chap.2 the ecosystem (ii)
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Chap.2 The Ecosystem (II). 鄭先祐 (Ayo) 國立台南大學 環境與生態學院. 2008 年 2 月至 6 月. The Ecosystem. Concept of the ecosystem and ecosystem management ( 生態體系與經營管理 ) Trophic structure( 營養結構 ) of the ecosystem Gradients ( 梯度 ) and ecotones Examples of ecosystems Ecosystem diversity ( 多樣性 ) - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
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Chap.2 The Ecosystem (II)
鄭先祐 (Ayo)國立台南大學 環境與生態學院
2008 年 2 月至 6 月
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The Ecosystem1. Concept of the ecosystem and ecosystem man
agement ( 生態體系與經營管理 )2. Trophic structure( 營養結構 ) of the ecosystem3. Gradients ( 梯度 ) and ecotones4. Examples of ecosystems5. Ecosystem diversity ( 多樣性 )6. Study of ecosystems7. Biological control of the geochemical environm
ent: the Gaia hypothesis ( 蓋雅假說 )
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8. Global production and decomposition9. Microcosms, mesocosms, and macrocosms10. Ecosystem cybernetic11. Techno-ecosystems ( 技術生態體系 )12. Concept of the ecological footprint ( 生態足跡 )13. Classification of ecosystems
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8. Global production and decomposition
Photosynthesis, 全球每年產生 1017g ( 約 1,000億噸 ) 有機物質 ( 生產量 ) 。每年分解的有機物質 ( 呼吸量 ) ,約同量,但 the
balance is not exact.有機物質存量的累積,顯著的減少大氣的 CO2 ,和增加 O2
名詞: Allochthonous inputs (allos= other, chthonos= of the e
arth) ( 來自生態體系外的有機物質 ) Autochthonous production
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Photosynthesis
General equation二氧化碳 + 水 → 碳水化合物 + 氧氣
Three typesC3 植物 , C4 植物,和 CAM 植物
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RuBP carboxylase
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C3 途徑大部份生活在水域的植物,吸收 CO2 的生物化學途徑是稱為: Calvin-Benson cycle 。
CO2 + RuBP (5C) → 2PGA(3C) 因為是產生 3C 的分子,所以這個途徑就稱為 C
3 途徑 ( 光合作用 ) 。這個過程的催化劑 (enzyme ,酵素 ) 稱為 R
uBP carboxylase 。這個酵素對 CO2 的親合力低,所以葉片內的這個酵素的含量要很高。這個酵素在高熱高氧下,也會催化 RuBP 的氧化,如此造成光合作用的效率差。
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C4 途徑許多在熱氣候的植物具有對 C3 修改的途徑,增加一個吸收 CO2 的途徑:
CO2 + PEP(3C) → OAA (4C)因為是產生 4C 的分子,所以就被稱為 C4 途徑。 (Fig.5-13)
催化此過程的酵素是稱為 PEP carboxylase ,與 CO2 有很高的親合力。OAA(4C) → PEP(3C) + CO2→Calvin
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C4 pathway of photosynthesis
4C
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C4 植物C3 植物
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(a) Relationship of photosynthesis to leaf temperature
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(b) Relationship of photosynthesis to intercellular CO2 concentration in two desert shrubs.
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CAM (crassulacean acid
Metabolism) 途徑有些沙漠植物,可以在晚上的時候吸收
CO2 ,並且可以留到白天才進入 Calvin cycle 。
PEP + CO2 → OAA → Malic acidMalic acid 可以貯存,於白天時:Malic acid→pyruvate + CO2 →Calvin這就被稱為 CAM 代謝途徑。
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2. ecosystem (part II) 14圖 5. C3 和 C4 植物的比較。
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CAM pathwayCAM = crassulacean acid metabolism
Diagram of the photosynthesis pathway in CAM plants.
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Table 2-6
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2. ecosystem (part II) 18Fig. 2-11. Diagram of a deep-sea thermal vent.
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Types of decomposition
Type 1. Aerobic respirationType 2. Anaerobic respiration
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BOD
Fig. 2-12
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Fig. 2-13
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2. ecosystem (part II) 22Fig. 2-14
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Fig. 2-15 Model of a humic acid molecule, illustrating (1) the aromatic or phenolic benzene rings; (2) cyclic nitrogen rings; (3) nitrogen side chains; and (4) carbohydrate residues; all of which make humic substances difficult to decompose.
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Fig. 2-16 Loss of organic matter from buried litter bags in a grassland.
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9 Microcosms, Mesocosms, and Macrocosms
Microcosms: little self-contained worlds in bottles or other containers
Mesocosms: Large experimental tanks or outdoor enclosures
Macrocosms: the planet Earth, large watersheds, or natural landscapes
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Fig. 2-17 Gnotobiotic microcosm
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Fig 2-18 Diagram of a standardized aquatic microcosm (SAM) setup.
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2. ecosystem (part II) 28Fig. 2-19 Experimental aquatic mesocosms
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2. ecosystem (part II) 29Fig. 2-20 Aerial photograph of 16 terrestrial mesocosms at the Miami University Ecology Research Center.
