cardiovascular review

Cardiovascular DisordersJudith Maely Kong-Tarrazona, US-RN

Nursing History

Nurse has three goals when obtaining health history: Identify present and potential health

problems. Identify possible familial and lifestyle risk

factors. Involve the client in planning long-term health

care.

Manifestations of Heart Disease

Dyspnea – laboured or difficult breathing

Types: Exertional Orthopnea – shortness of breath when lying

down Paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea – sudden

dyspnea at night while lying down Cheyne-Stokes – periodic breathing

characterized by gradual increase in depth of respiration followed by a decrease in respiration resulting in apnea

Chest Pain

Characteristic Examples

Location Substernal, precordial, jaw, back, localized or diffuse.

Character/ Quality Pressure; tightness; crushing, burning, or aching quality;

heaviness; dullness; “heartburn” or indigestion

Chest Pain


Timing: onset, duration and frequency

Onset: Sudden or gradual?

Duration: How many minutes does the pain last

Frequency: continuous or periodic

Chest Pain


Setting/precipitating factors

Awake, at rest, sleep interrupted? With activity? With eating, exertion, exercise, elimination, emotional upset?

Chest Pain


Intensity/Severity Can range from 0 (which is no pain) to 10 (which is worst pain

ever felt) Aggravating factors

and Relieving factors Activity, breathing, temperature

Medication (nitroglycerin, antacid), rest; there may be no

relieving factors

Chest Pain


Associated symptoms

Fatigue, shortness of breath, palpitation, nausea and vomiting, sweating, anxiety, light-headedness or dizziness

Edema

– abnormal accumulation of serous fluid in the connective tissues

Causes: CHF, Na retention, liver disease, hypoproteinemia,

venous or lymphatic obstruction

Types: ascites – excessive fluid in peritoneal cavity hydrothorax – excessive fluid in pleural cavity anasarca – gross generalized edema

Edema

Edema Rating: +0 = non pitting +1 = 0 – ¼” pitting (mild) +2 = ¼” – ½” pitting (moderate) +3 = ½” – 1 pitting (severe) +4 = greater than 1” pitting (severe)

Palpitation

a rapid, forceful or irregular heartbeat felt by the patient

Hemoptysis is coughing up of blood Small quantities of dark-clotted blood –

indicates mitral stenosis Mixture of blood and pus – indicates

pulmonary suppuration Pink, frothy Sputum – in acute pulmonary

edema Blood-streaked Sputum – in acute pulmonary

congestion Frank hemoptysis – due to lung pathology

Other Manifestations of Heart Disease

Fatigue Syncope and Fainting – may be caused by

anoxemia or reduced cardiac output resulting to inadequate circulation

Cyanosis – bluish discoloration of the skin and mucus membranes

Abdominal pain or discomfort Clubbing of fingers – angle of the nail is 1800

due to chronic hypoxia Jaundice – yellowish discoloration of the skin

and sclera

Physical Assessment of the Heart

Inspection and Palpation

Aortic area – 2nd ICS to the right of the sternum

Pulmonic Area – 2nd ICS to the left of the sternum

Inspection and Palpation

Right Ventricular Area

a circle around the 5th cartilage to the patient’s left of MSL (Midsternal Line)

Inspection and PalpationApical or Left Ventricular

Area 5th ICS at MCL

(Midclavicular line). Observe for cardiac

movement at the PMI located at MCL at the 5th ICS.

Thrills are vibration that occur as blood flow through a narrow or damaged valves

Percussion

Cardiac Area of Dullness (CAD)

Auscultation: Heart Sounds

S1 first heart sound due to closure of

atrioventricular valves loudest at the apexS2 second heart sound due to closure of

semilunar valves loudest at the base

Auscultation: Heart SoundsS3 “ventricular gallop” 3rd heart sound which is normal in children and

young adultS4 “atrial gallop” 4th heart sound which is normal in children and

young adult; in adults, it is associated with systemic or

pulmonary hypertension, MI, and other cardiac diseases

Auscultation: Heart Rate

Normal – 60-100 beats per minute (BPM) Bradycardia =<60 bpm Tachycardia => 100 bpm

Auscultation

Murmurs – sounds produced by vibrations within the heat and great vessels caused by turbulence of flow

Rubs – sounds produced by the interfacing of parietal and visceral surfaces of the pericardium

Auscultatory Areas

Physical Assessment of Blood Vessels

Inspection

Color – inadequate circulation may produce pallor, rubor, cyanosis. Cyanosis is best visualized with good lighting. Vascular nail beds offers best visualization.

Circulation of extremities

Note for the following

Hair growth – absence means inadequate circulation

Clubbing – results from long standing hypoxia

Capillary refill – prolong filling time is indicative of inadequate circulation

Palpation

Edema – assess over a bony prominence such as the medial malleolus, anterior tibia, sacrum. Press for 5 seconds and measure for pitting

Pulse – carotid, dorsalis pedis, poplitial, posterial tibial

Diagnostic Assessment

Non-invasive Procedures

Electrocardiography is a graphic recording of electrical activity of the

heartResting electrocardiogram (ECG) presents a single recorded picture of the

electrical activity of the heart secure electrodes to appropriate locations on

the chest and extremities instruct the client to remain still during the test reassure client that he or she will not receive

any electrical shock or impulses

Holter Monitoring continuous ambulatory

ECG monitoring over time (usual 24 hours with small, timed, portable ECG recording devices

secure electrodes to appropriate locations on the chest

instruct client to continue normal activity

instruct client to maintain a log of activities and any symptoms

Stress test

continuous multi-lead ECG monitoring during controlled and supervised exercise, usually on treadmill

Stress Test

Client preparation obtain written consent explain procedure instruct client to eat a light meal 1 to 2

hours before the exam no caffeine, alcohol, smoking wear comfortable clothing and rubber-

soled walking shoes

Stress TestNursing care during procedure secure electrodes to appropriate locations on

chest obtain baseline BP and ECG tracing instruct client to exercise as instructed instruct client to report any pain, weakness,

shortness of breath, or other symptoms immediately

monitor BP and ECG continuously record at frequent intervals and with any

symptoms or changes in vital signs, ST segments, or cardiac rhythm.

Stress Test

Post procedure nursing care continue to monitor ECG and NP until

client returns completely to baseline and is symptom-free.

once stable, patients may resume their usual activity.

Echocardioagraphy

is an ultrasound of the heart to evaluate structure and function of the heart chambers and valves

Echocardioagraphy

Client preparation instruct client to remain still during the test secure electrodes for simultaneous ECG tracing explain that there will be no pain or electrical

shocks, however, the lubricant placed on skin will be cool

Post-procedure: cleanse the lubricant from the client’s chest wall

Phonocardiography is a graphic recording of heart sounds with

simultaneous ECG

Client preparation instruct client to remain quiet and still during

test secure electrodes for simultaneous ECG tracing explain that there will be no pain or electrical

shocks

Diagnostic Tests

Invasive Procedures

Coronary Angiography/Arteriography

is an invasive procedure during which the physician injects dye into coronary arteries and immediately takes a series of x-ray films to assess the structure of the arteries.

Coronary Angiography/Arteriography

obtain written consent explain procedure assess client for history of allergies to dye

or to shellfish initiate IV site with fluids as ordered

Cardiac Catheterization

is the insertion of a catheter into the heart and surrounding vessels to obtain diagnostic information about the structure and function f the heart. It can be performed on the right or left side of the heart

Cardiac Catheterization

Cardiac Catheterization client on NPO, usually for 8-12 hours

before procedureExplain to the client that Procedure involves lying on a hard table

for less than two hours Mild sedative will be given intravenously Occasional pounding sensation

(palpitation) may be felt particularly when catheter tip touches the myocardium.

Cardiac Catheterization Client may be asked to cough or breathe

deeply, especially after injection of contrast agent.

coughing may help to disrupt a dysrhythmia and to clear the contrast agent from the arteries; breathing deeply helps lower the diaphragm for better visualization of heart structures.

Injection of contrast agent may procedure a flushed feeling throughout the body

Cardiac CatheterizationPost-procedure Nursing Care observe catheter access site for bleeding or

hematoma formation assess the peripheral pulses, temperature and

color in the affected extremity every 15 min, for 1 hour, and then every 1 to 2 hours until pulses are stable

encourage fluids to flush out dye orthostatic hypotension may occur when getting

out of bed the first time.

