FORM.BODY.TECHNIQUE.SPACE

CASA DEL FASCIO

meghan coslovichevda 621.dec.08.2011

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meghan coslovichevda 621.dec.08.2011

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As one of the most influential architects of the Rationalist movement, the works of Giuseppe Terragni served to advance the catalogue of modern examples of architecture in Italy, as well as support and propagate Fascist ideology. As a Rationalist and a member of a group of avant-garde designers, Gruppo Sette, or Group 7, Terragni was an advocate of architecture which prioritized technical and functional considerations and believed that with the primacy of such considerations, a new aesthetic of architectural form could be derived (Ghirardo, 1980, p.109). Moreover, adhering to rationalist formal organizations, Terragni favoured large extensions and openings, extensive use of glass and “the absolute correspondence between structure and the purpose of a building” (Ghirardo, 1980, p.109), in his architecture. In addition to being a rationalist, Terragni was an ardent Fascist and “a modernist architect who never lost the connection to the classicism and conservatism of his education” (Schumacher, 2001, p.229). Despite his extensive training and understanding of the traditional roots and grandeur of Italian architecture, Terragni’s work can be characterized by an ”almost maniacal pursuit of the monolithic block – where the monolith is the abstraction of modernism and also a symbol of purity, and of the divine” (Schumacher, 2001, p.231), which often played a large role in classical architecture as well. In addition to this, Terragni, stemming from his Ratio-nalist inclinations, had a tendency towards functionalism and order, which are also central themes to fascist ideologies. And, in 1932, as a result of the combination of all of these influences, as well as the good fortune of Terragni’s brother, Attilio, being mayor of Como, Italy, Giuseppe Terragni was given the commission to design the fascist headquarters – the Casa del Fascio, Como.

order 1 order 2 order 3 order 4

COMPOSITION THROUGH ORDERINGThe square is established as the most simplistic organization of form on the front facade of the Casa del Fascio. Despite the higher ratio of open form to solid form, the front facade has a clear rhythm and proportionality due to the creation of the form by multiple, related orders.

DIAGRAM 1:DIAGRAM 1:

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The Casa del Fascio in Como Italy, as well as every other municipality in Italy, served as the party headquarters as well as the center for all civic life (Ghirardo, 1980). With the understanding that the Casa was intimately connected to both the political and social spheres, it can be inferred that its resultant form is directly correlated with such a relationship. And furthermore, the form of the Casa del Fascio cannot be studied apart from its historical setting or intended use, and instead should be understood in the relationships it has to fascist political ideology, down to the last detail. Constructed behind the cathedral and facing out onto the main piazza in Como, the form of the Casa del Fascio, upon initial consideration, appears seemingly simple in both the squareness of its plan and related four elevations. This however, is the extent of its simplicity, as the design of the form is not only considered in terms of its exterior aesthetics and surrounding context but also in terms of its interior spatial organization, and the relationship between the two. The building form is achieved via a structural concrete frame upon which the exterior façade is attached and interiority characterized by a double height, open, central atrium, and four surrounding floors of office space.

DIAGRAM 2:ACCESSIBILITY

Although the Casa del Fascio is not located in the center of the city, it is not remotely hindered in its accessibility, physically or visually. It’s advantageous location is not only readily accessible via major vehicle through-fares and the heavy-rail line, but is also located directly off the main piazza. Visually, the placement of the Case del Fascio connects each facade of the form with a major structure in the city, whether it be the hospital, the Cathedral or the port on the lake. Additionally, the combination of the expansive use of glass on the form and the low-rise housing stock immediately surrounding the building allows those within the structure to be clearly seen and to have unimpeded views when looking out.

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The exterior facade is made up of an ordering of marble ashlar panels and open loggia. The marble panels, uniform and monolithic in nature, can be thought to illicit feelings of durability and elegance, as well as speak to traditional Italian roots where marble was thought to embody that of richness and rule (Ghirardo, 1980). Although marble is an expensive building material, the use of said material was insisted upon by Terragni for its functional usefulness (Ghirardo, 1980) in its support of Fascist ideology and ability of the structure to serve as a political vehicle. Moreover, use of the marble in the structure directly correlates with rationalist formal organizational strategy, as in covering key areas of the building where the public, or crowd, met with fascist officials, as well as the ceiling of the open atrium, a preparatory ambience and support for the importance of the absolute bond and obedience of the public to the fascist regime was created, which is central to the function of the building. And, to further support the necessity for the use of marble to create such atmospheric conditions, Terragni stated that “for a representative building, only marble walls can be used” (Ghirardo, 1980, p.113). The open loggia of the building exterior can be considered equally as central to the communication of the function and spirit of the building as the marble panels. The design of the loggia is characterized by unusually deep opening in the concrete frame and the extensive use of glass. As a rationalist architect, the use of glass was particularly important to Terragni as a means by which to utilize the structure to embody Mussolini’s metaphor of Fascism as a glass house. By utilizing large windows, in the fascio design, to make up glass walls, as well as glass doors and panels, Terragni sought to create a sense of openness internally and externally. And by physically exposing the building’s interior structure to the surrounding urban context, and the building itself via the large, central atrium, the building is imbued with a sense of honesty and transparency and even allows the Italian populace to visually connect and participate in the inner workings of the fascist headquarters. Furthermore, by creating no private or hidden areas, the form of the Casa del Fascio exemplifies Fascist ideology that championed “no hindrance, no barrier, [and] no obstacle between the political leaders and the people” (Kirk, 2005, p.98).

DIAGRAM 3:SOLIDITY VS. OPENNESSThe relationship of open space vs. enclosed spaces found in the plan of the Casa del Fascio is reflected in the exterior façades of the form as well. Not only do the open areas of the facade offer views to the spaces within but also correspond with the surrounding urban context. For example, the south facade (bottom), offers strong viewing potential of the Cathedral, and the west facade (left) offers strong viewing potential of the lake beyond.

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In consideration of every detail of the form of the casa, Terragni utilized exterior ornamentation as another way to connect his architecture to the function and use of the building. The original design for the exterior facade called for a giant mural to be painted on the large marble panels which faced the piazza. Terragani commissioned Marcello Nizzoli to do such a mural since he had worked on previous mural projects previously commissioned for the Fascist regime. Terragni’s vision for the mural was to use giant photograph which would be easily understood as images for enhancing the political consciousness of the viewer as dictated in the fascist manifesto” (Kirk, 2005, p.98). Under Terragni’s direction, a slogan was to be inscribed below the giant photo of Mussolini that read, Credere Obedire Combattere, and would be followed by images of the citizens below that, who would serve to represent the Italian populace that believed, obeyed, and fought in the new martial social order (Kirk, 2005). However, Terragni’s ambitions for the exterior decoration of photography was eventually abolished by the Fascist authorities who believed that such a treatment of the façade “did not make clear the representative function of the building” (Kirk, 2005, p.99). With its representation of important fascist ideologies of hierarchy, order and communal action, as well as its decorative emblems of the regime, the Casa del Fascio in Como Italy served as not only an example of modern architecture in Italy, but also as a vehicle for the communication of political ideology With its completion in 1936, the final form of the Casa del Fascio in Como Italy, was a natural consequence of the influence of Italian rationalist design, and also of the social and political doctrines of the regime in power at the time. And from this, it is clearly evident that the form of the building and the process by which it was realized must be studied and understood in terms of both the architect and prevailing movements of the time, as well as the entire urban fabric of the time within which it was realized.

DIAGRAM 4:PERMEABILITYThe degree of permeability of the Casa del Fascio is directly related to the materiality of its form. On the exterior, the most perme-able areas are characterized by the deep openings in the concrete frame and the glazing panels which allow expansive views into the interior. The solid panels of marble, however offer nothing to the observer that is physically or visually permeable.

This same relationship is experienced as the observer moves through the structure. As one passes through the outset of walled spaces ,such as offices or service rooms, the most interior space of the structure is a completely open, double height, atrium with a view of all the interior spaces that open up onto it.

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BODY

“At the outset, the body as a site of production, reproduction, habitation, interaction and sensation has been related to architecture as shelter, symbol, scale and proportionality ” - B.Bratton

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ACCESS TO NATURAL LIGHT BY FLOOR

Due to a high degree of glass usage and the rythmic pattern of the loggia, the interior spaces enjoy a high degree of

access to natural light, fairly consistently. Due to the patterns of this access, the offices of the most prestigious fascist

leaders are located around the perimeter of the floors, with spaces of lesser importance, or communal gathering spaces,

on the interior (Ghirardo, 1980)

high degree of access

moderate degree of access

low degree of access

MAIN FLOOR SECOND FLOOR THIRD FLOOR FOURTH FLOOR

The fascist headquarters of Como Italy, the Casa del Fascio, by Giuseppe Terragni can be considered a body whose physical rationalization is directly re�ective of fascist ideologies and the desired physical state of the healthy, human body. In this sense, the building is a fascist body. As fascism championed the greatness and grandeur of the state as a communal body - order, physical education, purity, discipline and uniformity were chie�y important aspects of this collective fascist body. The Casa del Fascio can be understood as being infused with this same symbolic unity typical of fascist bodily characteris-tics, and as a manifestation of the same qualities that were necessary of a fascist body in their direct relation to fascist ideology - which was seen as the sum of all of the parts. As a major theme of the modernist movement, the preoccupation with the health and exercise of the human body is also re�ected in the body of the Casa del Fascio. Characterized by a high degree of access to direct ventilation and sunlight and its hygienic usage of white walls, monolithic aesthetics and blended interiority/exteriority, (Colomina, 1997) the body of the Casa del Fascio is unconsciously identi�ed with a uniform, healthy, fascist body.

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INTERPRETATION THROUGH SYSTEMSimilar to the mode by which human beings interpret the outside world in accordance with the expressive systems of one’s own body, the hierarchies of power in the fascist system are implicitly characterized by the internal systems of the Casa del Fascio.

Authoritarian leader + Nation State

elite corporatists/capitalists

elite of speci�c race/association/status

general populace

FASCIST POWER STRUCTURE CASA DEL FASCIOTOTAL PERSONALITY

super-ego

ego

the id

ego-ideal concience

As a common theme of the modern period, and as a realization from the beginning of the 18th century, buildings evolved beyond mere representations of the human body and began to characterize bodily projections in their evocation of emotional responses in the human body (Vidler, 1991). As articulated by theorist Anthony Vidler, human beings interpret the outside world in accordance with the expressive systems they have become familiar with through the workings of their own bodies (Vidler, 1991, p.5). In the case of buildings, the spirit and desired emotional responses are also bodily projections which have be characterized in the modern era. The Casa del Fascio, as the fascist headquarters in Como Italy and the civic and directorial centre of all civic life in the municipality, characterizes the hierarchical, authoritarian and regulatory spirit of the fascist regime and imparts such understandings onto the populace. This spirit of the processes, functions, mechanisms and dynamisms relative to the total makeup (Hall, 1954, p.34-35) of fascist ideology are understood and interpreted by observers through similar and familiar expressive bodily systems, such as that of one’s personality.

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CONTROL THROUGH MATERIALITY

north east south west

spandrel panel

vision glass

Despite the seemingly open facade, views into the building are regu-lated through a controlled pattern of clear vision glass and opaque spandrel glass, while surveillance from within is unhindered

In addition to the Casa del Fascio’s characterization and communication of fascist hierarchy, the building can also be understood to portray other aspects of the fascist character and soul and evoke certain emotional responses in its observers. Despite architect Giuseppe Terragni’s assurance that the design of the Casa del Fascio was to re�ect the Mussolinian concept of fascism as a glass house, where there would be “no hindrance, no barrier, no obstacle between the political leaders and the people” (Kirk, 2005, p.98), there is also the potential for the evocation of other bodily responses. In its expansive use of glass and deep, clear openings, square sides with various controlled ori�ces, and high degree of physical and visual connectivity to its urban context, the Casa del Fascio can also be thought to elicit feelings of the uncanny as well as that of surveillance and control. The uncanny, described by Anthony Vidler in his essay Unhomely Homes, contrasts that of the familiar with the unfamil-iar. At the height of fascist control, the Casa del Fascio was built on a site opposite that of the cathedral. The highly modern nature of the Casa del Fascio, with its façade of monolithic white marble and open loggia, creates a striking contrast against that of the classical cathedral. And, in the very nature of its body, evokes a fundamental feeling of insecurity in its observers, “brought about by a lack of orientation, [and] a sense of something new, foreign and hostile invading [the] old familiar, customary world” (Vidler, 1991, p.23) of Como, Italy. The Casa del Fascio can be thought of to evoke feelings of surveillance and control in much the same way as the uncanny. The openness of the loggia and wide, interrupted glass panels not only allow the viewer to gaze into the building’s interior but also allow those within to gaze out. As the eye of the observer moves up in �oors, the clear glaz-ing of the windows and glass doors on the main �oor quickly become the opaque, tinted glass of the �oors above. Despite the repetition of the pattern and rhythm of the loggia and solid panels that are seemingly inviting, the inability of the viewer to see those that peer out undetected prompts feelings of surveillance, and the communal, hierarchical control that are central to the nature of the fascist regime.

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SELF AWARENESS via BIOTECHNOLOGY

12:00am 6:00am 10:00am 12:00pm 2:00pm 6:00pm

In the post-modern era, technological advancements such as genetic architecture, and body-architecture hybrids could have allowed the facade of the Casa del Fascio to self regulate and re-con�gure at will in response to environmental conditions or any other

south facade - open loggia con�guration

As the modern era gave way to the post-modern, the reference of the body in architecture has evolved in a way which has seen a distancing between the two and a more fragmentary nature of the body itself. As technology advances, the body that architecture like the Casa del Fascio once referenced, has become “fragmented, if not contorted, deliberately torn apart and mutilated almost beyond recognition” (Vidler, 1991, p.3). Under this guise, and in the realization of post-modern biotechnologies such as gene therapy, transgenic recombination and body-architecture hybridization, it can be examined what bodily functions and projections the Casa del Fascio could have been characterized by. One potential for the fascist headquarters building, as a body, may have been the ability of its already highly articulated façade to be more pronounced in its ability to control and evoke feelings of such in its observers. As discussion by Benjamin H. Bratton in his article on The Premise of Recombinant Architecture, biotechnologies in the form of genetic architecture could yield a building skin which is autonomous in its ability to respond to environmental conditions and stimuli. This could manifest itself within the Casa del Fascio by altering its façade, which already regulates the views in and out of the building, and imbuing the building with the ability to re-con�gure its openings at will, to whichever desired degree. The Casa del Fascio, as an expression of modern architecture and as a political vehicle, can be seen as successful in its communication and embodiment of the fascist spirit. In analysis of the motives and systems which underlay the concep-tual basis of the building and the architectural theories that support it, the Casa del Fascio can be understood as both a building as body and as a building characterizing bodily projections.

