cee 437 lecture 2 earth materials i earth structure and minerals thomas doe
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CEE 437 Lecture CEE 437 Lecture 22
Earth Materials IEarth Materials IEarth Structure Earth Structure
and Mineralsand MineralsThomas DoeThomas Doe
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OutlineOutline
Global tectonic settingGlobal tectonic setting Rock cycleRock cycle Rock forming mineralsRock forming minerals Paper 1Paper 1
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AnnouncementsAnnouncements
Paper and Quiz SchedulePaper and Quiz Schedule Quiz 1 10-11Quiz 1 10-11 Paper 1 10-18Paper 1 10-18
Field TripsField Trips Oct 23Oct 23 Nov 20Nov 20
Office and HoursOffice and Hours 132 G More132 G More Before class (3:00) or by appointmentBefore class (3:00) or by appointment
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Global StructureGlobal Structure
Based mainly on seismic information Based mainly on seismic information and meteorite compositionsand meteorite compositions
Crust ~25-75 km depending varying Crust ~25-75 km depending varying under continents and oceansunder continents and oceans
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Velocity Variation with Velocity Variation with DepthDepth
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Global StructureGlobal Structure
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Development of Plate Development of Plate TectonicsTectonics
Evidence from ocean floor Evidence from ocean floor magnetism and agesmagnetism and ages
Evidence from seismicityEvidence from seismicity Evidence from cross-continent Evidence from cross-continent
correlations of rockscorrelations of rocks
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Global SeismicityGlobal Seismicity
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Benioff ZoneBenioff Zone
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Seafloor Spreading — Seafloor Spreading — Sediment AgesSediment Ages
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Sea-floor SpreadingSea-floor Spreading
Mantle convection drivenMantle convection driven
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Evolution of Spreading Evolution of Spreading Sea Floor — Atlantic Sea Floor — Atlantic
AnalogAnalog
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Convergent MarginsConvergent Margins
Ocean to ContinentOcean to Continent Continent to ContinentContinent to Continent
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Convergent Margin - Convergent Margin - Continental Continental
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Subduction Zone – Subduction Zone – Island ArcIsland Arc
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Evolution of Continents Evolution of Continents — North American — North American
CratonCraton
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North American North American AccretionAccretion
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Rock CycleRock Cycle
Metamorphic Rocks
Sedimentary Rocks
Igneous Rocks
Sediments
Lithification
Magma
Weathering, Erosion
Burial, metamorphism, recrystallization
Melting
Crystallization at depth or extrusion at surface
Burial, metamorphism, recrystallization
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Mineral DifferentiationMineral Differentiation Plate tectonics and Igneous ProcessesPlate tectonics and Igneous Processes
selective melting, selective recrystallizationselective melting, selective recrystallization differentiation by densitydifferentiation by density
Weathering and ErosionWeathering and Erosion Selective weatheringSelective weathering Concentration of quartz (pure Si0Concentration of quartz (pure Si022)) Conversion of alumino-silicates to claysConversion of alumino-silicates to clays Concentration of soluble residues in seawaterConcentration of soluble residues in seawater
DepositionDeposition Courser materials near sediment sourceCourser materials near sediment source Finer materials far from sediment sourceFiner materials far from sediment source Redeposition of salts and solutes by evaporative Redeposition of salts and solutes by evaporative
(Na,KCl; CaSO(Na,KCl; CaSO44) or biological processes (CaCO) or biological processes (CaCO3,; 3,; ) )
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Differentiation of Crustal Differentiation of Crustal CompositionComposition
Weathering differentiating towards higher Silica
Preferential melting of high-silica materials
Concentration of C, Ca, Na, K in sea and air
Original basaltic composition of crust
Carbonate concentrated by organic processes
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Bowen Reaction SeriesBowen Reaction Series
How to get many different rocks How to get many different rocks from one melt composition?from one melt composition?