Radionuclide Tests

are safe methods of evaluation left ventricular muscle function and coronary artery blood distribution

can procedure some of the same information as radiographic angiography with less risk to client

Radionuclide Tests

Client preparation obtain written consent if required explain procedure instruct client that fasting may be required for a

short period before the exam contrast material will be injected through a

venipuncture it will be necessary to alternately change

position and remain still during the exam there is an associated pain or discomfort

Radionuclide Tests Nursing care during procedure – none;

procedure is performed in nuclear medicine Post-procedure nursing care encourage client to drink fluids to facilitate the

excretion of the contrast material assess venipuncture site for bleeding or

hematoma if stress testing was performed, assess client’s

BP and pulse at frequent intervals and maintain continuous ECG monitoring as indicated

Radionuclide Tests

MUGA (gated pool imaging or multi-gated acquisition) scan

Thallium imaging – used to assess myocardial ischemia (decreased supply of oxygenated blood) during stress testing

PET (Positron Emission Tomography) Scan – evaluates cardiac metabolism and assesses tissue perfusion

Radionuclide Tests Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) – uses strong

magnetic field to examine both physiologic and anatomic properties of the heart.

screen out patient to determine whether the patient has pacemaker, metal plates, prosthetic joints, or other metallic implants; these can be dislodged if exposed to MRI

explain to the client to expect intermittent clanking or thumping sound from the magnetic coils that can be annoying to the patient (offer headset to listen to the music).

instruct the client to remain still and not move. Nursing Alert – no metal can be in the MRI room

because metal objects can become dangerous

Bone Marrow examination

Sites for bone marrow aspiration: Sternum iliac crest (most common) TibiaMost common site for bone marrow biopsy posterosuperior iliac spine; the sternum also is

used. During the withdrawal of aspirate, the client will

experience sharp pain often described as a burning pain

Bone Marrow examination After the needle is removed, a pressure dressing is

applied over the puncture site, where only minimal bleeding should occur

if the patient has thrombocytopenia, pressure is applied for 3 to 5 minutes

Most clients experience little, if any, pain or discomfort after the procedure; some persons will complain of tenderness and ache at the aspiration site for a few days.

Bone Marrow Aspiration – this is used to determine the presence and size of RBC, WBC, and megakaryocytes as they develop in the bone marrow

Diagnostic Procedures

Blood Studies

CBC

indication of the type and number of formed elements in the blood

CBC

Laboratory Test Normal Value

Red blood cell count Men Women

4.2-5.4 million/mm3

3.6-5.0 million/mm3

Reticulocytes 1.0-1.5% of total RBC

Hemoglobin (Hgb) Men Women

14-16.5 g/dL12-15 g/dL

Hematocrit Men Women

40-50%37-47%

CBC

Mean Corpuscular Volume (MCV)

85-100 fL/cell

Mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration ( MCHC)

31-35 g/dL

Mean corpuscular haemoglobin (MCH)

27-34pg/cell

Platelet count 150,000-400,000/mm3

Hemoglobin and Hematocrit

Hemoglobin – measures the haemoglobin available n circulation, which is the gas-carrying capacity of an erythrocyte

Hematocrit – the ratio of the BBC volume to the volume of whole blood

RBC indexes MCV (mean corpuscular volume) – estimates

size of the RBC MCH (mean corpuscular haemoglobin) –

measures the content of HgB in RBCs from a single cell

MCHC (mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration) – a more accurate measurement of the HgB as it measures the entire volume of RBCs

Serum ferritin, transferrin, and total iron-binding capacity (TIBC)

these tests are used to evaluate iron levels

Ferritin – measures the iron in plasma, which is also a direct reflection of total iron stores

Transferrin – is the major iron-transport protein

While blood cell count

Abnormal elevation of the WBC is referred to as leukocytosis

Leukopenia is a decrease in the number of white blood cells

Differential count refers to the breakdown of the different types of cells

While blood cell count

Laboratory Test Value

WBC countDifferential Neutrophils Eosinophils Bashophils Lymphocytes Monocytes

5,000-10,000/mm3

60-70% or 3,000-7,000/mm3

1-3% or 50-400/mm3

0.3-0.5% or 25-200/mm3

20-30% or 1,000-4,000/mm3

3-8% or 100-6--/mm3

Coagulation studies

Bleeding time normal range is 1 to 4 minutes used in evaluation of platelet function extended bleeding times are seen with

thrombocytopenia and aspirin therapy

Coagulation studies

Prothrombin time (PT) is the rapidity of blood clotting normal range is 11 to 16 seconds; PT evaluates

extrinsic coagulation pathway which include factors I, II, V, VII, ZX; INR is often currently used instead of PT because it is a standardized value (therapeutic range often varies from 2 to 3 depending on the condition)

Coagulation studies

Partial thromboplastin time (PTT) – normal range is 60 to 70 seconds, which

evaluates the intrinsic coagulation pathway or fibrin clot formation

Coagulation studies

Activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT) – normal range is 30 to 45 seconds; is a modified PTT< preferred because it is quicker to perform used in heparin therapy and in the evaluation of

haemophilia increased in anticoagulation therapy, liver

disease, vitamin K deficiency, and disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC)

Serum lipid profile a measurement used to determine risk of developing

atherosclerosisTotal serum lipids normal value 400 to 800 mg/dL

Triglycerides lipids stored in fat tissue, readily available for energy

production; normal serum value is generally accepted at 10 to 190

mg/dL (without elevated cholesterol, up to 250 mg/dL may be accepted)

Cholesterol the main lipid associated with atherosclerotic disease normal serum value generally accepted is <200 mg/dL in

adults

Serum lipid profile Lipoproteins proteins in the blood to transport cholesterol, triglycerides, and

other fats

High-density lipoproteins (HDL) transport cholesterol, to liver for excretion HDL/total cholesterol ratio should be at least 1:5, 1:3 more ideal

Low-density lipoproteins (LDL) transport cholesterol to peripheral tissues, associated with

increased risk of coronary artery disease

Pre-procedure nursing care – instruct client to fast for 12 to 13 hours before testing to ensure accurate results

Serum enzymes

increased in blood with heart damage; measurement of serum enzyme levels evaluates myocardial tissue infarction (injury to myocardium from decreased oxygenation)

serial testing over time detects trend and determines peak time and extent of injury

Serum enzymes

Creatinine kinase (CK) formerly known as creatine phosphokinase

(CPK) elevation indicates muscle injury CK-MB

specific to myocardial muscle; rises within 6 hours of injury, peaks at 18 hours post-injury and returns to normal in 2 to 3 days

is useful for early diagnosis of myocardial infarction

Serum enzymes

Lactic dehydrogenase (LDH) is found in many body tissues cardiac origin is confirmed with analysis of

isoenzymes (L1 is greater than L2; “flipped’ from normal levels)

elevation is detected within 24 to 72 hours after MI

peaks in 3 to 4 days returns to normal around 2 weeks; is useful in

delayed diagnosis of MI

Serum enzymes

Troponin onset is before CK-MB n MI peaks at 24 hours and returns to normal

around 2 weeks provides early sensitivity, extended

blood levels, and is more specific to cardiac injury for diagnosis of MI with an uncertain timeframe

Serum electrolytes level

Serum potassium affected by renal function and may be decreased by

diuretic agents that are used to treat heart failure decrease in potassium causes cardiac irritability and

predisposes the client receiving digitalis preparation to digitalis toxicity and dysrhythmia

increased potassium is manifested by myocardial depression and ventricular irritability.

Both hypokalemia and hyperkalemia can lead to the ventricular irritability. Both hypokalemia and hyperkalemia can lead to the ventricular fibrillation or cardiac standstill

Serum electrolytes levelCalcium necessary for blood coagulability and

neuromusclular activity hypocalcemia and hypercalcemia can cause

dysrhythmia

Sodium reflects relative fluid balance hyponatermia indicates fluid excess;

hypernatremia indicates fluid deficit

Serum electrolytes level

Serum glucose level – many patients with cardiac disease also have diabetes mellitus

Fasting blood sugar – serum glucose level drawn in a fasting state

Glycosylated haemoglobin – reflects the blood glucose level over 2 to 3 months

Serum glucose level

Fasting blood sugar – serum glucose level drawn in a fasting state

Glycosylated haemoglobin – reflects the blood glucose level over 2 to 3 months

Hemodynamics Monitoring Evaluate cardiovascular system

Pressure, flow, resistance Establish baseline values and evaluate

trends Determine presence and degree of

dysfunction Implement and guide interventions

Provides criteria for determination of CV efficacy

CVP (Central Venous Pressure) reflects the pressure of the blood in the right atrium. engorgement is estimated by far the venous column

can be observed as it rises from an imagined angle at the point of manubrium (angle of Louis).

