99 **
Pasta 75,34 73,05 77,62 *
Mean 80,87 78,35 83,39 **
FRUITS Fruit juices 88,81 84,78 92,83 **
Red fruits 89,78 85,15 94,41 **
Whole year fruits 90,39 87,08 93,71 **
Mean 89,66 85,67 93,65 **
VEGETABLES Green salad 84,98 78,19 91,78 **
Spinaches 79,20 71,86 86,54 **
Cauliflower or cabbage 75,46 67,00 83,92 **
Boiled chards 74,75 68,56 80,94 **
Mean 78,60 71,40 85,80 **
PULSES AND NUTS Nuts 53,38 53,62 53,15 No sigPulses 80,42 73,60 87,24 **
Mean 66,90 63,61 70,19 **
DAIRY PRODUCTS Milk 74,64 74,98 74,30 No sig
Cheese 76,49 77,45 75,52 No sig
Yogurt 80,21 83,50 76,92 **
Mean 77,11 78,64 75,58 No sig
MEAT AND EGGS Chicken 69,09 69,48 68,71 No sig
Pork loin 64,46 63,89 65,03 No sig
Sausages 42,25 46,75 37,76 **
Viscera 41,98 36,94 47,03 **
Croquettes 57,21 60,22 54,20 **
Eggs 70,91 68,93 72,90 *
Rabbit 63,84 59,67 68,01 **
Lamb 58,27 53,25 63,29 **
Mean 58,50 57,39 59,62 No sig
FISH Sole 69,96 61,78 78,15 **
Hake 60,63 55,00 66,26 **
Shellfish 72,99 69,94 76,05 **
Salted anchovies 52,57 50,78 54,37 **
Smoked salmon 58,56 52,61 64,51 **
Canned tuna fish 55,87 51,60 60,14 **
Mean 61,77 56,95 66,58 **
SWEETS Sweet cake 15,35 19,16 11,54 **
Ice cream 21,29 26,67 15,91 **
Chocolate 17,70 22,64 12,76 **Pastry 17,63 23,37 11,89 **
Marmalades 43,90 46,01 41,78 **
Butter or margarine 42,67 49,50 35,84 **
Mean 26,42 31,23 21,62 **
FAST FOOD Beef hamburguer 33,96 35,93 31,99 **
Pizza 35,87 41,15 30,59 **
Soft drinks 19,91 25,48 14,34 **
Chips 43,35 50,50 36,19 **
Mean 33,27 38,27 28,28 **
ALCOHOLIC DRINKS Wine 17,46 12,37 22,55 **
Beer 12,75 10,82 14,69 **
Mean 11,59 18,62 *** Results of the Z test of contrast of proportions for a level P < 0.05** Results of the Z test of contrast of proportions for a level P < 0.01
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Table 3. Attitudes to food items. “Good for me” answers: Total percentages and percentages by sex group
CATEGORY Food item Total Boys Girls Z test
CEREALS Hot soup 89,21 87,99 90,44 No sig
Bread 69,46 76,35 62,57 *
Corn flakes 83,07 84,80 81,35 No sig
Boiled rice 84,20 84,80 83,59 No sig
Pasta 74,67 76,96 72,37 *
Mean 80,12 82,18 78,06 *
FRUITS Fruit juices 87,54 87,13 87,96 No sig
Red fruits 88,31 87,25 89,37 No sig
Whole year fruits 89,32 87,13 91,50 *
Mean 88,39 87,17 89,61 No sig
VEGETABLES Green salad 82,82 80,39 85,24 *
Spinach 76,91 77,08 76,74 No sig
Cauliflower or cabbage 72,77 70,10 75,44 **
Boiled chards 72,79 71,20 74,38 No sig
Mean 76,32 74,69 77,95 No sig
PULSES AND NUTS Nuts 53,62 62,25 44,98 **
Pulses 78,25 76,23 80,28 *Mean 65,94 69,24 62,63 **
DAIRY PRODUCTS Milk 76,16 74,88 77,45 No sig
Cheese 80,52 80,76 80,28 No sig
Yogurt 85,99 86,03 85,95 No sig
Mean 80,89 80,56 81,23 No sig
MEAT AND EGGS Chicken 69,25 71,20 67,30 *
Pork loin 64,34 67,28 61,39 **
Sausages 43,79 50,74 36,84 **
Viscera 40,48 44,12 36,84 **
Croquettes 58,24 63,11 53,36 **
Eggs 70,32 71,45 69,19 No sig
Rabbit 62,61 66,42 58,80 **Lamb 56,77 60,42 53,13 **
Mean 58,22 61,84 54,6 **
FISH Sole 67,41 67,65 67,18 No sig
Hake 58,91 60,91 56,91 **
Shellfish 72,06 73,41 70,72 No sig
Salted anchovies 52,08 55,51 48,64 **
Smoked salmon 56,77 60,05 53,48 **
Canned tuna fish 54,62 59,07 50,18 **
Mean 60,31 62,77 57,85 **
SWEETS Sweet cake 16,62 21,08 12,16 **