Differentiation by selective Differentiation by selective crystallization and removal from crystallization and removal from systemsystem
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Bowen’s Reaction SeriesBowen’s Reaction Series
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Crustal CompositionCrustal Composition Main Elemental GroupsMain Elemental Groups
SilicaSilica AluminumAluminum Ferro-MagnesianFerro-Magnesian Ca, Na, KCa, Na, K
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Elemental FatesElemental Fates
Silicon tends to concentrate in crust Silicon tends to concentrate in crust — quartz is very long lived— quartz is very long lived
Aluminum — transforms from Aluminum — transforms from feldspars to claysfeldspars to clays
Mica — transform to clays Mica — transform to clays Fe-Mg-Ca-Na-K concentrate in some Fe-Mg-Ca-Na-K concentrate in some
clays and micas, concentrate in clays and micas, concentrate in oceans in biosphereoceans in biosphere
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Differentiation in Differentiation in Crystallization Versus Crystallization Versus
Differentiation in Differentiation in WeatheringWeathering
Olivine
Pyroxene
Amphibole
Biotite
Muscovite
Quartz
Ca,Mg Feldspars
K-Feldspars
High Temperature, Low Silica, Hi Fe Mg
Low Temperature,
High Silica, Low Fe Mg
Fast Weathering
Slow Weathering
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Sedimentary Sedimentary DifferentiationDifferentiation
Sorting by Deposition MediumSorting by Deposition Medium Sorting by EnergySorting by Energy
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Mineral DefinitionMineral Definition
Naturally occurring material with Naturally occurring material with unique combination of chemical unique combination of chemical composition and crystalline composition and crystalline structurestructure
Natural non-minerals — glasses, Natural non-minerals — glasses, coal, amorphous silicacoal, amorphous silica
Pseudomorphs: diamond:graphitePseudomorphs: diamond:graphite
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Galena, PbS Graphite, C
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Crystalline Structure of Crystalline Structure of CalciteCalcite
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Crystalline Symmetry Crystalline Symmetry GroupsGroups
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Isomorphic Crystal Forms, Isomorphic Crystal Forms, Cubic SystemCubic System
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Physical PropertiesPhysical Properties
Density (Gravity)Density (Gravity) Electrical Conductivity (Resisitivity)Electrical Conductivity (Resisitivity) Thermal ExpansionThermal Expansion StrengthStrength Elasticity (Mechanical properties, Elasticity (Mechanical properties,
Seismic/Acoustic VelocitySeismic/Acoustic Velocity Rheology (Plasticity,Viscosity)Rheology (Plasticity,Viscosity)
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Discussion: How to Rock Discussion: How to Rock Properties Relate to Properties Relate to Mineral StructureMineral Structure
How will anisotropy vary with How will anisotropy vary with crystal symmetry class?crystal symmetry class? Rock Salt versus Quartz?Rock Salt versus Quartz?
How will aggregates of minerals How will aggregates of minerals (with same mineral behave?(with same mineral behave? Cubic versus non cubicCubic versus non cubic Rock fabricRock fabric Material property contrastsMaterial property contrasts
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Rock Forming MineralsRock Forming Minerals
Composition of CrustComposition of Crust Dominantly O, Si, Fe, Mg, Ca, Na, KDominantly O, Si, Fe, Mg, Ca, Na, K Near surface importance of bio-Near surface importance of bio-
processesprocesses Silicates from inorganic processesSilicates from inorganic processes Carbonates mainly from shell-forming Carbonates mainly from shell-forming
organismsorganisms
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Crustal CompositionCrustal Composition Main Elemental GroupsMain Elemental Groups
SilicaSilica AluminumAluminum Ferro-MagnesianFerro-Magnesian Ca, Na, KCa, Na, K
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Major Silicate GroupsMajor Silicate Groups
Silicon TetrahedronSilicon Tetrahedron separate tetrahedra — olivineseparate tetrahedra — olivine single chains — pyroxenesingle chains — pyroxene double chains — amphiboledouble chains — amphibole sheet silicates — micas and clayssheet silicates — micas and clays framework silicates — feldspars (with Al framework silicates — feldspars (with Al
substitution), quartz as pure silicasubstitution), quartz as pure silica
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Silica TetrahedronSilica Tetrahedron
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Forms of SilicatesForms of Silicates
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Deformation Deformation MechanismsMechanisms
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Effects on Physical Effects on Physical PropertiesProperties
AnisotropyAnisotropy Properties differ by directionProperties differ by direction
HeterogeneityHeterogeneity Properties vary by locationProperties vary by location
Mineral properties may have strong Mineral properties may have strong anisotropy when crystals are alignedanisotropy when crystals are aligned
Heterogeneity may have strong mechanical Heterogeneity may have strong mechanical effects when different minerals have effects when different minerals have different deformation propertiesdifferent deformation properties
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Minerals versus RocksMinerals versus Rocks Minerals ElementsMinerals Elements
Anisotropy from crystal Anisotropy from crystal structurestructure
Elastic PropertiesElastic Properties Thermal PropertiesThermal Properties Optical PropertiesOptical Properties
DeformationDeformation Shear transformationsShear transformations DislocationsDislocations