With normal physiologic condition, the jugular venous column rises no higher than 2-3 cm above the clavicle with the client in a sitting position at a 450 angle.

CVP is a measurement of: Cardiac efficiency Blood volume Peripheral resistance

Right Ventricular Pressure a catheter is passed from a cut-down in the

antecubital, subclavian, jugular, or basilica vein to the right atrium and attached to a pre-calibrated manometer or transducer

Normal CVP is 2 to 8 cm H2O or 2 to 4 mm Hg. Decrease indicates decreased circulating

volume Increase indicates increased blood volume or

right heart failure.

Right Ventricular Pressure the patient should

be flat on bed with zero point of the manometer at the same level of right atrium which corresponds to the mid-axillary line or approximately 5 cm below the sternum.

Right Ventricular Pressure Fluctuations follow patient’s respiratory function:

fall on inspiration and rise on expiration due to changes in intrapulmonic pressure.

Reading should be obtained at the highest point of fluctuation.

If the patient is using ventilator, its use should be discontinued during the reading of CVP

Increase indicates fluid overload or congestive heart failure; decrease indicates low blood volume and more parenteral infusions needed.

Pulmonary Artery Pressure (PAP) appropriate for critically ill clients requiring more

accurate assessments of left heart pressures, including clients undergoing open heart surgery, clients in shock or with serious MIs.

Pulmonary artery (Swan-Ganz) catheter has the tip in the pulmonary artery.

Pressure measurement from this catheter is obtained after catheter tip is wedged in a pulmonary capillary, and is called the pulmonary capillary wedge pressure or PCWP; it is a good indicator of left ventricular end diastolic pressure (LVEDP).

Allows calculation of actual cardiac output and other hemodynamic parameters at frequent intervals in critically ill clients

CVP

0-8

15-25

0-8

4-12

110-130

4-12

15-25

8-15

110-130

70-80PAP

PCWP

Pulmonary Artery Pressure (PAP)

Client preparation obtain consent according to policy insertion is under strict sterile technique,

usually at the bedside explain to client that sterile drapes may cover

the face (with an internal jugular or subclavian insertion site)

assist to position client flat or slightly Trendelenburg as tolerated and instruct the client to remain still during the procedure


Nursing care during insertion procedure assist physician in maintaining a sterile

field administer medications as ordered monitor and document HR, BP, and

ECG during procedure reassure client through procedure.


Post-procedure nursing care monitor vital signs (VS) ECG at frequent intervals post-insertion maintain client on bed rest and avoid

unnecessary movements follow policy to maintain patency and

sterility of catheter.


Nursing responsibilities in hemodynamic monitoring position the transducer at the level of the right

atrium (phlebostatic axis) level the CVP or pulmonary artery catheter

(Swan-Ganz) transducer to this point at regular intervals according to policy (usually each shift) and before each measurement

maintain patency of catheter with a constant small amount of fluid delivered under pressure.

Intra-arterial Blood Pressure

Measurement of systolic, diastolic, and mean blood pressure by using an intra-arterial catheter flushed with heparinised saline inserted usually in the radial artery.

If the radial artery is used, it is necessary to verify the presence of ulnar artery flow by an Allen’s Test

PLANNING

Health Promotion

Cardiovascular Risk Factors

Non-Modifiable Age Gender Race Genetic/Family History


Modifiable Significant: Hypertension Hypercholesteriolemia Hyperlipidemia Hypertriglycedemia Smoking


Contributory Obesity Glucose intolerance Sedentary lifestyle Stress


Associated Alcohol abuse Caffeine Decreased lung vital capacity Gout

Risk Management Age

atherosclerosis is a disease of middle age (40-50). Cardiovascular disease is greater in men until 65

when the incidence equalizes.

Gender higher estrogen levels of premenopausal women

because there may be a relationship between increase in estrogen level to high density lipoproteins

Risk Management

Race IHD (Ischemic Heart Disease) is higher in whites HPN is twice greater in blacks

Genetic history family history appears to be a significant risk

factor for predisposition to heart disease. For example, heart attack or stroke.

Hyperlipidemia refers to the increase in serum level with two of the

plasma lipids, cholesterol and triglycerides in the blood. Lipid – are mixed group of biochemical substances that

may be manufactured by the body or derived from metabolism of ingested substances

Cholesterol – a fat-related compound and excessive amount deposited in blood vessels may be a factor causation of atherosclerosis.

Example: egg yolk, organ meats such as liver and kidneys

Triglycerides – a fatty acid compound and consistently elevated levels of triglycerides may be conductive to premature arteriosclerosis.

Types of Hyperlipedemia Primary hyperlipedimia – caused by inborn

error of lipid metabolism. Secondary hyperlipedemia – related to such

conditions as DM or hypothyroidism. For lipids to be used and transported by the body, they need to become soluble in blood by combining with protein to form macromolecules called lipoproteins. Lipoproteins are vehicle for fat mobilization and transport.

Classification of Lipoprotein1. Chylomicrons – removes cholesterol form the liver Composition: Protein (2%), Phospholipids (6%-9%),

Cholesterol (2%), and Triglycerides (85-95%) Source: Dietary fat and exogenous lipid (foods that

are high in fats)2. Very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) It carries triglycerides Transport triglyceride from the liver to periphery and

serves as precursor to low-density lipoprotein Elevated triglycerides levels are less associated with

coronary artery disease than Hypercholesterolemia

Classification of LipoproteinHigh VLDL concentration may increase the risk of

premature atherosclerosis when associated with other factors such as diabetes, hypertension, and cigarette smoking

Source: High dietary intake of carbohydrates such as bread and rice

Intermediate low-density lipoprotein (ILDL) it carries 60 to 70 percent of cholesterol and

therefore more closely associated with Hypercholesterolemia

Classification of LipoproteinLow-density lipoprotein (LDL) transport cholesterol from the liver to the periphery derived mainly from catabolism of VLDL. contains more cholesterol than any of the other lipoproteins and

has an affinity for arterial walls. Elevated LDL correlate most closely with an increased incidence of atherosclerosis.

High-density lipoprotein (HDL) contain more protein by with and less lipid than any other

lipoprotein. carry lipids away from arteries and to the liver for metabolism.

Therefore, high serum LDL is desirable. Composition: Protein (35%-60%), Phospholipids (34%-44%),

Cholesterol (20%-28%) and Triglycerides (14%) Source: Liver

Prevention Lifetime diet, low in saturated fat to prevent

hypercholesterolemia Triglycerides, the simple lipid, should be restricted in the

diet Example: lard, butterfat, olive oil, coconut oil, and

soybean oil Carbohydrate restricted to lower serum triglyceride

levels by reducing serum prebetalipoprotein, a combination of lipid and protein that is produced from carbohydrate

Diet low in cholesterol and saturated fat are advised to maintain a serum cholesterol below 140 mg/dL

Low cholesterol diets

Antilipemic Drugs lower the level of circulating blood lipid and may prevent

further atheromatous formation Example: Clofibrate (Atromid-S); Cholestyramine

(Cuemid)

Nursing Care: Eat salmon and tuna at least several times per week Increased intake of high-fiber food such as fruits,

vegetables, cereal grain, and legumes (string beans) Administer medications with meals to reduce GI irritation Monitor serum cholesterol and triglyceride levels during

therapy

Hypertension is the increased blood pressure, a systolic BP greater than

140mmHg and diastolic pressure greater than 90 mmHg over a sustained period.

known to be as a precursor of atherosclerosis, as yellow cheese-like fatty streaks containing cholesterol that develop into hardened plaques in the inner lining (intima) of major blood vessels and is associated with risk ischemic heart disease.

Increased systemic blood pressure increases resistance to left ventricular ejection and there will be subsequently left ventricular hypertrophy and increased cardiac workload with ultimate heart failure.

an even greater risk factor for atherosclerosis in the presence of diabetes mellitus and cigarette smoking.

PreventionControlling sodium and calorie intake on the diet Formula of getting the total calorie intake for a day

1 kilo calorie (kCal) x body weight in kilogram (kG) x 24 hourExample:Weight: 52 kGs1 kCal x body weight x 241 x 52 x 241240 kcal/day

salt may be used lightly in cooking. No salty processed foods are used, such as pickles,

olives, bacon, ham, and corn chips, or potato chips

Therapeutic Management

Diuretic drugs used to increase urine output, which reduces hypervolemia,

decreases the preload and aferload Example: Chlorothiazide (Diuril); furosemide (Lasix)

Nursing care: Monitor intake and output daily and record Weigh the client daily (same time, scale, and clothing) Administer drugs in the morning so that the maximal effect will

occur during the waking hours Assess vital signs, especially pulse and blood pressure, during the

course of therapy Instruct the client to change position slowly to prevent hypotension

(decrease blood pressure) Evaluate the client response to the medication

Therapeutic Management

Antihypertensive drug used to promote dilation of peripheral blood

vessels, thus decreasing blood pressure and afterload.

