chapter 11: the jackson era, 1824-1845heizerhobbs.sharpschool.com/userfiles/servers/server...jackson...

CHAPTER XX Chapter Title330

Why It Matters

The GrowingNation

1820–1860

Goblet showing Jackson’s log cabin

Advice on the Prairieby William T. Ranney

As you study Unit 5, you will learnhow growth, migration, and conflict

increased following the Industrial Rev-olution. The following resources offer

more information about this period inAmerican history.

Primary Sources LibrarySee pages 600–601 for primary source

readings to accompany Unit 5. Use the American History

Primary Source Document LibraryCD-ROM to find additional primary

sources about the developing nation.

“Liberty andUnion, now and

forever. . . .”—Daniel Webster, 1830

Jackson1829–1837

J. Q. Adams1825–1829

332

Jackson Era1824–1845

Why It MattersThe struggle for political rights took shape in the 1820s and 1830s, when many people

questioned the limits of American democracy.

The Impact TodayIn the years since the Jackson era:

• Women, African Americans, and other minorities have won the right to vote and to participate in the political process.

• Today every United States citizen aged 18 or older, regardless of gender, race, orwealth, has the right to vote.

The American Republic to 1877 Video The chapter 11 video, “Old Hickory,” chronicles events in Andrew Jackson’s military and political careers.

1830• Indian Removal Act passed

• Webster-Hayne debate

1823• President Monroe

outlines Monroe Doctrine

1822• Brazil gains independence

from Portugal

1826• French scientist

Niépce producesfirst photograph

1829• Louis Braille

publishes reading system for the blind

Monroe1817–1825

The

1833• Force Bill

passed

CHAPTER 11 The Jackson Era

1820 1825 1830

1833• Slavery abolished

in British colonies

Tyler1841–1845

1840• Harrison elected president

333

1838• Cherokee forced

to move west

1837• Panic of 1837

1845• Deadly fungus

destroys much of Ireland’s potato crop

HISTORY

Chapter OverviewVisit and click on Chapter 11—Chapter Overviews to pre-view chapter information.

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Stump Speaking by George Caleb Bingham Bingham’s series of electionpaintings expressed faith in the growth of democracy.

Van Buren1837–1841


W. H. Harrison1841

1835 18451840

1834• Indian Territory

created by Congress

1839• Scottish blacksmith,

Kirkpatrick Macmillian,produces first bicycle

1843• Charles Dickens writes

“A Christmas Carol”

12

12

Step 1 Fold a sheet of paper in half from side toside, leaving a inch tab along the side.

Step 2 Turn the paper and fold it into fourths.

Step 3 Unfold and cut up along the three foldlines.

Step 4 Label your foldable as shown.

Fold in half,then fold inhalf again.

Make fourtabs.

Evaluating Information Study FoldableMake this foldable to help you ask and answerquestions about the Jackson era.

Reading and Writing As you read, ask yourself“who” Andrew Jackson was, “what” he did, “when”he did it, and “why” it happened. Write yourthoughts and facts under each appropriate tab.

Leave inch tab

here.

Who? What? When? Why?

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1825John Quincy Adams winspresidency in House election

1828Andrew Jacksonelected president

1830Webster and Haynedebate

1832South Carolinathreatens to secede

Main IdeaThe United States’s political systemchanged under Andrew Jackson.

Key Termsfavorite son, majority, plurality, mudslinging, landslide, suffrage,bureaucracy, spoils system, caucus,nominating convention, tariff, nullify, secede

Reading StrategyAs you read Section 1, create a chartlike the one below and in the boxesdescribe the political parties in 1828.

Read to Learn• why the nation’s sixth president

was chosen by the House.• what political changes came under

President Jackson.

Section ThemeContinuity and Change James Monroe’s decision not to seek a thirdterm was followed by two hotly contested presidential elections.