Ice cream 23,05 27,57 18,54 **
Chocolate 19,30 22,55 16,06 **Pastry 19,50 23,41 15,58 **
Marmalade 44,68 50,98 38,37 **
Butter or margarine 44,93 52,08 37,78 **
Mean 28,01 32,95 23,08 **
FAST FOOD Beef hamburger 34,66 39,09 30,22 **
Pizza 37,65 44,49 30,81 **
Soft drinks 21,73 26,35 17,12 **
Chips 45,67 50,61 40,73 **
Mean 34,93 40,13 29,72 **
ALCOHOLIC DRINKS Wine 15,98 21,45 10,51 **
Beer 12,23 16,67 7,79 **
Mean 14,10 19,06 9,15 **
* Results of the Z test of contrast of proportions for a level P < 0.05** Results of the Z test of contrast of proportions for a level P < 0.01
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Table 4. Consume frequency of food items. “Eat frequently” answers: Total percentages and percentages by age group
CATEGORY Food item Total 11 to 14 15 to 18
CEREALS Hot soup 71,43 74,15 68,71 **
Bread 88,78 85,43 92,13 **
Corn flakes 69,63 70,21 69,06 No sig
Boiled rice 62,17 63,15 61,19 No sigPasta 77,75 75,44 80,07 *
Mean 73,95 73,68 74,23 No sig
FRUITS Fruit juices 77,59 74,24 80,94 **
Red fruits 71,11 69,84 72,38 No sig
Whole year fruits 78,45 77,36 79,55 No sig
Mean 75,72 73,82 77,62 *
VEGETABLES Green salad 68,28 62,60 73,95 **
Spinach 26,77 29,42 24,13 **
Cauliflower or cabbage 21,24 22,73 19,76 **
Boiled chards 40,25 45,00 35,49 **
Mean 39,14 39,94 38,33 No sig
PULSES AND NUTS Nuts 53,20 55,00 51,40 **Pulses 54,32 54,63 54,02 No sig
Mean 53,76 54,81 52,71 No sig
DAIRY PRODUCTS Milk 75,19 76,08 74,30 No sig
Cheese 72,18 68,84 75,52 **
Yogurt 76,00 75,07 76,92 No sig
Mean 74,45 73,33 75,58 No sig
MEAT AND EGGS Chicken 41,72 44,27 39,16 **
Pork loin 56,04 53,16 58,92 **
Sausages 63,44 61,14 65,73 **
Viscera 13,97 17,97 9,97 **
Croquettes 46,58 50,69 42,48 **
Eggs 69,22 67,46 70,98 *
Rabbit 19,57 20,26 18,88 **
Lamb 17,07 19,98 14,16 **
Mean 40,95 41,87 40,03 No sig
FISH Sole 22,37 26,21 18,53 **
Hake 26,05 28,14 23,95 **
Shellfish 24,60 29,97 19,23 **
Salted anchovies 18,32 23,01 13,64 **
Smoked salmon 15,82 18,88 12,76 **
Canned tuna fish 32,22 30,71 33,74 **
Mean 23,23 26,15 20,31 **
SWEETS Sweet cake 22,25 22,64 21,85 No sig
Ice cream 33,95 39,05 28,85 **
Chocolate 39,70 41,98 37,41 **Pastry 45,61 46,47 44,76 No sig
Marmalade 29,92 33,09 26,75 **
Butter or margarine 35,00 39,05 30,94 **
Mean 34,4 37,05 31,76 **
FAST FOOD Beef hamburger 35,92 37,40 34,44 **
Pizza 47,98 50,50 45,45 **
Soft drinks 68,36 68,19 68,53 No sig
Chips 73,52 72,04 75,00 No sig
Mean 56,45 57,03 55,86 No sig
ALCOHOLIC DRINKS Wine 7,55 7,24 7,87 **
Beer 8,54 6,42 10,66 **
Mean 8,05 6,83 9,27 *** Results of the Z test of contrast of proportions for a level P < 0.05** Results of the Z test of contrast of proportions for a level P < 0.01
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Table 5. Consume frequency of food items. “Eat frequently” answers: Total percentages and percentagesby sex group
CATEGORY Food item Total Boys Girls Z test
CEREALS Hot soup 72,2 69,61 74,85 **
Bread 87,7 87,01 88,43 No sig
Corn flakes 69,9 73,9 65,88 **
Boiled rice 62,5 65,2 59,86 **
Pasta 77,0 77,82 76,27 No sig
Mean 73,9 74,71 73,06 No sig
FRUITS Fruit juices 76,5 76,23 76,86 No sig
Red fruits 70,7 70,22 71,19 No sig
Whole year fruits 78,1 76,59 79,57 No sig
Mean 75,1 74,35 75,88 No sig
