carmen diana deere and jennifer twyman center for latin american studies and food & resource...
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Asset Ownership and Egalitarian Decision-making in Dual-headed
Households in EcuadorCarmen Diana Deere and Jennifer Twyman
Center for Latin American Studies and Food & Resource Economics
University of Florida
Motivation: Understanding Women’s EmpowermentWhat is it?
Process of acquiring the ability to make choices
Includes: Resources, agency, and achievementsAgency: “The ability to define one’s goals and
act upon them” (Kabeer 1999: 438)How is it measured?
Women’s participation in household decision-making
Usually autonomous decision-making or having the final say in decisions
Central Questions:Are women empowered only when they are making most household decisions autonomously?An alternative vision of empowerment: when
women are able to negotiate as equals with their husbands to reach joint decisions.
What factors promote egalitarian decision-making?• Feminist theory: Factors that increase their
bargaining power within the household
Main Proposition:Women’s bargaining position within marriage
partly depends on their fall-back position How well off they would be in case of household
dissolution (separation, divorce, widowhood)Asset ownership by women an important
component
The problem:Until recently few household surveys collected
individual-level information on assets
2. Methods and Data Part of 3-country study (Ecuador, Ghana, India)
financed by MDG3 Fund of Dutch Foreign Ministry
Ecuador study based at FLACSO, Quito6 months of qualitative field work in 3 provinces
(focus groups, key informant interviews, asset market study)
Nationally representative survey of 2,892 households (EAFF 2010) Truncated: doesn’t include the wealthiest Employed both household and individual-level
questionnaires
The respondents• Adult couple in dual-headed households (68.5%)•When feasible, answered HH questionnaire together; Individual questionnaire separately• Adult male (6.7%) or female (24.8%) in single-headed households
How men and women report making their own decisions
How decision is
made Men Women
Alone 52% 32%
Joint 47% 63%
Asks permission 1% 3%
Someone else 0% 1%
Not applicable 0% 1%
Total 100% 100%
Decision to work Decision to spend one’s own money
How decision is
made Men Women
Alone 18% 29%
Part joint 15% 10%
All joint 65% 53%
Someone else 1% 1%
Not applicable 1% 7%
Total 100% 100%n = 1,776
Symmetry in decision-making: Whether both spouses make the decision regarding themselves in a similar fashion (paired)
a) Whether or not to work
b) If earn or receive income,
how to spend
Each alone 386 21.7 159 9.0
Each partly alone & partly jointly
- - 96 5.4
Each makes jointly
627 35.3 736 41.4
Each asks permission or someone else
1 0.1 4 0.2
Differ 762 42.9 781 44.0
Total 1776 100 1776 100
The dependent variable
Decision
Each partner
says joint*
(symmetry)
%
Partners agree that the other
makes decision jointly
(agreement)
%
Partners disagree that the
other makes
decision jointly
%
To work
625 100
488 77.9 138 21.9
To spend
733 100
309 42.2 424 57.8
Symmetry and agreement: Egalitarian decision-making
3. ModelsFocus on 2 decisions
Decision to workDecision on
spending one’s own money
Binary dependent variable logistic regression modelsIf egalitarian = 1Otherwise = 0
3 Models for each decisionBaselineAsset ownershipWife’s share of
couple’s wealth
Explanatory VariablesAsset ownershipWife’s share of
couple’s wealthWho is employed?Who earns the most?Wife’s age, Age
DifferenceWife’s Education,
Education Difference
Locale: Rural/Urban, Coast/Sierra
Consensual Union/Marriage
EthnicityPrevious
RelationshipsSocioeconomic
status: Transfer Payment (“bono”)
Explanatory VariablesWho earns the
most?Wife 7%Husband 74%Earn same 10%Disagree 10%
Asset ownership (housing, land, other real estate)Wife only 8%Husband only 12%Both 45%Neither 34%
Continuous VariablesVariable Mea
nStd. Dev.
Median
Min.
Max.
