5.2 Amphitheatres

The word amphithreatre is Greek: and means ‘theatre on both sides’ were venues for gladiatorial contests and general blood-sports, including wild animal shows, that sadly proved more popular amongst the Romans than the more civilised drama of the Greeks. In fact, Wheeler notes that “to the credit of the humane Greek tradition, they (amphitheatres) never took root” either in Greece or “the more Hellenized eastern provinces” (Wheeler, p.117) excepting the amphitheatres at Dodona in Epirus (northern-eastern Greece) and Xanthos in Lycia.

The earliest extant amphitheatre survives at Pompeii. The Pompeian amphitheatre (built in 80BC) is an exception. The majority belong more to the Empire than to the Republic. In fact, Wheeler notes that “It is a paradox that a part of Italy which owed much to Greek colonization should have been the pioneer in this matter.” (Wheeler, p.117). Wheeler however attempts to excuse the Pompeians for their un-Greek appetites because their city owes more to the Oscans than Greek colonialism and notes that even the inhabitants of nearby Paestum had been painting gladiators and pugilists (boxers) on their tombs since the 4th century BC (Wheeler, p.118).

Prior to this gladiatorial contests had taken place in theatres proper, in circuses (hence the term ludi circenses – see below) or in makeshift wooden structures like that erected by Curio Minor in the Roman Forum in his bid for election to public office in 53BC. On the periphery of the Empire amphitheatres could be little more than rudimentary. Wheeler likens the legionaries’ construction of makeshift amphitheatres as akin to the improvised football-pitches of modern soldiers (Wheeler, p.118) and cites the fine stone amphitheatres of provincial castors like Chester in Britain or the concrete and ashlar masonry of Arles and Nimes in Gaul, Verona in northern Italy or Lepcis Magna in Libya.

The Ludi Circenses (circus games), so-named for their original venues before the purpose-built amphitheatres appeared, were varied spectacles sponsored by a town’s prominent citizens originally and later by the emperors themselves.

Venationes (animal-hunts) were common and were as much an advertisement for Roman trade as they were excuses for gratuitous butchery. It is obvious from the wall-painting from Lepcis Magna (below) that the Romans imported wild animals with a reputation for ferocity such as lions expressly for the purpose of slaying them in the arena. The beasts however provided the Romans with a grizzly spectacle called damnatio ad bestias (condemnation to the beasts); a form of execution reserved for enemies of the state: serious criminals or disloyal slaves. These victims or bestiarii provided the blood-thirsty Roman mob with entertainment and later emperors like Titus even made them stars of elaborate plays the climaxes of which featured the hero being mauled to death by bears or lions. This horrific spectacle gave rise to the expression, to be thrown to the lions.

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Munera gladiatoria (gladiatorial munificence) were distinct from the ludi since they originated from festive celebrations funded either by private individuals on the occasion of a funeral or by the state in commemoration of a military victory. Gladiators (swordsmen from gladius meaning sword) were normally prisoners of war and slaves trained in combat by a lanista (trainer) in a ludus (school). Sometimes however freemen might volunteer as gladiators for a limited time to pay off debts and win fame in the arena. Contrary to belief, most gladiator fights did not end in death because each gladiator represented a significant investment for the lanista. By law, a lanista was held to be the pater familias of the ludus and if the price was right he might occasionally send a popular gladiator to fight to the death. These were the most popular munera and the prize money (which the gladiator would share in) was high; as was the betting in the audience. A gladiator’s life when not fighting was relatively good; for a slave. Their diet consisted of red-meat for building muscles. They enjoyed regular baths and massages and were monitored by physicians after a bout. Roman doctors were pioneers of opium based anesthetics and expert bone-setters. Few gladiators ever died as a result of complications from a wound in their hands. Since they shared in their prize money gladiators could save up and buy their freedom from their lanista or on very rare occasions they might win their freedom in the arena when the emperor presented them with a rudus (a wooden sword). Former gladiators often set up a ludus of their own and bought fresh slaves to perpetuate the industry.

There were many types of gladiators that fought in elaborate ways. Originally the captured prisoners of war were armed with their native weapons. Thus early gladiator-types were the Thraex (Thracian), the Samnite or the Gallus (Gaul). Later elaborate duos debuted in the arena. The retairius (fisherman) used a net to ensnare his opponent and a trident to stab him. He would often be matched with a murmillo: a shield bearing swordsman with a helmet with just two eye holes. Both wore a manica: an armoured sleeve. As well as textual references there is archaeological evidence for the existence of gladiatrices in the Empire. There is a notice advertising female gladiators at the ludus in Ostia and a skeleton was excavated recently in Britain outside a graveyard wall; suggesting she was shunned.

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Above left: Wall-Painting depicting venationes from the so-called ‘Hunting Baths’ at Lepcis Magna: Wheeler, p.58, il.39Above right: The arena of the amphitheatre at Lepcis Magna during exaction: Wheeler, p.122, il.101

Amphitheatre at Nemausus (Nimes), France

Dates to 30BC Constructed of concrete and ashlar masonry – testifies to the popularity of ludi

circenses in the Empire Seating area is supported by two tiers of arcades and accessed by regularly spaced

vomitoria. The lower arcades would have been rented out as tabernae to local businesses.

Plan of the ‘Cock-pit’ Amphitheatre of Lutetia, under Rue Monge (Paris)

Pompeian Amphitheatre in Italy

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Wheeler, p.121, il.100

No brick courses. Supported by square stones instead – consistent with early 1st century AD

Located on the outskirts of the town-plan due to the smell of charnal remains (human flesh).