“Fascism is a religion. The twentieth century will be known in history as the century of Fascism”– Benito MussoliniTECHNIQUE

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Upon �rst consideration of the Casa del Fascio, an over-arching focus on technique concerning proportionality, rhythmic repetition of form and the simple usage of contrasted void and solid are immediately apparent. However, despite the square-ness of its plan and façade and its aesthetic seemingly devoid of meaning beyond rational proportionaltiy, closer consideration of the internal spatial programming yields a certain level of communication of the fascist ideologies that control the world and culture in Italy at the time within which it was designed and built. Moreover, in the design of the space, one can clearly infer the importance of centrality (Kirk, 2005). In such characteristics as peripherey hallways, the organization of enclosed spaces out from the central void, as well as the achievement of unimpeded views from the outside into the central core; the space is imbued with, and instramentally utilizes, the abiity to reinforce and communi-cate fascist ideology which champions the state over the individual and demands the transfer of energy from individual parts, back into the central being – the state. So through simple organizational technique, a clear parts to whole relation-ship is understood across aesthetics, program and the ideology that is intended to be communicated.

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AESTHETIC PROGRAM IDEOLOGY

INDUSTRIAL & SOCIAL ELITE

CORPORATE ELITE

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REINFORCEMENT THROUGH REPETITION

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As a common, indoctrinated backdrop to Italian Fascism, the Fascist government strongly intertwined itself with religion and championed the superiority of Italian heritage and history. It would seem prestigious and a�ective enough to occupy a site directly across from the historical Cathedral for the Fascist headquarters in Como, but upon closer analysis, it is apparent that the details of the siting of the building were instrumental in legitimizing Fascist rule in relation to religion. In consideration of the building orientation to the street, cathedral and plaza, and the surrounding buildings, the Casa del Fascio is set on axis to the duomo, bearing a direct relationship (Eisenman, 1970). This relationship is not directly notice-able to the naked eye as the Casa del Fascio plaza, train lines and curved street obscure the connection. But, in diagram-ming the position of the building, other buildings on the same side of the plaza and that of the cathedral and surrounding neighborhoods, it becomes apparent that the Casa del Fascio is purposefully oriented with its center directly on axis to the cathedral. In its role as the center for all civic life in Como at the time of its construction, and the importance of religion in 1930’s Italian society, its orientation and relationship to the cathedral would have served to reinforce the legitimacy of the government to the population and justify any and all government actions and mandates.

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LEGITAMACY THROUGH ORIENTATION

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IDEOLOGY

At the core of Fascist ideology is the chief importance of the state, the subordination of all to the state , and the control, by the state, of most aspects of daily life including movements, interactions and perceptions. The layout of the site and the orientation of the building on the site can be understood as being designed in a way which further upholds the controlling power of the government and the degree to which they exercise control over all aspects of public and private life (Curtis, 1996). The building is set back on the site allowing for a large open plaza to exist out in front between the building and the train tracks, faces towards the larger plaza of the cathedral and cathedral buildings, and is directly accessible o� of the main entrance to the building. The streets alongside of the building are very narrow, o�ering just enough space for street parking and single lane tra�c, and no real gathering space of any sort. The backside of the building is completely inaccessible to anyone outside of the building as it is gated, has surveillance cam-eras and serves generally as a parking lot for building sta�. Upon initial observation it would seem that the site planning has the main goal of accommodating the gathering space out front, in view of the cathedral and accessible to the rail line, but in actuality, this siting allows for much more. From within the building, this siting allows for a viewer, or speaker, at the front entrance way or on any one of the exterior terraces, to observe and address the large space. The courtyard out-front, set-back on the site, also allows for a natural gathering place for individuals as well as a high degree of exposure. In consideration of the time in which Terragni designed and built this building, one can imagine a fascist leader holding an assembly out front of the building, an impromptu rally or even the observation of an enemy of the state or questionable individual being brought into the headquarters by the fascist secret police. In siting the building in this way, Terragni employs the building as an instrument that is able to direct and control a population physically and mentally as prescribed by fascist ideology.