Wife’s age 41.3 14.2 39 18 90
Husband’s age 45.3 15.3 43 18 93
Age Difference 4.1 6.3 3 -23 42
Wife’s years of schooling 8.1 4.6 7 0 20
Husband’s schooling 8.4 4.5 7 0 20
Schooling Difference 0.4 3.5 0 -11 14
Wife’s share of couple’s wealth 0.46 0.25 0.5 0 1
Results—Asset OwnershipDecision to work Decision to spend
Model II—Asset
Ownership
Model III—Wife’s
share of wealth
Model II—Asset
Ownership
Model III—Wife’s share
of wealthCoefficient-
-β(Std. Error)
Coefficient--β
(Std. Error)
Coefficient--β
(Std. Error)Coefficient--β(Std. Error)
Wife only owns asset(s)
-0.467*(0.244)
- -0.637*(0.335)
-
Husband only owns asset(s)
-0.023(0.190)
- -0.114(0.261
-
Both own asset(s)
0.186(0.138)
- 0.351**(0.177)
-
(Neither own assets)
Results—Wife’s share of wealthDecision to work Decision to spend
Model II—Asset
Ownership
Model III—Wife’s
share of wealth
Model II—Asset
Ownership
Model III—Wife’s share
of wealthCoefficient-
-β(Std. Error)
Coefficient--β
(Std. Error)
Coefficient--β
(Std. Error)Coefficient--β(Std. Error)
Woman's share of wealth
-2.294***(0.678) -
2.270**(0.921)
Woman's share of wealth squared
--2.683***(0.700) -
-2.574***(0.928)
Maximum: 0.43 0.44
How wife’s share of wealth impacts the odds of egalitarian work decisions
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 10.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
Wife’s share of wealth
Od
ds
of
eg
ali
tari
an
work
decis
ion
Max Odds (1.24), wife’s share = 0.43
Results—Employment Decision to work Decision to spend
Model II—Asset
Ownership
Model III—Wife’s
share of wealth
Model II—Asset
Ownership
Model III—Wife’s share
of wealthCoefficient-
-β(Std. Error)
Coefficient--β
(Std. Error)
Coefficient--β
(Std. Error)Coefficient--β(Std. Error)
Wife only- - 0.967**
(0.458)0.990**(0.459)
Both- - 1.893***
(0.190)1.900***(0.190)
Neither- - 0.656
(0.469)0.595
(0.471)
(Husband only) - -
Results—Who earns the most?Decision to work Decision to spend
Model II—Asset
Ownership
Model III—Wife’s
share of wealth
Model II—Asset
Ownership
Model III—Wife’s share
of wealthCoefficient-
-β(Std. Error)
Coefficient--β
(Std. Error)
Coefficient--β
(Std. Error)Coefficient--β(Std. Error)
Wife earns the most
0.123(0.476)
0.100(0.224)
0.153(0.299)
0.115(0.299)
Earn the same
0.476***(0.177)
0.474***(0.177)
0.853***(0.207)
0.876***(0.206)
Disagree about earnings
-0.132(0.191)
-0.127(0.191)
0.216(0.207)
0.233(0.207)
(Husband earns the most)
Results—RegionsDecision to work Decision to spend
Model II—Asset
Ownership
Model III—Wife’s share of wealth
Model II—Asset
Ownership
Model III—Wife’s share of wealth
Coefficient--β(Std.
Error)
Coefficient--β
(Std. Error)
Coefficient--β(Std.
Error)
Coefficient--β
(Std. Error)
Rural (Urban)
0.290**(0.130)
0.308**(0.128)
0.459***(0.164)
0.516***(0.161)
Coast (Highlands)
0.203(0.126)
0.215*(0.126)
-0.418***(0.158)
-0.410***(0.157)
Results—Model StatisticsDecision to work Decision to spend
Model II—Asset
Ownership
Model III—Wife’s share of wealth
Model II—Asset
Ownership
Model III—Wife’s share of wealth
Number of cases (N)
1776 1775 1776 1775
Likelihood ratio chi-square (df)
46.87 (20)***
54.79 (19)***
290 (23)***
286 (22)***
Pseudo R2 0.0224 0.0263 0.1767 0.1744
Models in appendix (for comparative analysis with
Ghana and India)Different sub-samples
Decision to work: couples who both work (n= 827)
Decision on spending: dropped those who reported “not applicable” (n= 1635)
Socio-economic status differentPreviously, used the Bono (CCT)Now, Gross Household Wealth
Reconciliated, based on both spouses responses Imputed missing values
Main changes with new sub-samples:For both decision to work and spending
decision:Coefficient of both own assets now positive and
significant*** Coefficient of wife only owns assets still negative
but not significantCoefficient of woman’s share of wealth still
positive and significant and non-linearCoefficient of couple’s absolute wealth not
significant
Tentative ConclusionsWomen’s ownership of assets in dual-headed
households is associated with egalitarian decision-makingWhen both husband and wife own assets, they are
more likely to make egalitarian decisionsWife’s share of couple’s wealth is associated with
egalitarian decision-making Maximum likelihood of egalitarian decisions when
women own about 44% of couple’s wealthCouples are also more likely to engage in egalitarian
decision-making when both employed, and when husband and wife earn about the same
Future (on-going) workAutonomous decision-makingMultinomial dependent variableIndex of decision-making (including
decisions over health care, birth control), but can’t do agreement (only symmetry)
Other outcomes:Agricultural decision-makingDomestic violencePoverty status
Thank you!