VEGETABLES Green salad 66,5 65,32 67,65 No sig
Spinach 27,6 29,41 25,86 **
Cauliflower or cabbage 21,7 23,28 20,19 **
Boiled chards 41,8 44,98 38,61 **
Mean 39,4 40,75 38,08 **
PULSES AND NUTS Nuts 53,9 59,56 48,17 **Pulses 54,4 55,51 53,36 No sig
Mean 54,2 57,54 50,77 **
DAIRY PRODUCTS Milk 75,5 75,00 75,91 No sig
Cheese 71,1 69,49 72,73 No sig
Yogurt 75,7 76,35 75,09 No sig
Mean 74,1 73,61 74,58 No sig
MEAT AND EGGS Chicken 42,6 46,08 39,08 **
Pork loin 55,2 55,88 54,43 No sig
Sausages 62,7 63,97 61,51 No sig
Viscera 15,3 19,85 10,74 **
Croquettes 47,9 50,98 44,86 **
Eggs 68,7 69,36 68,00 No sig
Rabbit 19,9 27,94 11,92 **
Lamb 18,1 25,86 10,39 **
Mean 41,3 44,99 37,62 **
FISH Sole 23,6 27,33 19,95 **
Hake 26,8 30,15 23,38 **
Shellfish 26,4 30,39 22,31 **
Salted anchovies 19,9 24,75 14,99 **
Smoked salmon 16,9 21,57 12,16 **
Canned tuna fish 31,8 36,89 26,80 **
Mean 24,2 28,51 19,93 **
SWEETS Sweet cake 22,4 26,72 18,18 **
Ice cream 35,6 39,83 31,40 **
Chocolate 40,5 43,26 37,66 **Pastry 46,0 50,25 41,68 **
Marmalade 31,0 34,80 27,15 **
Butter or margarine 36,3 39,34 33,29 **
Mean 35,3 39,03 31,56 **
FAST FOOD Beef hamburger 36,5 42,77 30,22 **
Pizza 48,8 51,47 46,16 **
Soft drinks 68,4 72,55 64,23 **
Chips 73,1 74,75 71,43 No sig
Mean 56,7 60,39 53,01 **
ALCOHOLIC DRINKS Wine 7,5 10,78 4,25 **
Beer 8,0 12,50 3,42 **
Mean 7,7 11,64 3,84 *** Results of the Z test of contrast of proportions for a level P < 0.05** Results of the Z test of contrast of proportions for a level P < 0.01
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Discussion and conclusions
Dietary information provided by schools and
families is well assimilated by Balearic adoles-
cents. At the age of 15, they are familiar with cur-
rent nutritional recommendations, while at the age
of 11 they know how to classify healthy foodsas "Good for me" and less recommendable foods
as "Bad for me". The assimilation of these atti-
tudes seems to begin at an early age [16] and sub-
sists during adulthood when they are increased
with additional nutritional knowledge [12].
Furthermore, the negative ratings given to fast
foods items and positive ratings given to some
traditional Mediterranean foods despite their repu-
tation as fattening (bread or pulses) surely indi-
cates certain permeability to periodic campaigns
in favour of recovering the Mediterranean diet.
Yet, as remarkable as the solidity of adoles-
cents’ beliefs is the low impact on consumption
they have. And if true that our data on declared
consumption frequency must be evaluated with
the necessary prudence, they coincide with quan-
titative effective consumption studies conducted
on the Balearic adolescent population [24].
Thus, it can be asserted that child and ado-
lescent habits depend essentially on their prefer-
ences towards the sweetest and the fattiestfoods [18, 23]. Certainly the most frequently
consumed foods are those that adolescents de-
clare most appealing and the most highly rated
foods are the least appreciated and consumed
with the lowest frequency [20]. In fact we know
that depriving oneself of the pleasure of food is
not recommendable and eating other foods that
do not appeal to us solely for their nutritional vir-
tues is not an easy undertaking at any age.