Example: methyldopa (aldomet); captopril (capoten), clonidine (catapress)

Nursing care: Monitor blood pressure in standing and lying

positions during the course of therapy. Instruct client to follow a low sodium diet

Smoking It contributes to the development and severity of

coronary artery disease in three ways:1. The inhalation of smoke increases the blood carbon

monoxide level reducing the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood and put added workload on the heart

2. Nicotine is a vasoconstrictor and also triggers the release of cathecolamines that in turn have an effect on adrenergic nerve endings, causing an increased heart rate and blood pressure.

3. Cigarette smoking increases platelet adhesion, leading to a higher probability of thrombus formation which results to decreased blood supply.

Smoking

Prevention: not to acquire the habit appropriate stress management

strategies initiate smoking cessation programs to

manage habit and totally eradicating it.

Sedentary Lifestyle

Inactivity may contribute to peripheral pooling and stress the cardiovascular system

Prolonged inactivity of sitting or lying in one position particularly contributes to venous stasis and problems of venous circulation, such as varicosities and thrombophlebitis

Sedentary LifestylePrevention

Engage in regular exercises, to improve cardiac efficiency, decrease heart rate and blood pressure, and increase cardiac output

Encourage the client to include exercise as a lifelong health habit

Risk Management Participate in regular exercise program such as aerobic activities

fitness prescription program which includes exercise to promote strength flexibility and endurance

Muscle strength – weight lifting Flexibility – stretching exercise Endurance – high intensity exercises such as jogging, walking,

bicycling or swimming

Sedentary Lifestyle3 Components of Exercise Program: Warm up – is used to increase cardiovascular and

musculoskeletal efficiency and limber up muscle. It lasts 5 to 10minutes. Example: walking

Workout – improve cardiac conditions and designed to reach a specific target heart rate. The duration or intensity depends on the individual health and objective for exercise.

Cool down – allows slowing of the cardiovascular system, dissipation of heat and removal of lactic acid. It has a slow rate for 5 to 10 minutes.

Obesity

defined as 20% over the ideal weight % IBW = (Adult weight (kG) divided by

DBW/IBW) x 100 BMI – Actual weight divided by height in

meter squared; BMI greater or equal to 27 is obesity

Obesity Dietary and exercise habit to present obesity Instruct about diet restriction in sodium, sugar,

and calories. It is essential for rearing healthy children of normal weight.

To overweight client and particularly hypertensive clients, weight reduction can be instituted like meal planning and program of behaviour modification

Stress a positive relationship exist between

psychological stress and cardiovascular disease

Management: Stress management: includes behaviour

modification Incorporating exercise to one’s life style Use of relaxation techniques Cognitive reframing or thorough stopping Temporary use of sedative or tranquilizers

Glucose intolerance serum glucose levels greater than 120 mg/100 mL are

at twice the risk for heart disease

Prevention Maintaining weight at normal level by using the

Tanhauser method Formula: height in cm minus one hundred Take the 10% reminder and subtract answer from the

remainder

Glucose intolerance

Example: height = 5’4”

5’ x 12” = 60”

60 “ + 4” = 64”

64” x 2.54 cm – 162.56 cm

162.56 cm – 100 = 63 cm

63 x 10% - 6.3

63 – 6.3 = 56.7 kG

57 kG x 2.2 lbs. – 125.4 lbs

Glucose intolerance Increased exerciseRisk Management: Encourage the patient to exercise and

follow a therapeutic plan for prevention Plan as to the prevention of

hyperglycemia and glucosuria Pharmacological agent, insulin to lower

serum glucose level

Alcohol Abuse It is a vasodilator Enhance high density lipoprotein Continuous consumption of large amount of alcohol

has recently been associated with cardiac toxicity Alcohol cardiomyopathy may decrease myocardial

and precipitate heart failure or dysrhythmias Prolonged alcohol use cause structural changes in the

myocardium and myocardial capillaries and sclerosis, fibrosis in the small arteries may lead to microinfarcts

Alcohol Abuse

Prevention Instruct the client about the danger of

alcohol Risk Management Referred client to individual or group of

counselling or to community withdrawal programs.

Caffeine

Excessive amount of caffeine cause cardiac dysrthymias, tachycardia, and extra systoles

Prevention Instruct the client to limit intake of

caffeine Example: coffee, tea, softdrinks, and

chocolates

Environmental Risk

Contaminants in foods, air, water, and drugs have been linked to cardiovascular disease

Minerals in the client’s water may contribute to heart disease

Side stream smoke from cigarette smoking, driving in traffic with carbon monoxide wastes, or working in tunnels in which carbon monoxide build-up is evident, may contribute to risk of cardiovascular disease

Client experiencing chest pain in smoke-filled rooms; it is believed that the increased carboxyhemoglobin levels cause hypoxia and increase cardiac oxygen demand.

Environmental Risk

Prevention Client who live in areas with high sodium

content in water supply may be advised to use distilled water or purified water

Other risks Decreased lung vital capacity – have a higher

incidence of heart disease due to changes in oxygenation that increase cardiac workload

Gout – twice the risk for ischemic heart disease

Promotion of Circulation Constricting clothing can impede arterial circulation and

should not be worn Example: a round garter, girdles, panty girdle, and belt Avoid long period of pressure on the blood vessels,

such as: Sitting with legs crossed at the knee obstructs

circulation in the popliteal area Sitting with the thigh flexed because it can constrict

femoral circulation Avoid standing for a long period of time, because this

may produce strain on the valves as the attempt t overcome gravity

Promotion of Circulation Encourage the client to wear support stocking when she must

stand for a long period of time; the hose compress the muscles of the leg, which help overcome gravity

The hose should be put before the person gets out of bed and pull on evenly from the toes to below the knee or to the groin

Encourage the client to walk and flex their leg as much as possible to promote venous return by the pressure of the muscle on the vein

The body shuld be kept warm which cause vasodilatation with clothing suitable for the weather

Blanket should be used as needed at night to keep the person warm

Alcoholic beverages may be ordered which produce peripheral vasodilatation to promote circulation

Smoking must be avoided and not advised

Prevention of Infection Syphilis is one disease that can cause

permanent damage to the myocardium or cardiac valve and treatment is imperative

Stapylococcus and Streptococcus organisms can enter the body through the oral route during dental procedures; prophylactic antibiotics may be given to individuals at risk for heart disease to prevent infections

Prevention of Infection Streptococcal throat infections are thought to

precede rheumatic fever and it should be evaluated by a physician and treated before further systemic damage

Women should have adequate prenatal care and immunization against rubella to prevent congenital heart defects because German measles may cause damage during first trimester of pregnancy

Prophylactic antibiotic may be given as prescribed

Prenatal care an immunization for the pregnant mother

Role of Nutrition

Well-balanced diet and that which contain sufficient calorie is needed to meet the metabolic demand of an individual and because adequate nutrition is essential in promoting oxygen to the cells

Small frequent meals are preferable Diet must contain sufficient vitamin and

iron

Health Maintenance and Restoration

Cardiac Surgeries and Endovascular Interventions

Percutaneous transmural coronary angioplasty (PTCA) purpose is to improve blood flow within a coronary

artery by “cracking” the atheroma. Because of the anticoagulants used during the

procedure, the site may have vice-type pressure device requiring a longer period of hourly site checks

monitor closely for any changes in ECG or sings of chest pain (even minor changes may be indicators if ischemia)

obtain a 12-lead ECG and notify physician of any complications.

Post procedure care similar to catheterization.

Percutaneous transmural coronary angioplasty (PTCA)

Coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG)

Client preparation Instruct the client in routine preoperative

teaching, including turning and deep breathing vigorous coughing is discouraged because it

may increase intrathoracic pressure and cause instability in the sterna area

incentive spirometry to prevent respiratory complications

leg exercises to prevent emboli formation


Post-procedure Instruct that client may resume sexual activity

when he or she can walk up two full flights of stairs without shortness of breath or chest pain

client should be rested, not after a heavy meal or alcohol consumption

Instruct client about symptoms to report to MD upon discharge including chest pain, shortness of breath, decrease in activity tolerance, fever, redness, swelling or drainage from surgical incisions


Post-procedure Instruct client that clinical depression occurs in about 20

percent of clients up to 6 months after cardiac surgery, and client should notify physician because antidepressant are very effective; include family in teaching and planning for discharge.