Jacksonian Democracy

The presidential campaign of 1828 was one of the most vicious in American history.Supporters of John Quincy Adams in Philadelphia distributed a pamphlet titled “SomeAccount of Some of the Bloody Deeds of General Jackson.” One illustration in the pam-phlet showed a ferocious-looking Andrew Jackson plunging his sword through the bodyof a helpless civilian. Meanwhile Jackson’s supporters falsely accused John QuincyAdams of kidnapping a young American girl and selling her to the ruler of Russia.

The Election of 1824From 1816 to 1824, the United States had only one political party, the Jeffer-

sonian Republicans. Within the party, however, differences arose among variousgroups that had their own views and interests. In 1824 James Monroe was fin-ishing his second term as president but declined to run for a third term. Fourcandidates from the Republican Party competed for the presidency.

Jackson sewing box

334 CHAPTER 11 The Jackson Era

Candidate Views

DemocraticRepublicans

NationalRepublicans

Preview of Events

Guide to Reading

✦1825 ✦1835✦1830

The four candidates’ opinions differed on therole of the federal government. They also spokefor different parts of the country. The RepublicanParty nominated William H. Crawford, a formercongressman from Georgia. However, Craw-ford’s poor health weakened him as a candidate.

The other three Republicans in the presiden-tial race were favorite son candidates, meaningthey received the backing of their home statesrather than that of the national party. Two ofthese candidates—Andrew Jackson and HenryClay—came from the West. Clay, of Kentucky,was Speaker of the House of Representatives.He fought for his program of internal improve-ments, high tariffs, and a stronger national bank.

General Andrew Jackson of Tennessee wasnot a Washington politician, but he was a hero ofthe War of 1812. Raised in poverty, he claimed tospeak for the Americans who had been left outof politics.

John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts, son offormer president John Adams, received supportfrom merchants of the Northeast.

Striking a BargainIn the election Jackson received the largest

number of popular votes. However, no candidatereceived a majority, or more than half, of the elec-toral votes. Jackson won 99 electoral votes, whichgave him a plurality, or largest single share.Under the terms of the Twelfth Amendment tothe Constitution, when no candidate receives amajority of electoral votes, the House of Repre-sentatives selects the president.

335CHAPTER 11 The Jackson Era

While the House was preparing to vote on thenext president, Henry Clay met with Adams.Clay agreed to use his influence as Speaker of theHouse to defeat Jackson. In return Clay may havehoped to gain the position of secretary of state.

With Clay’s help Adams was elected presi-dent in the House. Adams quickly named Clayas secretary of state, traditionally the stepping-stone to the presidency. Jackson’s followersaccused the two men of making a “corrupt bar-gain” and stealing the election.

The Adams PresidencyIn Washington, D.C., the “corrupt bargain”

had cast a shadow over Adams’s presidency.Outside the capital Adams’s policies ran againstpopular opinion. Adams wanted a strongernavy and government funds for scientific expe-ditions. Adams also wanted the federal govern-ment to direct economic growth.

Such ideas horrified those who desired amore limited role for the federal government,and Congress turned down many of Adams’sproposals. This was especially true after the con-gressional elections of 1826, when enemies ofAdams controlled both the House and Senate.

Describing Why were Adams andClay accused of making a “corrupt bargain”?

The Election of 1828By the election of 1828, the party had divided

into two separate parties: the Democratic-Republicans, who supported Jackson, and theNational Republicans, who supported Adams.Jackson’s Democratic-Republicans, or Demo-crats, favored states’ rights and mistrustedJackson campaign

poster

Candidate ElectoralVote

PopularVote

HouseVote

Jackson 99 153,544 7

Adams 84 108,740

46,618

47,136

4

Clay

13

Crawford 41

37

Election of 1824

The presidential election of 1824was decided in the House of Representatives.

Analyzing Information Whichcandidate received the most electoral votes?

strong central government. Many Democratswere individualists from the frontier, immi-grants, or laborers in the big cities.

The National Republicans wanted a strongcentral government. They supported federalmeasures, such as road building and the Bank ofthe United States, that would shape the nation’seconomy. Many were merchants or farmers.