However, other factors different from pref-
erences may affect the dissonance observed be-
tween attitudes and consumption. Thus, the ado-
lescent will to reaffirm personal identity may be
expressed in a rejection of adult directives that
contradict their preferences. Moreover, as adoles-
cents know that their peers share these ideas,
the “right” to eat junk food would also assuage
the fear of seeming different from their friends [3].
But the discrepancy may also indicate a lack
of conviction in the recommendations themselves,
that is, that consuming appetising food poses
an effective risk health or that consuming vege-
tables or fish is truly beneficial for their bodies.
A recent study of subjects between 9 and 13 years
of age reflects the conviction that their actions
today will have no influence on future health [4],
which diminishes or even annuls the motivation
to follow any preventative-oriented recommenda-
tion in the field of health. Furthermore, adoles-cents’ subjective perception of time may lead many
to think that they will worry about eating better
when they are older... within one hundred years!
On the other hand, we observe that although
declared consumption habits openly contradict
the subject’s own beliefs, 75% of them defined
their diet as good or very good, a surprising find-
ing not altered by age or sex. We can interpret
this data as a mechanism of cognitive reactance
whose goal would be to cushion the dissonance
produced by the awareness of the contradiction
between conduct and attitude. Complementarily,
we may consider it an expression of the compara-
tive optimism phenomena [5] which would induce
adolescents to underestimate the risks involved
in their poor diets.
Consequently, we should not neglect cog-
nitive and emotional work with adolescents
on the advisability of following the diet we advise
not assuming that this factor is implicit in the nutri-
tional messages provided. A. Bandura’s cognitivesocial theory [1] has also suggested the prior
need to promote subjects’ perception of self-
effectiveness to convince them of their capacity
to introduce positive changes in their diet.
At present, the fear of gaining weight seems
to be the only motivation that may spontane-
ously introduce certain self-control in choosing
foods. This is an important motivation among
adolescents [17], particularly girls [6], to the point
in which dieting is considered a normal phase
in female development [7].
Girls’ greater motivation and interest in health
around the end of adolescence has also been
indicated [27]. Other studies have in fact noted
girls’ greater consumption of vegetables [25],
concluding that the desire to be slim channels
food selection towards healthy eating [13, 17].
Yet, in ours the higher rating given to lower calo-
rie foods was not accompanied by an increase
in the regularity of vegetable or fish consumption,
although it does seem to contribute to reducing
girls’ consumption of the highest calorie and
least recommendable foods (including alcohol).
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This signals the need to distinguish between
promoting consumption of the least appetising
foods and focusing on initial efforts to achieve
a restriction in the consumption of pleasing, yet
not recommendable foods [8].
Undoubtedly school is the natural placeto provide nutritional information but also to investi-
gate the most effective strategies to instil good
eating habits. As B.C. Petrini states [19], “Nutri-
tional formation offered in school is too often bas-
ed on transmitting nutritional tables and videos
on foods that “are good for you” or “bad for you”.
And what “is bad for you” are always the prod-
ucts they like most because they are rich in fla-
vour enhancers: saying they are prejudicial and
imposing bans does not teach adolescents any-
thing.... It is not enough just to offer undoubtedly
correct nutritional rules and explain them. Teach-
ing students where raw material comes from and
letting them touch, handle and consume products
directly is the most effective way of educating
them in food and pleasure” (pp. 168–169).
Finally, scholar learning processes must con-
jugate efforts with family. In fact numerous studiesagree that parents’ diet and the family menu predict
the variety of a child’s diet and his or her consump-
tion of vegetables and dairy products [9, 14, 26].
But unfortunately adolescents themselves note that
the contents of their family's diet does not always
model the healthy way of eating we advocate [15].
Thus we must keep in mind that family should
always be an on-going example of a healthy and
pleasurable diet. And although setting a good ex-
ample is not enough at times, it is always indis-
pensable in modelling the proper eating habits
we all hope to instil in young people.
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19. Petrini C. Bueno, limpio y justo. (2007). Principios de una nueva gastronomía. Madrid: Ediciones Polifemo.
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ANNEX 1. LIST OF FOODS1. Sweet cake2. Hot soup3. Bread4. Green salad5. Ice cream6. Chicken7. Corn flakes8. Boiled rice9. Pork loin10. Beef hamburger
11. Sole12. Chocolate13. Milk14. Cheese15. Pizza16. Yogurt17. Hake18. Soft drinks19. Fruit juices20. Spinach21. Cauliflower or cabbage22. Nuts (almonds, hazelnuts...)
23. Boiled chards with potatoes24. Pasta dishes (spaghetti, macaroni…)25. Pulses (lentils, chickpeas…)26. Sausages27. Pastry (bread rolls, donuts...)28. Viscera (liver, kidneys…)29. Croquettes30. Eggs (fried, omelette)31. Chips32. Jam
33. Butter or margarine34. Wine35. Beer36. Rabbit37. Lamb38. Shellfish (shrimps, mussels...)39. Salted anchovies40. Smoked salmon41. Canned tuna fish42. Red fruits (cherries, watermelon...)43. Fruit of the whole year (apple, pear...)
Received: April 2010
Accepted: May 2010Published: June 2010
Correspondence
Jordi PichDepartment of Psychology
University of the Balearic IslandsCarretera de Valldemossa, Km. 7,5
07122 Palma de Mallorca, SpainPhone: 00 34 971 173000;
E-mail: [email protected]
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ORIGINAL PAPERS European Journal of Physical & Heath Education, 2010, vol. 4(2), 91-96.
Trends in Overweight and Obese Pre-School
and School Children in Liechtenstein, 2004–2008
Jürgen Kühnis1,2, Esther Walser 31 Pädagogische Hochschule Zentralschweiz
(University of Teacher Education of Central Switzerland, Switzerland)2 Private Universität im Fürstentum Liechtenstein
(Private University, Liechtenstein)3 Amt für Gesundheit Liechtenstein
(Public Health Department, Liechtenstein)
Abstract
Background: Overweight and obesity among children and adolescents became a major concern in health policyin the 21st century. This resulted primarily from tracking studies from childhood into adulthood and associated
health consequences. It is therefore essential to continue monitoring these developments accurately.Objective: The aim of this paper was to document the current prevalence and trends in overweight and obesityin 5, 10 and 14 year-old school children in Liechtenstein as based on national data measured over the five yearperiod from 2004 to 2008.Methods: A total of 2205 children were measured in three cross-sectional screening examinations. Basedon the anthropometric data collected, overweight and obesity were determined according to sex- and age-specific percentiles of the body mass index (BMI) using international as well as German cut-off criteria.Results: Overall the prevalence of overweight (obesity) was 17.1% (3.6%) following the IOTF standardsand 12.6% (4.7%) following the German standards, respectively. Conclusions: In comparison with other surveys no increase or significant changes of prevalence could be estab-lished over the five year trend of this study.
Key words: school children, overweight and obesity, monitoring, Liechtenstein.
Introduction During the last decades a dramatic increase
in the prevalence and incidence of overweight
and obese children and adolescents has been
monitored worldwide and seems to have reached
pandemic levels [5, 12, 13, 24, 25]. This alarming
development is primarily the result of lifestyle
changes as well as changes within the home
environment and socio-ecological context. Today
many children grow up in so-called “obesogenic
environments” [4, 10, 26], which constitute a driv-
ing force in their attitudes and behavioural pat-
terns.
The origin of overweight and obesity lies
in multifactorial determinants and includes genetic
dispositions, behavioural factors as well as the in-
fluence of the socio-cultural environment [2, 20,
22]. Specifically, daily eating and physical activity
habits seem to play a key roles in the long-term
positive energy balance and excessive weight
gain [5, 6, 14, 16]. Thus, exercise and nutrition are
regarded as central fields for action in the contextof health education and prevention strategies [9].
Overweight and obesity in childhood and
adolescence are associated with many adverse
effects on health (e.g. cardiovascular disease, or-
thopaedic complications and psycho-social barri-
ers) and a high risk of becoming an overweight
adult [3, 6, 11, 19, 20]. These various comorbid-
ities not only influence the psycho-physical health
and life expectancy of the people concerned but
also impact the national economy, i.e. the addi-
tional costs to our health care system [23].
For example in Switzerland, the total (obesity-link)
disease costs of overweight and obesity have more
than doubled from CHF Mio 2’648 (cost basis
2001) to CHF Mio 5’755 (cost basis 2006) in re-
cent years [17]. In view of the future of public health
and the multi-causality and complexity of the prob-
lem, this development is a cause for concern.
Today’s children are the parents of tomorrow and
there is a consequent risk of severe health prob-
lems if the current trend cannot be stopped.
With this background acting as focal point itis important to detect and counteract the problem
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already in early childhood. If initiated in childhood
the development of a healthy lifestyle is carried
through to later periods of life. Therefore the pre-
valence of overweight growing children needs
to be monitored systematically. From a health
policy perspective, continuously recorded andanalysed trend data represent a crucial basis
for clarifying the current situation and the rele-
vance for initiating possible measures of preven-
tion or intervention.
Methods
The data were taken from a current BMI-
monitoring project undertaken by the Liechten-
stein national public health department. Since
2004 this ongoing cross-sectional survey has
been conducted at two year intervals as part
of national screening examinations. For these pe-
diatric investigations all children aged 5, 10 and
14 years old resident in Liechtenstein were in-
vited to take part; participation was voluntary.
The current non-selected sample includes 2205
children from three surveys 2004, 2006 and
2008 – table 1. The age groups studied repre-
sented typical levels of education: kindergarten
(5 year-olds), primary school (10 year-olds) and
secondary school (14 year-olds). The meanof participation rate (defined as the proportion
of all children invited) was 61.1%.
Anthropometric data of body weight and
height were obtained by doctors using standard-
ised procedures. Anonymity and confidentiality
were ensured. Standing height was measured
without shoes, using a stadiometer with an accura-
cy of + 0.2 cm. Weight was determined in under-
wear, using a calibrated scale exactly to + 0.2 kg.
The BMI was calculated as weight divided by the
height squared (kg/m2). The classification andanalyses of overweight and obesity were based
on age- and sex-specific BMI cut-off points as
recommended by the International Obesity Task
Force (IOTF) [1] as well as per German refer-
ence values [7]. The IOTF criteria are used most
frequently for international comparison. These
reference data are based on six national but
ethnically very different populations (Brazil, Great
Britain, Hong Kong, the Netherlands, Singapore
and the USA). Therefore the German cut-off val-
ues were also used, these had been determined
from 17 studies made in different regions of Ger-
many. In this reference system children are de-
fined as overweight or obese, respectively when
their BMI-value is above 90th or 97th age- and sex-
specific percentile. In addition to the German
working group for adiposity in childhood and ado-lescence (AGA) also the Austrian society for child
and youth medicine (ÖGKJ) refers to this refer-
ence standard.
Statistical analyses were performed using
SPSS (Version 15). Differences between anthro-
pometric parameters (weight, height, BMI) we-
re analysed by using Mann-Whitney-U-test and
Kruskal-Wallis-test; trends in overweight and obe-
sity prevalence among observation periods, gen-
der and age groups by using Chi-square and Chi-
square-test for trend, drawn at significant level
of p < .05.
Results
This study included anthropometric data
of 2205 children aged 5, 10 and 14 years.
The gender ratio is nearly equal with a participa-
tion of 50.8% girls and 49.2% boys. Table 1 de-
scribes mean weights, heights and BMI of chil-
dren, stratified by gender and age groups, within
the periods of investigation.The current prevalence and time trends
of overweight and obesity according to gender
and age are summarised in table 2, figures 1
and 2. Using the IOTF references 17.1% were
overweight, thereof 3.6% obese. The German
references categorised 12.6% of all the children
observed as being overweight, thereof 4.7% as
being obese. In summary, the comparison be-
tween these two standards showed similar preva-
lence of obesity but major differences in over
weight with a partial deviation of up to 9%. Re-gardless of the references used, the proportion
of the combined prevalence of overweight and
obesity increases from 5-year-olds (9.0% and
12.6%, respectively) up to primary and secon-
dary school children (12.6% and 17.1%, respec-
tively). Significant differences between the three
school levels (represented by age groups) were
observed between 5 and 10 year-olds (both ref-
erences, p < .01) and between 5 and 14 year-olds
(both references, p < .001). No statistical differ
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Table 1. Descriptive characteristics of the national sample (n=2205). Mean + SD
Boys (n=1084) Girls (n=1121) Parameter
a
2004(n=357)
2006(n=411)
2008(n=316)
2004(n=376)
2006(n=423)
2008(n=322)
5 y (n=722)
weight (kg) 20.1 + 2.7* 20.3 + 3.2 20.2 + 2.9 19.3 + 2.8 19.9 + 2.8 20.0 + 2.7
height (cm) 113.0 + 4.6* 113.2 + 4.4 113.3 + 4.2 111.5 + 5.7 112.5 + 4.7 112.1 + 4.6
BMI (kg/m2) 15.6 + 1.3 15.7 + 1.8 15.7 + 1.8 15.5 + 1.8 15.6 + 1.5 15.9 + 1.7