Example of an ‘amphithéâtre à scène’ (with scene): the stage on one side of the arena shows that it doubled as a theatre for “stage buffoonery and arena bloodshed – in a single building was no doubt a desirable economy” characteristic of northern and central ‘Shaggy’ Gaul and Britain.

Its small ‘cock-pit’ size is typical of provincial castors like Lutetia

Wheeler, p.69, il.48

Built in 80BC in the reign of the dictator Sulla who established Pompeii as a Roman colony –

first extant stone amphitheatre Located to the north-eastern corner of the town due to the smell of charnal remains and

because that area was undeveloped at the time. The east wall of seating area backs onto the city wall, which strengthens the structure The oval arena (70x35m) was excavated to a depth of 6m below the original ground-level and

the earth used as landfill to support the western wall. The containing wall itself is built of thick concrete but faced with brick and buttressed at

regular intervals. The buttresses are crowned by decorative blind arches The seating is accessed via 2 double staircases on the west side and 2 single stairways on the

north and south, which lead through an uncovered walkway to the upper tier of seating The lower tiers can be accessed via 2 vomitoria on the western side.

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Above: Pompeian amphitheatre’s exterior. Below left: Pompeian ampitheatre’s interior. Below right: 3rd style Pompeian wall-painting depicting the riots in AD59.

(Wheeler, p.119-20, ils.96, 97 & 98)

A central vomitorium on the western side leads into the arena at the centre and was probably used to carry dead gladiators and animals out of the arena

2 further vomitoria to the north and south access the arena along its longest axis. The southern one turns at right angles to the city wall and opens out on the south-western side of the amphitheatre. They were paved for wagons.

The seating area is divided into three tiers. The lowest ring was reserved for VIPs, the middle cunei (wedges) punctuated by stairways were reserved for plebeians and the upper tier, which features several boxes probably reserved for women (see Colosseum), children and slaves.

The amphitheatre was the scene of a famous spectator riot in AD59 between fans of Pompeian and nearby Nucerian gladiators. The Senate exiled the ringleaders and banned munera in Pompeii for ten years. It counts as one of the earliest recorded incidents of sport-hooliganism. The riot is recorded on a 3rd Style wall-painting from Pompeii – see Wall-Painting.

The Flavian Amphitheatre in Romealso known as ‘The Colosseum’

Stabius Taurus, a friend of Augustus, built the first permanent amphitheatre in Rome in 29BC. It burned down during the Great Fire of AD64

Subsequently the site was requisitioned by Nero for his Domus Aurea (House of Gold) – see 4th Style Wall-Painting.

Emperor Vespasian began work on his “Flavian Ampitheatre’ on the site of Nero’s House of Gold in AD70. The site was close to a colossus of Nero and thus nicknamed the colosseum: the building by the colossus.

Vespasian died in AD79; just 2 years before the formal dedication of the amphitheatre in AD81 by his son and successor Titus who laid on an inaugural 100 days of games to celebrate his father and the opening of the amphitheatre.

Its colossal ruin is situated at the foot of the Esquiline Hill to the east of the Forum.

The Exterior

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The foundations are set 13.5m deep and built of concrete. Although brickwork supports the interior, the main exterior is constructed of travertine

limestone. Contrary to belief the pock-marks are not caused by chemical erosion but are natural features of the rock.

The exterior circumference measures 527m and the total height is 49m The walls are split into four tiers by continuous cornices 4m thick The first three tiers are punctuated by 80 arcades on the ground-floor and bays on the upper

levels. 76 of the arcades at the bottom were open to the public and led into an elaborate system of

vomitoria and staircases leading up to the seating The remaining 4 arcades were used by the gladiators and staff or the amphitheatre The bays on the second and third floors originally housed statues. The fourth storey is a plain wall broken into 80 plain sections by a ring of Corinthian pilasters Each section is pierced by a small window at the bottom, a large window at the centre and

three corbels (stone projections) that anchored the masts for the awning that shaded the arena from the sun.

The masts rose through three corresponding holes in the uppermost cornice

Arena The oval arena’s diameters measure 86x54m (area of 3,500 m2)

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Wheeler, p.123, il.102

The wooden floor of the arena was supported by a vaulted substructure containing pens for the animals, cells for the prisoner and gladiators and mechanical elevators that could adjust the level of the arena

Water from the nearby aqueduct could be diverted through culverts to flood the arena for mock naval battles

Four cryptoportici (secret underground passages) led out of the Colosseum; one linked the Emperor’s box to his palace on the nearby Palatine Hill, another led to the Ludus Magnus (Great Gladiator barracks).

The arena was surrounded by a metal grate that protected the spectators from the animals The arena itself was covered in harena (a course white sand) that soaked up the blood and

gave its name to the space.

Interior The seating began 4m behind the protective grate around the arena on a podium that featured a

bronze balustrade or railing. The VIPs sat on the lowest tier on marble seating, which would have remained cool in the heat.

The pulvinar (Emperor’s box) is located in the centre of the long northern side. It is mirrored on the southern side by the praefectus urbi (the mayor’s box).

The second ring of 20 rows of seating was reserved for Senators and Equites. The plebs sat in the next 16 rows. The upper section was reserved for women who sat in boxes and slaves who stood on the

terraced roof Elliptical horizontal corridors set between low walls separated the 4 zones. The zones were punctuated by sloping vomitoria that led back into the system of staircases

leading to the ground-floor. The Plebeian zone was separated from that of the women and slaves by a 5m high wall

punctuated by doors and windows.

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Wheeler, p.123, il.103