cfites vol 6 e

CFITES

Canadian ForcesIndividual Training& Education System

Conduct ofInstructional Programmes

MANUAL OF INDIVIDUAL TRAINING AND EDUCATION — VOLUME 6

A-P9-050-000/PT-006

DGPA Creative Services CS02-0153A-P9-050-000/PT-0062002-06

I

F O R E W O R D

A-P9-050-000/PT-006, Manual of Individual Training and Education, Volume 6, Conduct of InstructionalProgrammes is issued on authority of the Chief of the Defence Staff.

This publication is effective on receipt.

Suggestions for changes shall be forwarded through normal channels to National Defence Headquarters,Attention: Director, Training and Education Policy (DTEP).

II

C O N T E N T S O F M A N U A L O F I N D I V I D U A LT R A I N I N G A N D E D U C A T I O N

The Manual of Individual Training and Education is a series of publications that provides guidance on theimplementation of the Canadian Forces Individual Training and Education System (CFITES). The seriesconsists of the following volumes:

Volume 1, CFITES — Introduction/Description, A-P9-050-000/PT-001

Volume 2, CFITES — Needs Assessment, A-P9-050-000/PT-002

Volume 3, CFITES — Analysis of Instructional Requirements, A-P9-050-000/PT-003

Volume 4, CFITES — Design of Instructional Programmes, A-P9-050-000/PT-004

Volume 5, CFITES — Development of Instructional Programmes, A-P9-050-000/PT-005

Volume 6, CFITES — Conduct of Instructional Programmes, A-P9-050-000/PT-006

Volume 7, CFITES — Evaluation of Learners, A-P9-050-000/PT-007

Volume 8, CFITES — Validation of Instructional Programmes, A-P9-050-000/PT-008

Volume 9: CFITES — Quantity Control in Individual Training and Education Programmes

Volume 10, CFITES — Managing Individual Training and Education in Projects, A-P9-050-000/PT-010

Volume 11, CFITES — Evaluation of Instructional Programmes

Volume 12, Canadian Forces Military Equivalencies Program (CFMEP), Prior Learning Assessment, A-P9-050-000/PT-012

Volume 13, CFITES — Administration of Training Establishments and Programmes

Volume 14, CFITES — Resource Management in IT&E: Costing Model and Procedures

III

TGroup-Paced Instruction . . . . . . . . . . .34Self-Paced Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34Self-Directed Learning . . . . . . . . . . . .35Instructional Technology . . . . . . . . . .35Instructional Techniques . . . . . . . . . .36Question Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37

Part 4 CONDUCT ON-THE-JOB TRAININGOn-the-Job Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38Develop Instructor and Staff Work Schedules at CF Units . . . . . . . .39Unit OJT Schedule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39Conducting OJT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40Personnel Roles and Responsibilities .42

Part 5 MONITOR LEARNINGPurpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44Monitor Learner Progress . . . . . . . . . .44Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48Counsel Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48Counselling Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . .49Counselling Interview . . . . . . . . . . . .49Interviewing Technicques . . . . . . . . . .49Counselling Approaches . . . . . . . . . . .51Progress Reviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54

Part 6 MONITOR INSTRUCTION AND DEVELOP STAFFMonitor Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56Standards Staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56Staff Indoctrination . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56Develop Instructional Staff . . . . . . . . .57Instructor Development Programme . .57Monitor Instructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59Effective Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60Instructor Monitoring Process . . . . . .60Counsel Instructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62Reviewing Evaluation Forms . . . . . . .63Analyze Evaluation Forms . . . . . . . . .63Additional Feedback Options . . . . . . .63

T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S

Part 1 INTRODUCTIONBackground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1Overview of CFITES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1Purpose of Conduct Phase . . . . . . . . . .2Overview of Conduct Phase . . . . . . . . .2

Part 2 LEARNINGOverview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3Developmental Process . . . . . . . . . . . . .3Enhancing Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8Learning Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9Laws of Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9Ensuring Transfer of Learning . . . . . .11Learner Progression and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

Part 3 DELIVER INSTRUCTIONOverview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13Principles of Instruction . . . . . . . . . . .13Instructional Continuum . . . . . . . . . .14Behavior Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16Demonstration and Performance . . . .17Field Trip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19Guided Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19Interactive Lecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20Peer Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20Problem-based Learning . . . . . . . . . . .21Role Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21Self-Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22Seminar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24Study Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25Tutorial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25Coaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26Conduct Distributed Learning . . . . . .29Distributed/Distance Learning Facilitation Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32

IV

TT A B L E O F C O N T E N T S ( C O N T ’ D )

ANNEX A: REFERENCES AND RESOURCES . . . A1

ANNEX B: GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1

ANNEX C: SELF-PACED LEARNING . . . . . . . . . C1

ANNEX D: SAMPLE OJT GUIDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . D1

ANNEX E: SAMPLE PRB CHECKLIST . . . . . . . . E1

ANNEX F: INSTRUCTOR MONITORING FORMS . . . . . . . . . . . F1

ANNEX G: INSTRUCTOR COURSE EVALUATIONS . . . . . . . . . G1

ANNEX H: LEARNER COURSE EVALUATION FORMS . . . . . . . . . . . H1

IM A N U A L O F I N D I V I D U A L T R A I N I N G A N D E D U C A T I O N — V O L U M E 6

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I N T R O D U C T I O N

Background

Purpose

Overview of CFITES

1. Canadian Forces policy on Individual Training and Education (IT&E) statesthat IT&E activities shall be conducted in accordance with the managementmodel known as Canadian Forces Individual Training and Education System(CFITES). The Manual of Individual Training and Education provides guid-ance on the application of the CFITES in a series of interrelated volumes,each focusing on a different aspect of the system.

2. This volume of the Manual of Individual Training and Education providesguidance to CF staff or external instructors on the conduct of instructionalprogrammes.

3. For an introduction to and description of the CFITES see Volume 1, CFITESIntroduction/Description. As shown in Figure 1 below, Conduct is the fourthphase of the six-phase CFITES Quality Control model.

operations

STRATEGICGUIDANCE

analysis designdevelopment

conductevaluation

validation

needsassessment

Figure 1: CFITES Quality Control Model

M A N U A L O F I N D I V I D U A L T R A I N I N G A N D E D U C A T I O N — V O L U M E 6

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4. The purpose of the Conduct phase is to enable personnel to successfullyachieve the performance or education objectives (POs or EdOs) associatedwith a specific job and/or training and education requirement.

5. The output of the Conduct phase is personnel who have successfully attainedthe essential skills, knowledge and attitudes detailed in the instructional programme.

6. The input to the conduct phase is the training plan that describes the learningprogramme and the instructional materials that enable learners to achievePOs/EdOs.

7. The fundamental processes of the Conduct phase, which are described inParts 2–6 of this volume, are:

a. deliver instruction;

b. monitor learning; and

c. monitor instruction and develop staff.

8. This manual provides information to enable instructional staff to effectivelyimplement the learning strategies, methods and techniques specified in thetraining plan. For a more complete understanding of the instructional designprocess, this manual should be read in conjunction with Volume 4, Design of Instructional Programmes and Volume 5, Development of InstructionalProgrammes.

Purpose of Conduct Phase

Overview of Conduct Phase


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LL E A R N I N G

9. The purpose of the Conduct Phase of the CFITES is to enable personnel to successfully meet performance requirements through the delivery ofinstructional programmes. Maximizing individual learning is integral to this process.

10. Learning is a change in behavior that occurs as a result of the acquisition ofknowledge, skill or attitude (NATO Glossary, 1987).

11. Learning is a developmental process that builds incrementally in layers asknowledge increases and skills the learner performs become more complex.For example, a pilot must understand the information an altimeter providesbefore it can be applied in flight. This developmental building process isdepicted in the learning continuum for cognitive skills in Figure 2. As learnersprogress they build on each level to achieve the next more complex cognitiveskill. To facilitate learning, delivery of the instructional programme shouldflow from simple to complex.

Overview

Learning

DevelopmentalProcess

SIMPLECOMPLEX

RecallInformation

InterpretInformation

ApplyInformation

AnalyzeInformation

SynthesizeInformation

EvaluateInformation

Figure 2: Learning Continuum for Cognitive Skills (derived from Bloom, 1972)


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12. Most basic training programmes focus on the first three levels. In the initialstage learners are introduced to new concepts and ideas. In Figure 2, thislevel is identified as the recall information level of learning, and recallinginformation or recognizing concepts are the types of activities an individualis expected to perform. As these concepts are developed, the learner inte-grates them into their existing knowledge base and begins to understand andinterpret the information. The learner is expected to be able to explain ordescribe concepts. With this foundation, the learner begins to apply the con-cepts in different situations and under different conditions. Solid develop-ment of these first three cognitive skill levels generally produces competentperformance and meets most Canadian Forces (CF) qualification standards(QS).

13. Advanced training, education and professional development programmes target development of the higher-order cognitive levels, from application toevaluation. Once the application level has been mastered, the learner canexpand skill and knowledge by examining information and breaking it downto make meaning of it. Based on mastery of the analysis level, individualsbegin learning to consolidate information from various sources to find pat-terns, solutions or meaning to a given problem. Finally, based on masteringall other levels, the learner builds the critical thinking or assessment skillsrequired at the evaluation level. Each level builds upon the preceding level.

14. Due to the variety of IT&E activities required to meet CF requirements andthe wide range of related instructional programmes available to support theseactivities, instructional staff must ensure the approach they employ enhancesthe required learning. One cannot expect learners to generate solutions toproblems if they have been required only to memorize information in theclassroom and repeat it on a test. When learners must acquire lower levelskills such as remembering and understanding information appropriatestrategies include interactive lectures and self-study. However, as the com-plexity increases and learners must apply knowledge to new or different sit-uations, or break down and analyze information, strategies such as guideddiscussions, role-plays, in-basket and similar exercises are required. If com-plex synthesis and evaluation skills must be developed, strategies includingproblem-based learning, role-play scenarios, case studies and simulation are effective.


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15. This developmental process also applies to learning physical skills as depicted in the learning continuum in Figure 3. Learners begin by masteringsimple discrete actions before proceeding to the next level where discreteactions are combined in a series, usually with assistance or guidance. Withpractice learners will eventually be able to perform a series of actions confi-dently and competently. As is the case for cognitive skills, the learner mustmaster one level of learning before he or she can master the next level.Performing drill is an example of a physical skill that increases in complexi-ty from basic marching to advanced sword drill. Another example is diving.Divers initially learn to breathe underwater in the pool. Next they learn tooperate the diving apparatus and respond to plodding signals. Once day/night plodding has been mastered, learners dive around an underwatercourse guided by a jackstay. Once competence has been attained, learnersmove on to open water diving. With extensive practice, divers competenceincreases and eventually they are able to dive with a partner, without supervision.

SIMPLECOMPLEX

Createnew ways to

perform skillsAltercomplex skillswhen requiredPerform

complex skillsproficientlyPerform a

series of actionsproficientlyPerform a

series of actionswith assistancePerform a

discrete action

Figure 3: Learning Continuum for Physical Skills (derived from Simpson, 1966)


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16. Instructional staff must employ an approach appropriate for the level ofphysical skill to be learned. For example, in general, the demonstration performance method is appropriate for learning physical skills. However, the model and coach method that provides learners with a model of perfor-mance and guides them step by step with explanations, is appropriate formid level skills. It is important to note that instructors cannot expect learnersto perform until they have been provided an effective model of the requiredperformance. To enhance learning, the instructor must explain and demon-strate each aspect of performance (e.g., the what, how, when, where and whyof a task). For more complex levels, structured experiences, and simulationscan enhance problem solving, troubleshooting and the development of high-level complex skills.

17. To effectively enhance learning, instructional staff should ensure that themethod of instruction matches the type of learning required. Refer to Table 1below for a quick reference of instructional methods appropriate for varioustypes of learning.

Table 1:Instructional Methods Appropriate for Learning Types

TYPE OF LEARNING INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS

Recall Lecture, Self-Study

Comprehension Tutorial, Guided Discussion, Self-Study

Application Simulation, OJT

Analysis Case Study, Simulation, Games, Problem-based Learning

Synthesis Simulation, Case Study, Problem-based Learning

Evaluation Study Assignment, Case Study, Simulations, Problem-based Learning

Physical Skills Demonstration-Performance, Simulation, Tutorial

Attitude Behavior Modeling, Guided Discussion, Role Play Simulations


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18. The developmental building process that takes place during learning is oftena combination of cognitive and physical skills. For instance, to set up a desktop computer learners must first have some knowledge of the components,operating system and software suite. Another example is the developmentallearning process of learning to drive. The learner must first recall and under-stand the rules of the road before they can apply them while driving. Anindication of the levels of learning that must occur before a person drives isillustrated by reading the statements in Figure 4 from the bottom to the top.

Evaluate information and create new ways to perform

Alter complex skills when required — Based on incoming information or cues, make decisionsand alter actions accordingly. For example, when a car is out of control and coming towardsyou, veer off the road (if safe to do so) out of the path of oncoming traffic to avoid collision.

Recall Information — Recall the rules of the road, road signs, parts of the car etc.

Interpret Information — Understand rules of the road, road signs, car parts, emergencyprocedures etc.

Perform discrete actions — Turn on signal lights, headlights, and start engine.

Apply information — Apply information to various situations or contexts. (e.g., muststop at red light, signal when turning) Follow rules and regulations.

Perform a series of actions with assistance — Start car and drive with coaching andassistance from the instructor. Practice until proficiency increases.

Analyze information — Break down information in terms of what to do indifferent situations.

Perform a series of actions proficiently — Drive confidently and proficiently.

Synthesize information — Process multiple pieces of information in routine or unusualsituations, for example, in a situation where you have merging traffic.

Perform complex skills proficiently — Drive proficiently in more difficult drivingconditions such as heavy traffic, poor weather.

Figure 4: Levels of Learning


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19. Most learners are only required to progress to the “alter complex skills whenrequired” level of learning. However, experts such as anti-terrorist and dan-gerous goods drivers, would be required to progress further in the learningcontinuum to critically assess information and create new ways to perform.A similar process could be applied to the learning continuum of a pilot of aship or aircraft where performance at the expert level is ultimately required.

20. Successful learning takes place in an active environment. At a minimum,instructors must employ the following (derived from Gagne, 1992):

a. explain the lesson objective;

b. present material to stimulate learners;

c. stimulate recall of prior learning;

d. guide learners;

e. allow learners to perform; and

f. provide learners with feedback and guidance on their performance.

21. Although the approach employed to facilitate learning can vary extensivelydepending on the complexity of the skills being learned, some strategiesenhance adult learning in general. Key strategies to enhance learning are outlined in Table 2.

Table 2: Enhancing Adult Learning (derived from Knowles 1978, Moore 1999, Meier 2000)

TO FACILITATE ADULT LEARNING

Actively involve the learner Successful learning takes place in an active environment that requires learner participation. Learning that can be applied to an activity such as one that an individual is actually performing in the workplace is particularly useful.

Provide a smorgasbord Use a variety of activities, tasks, methods and media. This increases theof learning activities chance of appealing to a variety of learning styles and reaching all learners

(visual, touch, auditory).

Provide opportunities for Peer tutoring or group learning activities. Allow people to be both teachersindividuals to learn together and learners. High knowledge retention rates have been shown to occur

through group discussions, team projects and by having learners teach others.

Provide opportunities for the Give the learner some control over the learning process. When possiblelearner to be self-directed by allow them to choose the sequence of completion or type of activity.giving a choice of activities.

Draw on the learners’ Familiarize yourself with the background and work experience of the classexperiences. and allow them to provide information relevant to the teaching points

when possible.

Ensure the training Learning activities should be anchored to a larger task or problem.is anchored. Authentic situations should be used in order to situate the learning and

facilitate transfer to the job.

Enhancing Learning


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22. Instructors should be aware of the individual learning styles he or she willencounter in the classroom. Learning styles refer to a learner’s preferredmanner of learning knowledge, skills or attitudes. Knowledge of learningstyles can help the instructor to effectively employ a variety of instructionalmethods and media (Hartman, 1995). Terms vary, however for illustrationpurposes those described by Kolb (1984) and Honey and Mumford (1992)are depicted below.

Table 3. Learning Styles & Instructional Methods

LEARNING STYLE & DESCRIPTOR RECOMMENDED INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD

Activists — Individuals who learn by Field trips, shop/laboratory work, role-plays, demonstration/immersing themselves directly in a performance of tasks for Activists who like to experience new experience. things.

Reflectors — Individuals who observe Brainstorming sessions, observation of films or actual tasks, others and consider challenges from all recording/tracking information for Reflectors who like to sides before acting or making decisions. observe and consider ideas carefully before leaving.

Theorists — Individuals who analyze their Lectures, papers, self-study for Theorists who like to observations objectively, trying to create develop explanations and theories.explanations and theories to explain them.

Practitioners — Individuals who Case studies, syndicate work, group exercises, and prefer to apply new ideas readily, simulations for Practitioners who like to apply ideas.with little reflection, and experiment to solve problems.

Learning Styles

23. A survey of textbooks on learning will not reveal a final or fixed set of laws,principles, or rules of learning. For this reason, although the laws of learningderived from Thorndike (1966) are sound, the list is necessarily arbitrary andincomplete.

24. The Law of Readiness. To learn effectively, people must be physically, mentally, and emotionally ready to do so. Instructors should look for the following:

a. effective instructors understand the law of readiness and do their utmostto ensure that these conditions are satisfied at the onset of any lesson. Iflearners have a strong purpose, a clear objective, and proper motivationfor learning, they will make more progress and be more receptive to theinstructor than learners who lack this motivation;

Laws of Learning


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b. under certain circumstances, instructors can do little, if anything, toinspire readiness to learn. If outside responsibilities, interests, or worriesare weighing too heavily on a learner’s mind, if the schedule is over-crowded, if personal problems seem insoluble, the learner will be unableto develop an interest in learning. Health, finances, or family affairs canovershadow a learner’s interest and desire to learn. Good instructors willmaintain a relationship with learners, which will enable them to detectsymptoms of these difficulties and attempt to alleviate them, so that thelearners can become ready for learning; and

c. under normal circumstances, well-conceived motivation, meaningfulreview, and a well-defined aim at the beginning of each lesson will fulfilthe requirement of readiness.

25. The Law of Relationship. The law of relationship emphasizes the necessityfor learners to understand the relationship between new and old facts andbetween ideas and skills. Learners must understand not only why they arelearning a particular sequence, but also how the sequence combines withprevious ones and where it fits in the overall curriculum. Instructors can best satisfy this principle by linking the lesson to previous ones.

26. The Law of Effect. This law is based on the emotional reaction of the learners.It states that learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling and, conversely, is weakened when associated with anunpleasant feeling. Examples are:

a. an experience that produces feelings of defeat, frustration, anger, confusion,or futility in learners is naturally unpleasant. If instructors attempt toteach beyond the learner’s level of understanding at an early stage, thelearner is likely to feel apprehensive and will not find the experience satisfying; and

b. a violation of this principle can occur during fault analysis or debriefswhen instructors, in an attempt to be accurate, immediately emphasize all the errors that were committed by learners. This negative approachdoes not give the learner the necessary positive reinforcement to make theexperience satisfying. A much better method, which also contributes tothe principle of effect, is to point out the positive aspects of a learner’sperformance and then discuss the errors that were committed. Whateverthe learning situation, it should contain elements that positively affect thelearner and give some feeling of satisfaction. Every learning experiencewill not always have positive results. However, the learner’s chance ofsuccess will be increased if there is some sense of accomplishment andthe learning experience is pleasant.

27. The Law of Exercise. This law states that meaningful mental or physicalactivity is essential if learning is to occur. Course members learn by applyingwhat they have heard or what has been demonstrated to them, and each timethey practice their learning continues and is strengthened. Oral questioning,hypothetical problems, review, and/or practice are methods of satisfying this law.


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Ensuring Transfer of Learning

28. The Law of Recency. Other things being equal, the last things learned arebest remembered. Conversely, the further a learner is removed, time-wise,from a new fact or understanding, the more difficulty he or she has inremembering it. For example, it is sometimes easy to recall a telephone number dialed a few minutes previously, but it is usually impossible torecall an unfamiliar number dialed a week earlier.

29. The Law of Primacy. Primacy, the state of being first, often creates a strong,almost unshakable impression. This means that what instructors teach mustbe correct the first time. A faulty or inaccurate first demonstration may leavea false impression that is difficult to change because poor examples have tobe unlearned in subsequent lessons.

30. The Law of Intensity. The law of intensity implies that learners learn morefrom the real thing than from a substitute. For instance, learners learn morefrom a vivid, dramatic or exciting experience than from a routine or boringone, e.g., they will learn more about fire fighting by watching someone fighta fire than by listening to a lecture on the subject. Therefore, instructors mustuse their imagination and employ methods, which mimic reality.

31. Canadian Forces training establishments must prepare learners to functionon the job after they graduate. Training and the instructional method shouldenable learners to transfer the lessons learned at the training establishment toactual on-job situations. The training establishments should, therefore, attemptwhenever possible to simulate operational conditions during training.

32. However, a training establishment cannot provide all requirements such as areal enemy or enemy equipment for the learner to engage and destroy. Thetraining establishment must, therefore, simulate the experience to ensure that personnel learn the appropriate lessons. Further, the learners shouldunderstand that while the enemy may react differently from the simulation,the basic concepts remain valid.

33. The learner must be ready for learning before he or she can benefit fromtraining. Readiness refers to both the maturity and experience levels of thelearner and directly impacts transfer of learning. For example, sending anindividual to advanced training before they have consolidated what waslearned on basic is counterproductive to transfer. Learners must be given thetime and opportunity to learn and master skills so that skills are transferredfrom the classroom to the job site.

34. Transfer of learning should be planned for before, during and after training toensure successful transfer takes place (Broad & Newstrom, 1992). Before thelearning activity, the instructor should:

a. ensure the learning activity is relevant and will meet the learner’s needs;

b. ensure learners are aware they will be required to apply new skills on job;and

c. if possible, prepare supervisors to support the learner application of newskills at work.


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During the learning activity, instructors should emphasize how this materialwill be of benefit, ensure learners have the opportunity to practice new skills and provide job aids to take back to the work place. After the learningactivity, support the transfer of learning by conducting regular course evaluation and periodic validation to ensure training continues to match job requirements.

35. The following factors influence the transfer of learning from training to theactual operational conditions:

a. Environment. Maximize the similarity between the training environmentand the real job. Full motion simulators, artificially induced stress,reduced visibility, night time operations and combat conditions canenhance the training environment if they accurately mimic the operationalenvironment;

b. Realism. Use examples, models and training devices that relate to real situations. Provide practical real life “hands on” under close supervision;

c. Materials. Select materials and learning aids that supplement andenhance what is being taught; and

d. Communication. Fully explain how course objectives relate to the operational task. Label and point out the main elements of a task. Ensurethat learners have mastered the general principles before moving on tohigher-level learning.

36. Learners begin an instructional programme to learn new concepts and skills.They progress by applying the knowledge and skills in various situationsrepresentative of the job and by reflecting on instructor feedback and direc-tion, as well as by considering how they performed, and what to do differ-ently next time. In the final stages of the programme, most learners will havebecome more capable and as they gain further insight into the tasks theymust perform, they will begin to take more responsibility for monitoring andimproving their own performance. Learners who have developed to thisstage will require less step by step direction from instructors but will stillneed coaching and cueing from the instructor to help them improve and perfect skills.

Learner Progressionand Development


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DD E L I V E R I N S T R U C T I O N

37. The delivery of instruction refers not only to the implementation of the lesson guidance and instructional materials produced in the Developmentphase, but also to the active participation of each learner. This section pro-vides guidance on the effective use of various instructional strategies andmethods.

38. In order to foster an environment that promotes participation and learningthe instructional staff must understand and apply the principles of instruc-tion. The six mutually supportive concepts, in Table 4, are the heart of learn-ing and instruction. Instructional staff should strive to apply these principlesin all lessons involving theory in the classroom or in practical situations.

Overview

Principles ofInstruction

Table 4: Principles of Instruction

PRINCIPLES TECHNIQUES

INTEREST The instructor should employ imaginative means to People learn best when they are interested. provoke learner curiosity, while taking into accountLearning is most likely to occur if instruction is learner experience and interests. Providing material engaging and gains and maintains the interest with enthusiasm and incorporating variety, realism of learners. Motivated learners are the most and learner participation in instruction are techniques interested and involved. to arouse and maintain learner interest. Motivate

learners by explaining why the specific topic of instruction is important for them to know. Learner involvement is critical to stimulating interest.

COMPREHENSION Techniques that can be employed to facilitatePeople learn best when instruction starts at the comprehension include: posing questions toappropriate level for the learner and proceeds at stimulate recall of previously learned concepts; the rate of their comprehension and progression reviewing material; observing learners; posingthrough material. The instructor must help to questions on concepts; allowing learners to build the bridge between old and new information make their own logical connections (develop-and/or to relate the old structure to the new by mental teaching); and giving assignments on providing the context for the learning. material to be learned.

EMPHASIS Instructional materials can emphasize the teachingPeople learn best when instruction supports and points by: presenting them in a step-by-step, logical emphasizes the teaching points. The material to be manner; reviewing teaching points with learners in learned must be presented to the learner and class; in homework assignments on material to be emphasized in order to enhance retention. learned and by stating “this is important” or

“you need to know this”.


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39. There are many instructional roles staff members may perform, dependingon their experience and skill set. The various instructional roles and some of the associated methods are provided in Figure 5.

Table 4: Principles of Instruction (continued)

PRINCIPLES TECHNIQUES

PARTICIPATION Learner participation can be incorporated intoPeople learn best when they participate actively instruction by: assigning reports, briefs, presentationsin the learning process. Meaningful learner and papers; posing questions; having learners participation is essential to effective instruction. explain or demonstrate material in class; and holding

guided discussion and team, group or partner work. Developmental questions keep learners involved.

ACCOMPLISHMENT Providing learning guidance and feedback is People learn best when they receive a sense of essential in order to allow learners to acquire a accomplishment from their performance. Effective sense of accomplishment. Positive reinforcement of instruction provides opportunities for the learner to learner achievement and opportunities for success feel a sense of accomplishment. Learners should must be provided by the instructor or incorporated know what they must achieve, be advised of their into instructional materials. The learner should be progress and realize satisfaction in achieving it. informed of their progress (What is done right/

wrong) and be provided remedial coaching if needed.

CONFIRMATION Confirmation of learning can take place in class Learning is most complete and enduring when through observation, end of lesson exercises, instruction confirms that it has actually taken place. questions to the class and practice sessions. The learner knows he/she has mastered the Assignments and tests can also be used to required concepts and if not can seek assistance. confirm learning.

Note: The acronym “ICEPAC” is useful for remembering the above concepts and the learning/instructionprinciples associated with each.

InstructionalContinuum

Figure 5: Instructional Roles

CONTINUUM Instructor-led OJT Instructor Facilitated Facilitated Simulator Distance OF Learning Learning Individual or Instructor Learning INSTRUCTION Group- paced Instructor

Technology

METHODS Interactive Demonstration, Case Study, CBT, WBT, Modeling & Facilitation,Lecture Application, Problem- based Multimedia Coaching Mail, WBT, Demo & Coaching, Learning Learning Audio, Performance Feedback & programmes Video and

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40. The instructional methods to be used during a lesson are identified in thelesson specifications of the training plan. Instructional staff should be famil-iar with and able to use a variety of different methods. The methods anddescriptions presented below are derived from Romizowski, (1992) andGalbraith (1998). To become skilled at using a variety of instructional meth-ods, instructors should consult the references listed in Annex A and completethe Advanced Instructional Techniques course available through CFTDC.

41. Behavior modeling is a form of demonstration. It is used to teach attitudinalobjectives and to develop interpersonal skills. This method allows the learner to see the desired behaviors or skills first hand. Learners acquire new behaviors by observing live or video models and then rehearsing thebehaviors. Behavior modeling is usually employed with smaller groups, as each learner must rehearse the behavior as part of the learning process.

42. The instructor introduces the lesson by describing the what, why, when andwhere of the topic. The instructor describes the skill in question and thenmodels both effective and ineffective behaviors verifying that learners haveclearly understood the procedures, before moving on. Next, the instructorprovides learners with a video or live presentation that sets the job contextand models effective and ineffective behavior in that setting.

43. Following the modeling session, the instructor discusses the behavior andwhat learners should do during their practice session. Learners discuss andpractice modeling effective behavior on their own or with a partner. Theneach learner demonstrates the behavior while the instructor and the remain-der of the class observes. The instructor provides feedback to the learnersand coaches them on their performance.

44. Learners reflect on the feedback and repeat the exercise. This process contin-ues until learners master the behavior. Ideally, learners should be videotapedso that they can observe their behavior and reflect on their performance andthe instructor feedback. Instructors should have learners try the behavior assoon as possible in the lesson. Learners must be provided adequate time topractice to allow them to master the behavior.

45. Techniques. Instructors must be able to demonstrate effective and ineffectivebehaviors to employ this method even when a supporting video is used. It iscritical that the correct behaviors are accurately modeled, otherwise learnersmay become confused and discouraged.

46. Instructors employing the behavior modeling method should be able to provide detailed feedback to the learner on his or her performance. Correctbehaviors should be positively reinforced, and areas requiring improvementidentified.

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47. In the case study method the instructor provides learners with the opportu-nity to deal with a simulated, real life situation in the classroom. Learnersrespond to the scenario related to the target performance, by examining the facts and incidents of the case, to critically analyze data and developsolutions.

48. The case study method is used to challenge learners to apply what theyknow to a realistic situation. It allows learners to actively participate withthe instructor in applying the concepts or principles under study and to foster problem solving, higher-level learning and respect of other opinions.

49. This method of instruction should be employed with smaller groups of rela-tively mature learners. The primary objective is not to find a correct solutionto the problem posed, but to understand the principles involved.

50. To employ the case study method, prior to the lesson, the instructor shouldverify that the case matches the experience level of the learners and select a logical sequence in which to analyze the case. Adequate time must beallowed to ensure that learners fully understand the case problem and scenario. Learners can read the case in class or ahead of time.

51. To begin the lesson, the instructor should introduce the case and relate it tothe learners’ past experiences. The instructor should indicate how the lessonfits into the course overall and how it will proceed. Learners should beadvised of the lesson objective and the approach that they are expected touse to analyze the case. Learners should clearly understand whether there isa specific view that they are expected to adopt when examining the case.

52. During the lesson, the instructor elaborates on each main point through well-formed, pre-planned questions. For example, what are the facts,assumptions, problems of the case, what is the cause of the problem, whatare the consequences. The instructor guides the class from issue to issue andleads them to discuss critical points. When required, the class can be splitinto smaller groups for discussion. In this situation the instructor must rotatefrom group to group to verify that they understand the issues and to answerlearner questions.

53. To debrief the case, the instructor addresses the facts of the case. Wheresmall groups were formed the instructor asks each group to provide one ortwo points relevant to the course. The instructor asks learners to provide the points learned from the case. The instructor concludes by summarizingthe case, relating it to the principle to be illustrated and suggesting how theprinciple applies in other situations.

54. Case Study Strategies. There are a number of strategies the instructor can useto facilitate analysis of the case study. They include:

a. monitor learners who are not participating and try to draw them into thediscussion, starting with closed questions and then asking for an opinionor comment on an issue;

b. ask stimulating questions when needed to promote thinking or guide thediscussion, e.g., What is the importance of that fact? Do we need to look atadditional facts or information? Is there another way of looking at it?;

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c. ask learners to respond to a question instead of responding yourself, when possible;

d. record learners’ points on a chalk board (also give each group a flipchartfor group work); and

e. summarize the discussion to assist learners to refocus and progress when necessary.

55. Demonstration is a method of instruction where the instructor, by actuallyperforming an operation or doing a job, shows the learner what to do, how to do it and through explanations brings out the why, where and when it isdone. Sometimes referred to as coaching and modeling. It is used to:

a. teach manipulative operations or procedures;

b. teach trouble-shooting;

c. illustrate principles;

d. teach operation or function of equipment or tools;

e. teach teamwork;

f. set standards of quality; and

g. teach safety procedures.

56. Performance. Performance is a method in which the course member learnsby doing, i.e., is required to perform under controlled conditions the opera-tion, skill or movement being taught. It is used to:

a. teach manipulative operations or procedures;

b. teach operation or function of equipment;

c. teach team skills; and

d. teach safety procedures.

57. In practice, the Demonstration and Performance methods are used togetherwhen teaching skills. Learners observe the performance of the target task andrehearse it under controlled conditions.

58. Techniques. Instructors using the demonstration and performance methodmust be highly skilled in the procedures to be demonstrated. Learners mustbe shown the correct procedures. Providing an effective demonstrationrequires careful planning. Prior to the lesson, the instructor ensures that the task has been broken down into small sequential steps. If necessary, the instructor should rehearse the lesson prior to delivery to ensure the procedures are accurate and clear. The instructor also prepares all materialsin advance and organizes the class so all can see.

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59. The instructor begins by introducing the lesson, identifying what learnerswill be able to do at the end, where this skill can be applied and why it isimportant to learn. During the lesson, the instructor explains each step andthen demonstrates each step reiterating the critical components. In largergroups it may be helpful to provide a handout outlining the steps for learnersto follow. Learners practice the task step by step under supervision. Theinstructor provides assistance or re-demonstrates as necessary. The instructormay also pose questions to the learners throughout the demonstration toensure they understand the steps. Practice under supervision continues untilthe learner masters the skill. Mastery may require practice beyond class timedepending on the complexity of the task and the level of the learner.

60. Allowing learners to practice as early as possible and positively reinforcingeverything learners do correctly enhances learning. The Demonstration andPerformance method can also be used to support an explanation of a theoryor concept (e.g., physics — heavier objects fall faster than lighter objects).

61. The field trip is a planned learning experience in which learners observe“real life” operations that illustrate what was discussed or learned in theclassroom. It is realistic and brings relevance to instruction. The field trip is used to:

a. reinforce and clarify classroom learning;

b. inject variety into the training situation;

c. permit learners to view operations or equipment which cannot easily beshown in the classroom; and

d. set a realistic context for learning.

62. The field trip requires careful planning to ensure it enhances classroomlearning. Prior to the trip, the exact operation or equipment that learners willobserve must be specified. Details such as transportation, safety or securityconsiderations and whether members of the field unit will be available todemonstrate the use of equipment should be pre-arranged.

63. If learners will be allowed to manipulate equipment, appropriate proceduresshould be pre-arranged and presented to the learners. During the presenta-tion, learners can rotate through the demonstration, while others observe orlook at other materials. Learners may be grouped and given access to equip-ment if careful supervision is not warranted or if additional personnel areavailable to supervise them on the job site. Planning the field trip will ensureinstructional goals are achieved and that control of the learning situation ismaintained.

64. The Field Trip can be valuable to enhance motivation, demonstrate the relevance of material being taught and facilitate transfer to the workplace.

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65. A game is a method employed to allow learners to practice behaviors under theconditions of the game. Games include conflict, rules and in some cases teamsand winners and losers. Games are motivating for learners and can transfer wellto the job.

66. Games are used with one or more individuals to practice skills associated with a social system or human interaction. The game must instruct some type of skillsuch as applying strategies or principles. Normally steps or procedures arerepeated allowing learners to develop skills.

67. Before employing this method the instructor must explain the game and rules.During the game instructors should ensure that the game is played in the man-ner expected.

68. Games can inject variety into the classroom but it is critical that the game sup-port learning of course material, for example, games allowing learners to practicelanguage, recall terms, recognize equipment parts, and use strategies in games oftactics.

69. Guided Discussion is a method in which learners are guided in steps to reachinstructional objectives by drawing out their opinions, knowledge, experienceand capabilities, and by building on these to explore and develop new material.Learners discuss issues to expand their knowledge of the subject. It is used to:

a. develop imaginative solutions to problems (e.g., through brainstorming);

b. stimulate thinking and interest and secure learner participation;

c. emphasize main teaching points;

d. supplement lectures, reading or laboratory exercises;

e. determine how well learners understand concepts and principles;

f. prepare learners to apply theory or procedure;

g. clarify or review points;

h. determine learner progress and the effectiveness of prior instruction; and

i. foster attitudinal change.

70. This method of instruction is employed with a small group of 4 -12 persons seated in a circular or horseshoe fashion to facilitate discussion. Reading materi-al should be provided to learners in advance so that learners are familiar withthe concepts that will be discussed.

71. To conduct a guided discussion, an instructor should introduce the topic andscenario, outline the main discussion points, state the what, where and why ofthe lesson and create an open environment.

72. During the body of the lesson the instructor poses open lead-off questions toguide the discussion towards the aim. Conducting a guided discussion requiresskills in order to recognize digression and tactfully redirect discussion usingrephrased questions, comments or summaries. Encouragement of learner discus-sion is essential by inviting members to talk, using follow-on questions andresolving conflict.

Game

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73. The instructor concludes the lesson by reviewing all the main points con-tributed by both the learner and instructor and relating points back to the lesson aim.

74. The guided discussion is relevant and meaningful to the learner if it isdesigned to meet their needs. It stimulates thinking and can result in higherlevels of retention due to extensive learner participation.

75. The interactive lecture is a formal or semi-formal presentation in which theinstructor presents a series of events, facts, principles, etc and learners listenand participate by asking or responding to questions and commenting. It isefficient and standardized. It is used to:

a. orient learners and generate interest;

b. introduce a subject or give an overview;

c. give direction on procedures;

d. present basic or background material;

e. introduce a demonstration, discussion or performance;

f. illustrate application of rules, principles, or concepts; and

g. review, clarify, emphasize or summarize.

76. The interactive lecture can be employed with groups as large as forty.However, the larger the group the more difficult to build in lecture inter-activity. Prior to the lesson, the instructor considers issues that could ariseand prepares examples and explanations to deal with them. The instructor practices lecture delivery and prepares material.

77. During the lecture, the instructor pays attention to learner feedback such asfacial expressions, body language and alertness. If learners appear unsure itis best to deal with the problem before proceeding by asking if anyone hasquestions or posing questions to the class. Learner involvement can be pro-moted by: providing an outline of the lecture’s main points; citing relevantcomparisons, reasons, examples, statistics and testimonials (CREST); mixingsurprising or interesting points with dryer material to stimulate learners;identifying problems the material is relevant to; and incorporating othermethods after 20 minutes of lecture such as a video. Discussion or handoutcompletion can improve learner attention during the second part of the lecture. The instructor concludes by summarizing key points and re-motivating learners.

78. During peer learning, structured materials are provided to learners who thenteach their peers. This method is motivational and is used to facilitate:

a. team building;

b. recall of facts; and

c. comprehension of concepts.

Interactive Lecture

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79. Peer learning results in increased learning and retention rates for both learn-ers receiving and providing instruction. Those acting as learners benefit fromthe individual instruction and those acting as instructors benefit frompreparing and developing instruction.

80. Peer learning can consist of advanced learners assisting individual learners,learners leading group discussions and learners having the opportunity toplay both the learner and the instructor. It is most valuable to have learnersplay both roles if possible. Instructors should pair stronger and slower learn-ers allowing the stronger learner to instruct or coach skills first. Then theycan switch allowing both to have the benefit of extra practice and providinginstruction. Peer learning increases learner participation and motivation. The quality of instruction must be assured.

81. Problem-based learning is a method that facilitates the learning of principlesand concepts by having learners work on solving a problem drawn from thework environment. It is often used to develop critical thinking skills.

82. This method is usually conducted with small groups of 5 to 7 learners orwith pre-established teams. Instructors prepare carefully constructed prob-lems that will serve as the learning stimulus. Problems must be as realistic as possible so that learners can relate it to their work.

83. During the lesson, learners analyze the problem and work towards solving it.Instructors facilitate learning by posing questions to get learners thinking andtalking (e.g., What are the clues, facts and any guesses about the problem andit’s causes? What other information is needed?). The instructor should ensurethat all learners participate, because discussion is key to learning, but theyshould try not to influence decisions. Instructors may also challenge learnersthinking by questioning learners without leading them to the correct answer(e.g., What does this mean? What are the implications?).

84. Instructors using this method must be experienced in facilitating learningand coaching learners. Instructors should refer to the coaching section in thismanual for detailed information on the coaching process.

85. In this method, learners play defined roles in a scenario designed to reflectthe conditions of the target performance. It allows learners to:

a. learn through practicing what they will have to do on the job;

b. learn by imitating others’ behavior;

c. learn from the feedback of others; and

d. learn through practice and reflection on each role play they participate in.

Problem-basedLearning

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86. Role-playing exercises are methods of interaction in which learners play outand practice realistic behaviors by assuming specific roles and circum-stances. They are used to represent a social system or interpersonal processin miniature so that the learner can practice making the responses to varioussituations that are similar to those he or she will encounter on the job. Role-play is often used for language training, attitudinal objectives and to develophuman interaction skills. It is realistic and promotes cooperative learning.

87. The instructor begins the lesson by clearly explaining the objective of the les-son (what, where, when and why). It is critical to explain that role-playing isa learning process and learners are not expected to play their roles perfectlyfrom the start. This will help to put learners at ease.

88. The instructor must clearly explain each role the learners will play. This is followed by a demonstration of the role-play either on video or through a live performance by instructional staff. Learners are paired or groupedtogether and the role-plays are cycled through. The instructor does not interfere during the role-play unless learners require cues or assistance, or a safety issue arises.

89. Following each role-play, the instructor debriefs the learner on his or her performance. Correct behaviors should be positively reinforced, and areasrequiring improvement identified. Ideally, the role-play will have beenvideotaped so that learners can watch their performance and reflect on it and the constructive feedback provided by the instructor to improve performance.

90. Techniques. Instructors should be able to accurately demonstrate the skillsbeing acquired during the role-play to assist learners if necessary. Instructorsemploying role-play should be able to coach learners and provide them withdetailed feedback on their performance.

91. Self-study is a method of self-instruction using printed and/or audio-visualor computer-based media, often presented through computer assisted learn-ing (CAL) or programmed instructional packages (PIPs) to be completed priorto, during, or following a course. Learners receive instructional materialscontaining built in feedback and work through them independently. It isused to:

a. provide remedial or make-up instruction for late arrivals, absentees ortransients;

b. maintain previously learned skills which are not performed frequentlyenough;

c. accelerate or enrich learning of advanced learners;

d. provide common knowledge and skill background for learners prior toonset of course;

e. provide review and practice of knowledge and skills; and

f. permit learning by those who cannot attend a course.

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92. Self-study can provide staff with needed time to prepare for instructionwhile learners complete individual activities. However, this method doesrequire considerable lead-time to prepare material especially if they are technology-based.

93. Prior to the self-study session, the instructor should confirm that requiredmaterials and resources are available and prepare any additional handouts or instructions.

94. The instructor must provide clear direction to the learner on what they haveto do and allow them the opportunity to pose questions or raise concerns.Depending on the complexity of the activities and the maturity of the learn-ers, an instructor should check in with learners to ensure they are progress-ing and provide assistance as necessary. Some self-study materials enablelearners to skip material they already know and progress at their own pace.

95. The Seminar is a tutorial arrangement involving the instructor and a smallgroup, rather than an instructor and individual. It is meaningful and realisticto learners when focused on learner needs. It is used to:

a. provide general guidance for a group working on an advanced study, problem, or research project;

b. exchange information on techniques and approaches being explored bymembers of study or research group; and

c. develop new and imaginative solutions to problems under study by thegroup (e.g., through brainstorming).

96. Often learners will have prepared research or study materials on a topic,given by the instructor, prior to the seminar. The instructor introduces thelesson identifying the topic and how the seminar will proceed.

97. One or more learners present the information they have gathered and theirfindings and insights to the class. Following the presentations the instructorleads a discussion of the findings. The instructor may use other strategiesduring the seminar such as brainstorming or syndicate work to further studyfindings, solve problems and exchange information. Through discussion the instructor leads learners to draw conclusions from the information under study.

98. Following the discussions, the instructor closes the lesson by highlightingthe major conclusions that have been drawn from the findings.

99. Techniques. Instructors conducting seminars should be competent andknowledgeable in the subject area. To ensure the seminar method is effectivethe instructor should prepare the problem, project, or topic of study and giveit to learners in advance of the lesson. The instructor should also considerthe strategies he or she will use during the seminar. Approaches couldinclude learner presentation and class discussion or learner presentation,class brainstorming and discussion or learner presentation, syndicate workand discussion.

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100. The seminar is best used as part of the developmental learning process.Some type of related individual activities should follow it, as it can be diffi-cult to evaluate individual learner progress during a seminar. Being familiarwith the guided discussion method may assist instructors using the seminaras it relies heavily on discussion.

101. Simulations are used to provide instruction of complex skills using a dynam-ic representation of a system or the actual equipment and the job environ-ment. A simulator is an apparatus built to run the simulation. Simulationsare context specific and realistic and facilitate transfer of learning to the job.

102. Simulation provides learners with situated learning and practice. The simu-lation may not exactly duplicate actual physical skills but should effectivelyduplicate conceptual tasks. Instructors should employ simulations so thatlearners learn how a system or device works while avoiding danger or otherlimitations of the real environment (e.g., access to equipment, weather, operations).

103. Complex skills must be progressively developed. Instructors should providelearners with simple scenarios or problems at the beginning and graduallybuild up to more complex situations as the learners’ skills advance. Instructorsmay be able to stop simulations to provide direction or explanations andslow down or speed up the process to facilitate learning. It is through specific, constructive feedback and coaching from instructors that learners’skill will develop.

104. Simulations can be developed in a variety of forms. For example, the in-basketexercise is a type of simulation in which learners respond to a variety ofmemorandums, directives, and messages that recreate a job specific scenario.Interruptions, emergencies, and random events are usually factored into theexercise. The in-basket method is effective for developing decision-makingand prioritizing skills.

105. Techniques. Instructors must provide coaching, guidance and constructivefeedback to learners on their performance during simulation. Instructors arereferred to the section titled Coaching in this manual for detailed guidanceon the coaching process that should be employed to enhance learning duringa simulation.

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106. Study assignment entails the assignment of the study of books, periodicals,manuals or handouts, and/or the review of audio-visual materials; the com-pletion of a project or research paper, or prescribes problems and exercisesfor the practice of a skill. It can:

a. orient learners to a topic prior to classroom or laboratory work;

b. set the stage for a lecture, demonstration or discussion;

c. provide for or capitalize on individual differences in ability, backgroundor experience through differentiated assignments;

d. provide for the review of material covered in class or to give practice; and

e. provide enriching material.

107. Providing learners with study assignments facilitates learning by coveringconcepts in greater detail and by allowing instructors to assess individuallearner progress. Study assignments are helpful to all learners and especiallythose experiencing difficulty.

108. Techniques. Study assignments require instructor preparation time inadvance for development of materials and instructions. To ensure out of classassignments are effective the instructor must provide clear direction, verifythat work is completed and provide detailed feedback to the learner.

109. Tutorial is a method of instruction in which an instructor works directlywith an individual to ensure the successful completion of learning activities.It is customized to meet the learner’s needs. It is used to:

a. teach highly complex skills and operations, or operations involving danger or expensive equipment; and

b. provide individualized remedial assistance.

110. The tutorial is a highly motivating method of instruction as it provides one-on-one individualized instruction. The instructor begins by introducing thelesson (what, when, where, why) and delivering information in much thesame manner as he or she would with a small group. However, there is muchmore time for one-on-one interaction as the learner absorbs the material.

111. During the tutorial the instructor is able to adapt to the learner and useinstructional strategies that will meet the learner’s needs. For example, somelearners respond more quickly to visual representation and diagrams thanwritten text. Others may catch on quicker by discussing how somethingworks to fully understand it. Often a tutorial will involve several strategiesdepending on the complexity of the topic and the needs of the learner.

112. Tutorials are ideal for providing remedial help or instructing complicated ordangerous procedures. This method of instruction does require extensivetime to conduct depending on the number of learners.

Study Assignment

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113. Techniques. To effectively use the tutorial method instructors should be ableto determine any difficulties that the learner is experiencing and respond tothem. Instructors should be able to recognize whether the learner respondsbetter to hands on experiences, discussions, visual or text materials and usethis to provide them with the appropriate learning experience if they areexperiencing difficulty. A knowledge of a variety of instructional methodsand strategies will assist the instructor using the tutorial method.

Note: OJT is an instructional method; however, it is addressed separatelybecause it is implemented in the unit versus the training establishment or learning center.

114. Coaching consists of aspects of the performance and demonstration methodof instruction but is more learner centered and developmental. The instruc-tor, based on his or her knowledge of the individual learner, asks the learnerquestions which will lead them to take the next appropriate step in the pro-cedure or take a different direction altogether. The instructor’s role as a coachis to draw the learner’s attention to critical elements of the task execution.This is especially important when learners lose their train of thought orfocus. The instructor must assist the learner to get back on track and contin-ue with the task. Questions to the learner to assess his or her thinking andsituational awareness under these conditions should be clear, concise andrequire short responses so that the flow of the task or operation is not dis-rupted. Instructors must be constantly monitoring the learners’ performanceto determine what they are doing correctly, as well as areas requiringimprovement and how to correct them. The coaching sessions require a thorough debrief to complete the experiential learning cycle.

115. Coaching in Simulators. Instructional simulators are increasingly beingemployed for the development of complex skills such as piloting aircraft,ships, submarines and operating combat vehicles. As indicated in Table 1,the coaching method is employed to assist learners to develop skills in simu-lators. Coaching in this context is situated in the environment and is normal-ly one to one or one to small group.

116. Coaching a learner in a simulator or the real environment is normally conducted in three stages consisting of briefing, monitoring and debriefing as described in Figure 6.

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Figure 6: Coaching in Simulators (Derived from McCarthy and Easby, 1983)

BRIEFING

• The learner should initially be put at ease and advised of the aim of the simulation session and any relevant background. This step serves to engage the appropriate mental model of the task under development.

• The instructor should then explain and demonstrate each component of the task emphasizing the critical elements. Large tasks should be broken down into smaller tasks so that it can be taught in smallerchunks. Exactly what is being done at each component of the task should be demonstrated anddescribed as well as why it is performed that way. Questions from the learner are encouraged toensure they understand what to do.

• Immediately prior to the simulation session the instructor reviews the main points of the task and confirms that the learner is ready.

MONITORING

• This stage consists of performance and observation, preferably using a standard checklist. The learnerperforms the task while the instructor closely monitors to see that it is carried out correctly and to notecorrections the learner must make. The learner should be allowed to carry out the task. The instructormust keep track of what the learner is doing and use brief questions to assess his or her thinking orkeywords to cue or help the learner to proceed to the next component.

DEBRIEFING

• Before providing feedback, the instructor examines the learner’s performance to determine what wasdone properly and what areas are weak, and to determine why the problem is occurring. Then theinstructor can provide precise constructive feedback on strengths and the weaknesses, and also advisethe learner how to correct the problems using explanation and demonstration. It is preferable to focuson correcting two to three major problems in each run rather than every minor error because too muchfeedback will overwhelm and de-motivate the learner.

• The debrief must be a positive learning experience, so the instructor should put the learner at ease andpresent a positive, supportive attitude. The instructor should begin by summarizing the learner’s overallperformance.

• Instructors should take the time to address the components of the task that were performed well in orderto reinforce the correct behavior, instill confidence and motivate the learner. As the session continuesthe instructor identifies and analyzes two to three problem areas providing clear explanations of whatwas done incorrectly. The instructor should encourage the learner to participate in analyzing his or herperformance of the task by posing guiding questions. The instructor provides guidance on how to cor-rect deficiencies and suggestions to improve performance.

• The instructor concludes by summarizing strong points, reconfirming what will be done to correct thetwo to three major problems addressed and by re-motivating the learner.


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117. Coaching and Performance Cycle. Learners must be allowed the opportunityto learn the critical components of the task first and then gradually perfect thesmaller elements. The instructor should focus on two to three major problemsto improve each run-through instead of every minor error as this will over-whelm and de-motivate the learner. As the coaching and performance cyclecontinues, the learner will master the major components of the task. Thenminor deficiencies can be addressed and fine-tuned.

118. With adequate practice, through coaching using the developmental learningprocess, the learner will have acquired the critical thinking and complex skillsneeded to perform the larger task. The learner can then continue to hone theseskills to the required standard by being provided the opportunity to practiceunder a variety of conditions.

119. Coaching Abilities. Instructors employing the coaching method in instruction-al simulators or the real work environment need to be able to focus on eachlearner as an individual in order to cue the learner, ask questions that requirethem to assess a situation and determines what to do next. The instructor must be familiar with each learner’s background and progress in order to askquestions that will lead the learner to think of the next step and guide themthrough the performance of tasks. This requires careful planning on the part of the instructor as they must develop questions that will force learners to critically think and assess what they are doing. Different cues and questionsmay be needed for different learners at various stages of development.

120. When coaching learners the instructor should:

a. guide the learner as to what to think about and look for;

b. make the practice as realistic as possible while explaining the differencesbetween training performance and operational performance;

c. focus the learner’s attention on cues and actions and add supplementaryfeedback, as required, to develop the learner’s performance;

d. appraise the learner’s performance by identifying the significant tasksrequired and by recognizing the standard of performance achieved by thelearner; and

e. keep a record of significant points in the learner’s performance for the sub-sequent debriefing.

121. An essential part of effective coaching is skilled intervention. It can be verbal,non-verbal or mechanical. To intervene effectively, the instructor should consider:

a. Why am I intervening?

b. How should I intervene?

c. When and how often should I intervene?

d. What will be the effect on the learner?

e. What will be the effect on me?

f. Should I give remedial instruction?

g. Should I suspend the exercise or take positive control?


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122. Distributed learning (DL) is the delivery of standardized training, educationor professional development using multiple media and technologies whenand where it is needed. DL does not necessarily involve a physical distancebetween the learner and instructor or occur outside the confines of the resi-dent training establishment or campus. The dispatch of instructors from atraining establishment to a unit or another location to conduct training onbehalf of a training establishment fall within the realm of DL. DL also con-sists of print-based correspondence courses, CBT on CD ROM and online orweb-based training. DL must support the learners and their learning require-ments. For most effective learning DL planners must strive to balance thedemands of work and study. Although there may be exceptions, the distrib-uted portion of required CF courses will as a rule, occur on duty time, duringnormal day-time working hours. For further information on course schedul-ing, refer to Volume 5, Development of Instructional Programmes.

123. DL can be based on a hybrid design solution. It can form part of an instruc-tional strategy in combination with a portion of a classroom-based course.Bringing portions of a course to the learner is becoming a more prevalentoption, as advances in technology increase the variety of instructional activi-ties and resources that can be offered at a distance. Hybrid training has thepotential to decrease overall training and education costs while providingsome flexibility in when and where learners complete their studies. Forexample, DL allows individuals to complete some of their studies from theirhome unit and the remainder at a training establishment. In rare cases, DLmay be employed for an entire course if an instructor and interaction areused to enhance the technology or paper based instruction.

124. DL Settings. DL can take place in a variety of settings depending on theinstructional strategies employed and the resources available. DL can be conducted in the workplace in the form of CBT on standard office computerswith either CD-ROM or Internet access. Portable, self-contained instructionalpackages, such as paper-based materials, e-books or CD-ROM, can be used at home or whatever location the learner chooses. Learning Career Centres(LCC) or selected facilities with the required equipment may be used to provide desktop and videoconferencing or a virtual classroom.

125. It is essential that learners receive the time allocated to complete distance-learning materials without interruptions to perform work related duties,because intrusions will adversely affect the learner’s progress. This maynecessitate establishing learning contracts between the learners and theirsupervisors in the workplace, which identify learning requirements andspecify periods of time allocated to complete learning. In some instances,learners may choose to complete activities at a location where they are certain they will not be interrupted such as a LCC.

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126. Synchronicity. DL may be synchronous or asynchronous. In synchronouslearning environments the instructional material is provided to learners anddiscussion is conducted in real time through some direct communicationmedium. Advantages of this type of interaction include:

a. motivation generated by a group activity;

b. presence in the tone and nuance of individual contributions;

c. feedback provided during consensus building; and

d. the challenge for each learner in maintaining the group’s pace in the discussion.

127. In asynchronous learning environments learners obtain instructional materialsand interact and exchange materials with the instructor and other learnersthrough various media at different times. This type of DL affords:

a. flexibility for individual responses;

b. time for reflection before responding; and

c. situated learning while in the workplace or accessing the web resources.

128. DL Considerations. DL is selected as the instructional strategy for the deliveryof an objective in the training plan. The selection of a DL technology is basedprincipally on the learners and the content. The needs, media, preferences,and geographical dispersal of learners also affect the choice of DL technology.

129. Depending on how much guidance the training plan provides, there aremany considerations the instructor should examine before conducting DL.Some of these factors are outlined in Figure 7.

130. When conducting distributed learning, the instructor should:

a. devise and, if necessary, employ contingency plans. These plans are toaccommodate any interruptions in the delivery of DL. Anticipate as many“what ifs” as possible. Advise learners who to contact if technology failsand what to do instead if the problem can’t be solved;

b. provide distance learners with all necessary information because learnersdo not have the face-to-face contact to ask and are not always able to lis-ten to responses to other learners’ questions. Detailed directions abouthow the course will run, learning objectives, available learning resources,expectations of the learners, assignments, tests, contacts and a schedule oflearning activities should be provided. Lack of information will lead tolearner frustration;

c. create an environment that will foster participation and interactionbetween the learners, instructor and content. The instructor can helplearners to feel comfortable by having them introduce themselves, encour-aging participation by responding to learner comments, praising relevant,courteous discussion and by incorporating collaborative learning events in the programme. Using emoticons (different variations of happy faces)can help express emotions (Broadbent, 2001);


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d. ensure that learner support is adequately provided in accordance with thetraining plan. In addition to support provided by the instructor in moderatingdiscussion and facilitating learning activities, it is vital to offer the followingtypes of learner support:

i. administrative support to include registration, prior learning assessment,funding allocation, and records keeping. Certain types of delivery tech-nologies require technical support to bring all learners online for the discussion;

ii. technological support is also needed to help learners install plug-ins and related applications; and

iii. personal support involves counselling and advising such as assistinglearners to develop independent study and time management skills. The intent is to maximize the number of learners completing the training.

e. maintain learner interest by keeping the course interactive, varying the type of media and instructional activities. Using different instructional strategiesand delivery technologies, as outlined in Figure 8 can add variety to the learning experience.

Figure 7: Distributed Learning Considerations

DL CONSIDERATIONS

Have you planned for interaction between the instructor and learners and amongst learners, such as participant discussions or group activities, and how will these activities be conducted?

How will access to the instructor and/or tutors be provided? How often will interaction betweeninstructor/tutor and learners be required and how will it occur?

What are the learners’ preferences for instructional resources? Do they have access to necessary equipment and instructional materials?

Have you provided for access to a help desk operator to assist learners to navigate and access the technology?

Have you received training in monitoring and facilitating online discussion? Are you comfortable completing these tasks?

Are facilitators available to promote questions and discussion at various sites, if required?

Have you established procedures and timeframes for feedback on assignments and tests? How will this be done in minimum time?

Will the DL be synchronous (all learners at the same time) or asynchronous (learners at different times)? Do learners prefer to respond in real time or after reflection? Are time zones a factor and how will they be dealt with?

Can learners attain the terminal learning behavior? Are learners able to satisfactorily demonstrate performance related to the objectives at a distance if this is the case?


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131. Distance learning is a sub-set of distributed learning. Staff employed in eitherrole requires the same facilitator expertise. Therefore, personnel tasked toconduct distance or distributed learning should attend the Distance LearningInstructor course offered at CFTDC to provide them with some of the toolsets they will require prior to performing these duties. Employed in such arole, the instructor directly facilitates the learning process by:

a. directing and planning learning activities;

b. facilitating asynchronous online discussion, by acting as a guide versus apresenter, to maximize interaction between learners;

c. facilitating synchronous discussion by posing questions, inviting partici-pation, re-directing questions similar to conducting a classroom guideddiscussion;

d. generating discussion with thought-provoking questions;

e. providing learner support to ensure learners overcome any hurdles inbecoming active learners;

f. responding to questions;

g. clarifying teaching points; and

h. managing course administrative issues.

132. Effectively facilitating the learning process is critical in distance learningbecause the cues that both the instructor and learners have in a face-to-faceenvironment are absent (derived from Abel, 2000; Flottemesch, 2000).

Figure 8: DL Instructional Strategies

DL INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES

One-to-one: Online Resources One-to-one: E-mail

Virtual Field Trip Learning contractOnline search Apprenticeships and InternshipsSelf-paced WBTOnline references

One-to-many: Presentation Many-to-many: Conferencing

Virtual classroom Simulation or gameRole PlayCase StudyGroup DiscussionProject

Distributed/DistanceLearning FacilitationSkills


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133. Listening. Learner confusion or inattentiveness is not easily detected unlessthe learner offers this information. The instructor must listen carefully to learner comments and queries to assess their comprehension or pose questions to the group when minimal discussion is occurring.

134. Creativity. Instructors may have to change their approach or activity if theyperceive learner difficulty or disinterest. The instructor should be able to use various strategies to enliven a lesson, clarify concepts or challenge learners. Changing the approach to syndicate work, brainstorming, or problem solving can regain learners’ attention. Recommendations to changethe lesson specification should be made if the instructional method overall is deemed inappropriate.

135. Engagement. The instructor can motivate and stimulate learners by incorpo-rating strategies to engage the learner. The instructor should aim to elicitlearner participation in approximately one-third of the duration of asynchronous lesson and up to half of the instructional time for asynchronousdistance learning. Some strategies include:

a. asking learners to summarize material covered in an individual presenta-tion;

b. asking learners to share experiences, explain concepts and build meaningwith others;

c. asking learners to analyze and manipulate content in some way;

d. posing open-ended topics for discussion and interpretational questions tothe class;

e. incorporating small group activities that require learners to interactamongst themselves;

f. holding discussions based on material or a topic provided prior to the lesson; and

g. encouraging interaction amongst learners outside of class time and normalonline discussions through study/research groups or the completion ofprojects.

136. Guidance. The instructor must be able to effectively guide learners throughthe DL process just as he or she would guide learners in a traditional class-room. Due to the separation of the learner from the instructor and possiblyall other learners, it is essential that the instructor provide guidance thatallows learners to know where they are in the overall progression of thecourse. In traditional instruction, the instructor might begin by saying “last period we left off discussing…” and close with “ next period we will…”. Incorporating this type of guidance, conducting review periods part waythrough a course and presenting organizers for lessons and the course over-all, will help learners in a DL environment to remain situated in the learningprocess.

137. Technology. Instructors should have the basic technological skills required toeffectively conduct distance learning, and they should be able to provideassistance to learners on how to use technology to complete course activities.


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138. To be effective, DL must support and meet the needs of the learners. Theinstructional strategy for DL, or the DL portion of a course, must be based on the learning that participants require, the characteristics and location of the learners, the developmental learning process and whenever possibleinteraction to reinforce learning. Considering these factors, and effectivelyemploying technology, and the learning activities and strategies will enhancethe DL process and learner success.

139. During group-paced instruction, learners as a group complete the instruction-al activities as sequenced in the course timetable. Group-paced instruction isessential for some types of learning such as:

a. complex skills where input from others enhances learning (e.g., conductinginvestigations, applying ethics, evaluating grievances etc);

b. skills that will be performed with others and where teamwork will berequired on the job (basic and occupational training, e.g., drill, piloting an aircraft or ship);

c. skills that have specific security access or safety concerns; and

d. attitudinal objectives such as the development of team spirit;

140. During SPL, learners complete the instructional activities listed in the coursetimetable, but not necessarily at the same speed or in the same sequence. Eachlearner follows the instructional programme and completes instructional activ-ities at their own pace and rate of learning. The best self-paced materials leadthe learner through steps or learning experiences that avoid boredom, butensure that the required standard is reached before advancing to the nextstep. Since they progress at different speeds, learners begin and finish atvarying times.

141. The SPL instructional programme guide should provide all the guidance,direction and materials that the learner needs; however, less complex pro-grammes can direct the learner to consult with the instructor or tutor, wherenecessary for demonstrations, multimedia materials, help and testing. Theideal SPL programme leads the learner through the instructional activities in response to the learner’s needs directing the learner to more or less detailin response to their progress.

142. SPL uses a variety of methods from paper-based to multimedia, computerbased training (CBT) or web based training (WBT). It is conducted in a train-ing establishment or through distributed learning when appropriate. Whenconducting SPL, the instructor is the manager of the learning environmentand acts as a facilitator of the learning experience. Since learners will be atdifferent stages of learning, the number of learners an instructor can managedepends on the complexity of subject matter, and whether the training is theoretical or hands-on.

Group-PacedInstructionGroup-PacedInstruction

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143. Due to the time and cost involved in designing self-paced programmes, notall training should be considered for SPL. Considerations for the use of SPLare detailed at Annex C.

144. Self-Directed Learning (SDL) is an individualized strategy used to improveperformance; it requires the learner to make decisions about what they needto learn to improve job performance and initiate activities to meet thoselearning goals. When selected for use in CF training and education it requiresstructure and organization to ensure the learner achieves the learning out-comes. SDL is learner centered and flexible, and it is most appropriate forprofessional development activities. It should only be employed for learnerswho have attained the inquiry skills to identify their learning needs and initiate and complete activities with a minimum amount of direction andSDL should only be employed when appropriate for the skills that must be attained. For example, SDL is not recommended where training and education and the subsequent job require teamwork.

145. SDL can be implemented in the classroom or through distributed instruction.SDL can be paper-based, multimedia, CBT, CD-ROMS, web-based, video,audio, or computer conferencing, or a combination of methods. Instructor ortutor support for learners is recommended to facilitate success. The instructorshould:

a. advise the learner on how to identify their needs;

b. assist the learner to determine starting point for learning;

c. encourage learners to set objectives and evaluation criteria and to formalize learning activities into a learning contract; and

d. assist learners with locating resources.

Overall, the instructor should manage the learning experience fostering apartnership with learners on the objectives, activities and evaluation methodfor their chosen learning activities.

146. Group-paced or individual technology-based instructional materials, such asCBT, WBT and multimedia, should provide a learning situation that cannotbe provided in print or as easily in the classroom. These technologies shouldengage and interact with the learner in a meaningful way.

147. Facilitated individual or group-paced technology, where an instructor is present, is often conducted in a laboratory or learning centre and ranges fromindividualized to instructor led. Individualized CBT, WBT and multimediaprovide learners the opportunity to work at their own pace (e.g., SPL). It alsoallows instructors to spend time with individual learners to meet their needs.

InstructionalTechnology

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148. Similar to classroom based instruction, the instructor should provide thegroup or individual learner with an explanation of:

a. where this instruction fits into the overall programme;

b. how the information is relevant and its importance;

c. the related PO, enabling objective (EO) or lesson objectives;

d. an overview of the basic computer skills required;

e. instructions on how to start, proceed through and exit the programme;

f. the location of any help or mapping files that can assist the learners’progress; and

g. learner assignments and evaluation measures.

With learners who are new to the system begin the first lesson slowly. Allowthem the opportunity to browse around the lesson and links to get the feel ofthe programme. It may be helpful to give unskilled learners a demonstrationexample of the courseware or walk them through the lesson on the networkor with slides. During the lesson, the instructor should actively monitorlearner progress and be available to respond to learner queries. Handouts,advance organizers, and job aids can also be used to assist the learner andsupplement the technology-based instruction. The distance learning princi-ples, detailed in this manual, can also generally be applied to computer-mediated instruction.

149. The effective delivery of the lesson material is of prime importance if theinstructor is to gain and hold the attention of the class. An instructor mayhave a well-prepared lesson plan and still fail to get the objective across tothe learners, not because of what was said, but rather because of weaknessesin the way the material was presented. A number of factors and techniquesto address them apply to instruction in general.

150. Nervousness. Almost every instructor may feel ill at ease during the first fewmoments of the class. Advance preparation and organization of the room layout, materials, and equipment will provide a sense of greater control toinstructors. Practicing lessons before delivery and keeping a positive attitudewill also help to reduce nervousness.

151. Participation. Learners do not automatically come alive with interest andenthusiasm when they enter a classroom. To motivate learners to becomeattentive and interested, the instructor must try to incorporate motivationalstrategies in the instruction. To draw learner attention try speaking conversa-tionally and showing interest in the subject and the class, using new andunexpected approaches, changing the pace and emphasizing the relevance of material to learners. To elicit learning ask learners to summarize or mapout how concepts relate, vary review of concepts (pictorial, oral, written) and change activities when learner attention is drifting.

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152. Gestures/Movement. Body movements, hand gestures, facial expression, andposture can be highly expressive aids to delivery. They can make the differ-ence between an effective presentation and a dull, uninspiring one. However,any physical attitude, mannerism or movement that is distracting can hinderlearning. Movements and gestures should be natural and purposeful.

153. Speech. Speech, also, is an important “tool” for helping to make lesson presentations effective. If, however, an instructor speaks too softy, too quicklyor in a monotone, learners can tune out and lose interest. An instructorshould speak clearly and distinctly, at an appropriate rate.

Note: Preparation of effective lesson plans, learning support, visual andprint-based instructional materials enhance the learning process. For furtherinformation on the preparation of instructional material, refer to Volume 5,of this series, Development of Instructional Programmes.

154. To ensure that learners have a clear understanding of questions, and theanswers given, instructors should consider how to pose questions as well as how to respond to answers, as outlined in Table 5.

Question Technique

Table 5: Question Technique

POSING QUESTIONS HANDLING ANSWERS

Ensure you have the full attention of the class and Encourage individuals to answer.ask a question relevant to what is being taught and learners’ experience.

Allow learners time to form answer. Avoid repeating answers.

When using a direct question, indicate which Give credit for answers.learner will answer (after you have posed the question).

Listen carefully to the answer, allowing the learner Confirm the correct response and explain why it is time to answer fully. correct. If the answer is not complete, emphasize

what is correct and use it to move on to thecorrect answer to minimize learner discomfort. It may be possible to clarify the response by rewording the question and providing additional information.

Ensure all learners are participating not just Never waffle. If an answer is wrong the instructor favorites, front rows, extroverts, or those who must say so in a manner that does not embarrass get correct answers. the learner. Confusion regarding the correct answer

must be eliminated. Perhaps reword the question and explain why the answer is wrong.

Note: The development of questions is addressed in detail in Annex G of Volume 5, Development ofInstructional Programmes.


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C O N D U C T O N - T H E - J O B T R A I N I N G

155. On-the-Job Training (OJT) is an instructional strategy that may be identifiedin the QS/TP for the delivery of specific POs or EOs. OJT is individualtraining that is conducted on the actual job site at an operational unit. A supervisor or skilled worker delivers and monitors the instruction bydemonstrating new skills, observing performance and giving feedback. OJT is highly structured and should include an OJT guide as well as aseries of planned application and practice sessions leading to a formal performance check.

156. During the Design Phase, when OJT is selected as a strategy, the EnvironmentalCommand/Group Principal and the unit concerned must have agreed to hostthe OJT. OJT must also have been identified as either a Unit or MA-fundedactivity. Unit-funded OJT is conducted as a part of daily operations and is aunit cost funded through the unit’s business plan. Unit-funded OJT shouldhave little to no immediate impact on unit or operational effectiveness andadditional personnel or resource requirements should be minimal. DuringOJT, a learner may be required to achieve objectives that involve improvingskills that have already been learned, or to perform tasks with reference tojob aids. The learner performs tasks on-the-job under the supervision ofskilled workers who will verify that the required standard of performance for the objective has been met.

157. MA funded OJT is also conducted in the job environment but requires theunit to provide learning opportunities beyond the scope of those available indaily operations. In this case, the unit will have to provide specific opportu-nities for learners to attain objectives and as a result there is an impact onoperational effectiveness. For example, when system administrators musttake time away from their primary duty of maintaining a system to provideOJT to learners on how to troubleshoot, assemble and disassemble equip-ment, there is a significant impact on the unit. For this reason, the MA fundspersonnel and resources required to conduct this OJT or may direct that it beincorporated as training support in the unit’s budget.

158. The MA or their designated training establishment is responsible for thedesign and development of OJT material and for providing the unit with theinstructions, performance checks, records, guides and contacts associatedwith conducting and reporting the specific OJT. OJT is an appropriateinstructional strategy when:

a. skills can only be acquired over time with practice;

b. skills cannot be safely performed until the learner is highly proficient; and

c. the training establishment cannot support the training due to its locationand climate, or complexity.

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159. The unit is responsible for conducting OJT, assessing learners and documentingwhether or not the objectives were attained in the learner’s On-the-JobPerformance Record (OJPR). The unit reports the results of the OJT back to the training establishment responsible for the training programme. The trainingestablishment enters the results on the individuals’ record and awards the qualification upon successful completion of all POs in the programme.

Note: OJT should not be confused with on job experience (OJE). OJT is selectedas an instructional strategy for tasks that were deemed to require training at a Qualification Standards Writing Board (QSWB). OJE is a justification for no-train decisions during a QSWB at the task analysis stage. In this case a task is deemed to not require training because it is very simple, known by most learners and/or easily mastered through typical job experience under the observation of a supervisor.

160. OJT may be selected as the instructional strategy for one or more POs during the Design phase. In this case, learners must attain those objectives through performance on the job at a unit. During OJT, supervisors must provide skilledworkers to assist learners, monitor progress, and verify that objectives have beenmet. To successfully complete OJT, the candidate must be able to perform allrequired tasks and objectives IAW the operational standards detailed in theappropriate QS.

Note: Where the term instructor is used in the OJT context, it refers to theskilled worker(s) who is responsible for coaching and monitoring the OJT candidate.

161. The MA and CF training establishment that delivers the instructional programmeprovides units with the instructions, checks, records and contacts associatedwith conducting OJT. A sample OJT guide is provided at Annex D. In prepara-tion, the unit is responsible for developing a unit OJT schedule that will identifythe number of personnel from one or more occupations that they will be hostingand the designated skilled workers to support this training. Figure 9 illustrates asample table that may be developed, based on the OJT tasking from the MA andunit strength, to identify and plan for OJT requirements. Based on this table,where a 1:1 ratio is required, it is readily apparent that there are only 6 MSE OPqualified Sgts to oversee 9 learners requiring OJT at the QL 6A level.

Unit OJT Schedule

Figure 9: OJT Requirements

MOC UNIT STRENGTH OJT REQUIREMENTS

Cpl/Pte MCpl Sgt WO MWO QL 4 QL 6A

MSE OP 30 6 6 2 1 17 9

Vehicle Tech 18 5 2 1 0 11 1

Note: The table used to identify and plan for OJT requirements may vary depending on the environment andwhether other activities such as unit/operational training are addressed at the same time. Regardless of thetable or factors included, the aim is to identify unit strength and OJT requirements to plan for staff workload.

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162. From this information a Unit OJT schedule can be developed indicating whenpersonnel from various occupations will be completing OJT. Staff members willbe required to demonstrate skills, assist learners, monitor progress and verifythat objectives have been met. When planning workload one assumes a work-day or shift of 8 hours; however, calculations are based on 6.75 hours per daybecause of other work related administrative routines. Scheduling unit OJT maybe more difficult if the unit operates on shift work (e.g., on board ships, air traf-fic control towers). Learners may have to be assigned to various shifts of differ-ing lengths to practice tasks. In any case, the same concept applies; OJT shouldbe scheduled only during a portion of the shift, because staff will have to takecare of other administrative tasks and duties during a portion of their shift.

163. The number of learners and MOCs are identified in the training requirementstable. From this a Unit OJT programme can be developed. The particular OJTprogramme needed by each unit will depend upon a number of factors includ-ing the number of learners, the variety of occupations, the nature of the POs,the equipment required and the operational tasking of the unit.

164. Each EO or PO must be examined to determine the best training approach.Having learners rotate through one or more jobs can provide some training.Other training will require formal lessons or one on one tutoring. In caseswhere there are many skills and knowledge to be learned, numerous candidatesor heavy operational commitments, the unit may decide to run a course instead.Even when a course is not warranted, the unit may have to stage learning opportunities to allow learners to apply knowledge or manipulate equipment.

165. OJT builds directly on the content that has been learned in the classroom, and increases competence by allowing learners to apply knowledge and skills.In this case the learner performs the actual job tasks under supervision or withreference to job aids, in order to improve skills and meet the performance standards.

166. Learners must be provided instruction (e.g., modeling and coaching) on how toperform the tasks and achieve the objectives. As with all types of instructionthe strategies to facilitate adult learning and the principles of instructionshould be applied.

167. The goal of OJT is to facilitate learning as the individual applies informationand/or progresses through various tasks. The key steps of OJT are:

a. instructor preparation;

b. instructor presentation or demonstration (What, How, When, Where & Why);

c. learner application and practice;

d. instructor coaching and debrief (feedback); and

e. learner reflection (What worked? What didn’t? Why? What will I do nexttime?).

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168. Instructors must prepare learning materials in the appropriate classroom orworksite prior to the OJT process. The OJT process is depicted in Figure 10.

Figure 10: OJT Process

The instructor begins by explaining to the learner what to do, and how to do it andwhy carrying out a task in a particular manner is important. The conditions underwhich (when and where) the task might be performed should also be elaboratedon if appropriate.

The instructor should then demonstrate how to perform the task explaining eachcomponent or step as it is completed.

If the learner does not have questions the instructor will have the learner tell himwhat to do and the instructor will perform the task again.

Finally, the learner attempts to do the task under supervision (initially describing thesteps). As this is a learning experience, the learner should not be expected to perform a task perfectly right away.

The instructor coaches the learner and provides feedback on what went well and areas to improve. Coaching should be done in a supportive and non-critical manner.

The learner reflects on the experience and instructor feedback. What went well? What didn’t? Why? What will I do differently next time?

169. Steps four through six may need to be repeated, forming a loop until the learnercan perform the task competently. This may require several practice sessionsover a period of days or weeks that allow for learner reflection on how they areperforming and whether they require additional information and/or practicetime. Learners must be provided with practice opportunities because practiceand coaching contribute to improved performance and retention of knowledgeand skills. Personnel providing instruction must provide constructive andtimely feedback to learners clearly explaining what should be done differently,why and how to do it correctly. The amount of practice needed to perform atask will vary depending on the complexity of the task. In some cases, toachieve the objectives, smaller tasks will have to be mastered before they can be combined and practiced as a more complex task.

Note: In addition to following the OJT process, instructors should use thestrategies to facilitate adult learning addressed in Part 1 and the coachingstrategies discussed in Part 3 of this manual.


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170. All personnel instructing learners should be trained in basic instructionaltechniques and be comfortable coaching learners. As some OJT will consistof formal lessons the full range of other instructional methods can beemployed for OJT whenever they are appropriate for the desired learning.Peer learning is one method in particular that may be used to reinforce learn-ing. This method allows people to be both teachers and learners. Each learn-er teaches another the skills that he/she has just mastered. The learner musthave mastered the skills to the required standard before being allowed toteach. The additional practice and review of skills, required to teach another,enhance the skills and knowledge of the individual who is teaching. Highretention rates have been shown to occur by having learners teach others.The use of peer learning must always be preceded by instruction from aqualified instructor or supervisor.

Note: Peer instruction cannot be used to replace instruction by unit staff whoare fully qualified practitioners in the field.

171. Resources are required to coordinate, supervise and conduct a successfulunit OJT programme. The personnel who will fill the following roles shouldbe identified to ensure they receive training and preparation required to fulfill the OJT responsibilities.

172. Commanding Officer (CO). The CO is responsible for all aspects of the UnitOJT programme, including:

a. directing the scheduling and management of the OJT programme;

b. recommending (or in exceptional circumstances, granting) the award ofqualifications; and

c. ensuring compliance with OJT guidance and policy.

173. OJT Coordinator. The OJT Coordinator is responsible for coordinating andmonitoring all OJT on behalf of the CO and creating an OJT schedule. In thecase of shift work, the OJT supervisor must coordinate input and feedbackfrom coordinators for each occupation under training.

174. OJT Section Head. The OJT Section Head is responsible for:

a. explaining that the OJT supervisors’ role is to provide time, equipment,instruction and guidance to the learner while the primary responsibilityon the individual learner is to progress;

b. counseling learners regarding the implications of OJT, and any time limitations affecting career progression;

c. monitoring overall learner achievement by reviewing OJPRs;

d. investigating deficiencies in the OJT programme and initiate correctiveaction;

e. coordinating job rotation and special training for which resources are notreadily available;

f. advising immediate supervisor about OJT progress and problems;

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g. ensuring UERs are properly maintained and that the results of the OJT arerecorded; and

h. via the unit CO, forwarding completed OJPRs to the training establishmentresponsible for the training programme when all tasks have been success-fully completed so that a qualification can be awarded.

175. OJT Supervisor. The OJT Supervisor is responsible for:

a. conducting OJT and/or tasking skilled workers who will conduct OJT;

b. evaluating learner performance, administering PCs and, when the statedstandard has been achieved, signing off the task in the master copy of theOJPR;

c. monitoring learning and achievement by having learners perform tasksfrom performance checks at random; and

d. forwarding completed OJPRs to the OJT Section head.

176. Staff facilitating OJT require specialized training. It is recommended that allstaff engaged in instruction of any kind, complete the Basic and AdvancedInstructional Techniques courses and those supervising OJT complete theInstructor Supervisor course.


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MM O N I T O R L E A R N I N G

177. The purpose of monitoring learning is to ensure that learning is taking placeand where it isn’t to identify problems and remedial strategies. Monitoringlearning is the responsibility of all instructional and standards staff andinstructor-supervisors.

178. Instruction improves when instructional staff monitors the response of learn-ers to the instructional activities and takes remedial action when required.Instructional staff monitor factors such as:

a. achievement of EOs/POs;

b. number of re-writes;

c. test scores;

d. motivation; and

e. attrition.

179. Instructional staff can monitor learning through observation and conversa-tion with learners and other staff. Verbal comments or behaviors indicatinglow morale, unmotivated or unhappy people indicate that a problem exists.Informal discussion between the instructional staff and learners and amongstinstructional staff alone can help identify and resolve problems.

180. The instructor is responsible for providing an environment that is conduciveto learning. To do so, the instructor should value the contribution of alllearners, reinforce positive behaviors such as cooperation with fellow learn-ers and instructional staff. Instructors must be able to resolve disagreements,draw attention to the merits of differing opinions and maintain control of theclassroom. To promote an environment that enhances learning, instructionalstaff must be able to recognize and effectively deal with learner difficultyand potential or actual problem behavior. A sample of possible learnerbehaviors and how instructors should deal with them is detailed in Table 6.

Purpose

Monitor Learner Progress


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Table 6: Learner Behavior and Solutions

LEARNER BEHAVIOR SOLUTIONS

QUICK LEARNER Provide this learner with more advanced workThe learner who consistently grasps concepts quickly and finishes work first could become disruptive if Ask this learner to help others who require helphe or she begins to feel bored and unchallenged.

QUIET LEARNER Begin by asking the learner a few questions that The learner who rarely participates due to shyness, require short answers. Occasionally ask more detailedfear, self-consciousness or an introverted nature questions. Determine the learner’s interests and should be gradually included in the lesson. encourage him or her to speak.

HELPFUL LEARNER If the learner is truly a generous person, explain in This learner is eager to help and agrees with private that his or her behavior is appreciated but everything the instructor says. could be misinterpreted by classmates.

If it is possible that the learner is trying to extract the favor of the instructor, advise the class (don’t single anyone out) that only merit will determine success.

MONOPOLIZER Pose questions to this learner that require only brief This learner is always ready to express their views or yes or no answers.and can end up monopolizing the lesson.

CRITICAL LEARNER Listen to the learner’s problems and satisfy them if The learner who consistently finds fault with the possible. If not possible, admit there are areas to be content or method of instruction can be challenging. improved and ask for suggestions and solutions.

Advise the learner that you would be happy to discuss these issues outside of scheduled class time.

KNOW IT ALL Determine if the learner is knowledgeable or simply The learner who considers himself or herself an vying for attention. Allow the learner to answer some authority on any topic being discussed and questions. Appeal to his or her sense of fair play to let disrupts the class. other learners respond.

DISTRACTER Recognize the type of questions that appear to relate The learner who attempts to get the group off topic. to the lesson but will actually veer off topic.The learner may do this to avoid revealing that he or she has not completed an assignment or Acknowledge that the question does not relate to the to avoid a difficult subject. topic but offer to discuss after the lesson.


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182. The instructor should minimize the onset of frustration by monitoring it andhelping learners to deal with frustration. Providing learners with strategies toimprove their performance and overcome difficulties can help learners copewith frustration. Instructors should teach learners both when and how to usethe following learning strategies:

a. organizing strategies can be used to identify the main concepts or ideas ina lesson or text. Information can be grouped or classified (e.g., similar, dif-ferent, prior to, part of, or following the main process) to help the learnerunderstand complex data or processes;

b. bridging strategies can be used to relate ideas or concepts to prior knowledge or lessons that have just been taught;

c. mapping strategies can be used to provide a visual representation of concepts. The learner can draw pictorial representation of ideas and their relationship through network or spatial maps;

d. rehearsal strategies can be used to memorize course material. Rehearsalinvolves reviewing material over and over and then checking to see if you have learned it. To rehearse material learners can also make notes or summarize information;

Table 7: Defense Mechanisms

DEFENSE MECHANISMS

RATIONALIZATIONWhen learners cannot accept the true cause of their behavior they may react by rationalizing their actionsand substituting excuses for reasons. The learner will actually believe the excuses and consider them to beplausible and reasonable.

FLIGHTWhen situations become very frustrating learners may react by taking flight or trying to escape the situa-tion mentally or physically. Learners may lose focus, daydream or cease to pay attention to escape.Learners may also develop ailments or symptoms that will allow them to be absent from the class.

AGGRESSIONAngry or frustrated learners may exhibit overt or indirect aggressive behavior. Learners may ask irrelevantquestions, refuse to participate, and disrupt classroom activities. When a learner shouts, bangs materials ordoors their anger and frustration is evident.

RESIGNATIONIn this case, learners become so frustrated that they give up, lose interest and accept defeat. Learners mayfeel there is no point in working further because they have been unable to master the material so far.

181. Instructors must be able to deal with learners who become frustrated becausethey are experiencing difficulty. In some cases, learners may cope with feel-ings of frustration or failure by displaying defensive behaviors. Some of thecommon behaviors, known as defense mechanisms, are described in Table 7:


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e. mnemonics is a strategy that can be used to memorize a string of digits orwords by grouping or coding information. This may entail using first lettercoding to create a memorable word or sentence or other meaningfulgroupings to aid recall, e.g., the term ICEPAC, used earlier; and

f. learners can be instructed to use imagery to visualize and form a mentalpicture of pieces of equipment or the steps in a procedure.

183. Strategies the instructor can use to help learners achieve their goals aredescribed in Table 8.

Table 8: Helping Strategies for Learners

ADVISE LEARNERS OF EXPECTATIONSLearners need to know what is expected of them. The instructor should provide an overview of the course,the approach, and expectations as well as the EOs and POs they must achieve. Once expectations havebeen established instructors must be consistent to avoid any confusion. Instructors should also advise learnersof their progress and give them adequate notice of examinations, assignments, and other requirements.

IDENTIFY AND CLARIFY MISCONCEPTIONSThe instructor should ask learners about their experience and existing knowledge and whether the new mater-ial being taught appears to contradict this. By doing so the instructor may be able to relate new concepts toprior knowledge to enhance learning and clarify misconceptions that can cause learners to make errors.

ACTIVELY INVOLVE THE LEARNERSBy actively engaging the learner in activities instead of simply delivering information the instructor canenhance the learning and achievement of goals. Learners must process information and make sense of itthemselves for learning to truly take place. By requiring learners to summarize material, explain concepts,discuss ideas and reflect on problems the instructor is actively engaging them and enhancing their learning.

CONSIDER LEARNERS AS INDIVIDUALSLearners have unique personalities and different learning needs and styles. Some learners will readilyrequest assistance and discuss difficulties while others will not. Some learners learn best from interactingwith people, others through reading or listening while others may learn best by seeing visual depictions ofa concept or manipulating objects. When possible the instructor should consider the learner’s personalityand learning style when trying to help them to achieve goals.

PROVIDE CONSTRUCTIVE CRITICISMIt is extremely frustrating for a learner to be advised that their performance is unsatisfactory but to not knowwhy. Instructors must provide criticism constructively by clearly identifying what aspect of a performance isincorrect and what exactly the learner must do differently. The instructor can also ask the learner to identifytheir own mistakes and explain how they made the error. The learner should be provided the opportunityto explain how to perform the task correctly and be given opportunity to practice the correct procedure.

ADMIT ERROR OR LACK OF INFORMATIONLearners can sense when an instructor is covering up an error or does not really have the answer. To maintain credibility, instructors should admit when they have made an error or do not know the answer but promise to find out and get back to the group later.


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184. Motivation is a force that directs people to work towards a goal. Most learn-ers are motivated to pass their courses so that they can succeed on the job.To help learners remain motivated, instructors can emphasize how the mate-rial will benefit them and strive to keep instruction varied and interesting.Strategies (derived from Keller, 1987) to incorporate motivation into dailyinstruction include:

a. instilling confidence in learners by providing opportunities to succeed.The developmental process discussed earlier is particularly effective inachieving this end;

b. sustaining the learner’s attention by actively engaging learners;

c. explaining to learners why material is relevant to them now and in thelong term; and

d. recognizing and reinforcing learner achievement in order to foster a personal sense of satisfaction.

185. There are times when learners require assistance to deal with difficult situations, learning or personal problems. Effective counselling can helplearners to solve a particular problem and develop the ability to solve personal problems themselves in the future. It is important to find the cause of the inappropriate behavior and solve the underlying problem.

186. Some of the underlying problems that may be encountered during counselling include:

a. problems pertaining to rank, promotion, job assignment, etc;

b. personal problems such as attitude, attendance, alcohol or drug abuse;

c. family or personal relationships (financial difficulties, personal conflict,moral dilemmas);

d. personality conflict or harassment issues;

e. peer, supervisor or instructor problems;

f. learning difficulties; and

g. excessive stress.

187. Limitations. Instructor supervisors and skilled instructors are able to counsellearners on difficulties with progress, motivation, study habits and discipline.However, if it is determined from the counselling session that a more seriousunderlying problem exists such as alcohol, drug, family, financial, physicalor mental health or aptitude problems then the learner will require assistancefrom a specialist in the appropriate area. These problems must be forwardedthrough the chain of command to the CO so that services can be sought frombase, formation or command resources.

188. To be effective, instructional staff must have a clear understanding of theirroles as counsellors and basic counselling skills. Basic counselling skills’training is provided on the Instructor Supervisor course offered at CFTDC.

Counsel Learners

Motivation


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189. In order to be effective counsellors must employ certain practices. Successfulcounsellors recognize the value of these practices and maintain their skilllevels. Some of the practices that allow a counsellor to meet the learner’sneeds are:

a. preparation prior to the interview enhances the session’s overall success.Review all information about the situation and prepare a counsellingapproach and plan. The counsellor should bring notes or an interviewguide into the session to assist them through the counselling process;

b. displaying patience and genuine interest reassures the learner that thecounsellor wants to help them;

c. communicate skillfully by encouraging learners to speak openly and listening carefully to understand what they are trying to say;

d. show respect for confidentiality. The counsellor should only discuss theissues raised in the counselling session with those who have an absoluteneed to know; and

e. share responsibility. The idea is for the counsellor to assist the learner totake responsibility for solving the problem. If the learner is involved indeveloping the solutions he or she will be more motivated to followthrough and succeed.

190. The purpose of any counselling interview is to solve a problem. The objec-tive of the interview is to obtain facts, information, and feelings to help alearner to identify and solve problems that are affecting his achievement.

191. Employing effective interviewing techniques can help to identify the issuesaffecting the learner and effectively conduct the counselling session. Thesetechniques include:

a. Attentiveness. Demonstrating attentiveness to the learner indicates thatyou are genuinely interested in helping them to solve their problem.Verbal encouragement and body language such as sitting with arms byyour side versus crossed, making eye contact versus gazing around theroom are important cues to the learner that you are open and focused on them;

b. Questioning Technique. Using open questions such as “What did you doto prepare for this exam?” provides the learner with the opportunity torespond with a wide range of responses versus closed questions such as “Did you study for the exam?” which result in a single yes or noresponse. Probing questions such as “Do you think the extra workassigned was fair?” allows learners to express their thoughts and feelingsabout a situation;

c. Minimal Encouragers. Verbal words such as “yes, or go on” or noddinggestures encourage learners to continue with what they are saying.Remaining silent and listening carefully will help draw out the learner’sperspective on their problems;

Counselling Practices

Counselling Interview

InterviewingTechniques


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d. Paraphrasing. This involves interpreting and summarizing the learner’sstatement, and clarifying what they have said. For example, when thelearner states “I was up until midnight working on my assignment and fellasleep” the interviewer might respond with “so, you did not have enoughtime to complete the assignment?” to confirm what the learner means.This method can also be used to reflect the learner’s feelings;

e. Summarizing. Summarizing what has been discussed at certain pointsduring the interview can be helpful to refocus and clarify the situation. It reviews the issues discussed and ensures that there is agreement on the issues.

Table 9: Counselling Interview

STAGE GUIDELINE

PREPARATION Prepare the plan. Gather information about the learner by reviewing the coursefile. Clarify the situation to determine the learner’s problem and what steps have been taken.

Prepare the setting. Select a location that is private and conducive to communica-tion. Arrange furniture and schedule time to ensure there won’t be interruptions.

Establish a comfortable atmosphere. Welcome the learner and put him orher at ease by using a pleasant tone and offering them a seat. State the purposeof the interview. If the learner initiated the interview they should explain why theyhave asked for the counselling session. The environment should be conducive totrust and two-way communication.

EXPLORATION Encourage communication. Listen to the learner and encourage him or her toexpress their ideas, concerns and feelings by asking open-ended questions. Keepthe discussion going by summarizing what has been said and listen attentively inorder to understand the learner’s view of their problem and possible solutions.

INTEGRATION Provide more information. The counsellor provides information from the learner’sfile, and encourages them to explore the problem further.

Identify learner misperceptions. Through discussion ensure that the learner sees all sides of the problem without providing him or her with judgements or solutions.

Explore alternatives. Integrate the information and suggestions provided by thecounsellor with learner views. Encourage the learner to use new insights to clarifythe situation and evaluate alternatives when solving the problem.

ACTION Summarize Outcomes. The counsellor summarizes the agreed upon course ofaction and what the learner and counsellor are responsible to do. The learner summarizes the course of action to which he or she has committed.

Close the interview. Ease the learner out of the session by stating you will follow-upwhen appropriate. Encourage the learner to approach you in the future to communi-cate concerns and initiate small talk to signal that the counselling session is over.

Follow-up. Update the learner’s file with the agreed course of action. Schedule a follow-up interview.


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Note: Leading questions which force the learner into a no-win situation suchas “when are you going to start taking this course seriously?” should not beused during the counselling session because they put the individual on thedefensive, which defeats the purpose of the interview.

192. The counselling session is a helping interview that usually proceeds throughthe four stages as detailed in Table 9.

193. There are three basic approaches to counselling: directive, non-directive andparticipative. Although they are very rarely used in pure form, instructorsshould be familiar with each approach so they can employ whatever mix isrequired to fit the situation. Each approach is described in Table 10.

Table 10: Counselling Approaches

DIRECTIVEThe counsellor describes the problem and suggests a solution to the learner. The counsellor determines asolution based on his or her experience and knowledge of the learner’s behavior and training records.The counsellor encourages the learner to accept the solution to the problem. This approach may be usedin the case of safety violations or disciplinary problems.

NON-DIRECTIVEThe counsellor encourages the learner to express feelings, concerns and problems. The counsellor clarifiesand summarizes the situation in a non-judgmental manner encouraging the learner to come up with his orher own solution. This method may require additional time for the learner to determine their problem anda solution because the counsellor provides minimal assistance and direction. The intent is to have thelearner realize the problem and propose solutions.

PARTICIPATIVEThe participative approach is a structured combination of the directive and non-directive methods. It provides greater flexibility as both the learner and counsellor work together to identify and solve problems.

CounsellingApproaches

194. Instructors should avoid using exactly the same counselling approach withevery learner because they do not react the same way in similar circumstances.Therefore, every counselling situation should be tailored to meet the learner’sspecific needs. When determining which approach to use the counsellorshould consider the:

a. nature of the problem;

b. personality of the learner;

c. environment; and

d. situation at the training establishment or unit.


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195. Participative Approach. The participative approach is most often employedas it allows both the counsellor and the learner to fully participate in theprocess. Although the counsellor takes the lead, the learner is activelyinvolved in determining any corrective actions and is therefore more committed to the solution.

196. The participative counselling approach is highly structured. It requires thecounsellor and learner to engage in a six-step process aimed at helping thelearner to resolve problems and correct his or her shortcomings. Each stepand the associated procedures of the participatory counselling session aredescribed in Table 11.

Table 11: Particpitative Counselling Approach

STEPS PROCEDURES

Communicate shortcomings Document and advise the learner of his or her shortcomings.

Advise the learner of the requirement to address shortcomings and, if necessary, explain the possible consequences of not doing so.

Explore possible corrective Invite the learner to provide reasons, if aware, for his or her actions shortcomings and to describe all corrective actions already taken

to deal with them.

Ask the learner to identify other possible actions to address their shortcomings. Provide the learner with suggestions of other correctiveactions and discuss the pros and cons of each possible remedial action together.

Obtain learner commitment to Ask the learner to propose the best course of actions to correct the remedial action plan (RAP) shortcomings from those discussed.

Constructively review the proposal and offer advice as necessary.

Ask the learner to provide a realistic due date for completion of the RAP and for his or her commitment to completing the RAP as per theproposed timeline.

Oversee progress on RAP Ensure necessary assistance or resources are available to the learner.

Regularly review the learner’s progress toward goals and provide encouragement and praise.

Help the learner to make mid-course corrections to RAP where needed.

Communicate success or Assess whether the learner is achieving RAP goals.failure of the RAP Document the success or failure and advise the learner.

Recommendations Recommend follow-up action such as continuing training with or without further counselling or cease training.


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197. Non-Directive Approach. In non-directive counselling, learners are encour-aged to freely express positive and negative feelings in an attempt to exploreand understand themselves and their problems and concerns. The counsellorcreates a non-judgemental atmosphere by summarizing what the learner saysbut avoiding offering any praise or blame.

198. This approach might be best employed when a learner is dealing with per-sonal issues that he or she needs to talk out such as peer or family conflict,harassment, death, marital break up etc. in order to ensure these issues donot affect his or her performance. The non-directive counselling approachconsists of six steps as outlined in Table 12.

Table 12: Non-Directive Counselling Approach

STEPS PROCEDURES

Explain the approach Explain to the learner that he or she will be helped in working outproblems but will not be provided with the answers.

Encourage free expression Encourage the learner to express their feelings about the problemsuch as guilt, fear, anger, indecision and concerns. Do not adviseor persuade the learner that they are right or wrong.

Clarify and accept Respond to the learner’s feelings instead of the facts or content negative feelings of the discussion.

Re-state and clarify the learner’s feelings without expressing judgement. Accept the feelings expressed without commenting on whether the learner is right or wrong.

Recognize and accept After negative feelings have been expressed, allow the learners topositive feelings build on tentative, more positive reactions. Do not provide approval

or blame.

This stage of the session should be used to gain insight into thelearner’s personality and the source of the problem.

Clarify choices Ask the learner to clearly identify all possible courses of actionwhile refraining from recommending a particular course of action to them.

Allow the learner to develop Encourage the learner to weigh each possible solution.an action plan Allow the learner to work towards developing his or her own

solution to the problem.


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199. Directive Counselling. The directive counselling approach is the opposite ofthe non-directive approach. In a directive counselling session, the counsellortakes the lead role and provides advice, direction and suggestions to thelearner.

200. This approach is appropriate when learners are less mature and requireassistance and direction. It may also be used to deal with disciplinary problems. The four steps and procedures of the directive counsellingapproach are outlined in Table 13.

Table 13: Directive Counselling Approach

STEPS PROCEDURES

Define the problem Identify and analyze the problem and its source.

Pose questions to the learner to clarify the problem.

Explore possible solutions Ask the learner to describe how he or she has or is currently coping with the problem.

Suggest a number of possible solutions.

In a disciplinary problem, the solution is not discussed, rather it is directed.

Guide the learner and direct If a non-disciplinary issue, ask the learner to choose the solutionthe best solution that appeals most to him or her and guide the learner to the

solution and future plan of action.

Follow up the plan of action. Seek the learner’s commitment to the plan.

Provide support to the learner as he or she carries out the plan.

Note: Counselling sessions involving discipline may involve mainly one-way discussion from counsellor tolearner and the atmosphere may be quite tense. Nevertheless, the focus should be on problem solving.

201. When counselling has not been successful, some form of progress review isinitiated. Various options exist from the informal to the formal.

202. Progress Review (PR). The PR is an informal review process that is initiatedwhen counselling has not been successful in resolving problems. During aprogress review the learner meets with his or her instructors and a supervisorto examine performance deficiencies. The deficiency is discussed with thelearner to determine if remedial training can solve the problem. If it is deter-mined that some form of remedial training cannot address the problem andcease training (CT) action is considered, the learner should be referred to a formal training review board to determine the most appropriate course of action.

Progress Reviews


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203. Independent Review Board (IRB). The IRB involves a staff level review ofthe learner’s file and progress to date. The purpose of the IRB is to ensurethat the learner has received fair treatment. Any extenuating circumstancesor training deficiencies/inconsistencies are immediately resolved. The boardmay still recommend remedial training or counselling or other correctiveaction. When the IRB concludes it does not have the authority to address aproblem such as a voluntary withdrawal or severe substandard performance,then a PRB will be conducted.

204. Progress Review Board (PRB). The PRB also referred to as a Training ReviewBoard (TRB) is held when there are significant decisions to make regarding alearner’s future development. The outcome of a PRB may be: continuationwith remedial training, recourse or cease training. The PRB is a formal andintensive process during which board members will review all pertinentinformation and interview staff and learners, as required. If there are signifi-cant problems, such as demonstration of unsuitability, unsafe attitudes, orcheating, staff may go directly to PRB without going through IRB. Whereverthe possibility of CT is considered, a PRB is required. The following docu-ments must be made available to the board:

a. Learner’s Personnel File (if available);

b. Learner’s UER (if available);

c. Training File;

d. Evaluation Forms/Exam Results; and

e. Instructor notes or other relevant information;

205. At the same time, the learner must also have the opportunity to review allthe information that the board is considering, talk to staff or fellow learners ifdesired, and prepare any materials that they wish to present to the decision-making body. The learner must have the opportunity to present counter argu-ments and to provide any supporting evidence, including witnesses to theboard, if desired. After the review board has completed its assessment, thelearner is advised of the findings and recommendations. Since time is oftenan issue in training reviews, file reviews and interviews may be concurrent.On completion of the board, the CO reviews the findings and recommenda-tions and determines or approves the final course of action. A sample PRBchecklist is provided at Annex E.


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MM O N I T O R I N S T R U C T I O N A N D D E V E L O P S T A F F

206. The aim of monitoring instruction is to improve learning. Training establish-ment staffs are responsible collectively to ensure that the training environ-ment promotes learning. Areas such as instructor performance, learnerachievement, support and administration are monitored to ensure the train-ing establishment’s goals are met in an effective and efficient manner. Bothstandards personnel and instructor-supervisors play a key role in ensuringthat learning takes place by monitoring the delivery of instruction.

207. Standards staff assess whether learning is taking place on an ongoing basis by:

a. auditing instruction to ensure the content and emphasis of the material is in accordance with the intent of the training plan. Where staff are notcontent Subject Matter Experts (SME), standards must designate other personnel to perform this function;

b. auditing instruction to confirm the adequacy and appropriate use ofinstructional materials and training aids as directed in the training planand lesson plan as required;

c. monitoring learners and their files;

d. administering or monitoring the administration of performance checks ortests to ensure they are conducted as directed;

e. preparing, administering and analyzing learner course evaluations; and

f. reviewing instructor course evaluations.

208. New instructional staff require a form of indoctrination. Instructors and standards staff in particular should be given a period of indoctrination thatcovers but is not limited to the following topics:

a. the six phases of the CFITES Quality Control System. Familiarization withCFITES Manuals of Individual Training Volumes 4, 5 and 6 the Design,Development and Delivery of Instructional Programmes is essential;

b. training documentation, such as qualification standards and plans, and how to go about submitting a change to these documents;

c. the role of the standards organization and the difference between instructor monitoring and training plan compliance;

Monitor Instruction

Standards Staff

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d. adult learning principles, facilitating learning, assessment and evaluation,as well as counselling individuals with learning problems and trainingreview board procedures;

e. course reporting procedures;

f. training records management;

g. procedures for requesting instructional materials that support learningsuch as training aids, equipment, interactive courseware, and testing materials; and

h. briefings on any physical requirements, harassment, equity and otherissues deemed relevant by the CO.

Note: Many of these requirements can be met by ensuring that instructorsand standards staff complete the necessary CF Instructor Training coursesavailable through the CFTDC, or MA sponsored programmes co-coordinatedby the unit TDO and delivered on site. Recommended courses include Basic and Advanced Instructional Techniques, Instructor Supervisor, and the Training Manager course.

209. Effectively managing instructors improves both instruction and learning.Instructors should be provided with opportunities to improve their instruc-tional and classroom management skills. Instructor-supervisors are responsi-ble to develop well-trained and skilled instructors. The development of askilled instructor takes time. Supervisors can develop instructors by imple-menting an instructor development programme that focuses on instructionalimprovement.

210. To implement a successful instructor development programme the supervisorshould ensure the instructor received indoctrination and advise them of:

a. the importance of their instructional duties, their influence on learningand the instructional team;

b. the content of the instructional programme and the instructors responsi-bilities; and

c. the main components of the development programme.

211. The essential components of an effective instructor development programmeare outlined in Figure 11.

Develop Instructional Staff

InstructorDevelopmentProgramme


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Figure 11: Instructor Development Programme

FORMAL TRAININGAs a minimum, supervisors should measure potential instructors against the requirements for successfulcompletion of Basic Instructional Techniques offered by CFTDC or an MA designated alternative. It is recommended that instructors attend the CFTDC Advanced Instructional Techniques when time permits.Depending on the technology involved, instructors may require additional training in facilitating distancelearning and multimedia. In this case, instructors should attend CFTDC courses such as InteractiveCourseware Design, Distance Learning Instructor and Distance Learning Technologies for Managers.

OJTAn OJT programme for instructional staff consists of having the new instructor sit in on the delivery of a lesson (various types of lessons over time). On its conclusion, the techniques and method employed stepby step throughout the lesson and why it is important to conduct it in that manner should be explained. If there are components of the lesson that the new instructor should master, such as the manipulation ofcomplex equipment, this skill should be taught using the OJT process, described in Part 3 of this manual,until the task is mastered. The instructor should be encouraged to rehearse the delivery of the lesson priorto actually conducting the lesson with learners. OJT of this scope for every lesson may not be possible but providing it once for each different type of instructional strategy significantly enhances the instructor’sabilities to perform in the classroom. Instructors should be given time to master procedures and methodssuch as modelling and coaching.

TEAM TEACHINGTeam teaching entails pairing an experienced instructor with a new instructor in the classroom. The instruc-tors trade off teaching but both remain in the classroom for all lessons. The new instructor can learn byobserving the experienced instructor and receiving guidance on how to approach the lessons he or sheteaches. The experienced instructor should not correct the new instructor in front of learners (unless safetyissues are involved). Team-teaching also serves as a reward or break for the experienced instructor.

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT SESSIONSIt is suggested that professional development sessions consist of a day or afternoon every month duringwhich some or all of the instructional staff is brought together. Instructional staff or personnel from othertraining establishments or external agencies may provide sessions. Topics consist of presentations aboutinstructional methods, group-learning techniques, and emerging technologies. Standards or instructionalstaff might share methods and strategies they have found to be effective in the classroom. Syndicate exer-cises requiring instructional staff to find solutions to a problem, brainstorm new ways of maintaining learn-er interest and participation etc. Syndicate problem solving sessions might ask instructional staff to addresssomething they have found difficult, how they dealt with it and ask for suggestions from other group mem-bers on alternate ways to deal with a particular situation. The results of syndicate work should be sharedwith the larger group at the end in order to maximize the benefits of the professional development activity.

JOB AIDS Job aids are extremely useful for new instructors when using equipment for the first time. Step by step procedures for the use of CBT, multimedia, web-based training, simulators, and various forms of distancelearning such as video conferencing, learning management systems are valuable. A sample of possibletechnical problems, possible solutions and who to contact for help can also be of assistance.


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212. In order to develop instructors, the instructor supervisor is responsible tomonitor the instructor in the classroom or other training sites (field, ship,simulator) and provide counselling to recognize and reinforce effective performance and identify and correct any problems before they become serious and jeopardise the instructional programme.

213. The development of instructional skills can take place only when theinstructor has the opportunity to instruct under supervision and receivefeedback on their performance. When the processes of monitoring and coun-selling are handled effectively, the instructor has the opportunity to improvehis or her performance. Monitoring and counselling must focus on instructordevelopment and improvement and be based on mutual respect between theinstructor and supervisor.

214. A monitoring and counselling programme based on mutual respect can befostered when:

a. the instructor and supervisor agree on the specific skills and practices thatcharacterize effective instruction;

b. the supervisor frequently monitors lessons to verify that the instructoruses these skills/practices and meets to discuss them afterwards;

c. the instructor and supervisor agree on areas for improvement; and

d. the instructor and supervisor develop a specific plan for improvementtogether.

Note: Peer monitoring to help fellow instructors to identify areas that couldbe improved is a valuable source of continuous improvement if staff chooseto participate.

Figure 11: Instructor Development Programme (continued)

RECOMMENDED READINGSExtensive resources are available that address learning and instruction. Providing instructional staff withaccess to these resources or excerpts from them empowers staff to learn more in areas of interest or need.

MONITORING & COUNSELLINGAt a minimum, standards and instructional supervisors should monitor instructional staff once per course,and more often if required or when multiple methods are used, e.g., classroom, simulation, in field or at sea.

Monitor Instructors


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215. In order to be as objective as possible, standards and instructor supervisorsmust have specific criteria to look for when observing a lesson. General criteria include:

a. Has the instructor made the lesson relevant?

b. Is the instructor actively involving the learner?

c. Is the instructor applying the principles of instruction?

d. Has the instructor prepared the room and materials?

e. Is the instructor responding appropriately to learner comments and questions?

216. Other criteria may be based on the content and the specific instructionalstrategy employed such as coaching in simulators, OJT and various types of distance learning. Sample monitoring guides are provided at Annex F.

217. Instructor monitoring consists of gathering information on an instructor’sabilities, skills and performance in the classroom. The instructor monitoringprocess consists of preparing for monitoring and actually observing the les-son. The first step is to advise the instructor well in advance that the lessonwill be monitored, and reminding them that the purpose is to give feedbackto improve instructional skills.

218. Preparation. The instructor-supervisor must be well prepared in order to observe the lesson and effectively assess the instructor’s performance. This preparation consists of researching the areas outlined in Figure 12.

Effective Monitoring

Instructor MonitoringProcess

Figure 12:Research Areas

INSTRUCTOR BACKGROUNDReview the instructor’s file to determine the instructor’s experience, qualifications relevant to instruction andnotes from any previous monitoring and counselling sessions.

LESSON SPECIFICATIONReview the lesson specification and determine how the lesson fits into the instructional programme byexamining the lessons that precede and follow it. Consider different approaches to delivering the lessonbased on the teaching points, ratio of theory to practice and learner activity.

LEARNERSDetermine the overall makeup of the class by examining their experience and progress in the instructionalprogramme. Consider the types of activity preceding and following this lesson that might affect learnerperformance or attitudes. Check to see if there have been any reported discipline problems in class.


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219. Observation. The instructor-supervisor must make every effort to carry outthe monitoring and counselling process by presenting the positive aspects ofthe instructor’s role such as opportunities to:

a. pass on their expertise to new members of their occupation; and

b. further develop their own military skills and knowledge.

220. To ensure the observation of a session is conducted as smoothly as possible,the instructor-supervisor should follow the steps detailed in Figure 13.

Figure 13: Observation Guidelines

BEFORE THE LESSON

Greet the instructor and request a copy of their lesson plan. Reassure the instructor that the purpose ofmonitoring is to help instructors to develop their abilities.

If possible, choose an observation point that is not in the direct line of sight of the learners or instructor.Verify that the room has been appropriately arranged and training aids are available and in position.

DURING THE LESSON

Observe the instructor’s actions and learners’ response during the lesson. Identify whether the instructoruses approved instructional techniques and principles of instruction.

Use a monitoring guide to help you record behaviors. Focus on observable behaviors. Take descriptivenotes and cite specific examples.

Do not make assumptions or judgements. Do not interfere with the lesson unless there is an emergency orsafety violation.

AFTER THE LESSON

Thank the instructor and ask him or her how they felt the lesson went and any areas they would like to change to improve it. Respond to the instructor’s self-evaluation, and provide a clear and concise evaluation of the lesson, specifying the strengths and less effective areas of performance. If required, offer to assist the instructor to improve his or her performance.

If the lesson was poorly conducted or the instructor does not seem aware of the deficiencies then thesupervisor should set up a time for a counselling interview to discuss ways to improve the instructor’s performance. Set a time for the interview to be held within the next couple of days.


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221. The purpose of the instructor counselling session is to help the instructor toimprove his or her skills. During the session, the supervisor reinforces thestrengths of the instructor’s performance and assists him or her to find solu-tions to areas requiring improvement. The basic steps for the preparation,conduct and follow-up of a counselling session are outlined in Table 14.

Counsel Instructors

Table 14: Instructor-supervisor counselling session steps

Review notes and file Review notes recorded during the monitoring session and theinstructor’s file to determine future developmental needs.

Prepare notes for List the instructor’s strengths during the lesson and how they the session contributed to achievement of the instructional objective.

List deficiencies in performance and how they detract from the achievement of goals.

Develop specific action plans to assist the instructor to improve performance.

Prepare the setting Select a site for the session that is conducive to two-way conversa-tion. Try to establish a relaxed and confidential atmosphere.

Begin the session Welcome the instructor and try to put him or her at ease byexplaining the purpose of the session.

Discuss instructor Pose questions that encourage the instructor to discuss what he or performance she remembers doing during the lesson. Ask the instructor to identify

any areas that they could improve and what he or she might do to improve them. Assist the instructor to develop solutions wherenecessary.

Highlight the effective areas of the instructor’s performance and how this contributed to the achievement of the instructionalobjectives.

Conclude the session Ask the instructor to summarize effective and ineffective aspects of his or her performance and how he or she plans to makeimprovements. Seek a commitment from the instructor to improveperformance and offer to assist if appropriate.

Follow-up Immediately, write a full summary of the counselling session for the instructor’s file. Then plan further monitoring and counsellingsessions to continue the instructor development process.

Note: In the case where the material presented by the instructor is more up to date than the lesson specifications, standards personnel must ensure changes are made to the training plan. If the changesimpact the qualification standard, the proposed changes must be forwarded to the Managing Authority for approval.


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222. Evaluation forms for both the learners and instructors may be used to gatherinformation on a course. Instructor course evaluations and learner courseevaluations generally consist of a series of questions that can be used byinstructional supervisors and standards personnel to evaluate and improvecourses. Questions generally address:

a. course content;

b. instructional techniques;

c. instructional methods;

d. learning aids;

e. instructor performance;

f. learning environment;

g. testing; and

h. administration.

223. Data from evaluation forms should be gathered over several courses. As thedata accumulates, the results can be analyzed to identify trends. Analysis of the course evaluation data is dependant on the form and questions used.However, in the simplest manner, data can be tallied for each closed questionfor each course. Over time, recurring lower ratings or negative responses tospecific questions will become apparent. The identification of a trend where,for example, 75% of learners over the last three courses have responded thatthey are having difficulty with a specific topic will indicate that there is aproblem in this area. Instructional staff can then take steps to improve it.Sample questions for instructor and learner course evaluation forms are provided in Annex G and H.

224. Feedback on the effectiveness of the learning process should be supportedthrough other means than course evaluation forms. Simply observing and listening to learners comments can provide valuable information on morale,frustration levels and difficulties encountered. Depending on the maturity ofthe learners and the type of course scheduled discussion periods betweenlearners and instructional staff can identify and resolve problems.

Note: Personnel should refer to Volume 11, Evaluation of InstructionalProgrammes, for further guidance on evaluation.

Analyze Evaluation Forms

Additional FeedbackOptions

Reviewing Evaluation Forms


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RR E F E R E N C E S A N DR E S O U R C E S

A-PD-050-001/PF-001 Flight Instructor’s Handbook, 15 January 2001

A-P9-000-003/P1-002 Conduct of OJT, 19 July 1978

4500-1 (DGRET) On-Job-Training (OJT) Study Report, 25 September 1989

Manual of School Operations,

5671-1 (DRET 6-2-2) 12 Feb 99

5671-1 (DRET 6-2-2) 8 Feb 99

OJTP Resource Management Support Clerk — 836 Journeymen (QL5) Admin

CFTDC Distributed Learning Instructor (DLI) Online Courseware

Canadian Forces Training Development Centre Distributed Learning Workshop, 31 August 2001.

Canadian Forces Training Development Centre Courses, CFB Borden,Basic Instructional Techniques Advanced Instructional Techniques Instructor SupervisorInteractive Courseware Design Distance Learning Technologies

Berge, Z.L. (1995). Facilitating Computer Conferencing: Recommendations fromthe Field. Educational Technology, 35(1).

Black, D. (1998). Live and Online: A WBT Primer. Training and Development,September 1998.

Bloom, B.S. and D.R. Krathwohl. (1972). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives,Handbook 1: Cognitive Domain, New York: David McKay.

Broad, M.L. and Newstrom, J.W. (1992). Transfer of Training: Action PackedStrategies to Ensure High Payoff from Training Investments. Don Mills, Ontario:Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.

Broad, M.L. & Newstrom, J.W. (1992). Transfer of Training: Action packed strategies to ensure high payoff from training investments. Reading, MA:Addison-Wesley.

Broadbent, B. (2001). Essential resources for online instructors. The TrainingReport, Sept/Oct 2001.

DepartmentalReferences

DepartmentalResources

External References


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Fisher, T.D. Self-Directness in Adult Vocational Education Students: Its Role InLearning and Implications for Instruction. Journal of Vocational and TechnicalEducation, Vol 11, No. 2.

Flottemesch, K. (2000). Building Effective Interaction in Distance Education: A Review of the Literature. Educational Technology, May-June.

Gagné, Robert M. et al. (1992). Principles of Instructional Design, Fort Worth, TX:Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Gibbons, A.S., Fairweather P.G., Anderson, T.A., and Merrill, M.D. Simulationand Computer Based Instruction: A Future View. In C.R. Dills and A.J.Romizowski (Eds.) (1997). Instructional Development Paradigms. EnglewoodCliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications, 769-804.

Hartman, V.F. (1995). Teaching and learning style preferences: Transitions throughtechnology, VCCA Journal 9, no 2 Summer. 18-20.

Honey, R. & Mumford, A. (1992). The manual of learning styles. Maidenhead, UK:Peter Honey.

Huang, H. Instructional Technologies Facilitating Online Courses. EducationalTechnology, July-August 2000.

Instructional Technology and Distance Learning, AF Handbook 36-2235, Volume 5, 30 May 1998.

Kaufman, R., Watkins, R., and Guerra, R. (2001). The Future of Distance Learning:Defining and Sustaining Results. Educational Technology, May-June 2001.

Keller, J.M. (1987). Development and use of the ARCS model of instructiondesign. Journal of Instructional Development. 10(3), 2-10.

Kolb, D.A. (1984). Experiential learning. Englewood Cliff, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Knowles, M.S. (1984). Andragogy In Action. San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass Inc.

Legassie, R.L. (2000). A Hierarchy of Training Technologies. Delta info, Winter2000, Vol 6 No.1.

Leshin, C.B., Pollock, J., and Reigeluth, C.M.(1992). Instructional Design Strategiesand Tactics, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.

McCarthy, J., and Easby, M. (1983). Training RAF instructors in the skills of brief-ing, monitoring and debriefing, using microteaching methodologies. In A. Trott,H. Strongman, and L. Giddens (Eds.) Aspects of Educational technology, Vol XVI.London, UK: Kogan Page.

Meier, D. (2000). The Accelerated Learning Handbook. NY: McGraw-Hill.

Melnychuk, M.F. (2001). Web Based Training Instruction Guide: From Design toDelivery, Master of Education Project.

Millie, A. (2000). Soldiers As Distance Learners: What Army Trainers Need ToKnow. Futures Training Division. US Army Headquarters Training and DoctrineCommand, Fort Monroe, Virginia.


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Moore, D.P. (1999). Facilities and learning styles. School Planning andManagement. 38, 22-31.

Reigeluth, C.M. (1996). A New Paradigm of ISD? Educational Technology, May-June.

Seels, B.B., (1995). Instructional design Fundamentals, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications, Inc.

Simpson, J.S. (1966). The Classification of Educational Objectives, PsychomotorDomain, Office of Education Project No. 5-85-104, Urbana IL, University ofIllinois.

Spitzer, D.R. (2001). Don’t Forget the High-Touch with the High-Tech in DistanceLearning. Educational Technology, March-April 2001.

Sabiston, P. (2000). An Inquiry Into The Criteria That Identify Quality Adult Web-Based Learning, Royal Roads University, Master of Arts Project.

Thorndike, D.L. (1966). Human Learning, Cambridge, Massachusetts: The M.I.T.Press.

Weiss, R.P. Memory and Learning. Training and Development, October 2000.

Yi, J.A. (1999). A Proposed Instructional Design Method for On-the-Job Learning,ISPI Conference presentation, March 1999.