10 y (n=850)
weight (kg) 36.9 + 8.1* 35.5 + 8.0 35.8 + 7.2 35.1 + 6.5 35.6 + 7.1 35.5 + 6.9
height (cm) 141.8 + 6.3 141.8 + 6.5 141.8 + 5.8 141.5 + 6.6 141.4 + 6.3 142.1 + 6.1
BMI (kg/m2) 18.2 + 3.1* 17.6 + 3.3 17.8 + 3.1 17.5 + 2.5 17.7 + 2.8 17.5 + 2.8
14 y (n=633)
weight (kg) 59.4 + 12.1** 57.2 + 12.2 58.6 + 12.8** 55.5 + 11.4 55.5 + 9.4 54.1 + 8.7
height (cm) 168.1 + 9.3
***
166.6 + 7.9
***
168.1 + 7.5
***
161.5 + 6.5 162.8 + 8.2 162.4 + 7.1BMI (kg/m2) 20.9 + 3.3 20.5 + 3.5 20.6 + 3.8 21.2 + 3.6 21.0 + 3.6 20.5 + 2.8
a The standard errors (SE) for weight, height and BMI range from 0.1 to 1.3. SD (standard deviation)Significant gender differences (Mann-Whitney-U-test): * p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001No significant differences between the observation periods within age groups (Kruskal-Wallis-test, p > .05)
ence could be detected between boys and girls
(p > .05). During the three study periods the preva-
lence of overweight and obesity remained at a con-
sistent level. The annual trend comparisons within
the different age groups and stratified by gender
did not reach significance level (p > .05). How-
ever the proportion of obesity among 5 year-olds
between 2004 and 2008 had doubled. Otherwise
the proportion of obesity among 14 year-olds
between 2004 and 2008 primarily by girls tends
to be in decline.
Table 2. Time trends in overweight and obesity prevalences (%) in Liechtensteinian children by age and gender,using German and IOTF reference criteria
German referencesa
overweight / obesityc
IOTF referencesb
overweight / obesitycAge
d
2004 2006 2008 total 2004 2006 2008 total
5y 4.8 / 2.4 6.1 / 3.7 4.6 / 5.1 5.3 / 3.7 6.7 / 2.4 10.1 / 3.7 9.2 / 5.1 8.9 / 3.7
Boys 2.0 / 3.0 7.2 / 3.3 5.1 / 4.2 5.1 / 3.5 3.0 / 3.0 9.2 / 3.3 7.6 / 4.2 7.0 / 3.5
Girls 7.3 / 1.8 4.9 / 4.2 4.0 / 6.1 5.4 / 4.0 10.0 / 1.8 11.1 / 4.2 11.1 / 6.1 10.8 / 4.0
10y 11.0 / 3.7 6.1 / 5.2 9.2 / 5.8 8.7 / 4.8 16.3 / 3.0 10.6 / 4.2 16.7 / 3.8 14.4 / 3.6Boys 12.7 / 4.7 7.0 / 4.5 7.6 / 6.7 9.2 / 5.1 20.0 / 4.0 10.2 / 3.2 16.2 / 4.8 15.3 / 3.9
Girls 9.3 / 2.7 5.2 / 5.9 10.4 / 5.2 8.2 / 4.6 12.7 / 2.0 11.1 / 5.2 17.0 / 3.0 13.5 / 3.4
14y 9.8 / 7.6 9.6 / 4.4 9.9 / 4.4 9.8 / 5.5 20.5 / 4.5 15.4 / 3.1 16.6 / 2.8 17.5 / 3.5
Boys 10.2 / 5.6 6.9 / 4.9 11.8 / 5.4 9.6 / 5.3 22.2 / 3.7 14.7 / 3.9 19.4 / 4.3 18.8 / 4.0
Girls 9.5 / 9.5 11.9 / 4.0 8.0 / 3.4 10.0 / 5.8 19.0 / 5.2 15.9 / 2.4 13.6 / 1.1 16.4 / 3.0
All 8.9 / 4.5 7.1 / 4.4 7.8 / 5.2 7.9 / 4.7 14.9 / 3.3 11.8 / 3.7 14.1 / 3.9 13.5 / 3.6
Boys 9.0 / 4.5 7.1 / 4.1 7.9 / 5.4 7.9 / 4.7 16.0 / 3.6 10.9 / 3.4 13.9 / 4.4 13.5 / 3.8
Girls 8.8 / 4.5 7.1 / 4.7 7.8 / 5.0 7.9 / 4.6 13.8 / 2.9 12.5 / 4.0 14.3 / 3.4 13.5 / 3.5a overweight (> P90-P97); obesity (P > 97), [7]b
cut-off points, extrapolated from a BMI of 25 kg/m2
(overweight) and 30 kg/m2
(obesity) at age 18 [1]c chi-square-trend-test: No significant differences between the observation periods within age groups and gender (p > .05)d kindergarten (5y); primary school (10y); secondary school (14y)
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26
24
22
20
18
1614
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
P e r c e n t
overweight obesity
2004 2006 200 8 2004 2006 2008 2004 200 6 2008 2004 2006 2008
Kinder gate n Pri mary school Se cond ary s chool (5y) (10 y) ( 14y)
All le velsof educ atio n
Figure 1. Time trends and proportion of overweight and obesity in the different schoollevels, using German references
2004 200 6 200 8 2004 2 006 2008 200 4 2006 2008 2004 2006 200 8
Ki ndergaten Pri mary school Secondary school All levels (5y) (10y) (14y) o f education
overweight o besity26
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
P e r c e n
t
Figure 2. Time trends and proportion of overweight and obesity in the different schoollevels, using IOTF references
Discussion
The present findings highlight the following
important issues. Overall this national survey
showed a combined prevalence of overweight
and obesity of 17.1% using international IOTF
references and 12.6% using German references,
respectively. Comparing the two standards used,the IOTF criteria produced a higher prevalence
in overweight but a similar prevalence in obesity
than the German references because the inter-
national recommendations are less strict in their
definition of overweight.