Rock ElementsRock Elements IntragranularIntragranular
Anisotropy from fabricAnisotropy from fabric Crystal anisotropy if Crystal anisotropy if
preferred orientationpreferred orientation Anisotropy from Anisotropy from
bedding, foliation, flow bedding, foliation, flow structuresstructures
IntergranularIntergranular CementsCements MicrocracksMicrocracks
HeterogeneityHeterogeneity Mineral compositionMineral composition Other segregration Other segregration
processesprocesses
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Clay MineralsClay Minerals
Extremely Important Mineral GroupExtremely Important Mineral Group SealsSeals StabilityStability Pore pressurePore pressure Chemical interactionChemical interaction SwellingSwelling SlakingSlaking
Confusion as both “Size” and Confusion as both “Size” and “Mineral” Classification“Mineral” Classification
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Clay SourcesClay Sources
WeatheringWeathering Hydrothermal AlterationHydrothermal Alteration DepositionDeposition Clay TransformationsClay Transformations
Feldspar Feldspar Illite Illite Ferro-Magnesian Ferro-Magnesian Chlorite Chlorite Volcanics (alkaline conditions) Volcanics (alkaline conditions) Smectite Smectite Volcanics (acidic conditions) Volcanics (acidic conditions) Kaolinite Kaolinite
Bentonite: plastic, highly swellingBentonite: plastic, highly swelling
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Clay UnitsClay Units
From West, Geology Applied to Engineering, Prentice Hall, 1995)
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Two and Three-Layer Clay Two and Three-Layer Clay StructureStructure
From West, Geology Applied to Engineering, Prentice Hall, 1995)
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Mixed Layer ClaysMixed Layer Clays
From West, Geology Applied to Engineering, Prentice Hall, 1995)
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TopicsTopics
Mineral DefinitionMineral Definition Rock Forming MineralsRock Forming Minerals Physical Proprieties of MineralsPhysical Proprieties of Minerals Mineral IdentificationMineral Identification Mineral LabMineral Lab
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Clay Viewed from Clay Viewed from Electron MicroscopeElectron Microscope
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Mineral IdentificationMineral Identification
DensityDensity HardnessHardness Color, luster (metallic, non-metalic, Color, luster (metallic, non-metalic,
semi-metallic)semi-metallic) Crystalline habitCrystalline habit CleavageCleavage Optical microscopyOptical microscopy Mineral chemistry, x-ray diffractionMineral chemistry, x-ray diffraction
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Hardness ScaleHardness Scale
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X-Ray DiffractionX-Ray Diffraction
spacing lattice,angle incidence,wavelength,sin2
dd
Bragg’s Law
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Weathering FatesWeathering Fates
Feldspars to clays (clays, shales)Feldspars to clays (clays, shales) Quartz endures (siltstones, sandstones)Quartz endures (siltstones, sandstones) Calcium recirculated into carbonate Calcium recirculated into carbonate
minerals by organic processes minerals by organic processes (limestones)(limestones)
Consequence:Consequence: Over time, evolution of less dense more Over time, evolution of less dense more
silicic continental crustsilicic continental crust
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Engineering ImplicationsEngineering Implications
““Style” of geology and geo-engineering Style” of geology and geo-engineering problems varies with plate tectonic problems varies with plate tectonic settingsetting Faulting, and structural complexityFaulting, and structural complexity
Maturity of materials varies with plate Maturity of materials varies with plate tectonics settingtectonics setting Higher degree of more stable materials from Higher degree of more stable materials from
sorting by weatheringsorting by weathering Geohazards vary with plate tectonic Geohazards vary with plate tectonic
settingsetting
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Paper, 10-18Paper, 10-18 1. Physical Properties of Rocks and Crystals1. Physical Properties of Rocks and Crystals Prepare a table of material properties for selected rock-forming Prepare a table of material properties for selected rock-forming
minerals and corresponding rock types. You should use both library minerals and corresponding rock types. You should use both library and web sources. Choose among the following concepts:and web sources. Choose among the following concepts:
Role of mineral anisotropy and rock heterogeneity on strength and Role of mineral anisotropy and rock heterogeneity on strength and deformabilitydeformability
Role of mineral anisotropy and rock heterogeneity on mechanical Role of mineral anisotropy and rock heterogeneity on mechanical effects during rock heating and cooling (consider qualitatively the effects during rock heating and cooling (consider qualitatively the influence of differential responses)influence of differential responses)
Useful Ref: Carmichael, Handbook of Physical Properties of Useful Ref: Carmichael, Handbook of Physical Properties of Rocks (CRC Rocks (CRC Press)Press)
2. Structure and Properties of Sheet Silicates2. Structure and Properties of Sheet Silicates Define clay versus micaDefine clay versus mica Physical properties of claysPhysical properties of clays Differentiation of clays typesDifferentiation of clays types ““Bad Actors”Bad Actors” 3. The Rock Cycle and Its Influence on Rock Material Properties (non-3. The Rock Cycle and Its Influence on Rock Material Properties (non-
geologists)geologists) Differentiation by Plate Tectonics, Weathering and DepositionDifferentiation by Plate Tectonics, Weathering and Deposition Track clays through the Rock CycleTrack clays through the Rock Cycle 4. Other topic (pre-approval recommended)4. Other topic (pre-approval recommended)