METHODS OF CONTROL: EXTERIOR

EAST SIDE:NO ACCESS POINTS1 LANE PARKING1 LANE TRAFFICSIDEWALK

SOUTH SIDE:WIDE PLAZA

MULTI ACCESS POINTSPLAZA PARKING

BICYCLE PARKINGTRAIN ACCESS

BIKE LANES

NORTH SIDE:GATED PARKINGSURVEILLANCE CAMERASPRIVATE ACCESS POINTSNO LANEWAYNO PARKING

WEST SIDE:1 LANE PARKING2 LANE TRAFFIC

SIDEWALKSURVEILLANCE CAMERAS

NO ACCESS POINTS

SITE

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In addition to commanding the absolute obedience of the general populace to the fascist regime, control and obedience were also common dynamics within the fascist regime itself. Just as the design of the exterior of Terragni’s Casa del Fascio sought to embody the spirit of Mussolini’s glass house in which there would be “no hindrance, no barrier, no obstacle between the political leaders and the people” (Kirk, 2005, p.98), the internal organizational technique seems to follow a similar logic. In diagramming and analyzing the internal structure of the building it becomes evident that a high degree of glass serves in various applications throughout the interior �oors in place of more opaque systems. As walls, room-dividers and even �oors, glass is utilized to articulate space physi-cally while having implications mentally. Spatially, a strong emphasis within the building is placed on communal spaces – a common characteristic of fascist ideol-ogy and of key importance to fascist governments in realizing goals and communal action (Hoppes et al., 2011). Furthermore, as action for the greater good and control over all elements of urban life are championed so highly by the Fascist government, such a high usage of glass can be thought to symbol-ize and enforce an understanding of control and surveillance within the regime. And from this state of constant supervision and communal work, the building itself regulates the actions of those within the building as much as it

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METHODS OF CONTROL: INTERIOR

“SPACE ACCOUNTS FOR ALL THINGS, YET CANNOT EVER BE FULLY KNOWN”

SPACE

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Through spatial analysis of the Casa del Fascio in Como, Italy, as designed by Giuseppe Terragni, evidence of the importance of some information over others are present. In simply observing the exterior and interior space, it is clearly presented that the materiality of the space was utilized to communicate uniformity, and does not consider any further information concerning texture, variation or unnecessary decoration. Another set of information that is important in this space is the organization and orientation of the rooms and open areas. At the outset it would seem that the rooms are placed around the exterior of the �oor plates for simplicity and ease of accessibility, but in closer consideration, the rooms are found to be organized in terms of their function and user. Further investigation also yields evidence that the organization of the interior space champions aspects of openness and strong circulation with clear unobstructed views out onto the plazas and urban context, and less-so that of future variation. When comparing the key sets of information that were considered in the design of the space of the Casa del Fascio, a strong parallel can be made to the spirit of the building, and to the cultural and political contexts of the time in which this building was built. The fascist regime operating in Como Italy during this building’s construction can be understood to champion certain sets of information over others as well. For example, although still a characteristic of Italian fascism, race and sex were not as strongly considered in terms of population rule, as they were in Nazi Germany fascism. In addition to this, Italian fascism considered the overall health of the populace and communal action to be of great importance, and were very concerned with capitalist prosperity and the regulation and obedience of the populace to the sovereign, more so than with a social class system (Hoppes et al. , 2011).

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INFORMATION BASED SPATIAL ORGANIZATION

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COMMUNICATION THROUGH MATERIALITY

1000:1

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10:1

1:1

As a key feature of fascism in Italy, the regulation of �ows of information, actions and relationships in and amongst the general population were considered crucial to maintaining obedience and control. Control of the mass media and various communication technologies, as well as the creation of spaces that could also serve as communication devices, can be understood as a means by which the fascist regime was able to a�ect the populace in Como Italy in their control of the visual and experiential conception of spaces (McDonough, 2004). As an architectural consequence of these desires and actions of the fascist regime, the material organization of the Casa del Fascio strongly re�ects fascist ideologies, and also acts as a vehicle for their communication. Moreover, the materiality of the space communicates important meanings to the populace at varying levels and to varying degrees; from a one to one level where messages are communicated that directly a�ect the individual pedestrian, all the way up to mass indoctrination and censorship on a large scale, built form can o�er pre-speci�ed readings. Some of the various aspects of fascist ideology that are communi-cated can be identi�ed in the engagement of the population from a level in which there is a false sense of openness and invitation – as demonstrated by the ground �oor level windows of the building that are clear glass and o�er views straight into the interior courtyard, up to the large, uniform white marble surface that was originally designed to feature full scale images and messages in accordance with fascist politics and prominent party leaders. As “social processes and relationships are integral to the function and creation of the city (McDonough, 2004), the importance of the populace accepting desired information and being surrounded by an environment that upholds such information was crucial to fascist control.