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2. ecosystem (part II) 30Fig. 2-21 Biosphere-2
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維生體系的資源,免費供應大氣中氧氣濃度的維持全球的平均氣溫,與氣候分布和變化雨水的供應吸收太陽能量,產生有機食物化石燃料的形成自然景觀
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維生體系維生環境 (life-support environment) :供應人類生理生活所需要的資源之地區。維生體系 (life-support system)維生體系 = 農耕體系 + 自然體系農業體系提供每人每年所需的一百萬卡洛里,其中有 15% 必要是蛋白質。自然體系維持氣候環境,氣溫、大氣中的氧氣濃度、淡水的形成、一部份的糧食、藥材等。
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生物圈二號的實驗於 1991 年,一個不透氣,罩著玻璃的密閉建築,生物圈二號,被建造完成。佔地 1.27 公頃。於 1991 年秋天,有 8 個人被送進去,在裡面生活了兩年,不與外面作任何物質的交換,但有豐富的能量供應與無限制的資訊交流 ( 如收音機、電視、電話等 ) 。生物圈二號,約有 80% 的空間是自然棲地。其餘的有 16% 是農耕地。人類居住的地區 (8 個人 ) 約佔 4% 。
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(1) 雨林、 (2)疏林 /海洋 /沼澤、 (3) 沙漠、 (4) 密集的農耕地、 (5) 人類棲地、 (6 和 7) 人造肺部、 (8) 能源中心、 (9)冷卻塔
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生物圈二號的實驗結果1993 年秋季,八位生物圈人結束兩年的隔離生活。他們的健康狀況比進入之前還好。維持空氣、水的對流及淨化等,運作得相當順利。進入生物圈的太陽能足以維持食物的栽培的產量。但所有的光合作用上不完全足以維持和空氣中二氧化碳的平衡。於最後的六個月裡,必須注入氧氣以預防氧氣的不足。生物圈人的時間分配:
45% 生產和處理食物 25% 維護及修理器材 25% 溝通 5% 小型的研究計劃沒有剩餘時間可用在休息及娛樂上
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Box 維生的昂貴價格 為維持生物圈二號的維生體系,每個小時要耗用 700千瓦的電力及 23,000,000千焦耳 (kilojoules) 的天然氣。 兩年來總耗用 12,500,000 度的電力和 3,800,000撒姆 (ther
m) 的天然氣。 以每度電 1毛錢,每撒姆天然氣七毛錢來算,價格分別為 1,
250,000美元及 2,600,000美元,總共近 400 萬美元。由 8位參予者分攤,每個月的帳單將超過 150,000美元,相當於台幣 450 萬元 ( 以 1 : 30計算 ) 。
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生物圈二號的後續計畫生物圈二號在物質上是封閉的,但在能量上卻是開放的。除了給予太陽能外,還給予化石燃料。將來能源需要,可以用太陽能電池來取代。美國航太總署為要興建 compact life-support modu
les ,而進行的 controlled ecological life-support system ,簡稱為 CELSS) 的計畫。利用物理、化學和生物的方法製造空氣、淡水、和食物。
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Biosphere II, Tucsonhttp://www.bio2.com/gallery.htm
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10 Ecosystem Cybernetics
cybernetics (kybernetes= pilot or governor)
pulsing state vs. steady state stability
resistance stability resilience stability
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Fig. 2-22 Feedback control system (A) Model appropriate for human-made automatic control systems and homeostatic, goal-seeking organismic systems.
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2. ecosystem (part II) 43Fig. 2-22 (B) Model appropriate for nonteleological ( 無目的的 ) systems, including ecosystems.
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2. ecosystem (part II) 44Fig. 2-23 Resistance and resilience stability.
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11 Technoecosystems
Current urban-industrial society not only affects natural life-support ecosystems, but it has created entirely new arrangements, which we term technoecosystems, that are competitive with and parasitic on natural ecosystems.
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Fig. 2-24 Model of the relationships between urban-industrial technoecosystmes and natural ecosystems, including money flows.
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2. ecosystem (part II) 47Fig. 2-25 Heterotrophic ecosystems.
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12 Concept of the Ecological Footprint
Ecological footprint ( 生態足跡 )5.1 hectares per person, US4.3 hectares, Canada0.4 hectares, India
US, 4.7% of the world’s human population, consumes 25% of the world’s energy resources.
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0
50
100
150
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350
原始時期 - 狩獵 採集 早期農業 文明興起 工業時代 科技時代
(Giga
joules
)平均每人每年消耗
交通耗用
農工業
生活和服務
食的消耗
10 萬年來,人類平均每人每年消耗的能量。原始時期 ~10 萬年前;狩獵 - 採集 ~1 萬年前至 10 萬年前;早期農業 ~7,000 年前至 1 萬年前;文明興起: ~1400AD ;工業時代 ~1875AD ;科技時代 ~1950AD 。
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13 Classification of Ecosystems
Ecosystems can be classified by either structural or functional characteristics.
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Table 2-7
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http://mail.nutn.edu.tw/~hycheng/
問題與討論
Ayo 台南站: