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9/20/2015 1 CELLULAR DIVISION 1 CELL DIVISION Two genetically identical daughter cells are formed from one parent cell 2 Asexual reproduction One parent duplicates its CHROMOSOMES and divides Occurs in multicellular and unicellular organisms Multicellular: Human cells, sea star fragments, plant clippings Unicellular: protists, bacteria

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Page 1: CELLULAR DIVISION -  · PDF fileCELLULAR DIVISION 1 ... SOMATIC CELLS A typical body ... Duplicated chromosome pairs “cross over” and result in 2 diploid cells 24 Prophase I

9/20/2015

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CELLULAR DIVISION

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CELL DIVISION Two genetically identical daughter cells are formed from one parent cell

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• Asexual reproduction 

• One parent duplicates its CHROMOSOMES and divides

• Occurs in multicellular and unicellular organisms

• Multicellular: Human cells, sea star fragments, plant clippings

• Unicellular: protists, bacteria

Page 2: CELLULAR DIVISION -  · PDF fileCELLULAR DIVISION 1 ... SOMATIC CELLS A typical body ... Duplicated chromosome pairs “cross over” and result in 2 diploid cells 24 Prophase I

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Prokaryotic cell Chromosome (DNA + proteins)

Duplicate chromosome and move to opposite ends of cell

Cell elongates and copies continueto move to opposite ends

Division intotwo daughter cells

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2

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BINARY FISSION Asexual reproductionin single‐celled Bacteria and archaea(PROKARYOTES)

EUKARYOTIC CELL DIVISION Eukaryotes have 100s to 1000s of genes held in each chromosome

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• Chromosomes are made of chromatin

• Chromatin ‐ 1 long strand of DNA surrounded by proteins

• DNA ‐ an organic molecule made of nucleic acids

Chromosomemade of chromatin

DNAmolecule

Chromatin in nucleus of a

eukaryotic cell

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EUKARYOTIC CELL DIVISION Chromosomes duplicate to form sister chromatids

Chromosome DNA

Identical sister

chromatids

Identical copies of initial

Chromosome and DNA

Sister chromatids under a microscope

IdenticalDNA

Sister chromatids tightly attached at centromere

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EUKARYOTIC CELL DIVISION Duplicated chromosomes condense when a cell prepares to divide

• Individual chromosomes are only visible just before cell division

• How many would you expect to see in a human cell that is about to divide?

Page 4: CELLULAR DIVISION -  · PDF fileCELLULAR DIVISION 1 ... SOMATIC CELLS A typical body ... Duplicated chromosome pairs “cross over” and result in 2 diploid cells 24 Prophase I

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THE CELL CYCLEThe process that occurs from birth to reproduction of a cell

• INTERPHASE – growth and synthesis of organelles and DNA to prep for dividing into two cells

• MITOTIC PHASE – dividing up all of the duplicates and splitting into two cells

G1

G2

S(DNA synthesis)

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INTERPHASEGrowth and prep for dividing: includes G1 Phase,  S Phase and G2 Phase

• G1 Phase– cell grows and duplicates organelles; checkpoint to proceed with division

• Phase ‐ DNA synthesis –duplicate chromosomes

• G2 Phase – cell continues growing in preparation for division.

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INTERPHASEGrowth and prep for dividing: includes G1 Phase,  S Phase and G2 PhaseNEXT UP: MITOSIS!

Centrosomes

Centrosome – an animal organelle located near the nucleus where microtubules (for structural support) originate. (CH 4)

PROPHASE OF MITOSIS Mitosis: The equal division of 1 nucleus to 2 genetically identical daughter nuclei

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• Mass of chromatin condenses into sister chromatids

• Centrosomes form a mitotic spindle of microtubules

CentrosomeMitotic Spindle

Sister Chromatids

Prophase

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PROMETAPHASE Mitosis: The equal division of 1 nucleus to 2 genetically identical daughter nuclei

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• Nuclear envelope breaks into fragments

• Mitotic spindle microtubules reach sister chromatids and attach to their centromeres (at kinetochores)

• Mitotic spindle microtubules move sister chromatids towards the center

Prometaphase

Kinetochore(on centromere)

METAPHASE Mitosis: The equal division of 1 nucleus to 2 genetically identical daughter nuclei

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• Mitotic spindle fully formed

• Sister chromatids are attached to spindle (at kinetochore) and lined up with chromatids in center of cell

Metaphase

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ANAPHASE Mitosis: The equal division of 1 nucleus to 2 genetically identical daughter nuclei

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• Centromeres of sister chromatids break

• Kinetochores “walk” along microtubules (motor proteins + ATP)

• Parts of spindle attached to kinetochores shorten

• Other parts of spindle lengthen and elongate cell

Anaphase

Nuclearenvelopeforming

TELOPHASE Mitosis: The equal division of 1 nucleus to 2 genetically identical daughter nuclei

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Telophase• Cell elongation continues

• Nuclear envelopes begin to form around chromosomes

• Chromatin fibers begin to unravel

• Mitotic Spindle Disappears

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CYTOKINESIS Division of the cytoplasm; overlaps with telophase; different in plants vs. animals

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ANIMALS• Cleavage furrow forms• Actin and myosin molecules 

contract to close furrow

PLANTS• Cell plate is formed from cell 

wall materials• Cell plate divides parental cell 

into two daughter cells

CELL DIVISION

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Interphase Prophase Prometaphase

Metaphase Anaphase Telophase / Cytokinesis

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CELL DIVISION

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INTERPHASE – G1, S Phase G2 – grow and duplicate

MITOSIS – PPMAT – organization and division of “stuff”

1. Prophase – chromosome condense; begin mitotic spindle formation

2. Prometaphase – nuclear envelope breaks, sister chromatids move to center

3. Metaphase – mitotic spindle fully formed, sister chromatids lined up in center

4. Anaphase – sister chromatids split, “walk” to opposite poles, cell elongates

5. Telophase– two nuclei formed, chromosomes uncoil, mitotic spindle disappears

CYTOKINESIS – Splitting 1 cell into two genetically identical cells!

FACTORS THAT AFFECT CELL DIVISIONLab studies have shown that cells divide based on environmental cues

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• Anchorage Dependence – cells will not divide if they are not in contact with a solid surface

• Density Dependent Inhibition –cells will only grow in a single layer

• Environment Chemistry – cells will only divide if all important nutrients are available and growth factors are present.

Grow cells in culture

No growth factor

No cell division

Add growth factor

Cells divide

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GROWTH FACTORS Signal the cell cycle control system to divide

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G2

G1S

M

G1

checkpoint

Plasma membrane

Controlsystem

Growthfactor

Relay proteins

Receptorprotein

Cytoplasm

• Growth factors are molecules released in the bloodstream that notify a cell to divide.

• Cell division is regulated by the cell cycle control system’s series of checkpoints

CANCER CELLS DIVIDE EXCESSIVELYCancer cells have mutations(s) on genes that affect cell cycle control system proteins

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• Tumor – a mass of abnormally dividing cells within normal tissue

• Malignant tumors invade other parts of the body (cancer)

• Metastasis – the spread of cancer cells beyond their original site

• Immortal – HeLa cells have been dividing since 1951

Metastasis

Tumor Growth to neighboring tissue

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SOMATIC CELLSA typical body cell with two sets of chromosomes

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• Diploid organisms have homologous chromosomes called autosomes

• Homologous chromosomes carry genes for the same characteristics 

• Locus – Gene location on a chromosome

• Sex chromosomes (X & Y) 

Locus

Pair of homologousduplicated chromosomes

One duplicated chromosome

Centromere

Sisterchromatids

HUMAN LIFE CYCLEDiploid adults produce haploid gametes that create a diploid zygote. The zygote cells replicate through mitosis as it grows to adulthood.

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n

n

Sperm cell

Egg cell

Haploid gametes (n = 23)

Ovary Testis

Multicellulardiploid adults(2n = 46)

Diploidzygote(2n = 46)

n

Meiosis

n

Haploid stage (n)Diploid stage (2n)

Key

Fertilization

Mitosis anddevelopment

2n

• Gametes are the only human cells not produced by mitosis

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MEIOSIS Cell division that produces haploid gamete cells for sexual reproduction in diploid organisms

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• Two steps:                  Meiosis I / Meiosis II

• Working with pairs of homologous chromosomes

• Steps are similar to mitosis

Mitosis deals with one chromosome at a time

Meiosis deals with chromosomes in pairs

MEIOSIS I (PMAT)Duplicated chromosome pairs “cross over” and result in 2 diploid cells

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Prophase I

Sites ofcrossing over

Sisterchromatids

Sister chromatidsremain attached

Metaphase I Anaphase I

MEIOSIS I: Homologous chromosomes separate

Homologouschromosomesseparate

Tetrad

Telophase I andCytokinesis

Tetrad – four chromatids aligned gene by gene through the process of synapsis

Crossing Over – During synapsis, chromatids exchange segments of genetic 

material. This rearranges genetic information. Tetrads are held together at sites of cros

Result: haploid set of chromosomes with sister chromatids still attached

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MEIOSIS II (PMAT again)Haploid cells divide again to separate sister chromatids

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Sister chromatidsseparate

Prophase II

MEIOSIS II: Sister chromatids separate

Metaphase IITelophase I and

Cytokinesis Anaphase IITelophase II

and Cytokinesis

Haploiddaughtercells forming

Cleavagefurrow

MEIOSIS I

Independent orientation at Metaphase II lead to lots of variation in offspring. Possibilities for each gamete = 2n where n = haploid number

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MITOSIS VS. MEIOSIS