For the country studies & comparative report see:
http://genderassetgap.iimb.ernet.in
Table A1. Logistic regression results for models of egalitarian decision making for the decision to work; Ecuador, 2010
Baseline Model Model I Model II
Coeff. (β)Std. Err. of β Coeff. (β)
Std. Err. of β Coeff. (β)
Std. Err. of β
Intercept -1.455 *** 0.466 -1.433 *** 0.473 -1.827 *** 0.526
Woman's age 0.006 0.008 -0.011 0.008 -0.008 0.008
Age difference (man's age - woman's age) 0.006 0.015 0.004 0.015 0.007 0.015
Woman's years of schooling 0.033 0.023 0.036 0.023 0.031 0.023
Schooling difference (man - woman) 0.033 0.027 0.036 0.027 0.033 0.026
Rural (Urban) 0.489 *** 0.184 0.370 ** 0.188 0.448 ** 0.185
Coast (Highlands) 0.216 0.181 0.208 0.184 0.223 0.182
Consensual Union (Married) 0.013 0.209 0.098 0.213 0.058 0.212
Couple's wealth (in thousands of USD) -0.0003 0.006 -0.001 0.002 -0.0003 0.002
Previous Relationships
(Neither in a previous relationship)
Woman only has been in a previous relationship -0.066 0.315 -0.036 0.320 -0.034 0.320
Man only has been in a previous relationship -0.474 0.329 -0.505 0.328 -0.508 0.329
Both have been in a previous relationship -0.920 ** 0.438 -0.744 0.454 -0.799 * 0.450
Who earns more
(Man earns the most)
Woman earns the most 0.354 0.327 0.309 0.333 0.298 0.327
Earn the same 0.751 *** 0.222 0.706 *** 0.225 0.716 *** 0.225
Disagree about earnings -0.044 0.229 -0.106 0.233 -0.069 0.230
Assets & Wealth
(Neither own real estate)
Wife only owns asset(s) -0.532 0.405
Husband only owns asset(s) -0.030 0.307
Both own asset(s) 0.466 ** 0.213
Woman's share of wealth 2.426 ** 1.140
Woman's share of wealth squared -2.508 ** 1.128
Number of cases (N) 827 827 827
Likelihood ratio chi-square (df) 26.96 (14)** 38.33 (17)*** 32.73 (16)***
Pseudo R2 0.0321 0.043 0.038
Table A2. Logistic regression results for models of egalitarian decision making for the decision about how to spend one's own income, Ecuador 2010
Baseline Model Model I Model II
Coeff. (β) Std. Err. of β Coeff. (β) Std. Err. of β Coeff. (β) Std. Err. of β
Intercept -2.275 *** 0.408 -2.260 *** 0.414 -2.710 *** 0.435
Woman's age -0.016 ** 0.007 -0.021 *** 0.007 -0.017 ** 0.007
Age difference (man's age - woman's age) -0.008 0.012 -0.010 0.012 -0.007 0.012
Woman's years of schooling 0.032 * 0.019 0.035 * 0.019 0.030 0.019
Schooling difference (man - woman) 0.031 0.022 0.036 * 0.022 0.032 0.022
Rural (Urban) 0.446 *** 0.156 0.348 ** 0.160 0.412 *** 0.157
Coast (Highlands) -0.396 *** 0.151 -0.414 *** 0.158 -0.388 ** 0.152
Consensual Union (Married) -0.286 0.185 -0.197 0.189 -0.234 0.186
Couple's wealth (in thousands of USD) 0.000 0.002 -0.001 0.002 0.000 0.002
Previous Relationships
(Neither in a previous relationship)
Woman only has been in a previous relationship 0.053 0.267 0.102 0.268 0.105 0.268
Man only has been in a previous relationship -0.003 0.254 -0.003 0.258 -0.025 0.257
Both have been in a previous relationship -0.102 0.335 0.047 0.335 0.039 0.341
Who is employed (outside the home)?
(Husband only)
Wife only 0.872 * 0.497 0.942 ** 0.495 0.935 * 0.493
Both 1.758 *** 0.191 1.766 *** 0.192 1.772 *** 0.191
Neither 0.731 0.462 0.793 * 0.465 0.741 0.467
Who earns more
(Man earns the most)
Woman earns the most 0.163 0.308 0.134 0.310 0.113 0.307
Earn the same 0.877 *** 0.202 0.838 *** 0.203 0.844 *** 0.203
Disagree about earnings 0.204 0.206 0.145 0.209 0.173 0.207
Assets & Wealth
(Neither own real estate)
Wife only owns asset(s) -0.461 0.347
Husband only owns asset(s) -0.228 0.271
Both own asset(s) 0.455 ** 0.182
Woman's share of wealth 2.649 *** 0.932
Woman's share of wealth squared -2.792 *** 0.937
Number of cases (N) 1635 1635 1635
Likelihood ratio chi-square (df) 179.24 (17)*** 189.58 (20)*** 183.96 (19)***
Pseudo R2 0.144 0.154 0.150
5. Comparative Perspectives on the Gender Wealth Gap
Country Female Share of Physical Wealth (%)
Ecuador 53.0
Ghana 30.2
Karnataka, India 19.0
Explanatory VariablesRural 35%,
Urban 65%Coast 53%
Highlands, 47%Consensual unions
35%Married 65%
Previous RelationshipsWife only 7%Husband only 9%Both 8%Neither 77%
Explanatory VariablesMigrated
(previously)Wife only 1%Husband only 3%Both 1%Neither 95%
Who is employed?Wife only 4%Husband only 45%Both 47%Neither 4%