Instruct the client that many patients have difficulties in cognitive functions after the procedure.

Reassure client and family that the difficulty is temporary and will subside, usually 6-8 weeks

Valvular surgery repair and replacement procedure

Valvuloplasty – reconstruction including repair or removal of calcification or vegetation

Annuloplasty – narrowing a dilated valve with a prosthetic ring or purse string sutures, or enlarging a stenosed valve with a balloon

Repair is the preferred option, because of the lower incidence of post-surgical complications or mortality than valve replacement

Valvular surgery repair and replacement procedure

Client preparation and post-procedure nursing care

include instruction about preventing infection including prophylactic antibiotic therapy prior to prevent bacteria from entering the blood-stream through the gums

management of anticoagulation therapy if appropriate

Pacemakers permanent pacemakers are inserted in the

operating room to treat permanent cardiac conduction defects

Client Preparation obtain consent instruct client that bed rest is required for 24

hours and activity will gradually be increased to prevent dislodging of the leads

PacemakersPost-procedure nursing care monitor ECG continuously to ensure that pacing beats

are being captured and that intrinsic heartbeats are sensed

monitor the pacemaker site for signs of bleeding or infection

dressing should remain clean and dry with no temperature elevation, swelling, redness, or tenderness

right arm and shoulder movements may be minimized immediately post-procedure to ensure that pacemaker wire remains in contact with ventricular wall.

Pacemakers

I II III V

ElectrodePlacement

Electrodes that Sense Underlying Electrical Activity

Pacemaker Response to Sensation

Cardioverting Options

A= atrium A= atrium T= triggers* P= pacing

V= ventricle V= ventricle I= inhibits** S= shocking

D= dual (A+V) D= dual (A+V) D= dual (T+I) D= dual (P+S)

O= none O= none O= none O= none

I II III

Description

D D D Dual-lead pacemaker that paces and senses in atrium and ventricle

D D D Same as DDD plus it speeds up or slows down atrial and ventricular rate in response to sensor output (such as body temperature, resp. rate, etc. as in exercise)

V V I Single-lead pacemaker in the ventricle that is set at a fixed rate. Pacing activity is inhibited by a detected ventricular beat.

Common Cardiac Disorders

Coronary or Ischemic Heart Disease

Arteriosclerotic Heart Disease (ASHD) a slowly progressive heart condition characterized by: Internal thickening and plaque formation within the coronary

arteries due to the depression of fatty substances along the intima.

Results in fibrosis, calcification and narrowing of coronary arteries

A slow constriction of the blood supply to the myocardium, which can finally give rise to symptoms of angina.

Most common form of coronary heart disease. Nursing care centers around prevention and treatment of the

specific manifestation of particular disease process.

Angina Pectoris

a clinical entity describing the chest pain associated with transient myocardial ischemia

Types of Angina

Stable angina (classic) – chest pain occurring intermittently over a long period of time with the same pattern of onset, duration and intensity of symptoms

Unstable angina (progressive crescendo or pre-infraction – unpredictable and easily provoked by minimal or no stress, during sleep or even at total rest)

Types of Angina Prinzmetal’s angina (variant angina) – often

occurs at rest, usually in response to spasm of a major coronary artery (e.g. histamine angiotensin prostaglandin and epinephrine)

Nocturnal angina – occurs only at night but not necessarily when the person is in the recumbent position or during sleep

Angina decubitus – chest pain that occurs only while lying down and is usually relieved by standing or sitting.

Signs and symptoms of Angina substernal or precordial pain radiating to left

shoulder or pressure/heaviness/tightness/squeezing precipitated by exertion, emotion, and exposure to cold

relieved by rest and use of nitroglycerine tablets.

Pain is temporary lasting 3-5 minutes. Myocardial tissues are not permanently

damaged

Cause: atherosclerosis is by far the most common cause

Diagnosis: Nitroglycerine test (0.4 or 1/150 gr. of

nitroglycerine) shorten pain or increase tolerance to exercises

Nursing Goals

Increasing oxygen to the myocardium and relief of acute attacks

Reducing the demand for oxygen Helping client prevent future episodes of

angina

Anti-platelet aggregation therapy

first line of pharmacological intervention in the treatment of angina

Aspirin is the drug of choice Dipyridamole (Presantine)

Increasing Oxygen Supply

Nitrates: Rapid Acting

Nitroglycerine is the drug of choice and acts to relieve the pain in

about 3 minutes and has a duration of approximately 45 minutes by producing dilation of coronary blood vessels.

Usual dose is 0.3 mg (1/200 gr.) taken sublingually; allow to dissolve completely; retain

saliva before swallowing. Purchase a new supply every 6-9 months Clients will experience a burning sensation under his

tongue and a full throbbing sensation in his head of the tablet have full potency.



Nitroglycerine Stored in a dark, airtight container because it is sensitive to heat,

light, and moisture and decomposes rapidly. Supply is refrigerated and only a few tablets carried with the

client. Repeat dosage every 5-10 minutes from 2 or 3 times. If no relief;

see a physician. Not habit-forming. Taken prior to exercising; eating a large meal; stressful situation

sexual intercourse Side effects: headache; dizziness, flushing Can be used prophylacticaly by taking the tablet 5-10 minutes

before beginning the activity



Nitrostat – a stabilized form of nitroglycerine, Has uniform potency and can be carried without fear of decomposition.

Amyl Nitrate given in form of pearls ampoules which are

crushed and inhaled. Dose is 0.2 mg and must not be taken

repeatedly because it produces syncope


Nitrates: Long Acting act to maintain coronary artery vasodilation, thereby promoting a greater

flow of blood and oxygen to heart muscle.

Isosorbide dinitrate (Isordil, Sorbitrate) maybe taken sublingually for acute attack or per Orem for their long-

acting action Side effects: headache; flushing; nausea and vomiting; hypertension;

vertigo; syncope

Nitroglycerine ointment (Nitrol and Nitropaste) is a 2% nitroglycerine topical ointment and provides vasodilation up to 3-

6 hours. Is particularly useful for management of nocturnal angina if applied

before sleep.


Nitrates: Long Acting

Transdermal controlled – Release Nitrates – types:

1. Reservoir type – in which the drug migrates to the absorption site through a rate-controlled permeable membrane e.g. Transderm-Nitro

2. Matrix type – in which the drug is slowly dispersed through a polymeratrix to the skin absorption site

e.g. Nitro-Dur; Nitro-Disc


Nitrates: Long Acting

Intravenous Nitroglycerine (Nitrol IV; Nitrostat IV; Ntirobid IV, Tridil)

has an immediate onset of action used in MI to increase the collateral blood flow to the ischemic area and reduce myocardial oxygen demand.

Titrate the dose down at night and titrate up during the day.


Beta-adrenergic blocking agents

act to decrease oxygen requirement by decreasing heart rate and redistributing blood flow to non-ischemic portion of the heart.

Used if nitrates are not effective in managing pain.

E.g. Propanolol (Inderal) 10-30 mg TID



Side Effects: Nausea and vomiting Diarrhea extreme fatigue broncho-constriction sexual difficulties heart failure Bradycardia heart block hypoglycaemia



Nursing Care caution client not to discontinue drug,

since abrupt withdrawal may cause dysrhythmias, angina or MI from sudden increase in responsiveness to sympathetic stimuli


Calcium-blocking agent

e.g. Nifedipine (Procardia), Verapamil (Calan, Isoptin), Diltiazem (Cardizem), Nicardipine (Cardene)

Effects: Systemic vasodilation with decrease

systemic vascular resistance (SVR) Decrease myocardial contractility Coronary vasodilatation


Calcium-blocking agent

potentiate the action of Digoxin by increasing serum Digoxin levels during early part (first week) of therapy.

Digoxin levels should be closely monitored upon institution of this therapy

client should be taught the sign and symptoms of Digoxin toxicity


Whisky or brandy

(30-60 mL) acts to promote dilations of blood vessels and general relaxation


Reducing the demand for oxygen

Limiting activities Moderate amount of exercise to increase

myocardial strength Sedatives, tranquilizers, and anti-depressants Radioactive Iodine (131I) – occasionally given

to clients who have been refractory to treatment for 3 months in order to decrease activity of the thyroid gland which slows patient’s metabolism and lower workload of the heart.

prevent future episodes of angina

Diet – low in calorie and saturated fats to curtail obesity

5 to 6 small meals instead of 3 main meals Inform client that all forms of tobacco are

hazardous to his health Stress produces epinephrine leading to

vasoconstriction Regular program of daily exercise

Myocardial Infarction

occlusion of one of the coronary artery or its branches by a clot or sclerotic condition.

Myocardial Infarction Incidence: men in

middle life are often the persons who have MI. They usually have some degree of atherosclerosis and may or may not have hypertension


Signs and Symptoms steady, constrictive, sub-sternal chest

pain severe and not relieve by rest symptoms of shock elevation of temperature nausea and vomiting


ECG changes: ST elevation

reflects ischemic area.

ST elevation and T-wave inversion – a recent MI

Q-wave – necrosis formation


Laboratory Test: elevated CK with MB isoenzymes > 5%

(early diagnosis) elevated troponin (early to late

diagnosis) elevated LDH with “flipped isoenzymes”

(late diagnosis)

Diagnostics

↑ CPK-MB 4-8o 12-24o 3-4 days

↑ Myoglobin 1-3o 4-12o 12o

↑ Troponin I or T 3-4o 4-24o 1-3 wks

↑ SGOT (AST), ESR, ↑ Troponin levels LDH, LDH1, LDH2

Treatment and Nursing Care Relief of pain Demerol or morphine may be ordered. Demerol is less frequently given because it is more

likely to induce vomiting and to initiate vaso-vagal response.

IV NTG – may reduce pain and decrease preload and afterload while increasing myocardial oxygen supply.

Antidysrhythmic drugs Positive inotropic drugs – increase heart’s contractility

Caution: this drug increases the heart’s demand for oxygen Beta blockers – bradycardia and hypotension may

result

Treatment and Nursing Care Oxygen by tent, mask, or nasal catheter ECG monitoring; CVP; evaluation of apical pulse Administer anticoagulant (IV Heparin) and aspirin

(antiplatelet) as ordered to prevent additional clot formation. Monitor PTT to maintain heparin at therapeutic level

Diet – no iced or very hot drinks because they may precipitate cardiac arrhythmias; food known to be gas producing should be avoided

Bowel elimination be regulated by mild laxatives; client is not permitted to strain at defecation

Treatment and Nursing Care

Percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA)

transluminal dilation can increase the diameter of the artery with the use of percutaneous fluoroschopically guided catheter to relive lesions in the coronary artery.

Treatment and Nursing Care

Thrombolytic therapy dissolving the thrombus in the coronary

artery and reperfusing the myocardium before cellular death occur

e.g. alteplase recombinant (activase) tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) streptokinase (Streptase)

Congestive Heart Failure

Heart failure – is failure of the heart to pump an adequate amount of blood necessary for venous return and for the metabolic requirements of the body

Congestive Heart Failure

failure of the heart to eject blood form the ventricles as quickly as it enters the atria, leading to venous stasis of blood and fluid in organs (backward failure).

ventricular failure results in poor nutrition and anoxia to tissue (forward failure)

Failure of one side will shortly affect the other side of the heart.

Clinical manifestation 1. The vital organs are no longer perfused adequately with arterial

blood, thus oxygen and nutritional requirements fail to be met and they suffer from deprivation

2. The pulmonary vascular bed no longer is emptied effectively by the left atrium and ventricle, with the result that pulmonary vessels become engorged, pulmonary HPN develops and pulmonary edema supervene.

3. Blood returning to the heart from the periphery is not dispatched onward into the pulmonary vessels rapidly enough to avoid congestion in the systemic veins and venules, thus venous pressure rises, the liver and other organs become congested, and fluid escapes through the walls of engorged capillaries to form dependent edema and ascites.

Left Failure dyspnea on exertion (often the first

clinical sign) Orthopnea paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea new S3 (ventricular gallop) as early sign; pulmonary edema is acute life-

threatening left heart failure, as previously described

Right failure

lower extremity edema jugular venous distension (JVD) is

visible more than a few millimetre above the clavicle with the client supine at a 45-degree angle

abdominal discomfort and nausea occur from fluid congestion in the abdominal organs

Diagnostic Findings Chest x-ray may show cardiomegaly or vascular

congestion Echocardiogram shows decreased ventricular function

and decreased ejection fraction CVP elevated in right-sided failure Pulmonary artery pressure monitoring may be used to

guide treatment in serious case of pulmonary edema to reduce the cardiac load by lessening the tissue demand for blood and eliminating factors that tend to stimulate cardiac activity unnecessarily – rest and sedation with barbiturates, opiates – Demerol and morphine sulphate.

Treatment and nursing care:

To reduce the cardiac load rest and sedation with barbiturates,

opiates Demerol and morphine sulphate

Treatment and nursing care: To reinforce the pumping action of the heart giving Cardiac Glycosides (digitalis) – which:

Increase efficiency of cardiac contraction; Slows the conduction of impulses through the AV

node; Prolongs refraction period of the node, and Increases irritability of heart muscle whether the K

level is normal or lower but the effect is more marked in the presence of lower K. So when administering with diuretics especially give KCl. Ex. Digitoxin (Lanoxin PO; IV); Lanatoside C (Cedilanid PO; IV), Deslanoside (Cediland-D IM; IV) Gitalin (Getaligin PO) Quabain (IV;IM)

Treatment and nursing care:

Signs and symptoms of digitalis toxicity arrhythmia (most important) anorexia, nausea and vomiting Diarrhea Bradycardia disturbances in color vision headache, and malaise

Guidelines in Administration of Digitalis

Observe the desirable and undesirable effects – desirable effects include the slowing pulse to 75-80 beats/minute; diminishing pulse deficit; greater force of cardiac contraction; increase in output of urine

All patients receiving digitalis must take it for prolonged period of time

Take HR – if below 60 or above 120 call the physician

Reduction of NA absorption and fluid retention

Diuretics – suppress the reabsorption of salt and water by the kidneys; may lead to K depletion because it also blocks the reabsorption of Cl, Na, and K ion in the proximal tubules.

Thiazides

chorothiazides (diuril); chlorthalidone (hygroton); hydrochlorothiazide (HydroDiuril); Indapamide (Lozol); Metolazone (Zaroxolyn).

Mechanism of Action – depress the ability of the convoluted tubules to reabsorb sodium and chloride. “Where water goes, so goes sodium”

Thiazides Side effects of electrolytes imbalance:

Muscle weakness Dizziness

take diuretic in the morning take with food if GI upset occurs weigh self every morning – report weight gain of more

than 2 to 3 lbs eat foods high in potassium (oranges, bananas,

broccoli, tomato juice, apricots, etc) avoid black licorice – may precipitate hypokalemia Drug increases lithium toxicity.

Loop diuretics very potent Bumetanide (Mumex) Furesemide (Lasix) Ethacrynic (Edecrin) Mechanism of action – inhibit

reabsorption of sodium and chloride in the proximal and distal tubules and loop of Henle.

Loop diuretics Nursing responsibilities – explain that this type

of drug is very fast acting. Teach client to:

Take diuretic in the morning Take with food or milk Avoid orthostasis Use sunscreen as increased photosensitivity may

occur Take potassium supplement as ordered Weigh self daily and report increases of 2 to 3 lbs

Potassium-sparing Amiloride (Midamor) Spironolactone (Aldactone) Trianteren (Dyrenium) Mechanism of action – block sodium-

potassium exchange mechanism in the distal portion of the tubule; prevent sodium reabsorption and retain potassium

Potassium-sparing

Teach client to: Take with food or milk Weigh self several times a week and

report a gain of over 3 lbs. Adverse side effects include: Gynecomastia Decreased libido

Potassium-sparing urine output must be measured weight patient accurately, watch for signs and

symptoms of electrolyte depletion decreasing Na intake watch out for toxicity – stomatitis, gingivitis, increased

salivation, diarrhea, albuminuria, hematurea, skin eruptions, flushing and febrile reaction to the drug.

Diuretics are given early in the morning to excrete fluid and the patient’s frequent need will not disturb his night time rest.

Increase of 3 to 5 pounds – most sensitive indicator of increasing fluid overload

Diet

0.5 gm of salt daily is the maximum sodium intake for patient of rigid Na restriction.

Complications of Congestive Heart Failure

Intractable heart failure Pulmonary infarction MI Digitalis toxicity Cardiac arrhythmias Pneumonia

Infective Disorders

Endocarditis

Pericarditis

ENDOCARDITIS

inflammatory disease involving the inner surface of the heart including the valves

Infective Endocarditis Inflammation of the endocardium; platelets and

fibrin deposit on the mitral and/or aortic valves causing deformity, insufficiency, or stenosis.

Caused by bacterial infection: commonly S. aureus, S. viridans, B-hemolytic streptococcus, gonococcus

Precipitating factors: rheumatic heart disease, open-heart surgery procedures, GU/Ob-Gyn instrumentation/surgery, dental extractions, invasive monitoring, septic thrombophlebitis

Infective Endocarditis

Risk Factors

RHD CHD IV drug abuse Cardiac surgery Immunosuppression Dental Procedures Invasive procedures

Signs and Symptoms

Fever, Chills Malaise, fatigue Night sweats Murmurs S/S HF Atrial Embolization

Signs and Symptoms

Petichiae -conjunctiva, mucus membranes

Splinter hemorrhages Janeway’s lesions – light pink macules on

palms and soles, non tender (early sign) Osler’s nodes – painful red nodes on

pads of fingers and toes (late sign)

Management

Drug therapy Antibiotics specific to sensitivity of organism

cultured Penicillin G and streptomycin if organism not

known Antipyretics

Cardiac surgery to replace affected valve

Pericarditis

inflammation of the visceral and parietal pericardium

Causes

Post-MI Trauma Neoplasm Connective Tissue Disease Post Cardiac Surgery Idiopathic Infectious

Signs and Symptoms

Pain

- sudden, sharp, severe, increases with inspiration

Pericardial Friction Rub Fever

Interventions

Monitor hemodynamic Status Antibiotic Therapy Erythromycin prophylaxis prior to dental

procedures (AHA) Anticoagulant Therapy Inform dentist or other hcare provider

regarding history

Valvular Defects

STENOSIS - heart valves are unable to fully open

REGURGITATION - heart valves are unable to fully close

Causes

Rheumatic Fever CHD Syphillis Endocarditis Hypertension

Signs and Symptoms Fatigue Dyspnea Orthopnea Hemoptysis Pulmonary Edema Dysrhythmia (A-

flutter, A-fib) Angina

Interventions

Valve Repair Valve Replacement

Dysrhythmias

Dysrhythmias

Disturbance in heart rate and/or heart rhythm

Caused by a disturbance in the electrical conduction of the heart

Asymptomatic until CO is altered

Cardiac Conduction

SA NODE - primary pacemaker; 60-100 beats/min

AV NODE - provides conduction delay; 40-60 beats/min

HIS PURKINJE SYSTEM - provides for orderly depolarization of the ventricles; 20-40 beats/min

Judith Maely Kong

normal values please...

Common causes

• drugs – digoxin, caffeine…

• acid-base / electrolyte imbalance (K+, Ca+, Mg+)

• marked thermal changes

• disease and trauma• stress

Judith Maely Kong


The nurse realizes that a pacemaker is used in some clients to sere the function normally performed by the

a. AV node

b. SA node

c. Bundle of His

d. Accelerator nerves to the heart

Judith Maely Kong


S/S

• change in pulse rate and/or rhythm

• EKG changes• Palpitatios• Syncope• Pain• Dyspnea• Diaphoresis• hypotension

Judith Maely Kong


VERY BASIC ECG

The ECG Paper

Now What is Normal?

Standard 12-Lead ECG

P wave Atrial activation Height < 0.2 mV

(2 mm) Duration < 0.12

sec

P-R Interval Intraatrial,

internodal, His purkinje conduction

Duration 0.12 to 0.20


THE QRS COMPLEX Ventricular

activation Duration <0.12

sec


THE ST-SEGMENT Phase 2 of transmembrane potential Isoelectric


THE T WAVEUpright after the age

of 16Juvenile T wave


THE U WAVE Surface reflection

of negative after potential

Repolarization of Purkinje fibers

Ventricular relaxation


THE QT INTERVAL From beginning of

QRS to end of T wave

Reflects the duration of depolarization and repolarization

Bazett: Q-Tc Interval = Q-Ta / √R-R


WAVE INTERVAL DURATION (sec.)

P wave duration < .12

PR interval .12 - .20

QRS duration <.12

QT interval (corrected) < .44 - .55

Normal Values

How to interpret?ORIGIN

Sinus

Atrial

Nodal or Junctional

Ventricular

RHYTHM AND RATETachycardiaBradycardia

OTHER VARIATIONSPremature ComplexesFibrillationFlutter

What is this?

NORMAL SINUS RHYTHM

Rate Rhythm

P waves

PR interval QRS

60-100 beats per minute Atrial regular Ventricular regular

Uniform in appearance, upright, normal shape, one preceding each QRS complex

0.12-0.20 second 0.10 second or less.

Sinus BradycardiaRateRhythm

P waves

PR intervalQRS

Less than 60 beats per minuteAtrial regularVentricular regularUniform in appearance, upright, normal

shape, one preceding each QRS complex

0.12-0.20 secondUsually 0.10 second or less

Sinus Rhythms

Sinus TachycardiaRateRhythm

P waves

PR intervalQRS

Usually 100-160 beats per minuteAtrial regularVentricular regularUniform in appearance, upright, normal

shape, one preceding each QRS complex


Sinus Rhythms

Sinus Dysrhythmia (Arrhythmia)Rate

Rhythm

P waves

PR intervalQRS

Usually 100-160 beats per minute but may be faster or slower

Irregular (R-R intervals shorten during inspiration and lengthen during expiration)



Sinus Rhythms

Sinoatrial (SA) BlockRate

Rhythm

P waves

PR intervalQRS

Usually normal but varies because of pause

Irregular – the pause is the same as (or an exact multiple of) the distance between two other P-P intervals



Sinus Rhythms

Sinus ArrestRate

Rhythm

P waves

PR intervalQRS

Usually normal but varies because of the pause

Irregular – the pause is of undetermined length (more than one PQRST complex is omitted) and is not the same distance as other P-P intervals.



Sinus Rhythms

What is this?

Atrial Rhythms

Premature Atrial Complexes1. Early (premature) P waves2. Upright P waves that differ in shape from normal

sinus P waves in Lead II• P waves may be biphasic (partly positive, partly

negative), flattened, notched or pointed3. The early P wave may or may not be followed by a

QRS complex

Vagal Maneuversbaroreceptors in the internal carotid arteries and the aortic arch → vagus nerve → acetylcholine → PNS → slows conduction in the AV node → ↓ heart rate

Bearing down Squatting Breath-holding Immersion of the face in ice water Stimulation of the gag reflex Carotid sinus pressure (massage)

*****Carotid pressure should be avoided in older patients. Simultaneous, bilateral carotid pressure should never be performed.

What is this?

Atrial Rhythms

Supraventricular TachycardiaRateRhythmP waves

PR interval

QRS

150-250 beats per minuteRegularAtrial P waves may be seen which differ from

sinus P waves (may be flattened, notched, pointed, or biphasic).

Usually not measurable because the P wave is difficult to distinguish from the preceding T wave. If P waves are seen, the RR interval will usually measure 0.12-0.20 second.

Less than 0.10 second unless an intraventricular conduction defect exists.

CARDIOVERSION

Synchronized Countershockreduces the potential for delivery of energy during the vulnerable

period of the T wave (relative refractory period). A synchronizing circuit allows the delivery of a countershock to be

“programmed”. The machine searches for the peak of the QRS complex (R wave deflection) and delivers the shock a few milliseconds after the highest part of the R wave.

Indications: SUPRAVENTRICULAR TACHYCARDIA ATRIAL FIBRILLATION ATRIAL FLUTTER UNSTABLE VENTRICULAR TACHYCARDIA WITH PAUSE

A nurse is evaluating a client’s response to cardioversion. Which of the following observations would be of highest priority to the nurse?

a. Oxygen flow rate

b. Status of airway

c. Blood pressure

d. Level of consciousness

Judith Maely Kong


What is this?

Atrial Rhythms

Wandering Atrial Pacemaker (Multiformed Atrial Rhythm)

Rate

Rhythm

P waves

PR intervalQRS

60-100. If the rate is greater than 100 beats per minute, the rhythm is termed multifocal (or chaotic) atrial tachycardia.

Atrial – irregularVentricular - irregularSize, shape, and direction may change from

beat to beat. At least three different P waves are required for a diagnosis of wandering atrial pacemaker

Variable Usually less than 0.10 second unless an

intraventricular conduction defect exists

What is this?

Atrial Rhythms

Atrial FlutterRate

Rhythm

P wavesPR intervalQRS

Atrial rate 250-350 beats per minute; ventricular rate variable – determined by AV blockade. The ventricular rate will usually not exceed 180 beats per minute due to the intrinsic conduction rate of the AV junction.

Atrial regularVentricular may be regular or irregularNot identifiable P waves; saw-toothed “flutter waves”Not measurableUsually less than 0.10 second but may be widened if

flutter waves are buried in the QRS complex or if an intraventricular conduction defect exists.

What is this?

Atrial Rhythms

Atrial FribrillationRate

Rhythm

P waves

PR intervalQRS

Atrial rate usually greater than 350-400 beats per minute; ventricular rate variable

Ventricular rhythms usually very irregular; a regular ventricular rhythm may occur because of digitalis toxicity.

No identifiable P waves; fibrillatory waves present. Erratic wavy baseline.

Not measurableUsually less than 0.10 second but may be

widened if an intraventricular conduction defect exists.

A client has developed atrial fibrillation, with a ventricular rate of 150 beats per minute. A nurse assess the client for

a. Hypotension and dizziness

b. Nausea and vomiting

c. Hypertension and headache

d. Flat neck veins

Judith Maely Kong


What is this?

Atrial Rhythms

Wolff-Parkinson-White (WPW) SyndromeRate

Rhythm

P waves

PR intervalQRS

If the underlying rhythm is sinus in origin, the rate is usually 60-100 beats per minute.

Regular unless associated with atrial fibrillation

Normal and upright unless WPW is associated with atrial fibrillation

If P waves are seen, less than 0.12 secondUsually greater than 0.12 second. Slurred

upstroke of the QRS complex (delta wave) is often seen in one or more leads)

What is this?

Ventricular RhythmsPremature Ventricular Complexes

Rate

Rhythm

P wavesPR interval

QRS

Usually normal but depends on the underlying rhythm

Essentially regular with premature beats. If the PVC is an interpolated PVC, the rhythm will be regular.

There is no P wave associated with the PVCNone with the PVCs because the ectopic beat

originates in the ventricleGreater than 0.12 second.Wide and bizarre.T wave frequently in opposite direction of the

QRS complex.

Ventricular RhythmsPatterns of PVCs

1. Pairs (couplets) – two sequential PVCs2. Runs or bursts – three or more sequential PVCs are

called vntricular tachycardia (VT)3. Bigeminal PVCs (ventricular bigeminy) – every other

beat is a PVC4. Trigeminal PVCs (ventricular trigeminy) – every third

beat is a PVC5. Quadrigeminal PVCs (ventricular quadrigeminy) –

every fourth beat is a PVC

A client is having frequent premature ventricular contractions. A nurse would place priority on assessment of which of the following items

a. Blood pressure and peripheral perfusion

b. Sensation of palpitations

c. Causative factors such as caffeine

d. Precipitating factors such as infection

Judith Maely Kong


Ventricular Rhythms

Warning Dysrhythmias Six or more PVCs per minute PVCs that occurred in pairs (couplets) or in

runs or three or more (ventricular tachycardia) PVCs that fell on the T wave of the preceding

beat (R-on T phenomenon) PVCs that differed in shape (multiformed

PVCs)

What is this?

Ventricular Tachycardia (VT)Rate

Rhythm

P waves

PR intervalQRS

Atrial rate not discernible, ventricular rate 100-250 beats per minute

Atrial rhythm not discernibleVentricular rhythm is essentially regularMay be present or absent; if present they have

no set relationship to the QRS complexes – appearing between the QRS’s at a rate different from that of the VT.

NoneGreater than 0.12 second.Often difficult to differentiate between the QRS

and the T wave.

Ventricular Rhythms

CAUSES Hypoxia Exercise R-on T PVCs Catecholamines Digitalis toxicity Myocardial ischemia Acid-base imbalance Electrolyte imbalance Ventricular aneurysm Coronary artery disease Rheumatic heart disease Acute myocardial infarction CNS stimulants (cocaine, amphetamines)

Ventricular Rhythms

What is this?

Torsades de Pointes (TdP)Rate

Rhythm


Atrial rate not discernible, ventricular rate 150-250 beats per minute

Atrial not discernibleVentricular may be regular or irregularNoneNoneGreater than 0.12 second.Gradual alteration in the amplitude and

direction of the QRS

What is this?

Ventricular FibrillationRate

Rhythm


Cannot be determined since there are no discernible waves or complexes to measure

Rapid and chaotic with no pattern or regularity

Not discernibleNot discernibleNot discernible

Ventricular Rhythms

Unsynchronized Countershock random delivery of energy there is no relation of the discharge of

energy to the cardiac cycle Purpose: to produce momentary asystole to completely depolarize the

myocardium and provide an opportunity for the natural pacemaker centers of the heart to resume normal activity.

DefibrillationDefibrillation

Unstable Ventricular Tachycardia with a Pulse

Pulseless Ventricular TachycardiaVentricular FibrillationSustained Torsades de Pointes

Ventricular Rhythms

What is this?

AsystoleRate

Rhythm


Ventricular usually indiscernible but may see some atrial activity.

Atrial may be discernible.Ventricular indiscernible.Usually not discernibleNot measurableAbsent

Ventricular Rhythms

What is this?

Causes of Pulseless Electrical Activity (MATCHx4ED)Myocardial infarction (massive acute)AcidosisTension pneumothoraxCardiac tamponadeHypovolemia (most common cause)HypoxiaHyperkalemiaHypothermiaEmbolus (massive pulmonary)Drug overdoses (cyclic antidepressants, calcium channel

blockers, beta-blockers, digitalis)

Ventricular Rhythms

What is this?

1st Degree AV BlockRate

RhythmP waves

PR interval

QRS

Atrial and ventricular rates the same; dependent upon underlying rhythm.

Atrial and ventricular regularNormal in size and shapeOnly one P wave before each QRSProlonged (greater than 0.20 second) but

ConstantUsually 0.10 second or less unless an

intraventricular conduction exists

AV Blocks

What is this?

2nd Degree AV Block, Type I (Wenckebach)Rate

Rhythm

P waves

PR interval

QRS

Atrial rate is greater than the ventricular rate. Both are often within normal limits.

Atrial regular (P’s plot through)Ventricular irregular.Normal in size and shape. Some P waves are

not followed by a QRS complex (more P’s than QRS’s).

Lengthens with each cycle (although lengthening may be very slight), until a P wave appears without a QRS complex. The PRI after the nonconducted beat.

Usually 0.10 second or less but is periodically dropped.

AV Blocks

What is this?

2nd Degree AV Block, Type II (Mobitz)Rate

Rhythm

P waves

PR interval

QRS

Atrial rate is greater than the ventricular rate. Ventricular rate is often slow.Atrial regular (P’s plot through)Ventricular irregular.Normal in size and shape. Some P waves are

not followed by a QRS complex (more P’s than QRS’s).

Within normal limits or prolonged but always constant for the conducted beats. There may be some shortening of the PRI that follows a nonconducted P wave.

Usually 0.10 second or greater, periodically absent after P waves.

AV Blocks

What is this?

2nd Degree AV Block, 2:1 ConductionRate

RhythmP waves

PR intervalQRS

Atrial rate is greater than the ventricular rate.Atrial regular (P’s plot through)Ventricular regular.Normal in size and shape; every other P wave

is followed by a QRS complex (more P’s than QRS’s)

ConstantWithin normal limits if the block occurs above

the bundle of His (probably type I); wide if the block occurs at or below the bundle of His (probably type II); absent after every other P wave.

AV Blocks

What is this?

Complete (Third-Degree) AV BlockRate

Rhythm

P wavesPR interval

QRS

Atrial rate is greater than the ventricular rate. The ventricular rate is determined by the origin of the escape rhythm.

Atrial regular (P’s plot through). Ventricular regular. There is no relationship between the atrial and ventricular rhythm.

Normal in size and shape.None – the atria and ventricles beat

independently of each other, thus there is no true PR interval.

Narrow or broad depending on the location of the escape pacemaker and the condition of the intraventricular conduction system.

Narrow = junctional pacemaker; wide = ventricular pacemaker.

AV Blocks

Classification of AV Blocks

Ventricular Rhythm

PR Interval

QRS Width

Second-Degree AV Block Type I

Irregular

Lengthening

Usually narrow

Second-Degree AV Block Type II

Irregular

Constant

Usually wide

AV Blocks

Classification of AV Blocks

Ventricular Rhythm

PR Interval

QRS Width

Second-Degree AV Block, 2:1 Conduction

Regular

Constant

May be narrow or wide

Complete (Third-Degree) AV Block

Regular

None – no relationship between P waves and

QRS complexesMay be narrow or wide

AV Blocks

cardiovascular review

Documents