The distribution of overweight detected
in this study is comparable with the prevalenceof 10%–20% in states of Northern Europe [12].
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In Germany, each 6–7th child/youth (15.0%) be-
tween 3–17 years is deemed to be overweight [8];
projected this corresponds to 1.9 Mio overweight
(thereof 800’000 obese) children and young
people in Germany. In Switzerland between
1960/1965 and 2007 the combined prevalenceof overweight and obesity (using the CDC BMI
reference criteria [15]) among 6–12 year olds
rose from 5.4% to 16.8% in boys and from 5.8%
to 13.1% in girls [18]. According to forecast pro-
jections (based on a non-linear regression mo-
del) the proportion of overweight and obese chil-
dren in Switzerland may increase to 16.8% in boys
and 22.7% in girls [18]. Within Europe the high-
est levels of childhood overweight (30%–36%)
can be found in Mediterranean countries and are
predicted to increase up to 41% by 2010 [12, 24].
Focussing on the neighbouring regions
across the borders from Liechtenstein in Switzer-
land and Austria the corresponding data groups
can be compared as follows: In the federal state
of Vorarlberg (Austria) the current 15 year com-
parison within the 7–15 year-olds shows an aver-
age prevalence of 10.6% (www.aks.or.at); the val-
ues of 2006 and 2008 with 13.0% and 13.5%,
respectively are just as highly as in Liechtenstein.
In the canton Graubünden (Switzerland) per
the baseline examination 2007/08, each 7th child/
youth (14.0%) between 3–17 years is classified
as overweight [21]; in the canton St. Gallen (Swit-
zerland) no data is available so far but a monitor-
ing project is in planning.
As the principal finding and in contrastto other studies our trend analysis showed no
increase of overweight prevalence from 2004
to 2008 but remained at a stable level. This find-
ing must not be regarded as an all-clear signal
but the development has to continue to be ob-
served carefully. A five year period is probably
a limiting timeframe. As a result of the continuing
monitoring project, more precise estimates will
become available in the next few years. A major
strength of this study is the large national sample
and the high participation rates, even though par-
ticipation was voluntary. How far the 39% of those
children who did not participate influence the ge-
neralizability of our findings cannot be answered
precisely because no drop-out analysis is possi-
ble. It is possible that some of the parents of over-
weight or obese children tended not to permit
participation of their children. No causal analysis
or interpretation is possible because of the cross-
sectional design of this study.
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Received: February 2010
Accepted: March 2010
Published: June 2010
Correspondence
Prof. Dr. Jürgen KühnisUniversity of Teacher Education of Central Switzerland
PHZ Schwyz, Switzerland [email protected]
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!"#$%&#'( *'*!&+ European Journal of Physical & Heath Education, 2010, vol. 4(2), 97-102.
Obesity Diffusion among Children and Adolescents:Trends, Methodological Problems and Countermeasures
at European Level
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
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$%&'()&*+ ,*,$)- European Journal of Physical & Heath Education, 2010, vol. 4(2), 103-109.
Health Dimension of School Education
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Abstract
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Health education as a process of shaping
human’s health potential
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from internal and external environment are
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of health conducing environmental
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7/24/2019 Can We Play a Game Now the Intrinsic Benefits of TGfU
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/can-we-play-a-game-now-the-intrinsic-benefits-of-tgfu 62/62
European Journal of Physical & Health Education
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