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ORDER SUPPORTED BY SPATIAL STRIATION

ACTUAL EXTERIOR

ACTUAL INTERIOR

STRIATION ORDER

STRIATION ORDER

ROW 4ROW 3ROW 2ROW 1

PATTERN REPEAT

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PATTERN REPEAT

In consideration of the spatial organizations of both the exterior and interior spaces of the Casa del Fascio, the space appears to follow a rhythm of open and closed forms de�ned by the open loggia and solid surfaces. The obvious ordering of the space and relationship between interior and exterior is far more �xed and homogenous than the perceived variability and apparent �exibility that its plan and elevation suggest. Furthermore, closer observation of the space reveals a pattern of de�nite beginnings and ends and di�erentiation between top and bottom - common to textile diagrammatics such as crochet. In this sense, the striated nature of the space is directly “tied to order and to the notion of the sovereign” (Deleuze, G., F.Guttari, 1987), and in its spatiality, further supports fascist ideology and the fascist political model.

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FORM.BODY.TECHNIQUE.SPACE

Works Cited

Bratton, B. (2004), “The Premise of Recombinant Architecture” in E.Moss, J. Kipnis, J. Morais and J. Day, eds., Sessions, Sci-Arc Press, p. 94-11

Curtis, W. J. R., (1996) Modern Architecture since 1900. University of Michigan. Phaidon Press, ed.3, p.1-736

Colomina, B. (1997) “The Medical Body in Architecture”. Anybody – MIT Press, p. 228-239

Davis, M. (1990) “City of Quartz –Excavating the Future in Los Angeles: Fortress L.A”, First Vintage Books, London, ed.1, p. 222-228

Deleuze. G., Guttari. F., (1987) “1440: The Smooth and Striated”. A Thousand Plateaus. University of Minnesota Press. pp. 474-500

Eisenman, P. (1970). “From Object to Relationship: The Casa del Fascio by Terragni”. Casabella. 344. p.38

Ghirardo, Y. D. (1980) Italian Architects and Fascist Politics: An Evaluation of the Rationalist's Role in Regime. Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, 39, 2, pp.109-127

Hall, C.S., (1954) The Organization of Personality,” The Primer of Freudian Psychology, World Publishing Co., p.22-35

Hoppes. , Hudock, , Turley, , & Xu (2011). Fascist beliefs and polices and explain how fascist leaders rose to power. Retrieved from http://hallmouat.wikispaces.com/B-4 To summarize Fascist beliefs and polices and explain how Fascist leaders rose to power.

Katyal, N.K, (2002)” Architecture as Crime Control”. Yale Law Journal. 111, p.205-224

Kirk, Terry. (2005) Architecture of Modern Italy, Volume 2 : Visions of Utopia, 1900-Present.Princeton Architectural Press. p 98.

McDonough. T., (2004) “Situationist Space”. Situationist International. pp. 241-265

McLuhan, M. (1995). “Understanding Media”, Essential McLuhan, Anansi. McLuhan. E and Zingrone, F. eds. p. 149-169

Schumacher, L.T. (2001) Terragni's Tombs and Monuments. Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome – Michigan University Press, 46, pp. 229-250

Thacker, E. (2006) “Biological Sovereignty”, Pii: Warwick Journal of Philosophy, 17. P.1-21

Vidler, A., (1991) “The Building in Pain: The Body and Architecture in Post-Modern Culture, AA Files 19, Architectural Associa-tion, ISSN 6832, p. 3-10