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GG L O S S A R Y

An asynchronous learning environment is one in which interaction betweenteachers and students takes place intermittently, not simultaneously, such as through links to HTML content or email, news or discussion groups. (source: DDLS/DLN).

Activities which aim at developing the knowledge, values and understandingrequired in general, rather than knowledge and skill relating to a specific field of activity (NATO Glossary, 1987). Education provides a base of knowledge and intellectual skills upon which information can be correctly interpreted and applied.

Any form of learning in which the teachers and students are separated by time,location, or both. In the DND context, distance learning is a sub-set of DistributedLearning. It involves the delivery of standardized training, education or profes-sional development using multiple media and technologies when and whereneeded. It may involve learner-instructor interaction in both real time (synchro-nous) and non-real time (asynchronous). It may involve self-paced asynchronouslearner instruction without benefit of access to an instructor. In all instances itinvolves a physical separation between the learner and instructor and usuallyoccurs outside the confines of the resident training establishment or campus.

The delivery of standardized training, education or professional developmentusing multiple media and technologies when and where it is needed. It mayinvolve learner-instructor interaction in both real time (synchronous) and non-realtime (asynchronous). It may involve self-paced asynchronous learner instructionwithout the benefit of access to an instructor. It does not necessarily involve aphysical distance between the learner and instructor or need occur outside theconfines of the resident training establishment or campus. The dispatch ofinstructors from a training establishment to a unit or another location to conducttraining, or the hiring of qualified instructors in other locations to conduct thetraining on behalf of a training establishment fall within the realm of DistributedLearning.

AsynchronousLearning Environment

Education

Distance Learning

Distributed Learning


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Structured learning in which participants work as a group to complete instructional activities as sequenced in the course timetable.

Individual training and education includes all activities that provide knowledgeand skills to individual members and that normally result in a qualification beingconferred upon the member.

The combination of media, methods, and environment used in the delivery of IT&E.

Unit or MA funded training that enables personnel to learn tasks while on the job.A supervisor or facilitator demonstrates the skills, observes the learner’s perfor-mance and provides feedback as required. Supervisors must certify that the learnerhas performed to the minimum specified standard and passed the PO.

Learning is the individual creation of knowledge and change in behavior as aresult of experience. It is a lifelong, continuous process; that is, it does not stop at the end of a course or activity but continues as it is applied on the job in various contexts.

A lesson plan is a guide, used by instructors, to ensure that instruction follows aspecific, goal oriented plan. An instructor lesson plan is developed, based on alesson specification, by the instructor who will teach the lesson.

A Master Lesson Plan (MLP) may be developed for use by any instructor and held on file at the training establishment. MLPs are helpful when there is a high turnover of staff or frequent changes to Qualification Standards/Plans and little time for instructors to amend lesson plans.

A progress review board is an administrative review of a candidate’s suitabilityfor continued training and education. It is also referred to as a Training ReviewBoard (TRB).

SDL is a strategy used to improve performance; it requires the learner to makedecisions about what they need to learn to improve their job performance and initiate activities to meet those learning goals.

Structured learning in which participants access content, selecting when, whereand how to study (source: DDLS/DLN).

Group-pacedinstruction

Individual Trainingand Education (IT&E)

Instructional Strategy

On-the-Job Training(OJT)

Learning

Lesson Plan

Master Lesson Plan

Progress ReviewBoard (PRB)

Self-DirectedLearning (SDL)

Self-Paced Learning (SPL)


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SynchronousLearningEnvironment

Training

A real-time, instructor-led online learning event in which participants are loggedon at the same time and communicate directly with each other. Students andteachers may use a whiteboard to see work in progress and share knowledge.Content can also be delivered using audio or video conferencing, internet telephone and two-way live broadcasts of lectures to students in a classroom(source: DDLS/DLN).

Activity that aims to impart specific skills or knowledge and/or inculcate appro-priate attitudes (NATO Glossary, 1987). Individual Training as used in the CFrefers to the provision of technical and procedural knowledge and skills requiredin the performance of assigned duties (IT/PD MF).


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SS E L F - P A C E D L E A R N I N G( S P L )

Due to the time, special skills and cost involved in designing SPL, not all trainingshould be considered for this methodology. SPL is most suitable when:

a. skills are not team oriented;

b. skills are usually performed by the individual alone;

c. course content, equipment, skill level, location and learner populationwill remain essentially constant in nature;

d. one hundred or more learners will attend the training each year; and

e. facilities, equipment and staff can be dedicated to the conduct of self-paced learning;

The disadvantages and advantages should also be considered before employingSPL. Disadvantages include:

a. some reorganization of the administrative routine will be needed toaccommodate the independent starting and finishing times;

b. instructors must be thoroughly prepared for their different role as a manager and facilitator of the learning process;

c. analysis of the training requirement and design and development of theprogramme can be lengthy and costly, depending on the complexity of thetraining; and

d. development of group or team spirit is difficult.

None of these disadvantages is insurmountable if analysis shows that self-pacingwould be the best way to provide the IT&E programme.


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There are also many advantages to SPL. They include:

a. the instructional programme can commence for an individual learnerwhenever he or she is available and ready. Waiting for class-size groups isnot necessary. Learner flow through the course can be made smoother;

b. instructors are relieved of the presentation of information that can be readily learned through other more appropriate methods, and can focus on providing more individual assistance and guidance based on the learner’s needs;

c. consistently high quality presentations can be given by various multimediameans;

d. generally, fewer sets of training equipment are needed, since learners usethem at different times. Courses that have bottlenecks, caused by limitedpieces of equipment may be more efficiently conducted if self-pacing wereused. This method allows learners to progress through the same coursecontent by alternative routes, thus avoiding their having to wait for accessto particular aids or equipment;

e. learners are encouraged to be more responsible for their own learning andoften work harder to finish early;

f. training time is often shortened because of the careful analysis, design anddevelopment needed for self-paced development;

g. if the learning materials are complete, the instructional programme maybe conducted through distributed instruction instead of the learner beingbrought to the training establishment;

h. learners can review any part of the course at any time; and

i. temporary groups can be formed and dissolved as required.


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SS A M P L E O J T G U I D E

1. Aim. The aim of training resulting from this OJT guide is to prepare personnelto perform their job in their occupation or specialty.

2. Units will use this OJT guide as the primary authority governing the content,organization, and conduct of the OJT required to attain {specific name} occupation or specialty qualification.

3. Copies of the On Job Performance Record (OJPR) may be produced locallyfrom the master copy contained in this guide.

4. OJT Supervisor Responsibilities. The OJT Supervisor is responsible to:

a. conduct OJT and/or task skilled workers to conduct OJT;

b. evaluate learner performance, administer PCs and, when the stated stan-dard has been achieved, sign off the task in the master copy of the OJPR;

c. monitor learning and achievement by having learners perform tasks fromperformance checks at random; and

d. forward completed OJPRs to the OJT section head.

5. Each learner shall be issued a copy of the OJT guide to ensure they areknowledgeable of the objectives they must attain during OJT.

6. Training Overview. The supervisor, or designate conducting OJT, should be familiar with the OJT process as detailed in Volume 6 of the Manual ofIndividual Training, Conduct of Instructional Programmes A-P9-050-000/PT-006. OJT is conducted in accordance with the OJT guide (instructions andchecks) provided to the unit by the training establishment.

7. The supervisor (also referred to as the instructor) conducts training using thefollowing six step OJT process:

a. The instructor begins by explaining to the learner what to do, and how todo it and why carrying out a task in a particular manner is important. Theconditions under which (when and where) the task might be performedshould be elaborated on if appropriate;

b. The instructor should then demonstrate how to perform the task explainingeach component or step as it is completed;

c. If the learner does not have questions the instructor will have the learnertell him what to do and the instructor will perform the task again;

d. Finally, the learner attempts to do the task under supervision (initiallydescribing the steps). Since this is a learning experience, the learnershould not be expected to perform a task perfectly right away;

PART 1

PART 2


A N N E X D

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e. The instructor coaches the learner and provides feedback on what wentwell and areas to improve. Coaching should be done in a supportive andnon-critical manner; and

f. The learner reflects on the experience and instructor feedback. What wentwell? What didn’t? Why? What will I do differently next time?

Note: Steps d, e and f may need to be repeated until the learner masters the skill.

8. Assessment. The standard of performance required for each PO or EO andthe conditions under which the objective is to be performed are specified in Part 5.

9. Should learners fail any Performance Checks, they will be given the opportu-nity to practice further under the guidance of his/her supervisor and retakethose particular Performance Checks at a later date. Should the learner fail apreviously failed Performance Check, she or he will be subject to a reviewprocess (as specified in the TP).

10. A copy of the OJPR is shown in Annex A. The On Job Performance RecordSheet is a summary of all the PO/EOs required for completion of OJT. Whenthe learner has met the standards for an objective, the applicable line in theOJPR sheet shall be completed.

11. After all the objectives have been attained, the OJPR is forwarded, via theunit CO, to the training establishment responsible for the training programmeso that a qualification can be awarded.

12. Special Considerations. Any limitations, special considerations etc, that areparticular to this OJT should be addressed here.

PART 3

PART 4


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All POs and EOs from the QS should be included in full in Part 5 — those conducted through OJT must be clearly identified

PO 401

1. Performance. Conduct Tactical Operations

2. Conditions. Given: …

3. Standard

EO 401.01

1.

2.

3. …

(OJT) EO 401.02

1.

2.

3. …

EO 401.03

EO 401.04

PO 402

(OJT) EO 402.01

EO 402.02

Note: The design of an OJPR will be influenced by the type and length of OJTrequired for the instructional programme. The basic components of an OJPR areshown in the sample provided below.

PART 5


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______________________________ __________ ___________________________Name and Initials Rank Service Number

______________________________ ___________________________Unit Training Start Date

INSTRUCTIONS:

1. One copy of this OJPR will be made up for each learner beginning On-the-JobTraining (OJT). The learner’s supervisor shall maintain it. A duplicate copyshall be made for the purpose of recording and reviewing individual progressand retained by the learner.

2. As the member completes each listed EO and PO to the required standard,his or her immediate supervisor shall sign and date the applicable item onboth copies of the OJPR.

3. When the OJPR shows that the learner has successfully completed all POs,the following action will be taken:

a. the OJT supervisor or subject matter expert (SME) for a particular skillwill forward completed OJPRs to the OJT Section Head; and

b. via the unit CO, the OJT Section Head forwards completed OJPRs to thetraining establishment responsible for the training programme so that aqualification can be awarded.

PROGRESS REVIEW:

ON-THE-JOB PERFORMANCE RECORD

OJPR SME SIGNATURE DATE

PO 401

PO 407

EO 407.1

EO 407.2

I certify that this member has completed training to the standards stated in thePOs of the (applicable) QS.

______________________________ __________ ___________________________Name Rank Date


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SS A M P L E P R B C H E C K L I S T

ACTION ITEM LEARNER’S INITIAL/DATE

1. Name of learner _________________________ __________________________

2. Reason for PRB__________________________ __________________________

3. Date and time of PRB ____________________ __________________________

4. Date and time learner advised ____________ __________________________

5. PRB Summary Sheet reviewed by learner __________________________

6. Training File reviewed by learner __________________________

7. Evaluation Forms/Exam results reviewed by learner __________________________

8. Divisional notes reviewed by learner __________________________

9. Unsigned CF377 (Course Report) reviewed by learner (if applicable) __________________________

10. Learner’s Personnel File (available/unavailable) reviewed __________________________

11. Learner’s UER (Reg Force only) (available/unavailable) reviewed __________________________

If unable to action any of the above Action Items or if the learner declines theopportunity to review any of the above Action Items, a note identifying theAction Item(s) and the reasons why are to be made below.

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

______________________________OPI’s signature/date

PROGRESS REVIEWBOARD (PRB) CHECKLIST

(To be retained onTraining File)


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II N S T R U C T O R M O N I T O R I N G F O R M S

Instructor monitoring consists of gathering information of an instructor’s abilities,skills and performance in the classroom. Instructor monitoring forms, such as thesmall-scale sample below, are used to assist instructor supervisors and standardsstaff to perform this task as objectively as possible.

LEVELELEMENTS YES SOME NO NI D SK ES COMMENTS

PREPARATIONClassroom arranged in advanceInstructional materials preparedLearning aids and equipment available

INTRODUCTIONExplains relevance of the learning (what, where, why)Describes lesson approachCreates positive learning environment by:• Stating class control; Expectations of the learner; and• Encourages trust and involvement (e.g., Here to learn)

LESSON ACTIVITYIntroduces activity and links to prior learningCovers teaching pointsApplies principles of instruction (ICEPAC)Listens activelyUses verbal support to develop teaching points (CREST)Responds to learner questions and body languageEncourages learners by responding positivelyProvides clear explanationsManages conflict

CONCLUSIONRevisits weak areas Highlights main pointsEncourages learner comments and observationsRelates the lesson to the larger contextRe-motivates learnersTimings Appropriate


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Based on their observations instructor-supervisors and standards staff indicatewhether a behavior was fully observed, partially or not at all using the Yes, Someand No columns in the sample above. In addition, the performance level columncan be used to indicate the instructor’s level of skill using the following scale:

NI — Needs improvement

D — Developing

SK — Skilled

ES — Exceeds Standard

The method of instruction may, to some extent, impact on the criteria that will beobserved. For example when observing instructors coaching learners in simulatorsa monitoring form such as the sample that follows might be used. In this samplethe elements pertain to coaching learners. In this sample, only the needs improve-ment (NI) and skilled (SK) levels of instructor performance are included.


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ELEMENTS YES NO NI SK COMMENTS

LEARNER BRIEFPresented learner with clear objectives, tasks and instructionsConfirmed learner understanding of key points through questionsProvided acceptable answers to learner questionsConfirmed preparation and readiness for the objectives/tasksTASK EXECUTIONMaintained adequate control (as necessary)Coached learners (as necessary — not controlling) by:• Guiding the learner as to what to think about

and what to look for• Focusing the learner’s attention on important events

and adding supplementary feedback as necessary to develop the learner’s performance

• Measuring achievement so as to develop and improve the learner’s abilities

• Keeping a record of significant points for the subsequent debriefing

• Appraising the learner’s performance• Thoroughly understood the type and

standard of performance soughtLEARNER DEBRIEFProvided appropriate environment for debriefReassured learner prior to debriefQuestioned learner prior to debriefing in order to draw out the learner’s self-assessment (i.e. provided the learner with opportunities to consolidate what they have learned)Addressed the learner in an appropriate mannerCovered points of improvement emphasizing only 2-3 major problems for immediate improvementEnsured learner comprehension of improvement points by permitting the learner to take notes, asking the learner to repeat points, posing confirmation questions and seeking commitmentGuided and motivated the learner to further developmentProvided examples of expected performanceProvided feedback on what the learner did correctlyDEBRIEF OF OTHERS (e.g., TEAM, IF APPLICABLE)Reassured learners prior to debriefQuestioned learners prior to debriefing Addressed learners in an appropriate mannerCovered points of improvement emphasizing only 2-3Ensured learner comprehension of improvement pointsGave examples of expected performanceProvided feedback on what the learner did correctly


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II N S T R U C T O R C O U R S E E V A L U A T I O N S

Instructor course evaluations generally consist of a series of questions that can be used by instructional supervisors and standards personnel to evaluate andimprove courses. A sample of the types of questions that may be used include:

1. Is it necessary to update the TP? If so, cite specific examples and recommen-dations for change.

2. Was a suitable lesson plan available? If not, please indicate recommendedchanges.

3. What learning aids did you use for this course? Were they satisfactory? If not, why?

4. Were the required references available? If not, specify those missing.

5. Were there any problems with the classroom?

6. Were there any scheduling problems?

7. Was the time allocated to instruct sufficient?

8. Did you have sufficient time to correct exams?

9. How much time did you require to prepare your lesson plans?

10. Was course preparation time sufficient?

11. Were there any exams that need to be modified? If yes give specific examples.

12. Were the exams a reflection of material taught in class or in reference materials?

13. Were checklists available and accurate?

14. Was the material you presented new to the learners? If not, where was the material first presented?

15. Were the learners suitably prepared or trained to begin this phase of training?

16. Did any learners approach you for extra help?

17. What would you do to improve the course?


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LL E A R N E R C O U R S E E V A L U A T I O N F O R M S

One method of obtaining feedback from learners about their perceptions of acourse is through a course evaluation form. Course evaluation forms often asklearners to assess specific lessons and the course overall using rating scales. A section for comments and open-ended questions is usually included. A sample course evaluation form is provided below.

COURSE EVALUATION FORM

Please review the lessons listed below and indicate on the scale to the rightwhether you thought the topic was covered:

1. Very poorly 2. Poorly 3. Adequately 4. Well 5. Very Well

Part 1

PO 401 MONITOR INSTRUCTION 1 2 3 4 5

Review of principles of instruction and instructional techniques

Lesson on monitoring a lesson

Presentation on preparing for monitoring

Video lessons used for practicing monitoring

Debrief by instructor on monitoring video lessons

PO 402 COUNSEL INSTRUCTOR AFTER MONITORING 1 2 3 4 5

Lessons on counselling

Practice counselling interview

Debrief by course instructor on counselling interview


A N N E X H

H2

OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS

1. What additional topics would you like to see on the course?

2. What topics do you consider not relevant to the course or to your future employment as an Instructor Supervisor?

3. What topics did you find difficult or hard to understand?

4. What parts of the course did you find boring or hard to tolerate?

5. What parts of the course were particularly valuable?

6. What suggestions do you have for improving the course?

Thank you for completing the evaluation form. Any additional comments can beprovided below.

Part 2

N O T E S

cfites vol 6 e

Documents