During the campaign both parties resorted tomudslinging, attempts to ruin their opponent’sreputation with insults. The Democratic-Republi-cans accused Adams of betraying the people. Theyput out a handbill calling the election a contest“between an honest patriotism, on the one side,and an unholy, selfish ambition, on the other.”

The National Republicans fought back. Theycreated a vicious campaign song to play upembarrassing incidents in Jackson’s life. Oneinvolved Jackson’s order in the War of 1812 toexecute several soldiers who had deserted.

Mudslinging was not the only new elementintroduced in the 1828 campaign. Election slo-gans, rallies, buttons, and events such as barbe-cues were also used to arouse enthusiasm. All ofthese new features became a permanent part ofAmerican political life.

Jackson TriumphsIn the election of 1828, Jackson received most

of the votes cast by voters of the new frontierstates. He also received many votes in the South,where his support for states’ rights was popular.John C. Calhoun of South Carolina, who hadserved as Adams’s vice president, switched par-ties to run with Jackson. Calhoun also champi-oned states’ rights. Jackson won the election in alandslide, an overwhelming victory, with 56 per-cent of the popular vote and 178 electoral votes.

Summarizing How did Jackson try to get the support of people in the election of 1828?

Jackson as PresidentAndrew Jackson was everything most Ameri-

cans admired—a patriot, a self-made man, and awar hero. On March 4, 1829, thousands of farm-ers, laborers, and other ordinary Americanscrowded into the nation’s capital to hear Jack-

son’s Inaugural Address. After Jackson’s speecha crowd joined him at a White House reception.They filled the elegant rooms of the mansion,trampling on the carpets with muddy shoes,spilling food on sofas and chairs. They werethere to shake the hand of the general whoseemed just like them.

“Old Hickory”Like many of his supporters, Andrew Jackson

had been born in a log cabin. His parents, poorfarmers, died before he was 15. As a teenagerJackson fought with the Patriots in the AmericanRevolution. Before he was 30, he was elected toCongress from Tennessee.

Jackson gained fame during the War of 1812.He defeated the Creek Nation in the Battle ofHorseshoe Bend and defeated the British at theBattle of New Orleans. His troops called him“Old Hickory” because he was as tough as ahickory stick.

Small farmers, craft workers, and others whofelt left out of the expanding American econ-omy loved Jackson. They felt that his rise froma log cabin to the White House demonstratedthe American success story. His popularitywith the common man changed politics inWashington, D.C.

CitizenshipNew Voters

President Andrew Jackson promised “equalprotection and equal benefits” for all Ameri-cans—at least for all white American men. Dur-ing his first term, a spirit of equality spreadthrough American politics.

In the nation’s early years, most states hadlimited suffrage, or the right to vote, for menwho owned property or paid taxes. By 1815many states had loosened or soon would loosenthe property requirements for voting. In the1820s democracy expanded as people who hadnot been allowed to vote voted for the first time.Between 1824 and 1828, the percentage of whitemales voting in presidential elections increasedfrom 26.9 to 57.6 percent. For the first time, whitemale sharecroppers, factory workers, and manyothers were brought into the political process.



The expansion of suffrage continued, and in1840 more than 80 percent of white malesvoted in the presidential election. However,women still could not vote, and African Amer-icans and Native Americans had few rights ofany kind.

Another development in the broadening ofdemocracy involved presidential electors. By1828, 22 of the 24 states changed their constitu-tions to allow the people, rather than the statelegislatures, to choose presidential electors.

The Spoils SystemDemocrats carried the spirit of democracy

into government. They wanted to open up gov-ernment jobs to people from all walks of life.They were disturbed that the federal govern-ment had become a bureaucracy, a system inwhich nonelected officials carry out laws.Democrats argued that ordinary citizens couldhandle any government job.

President Jackson fired many federal workersand replaced them with his supporters. The dis-charged employees protested vehemently. Theycharged that Jackson was acting like a tyrant,hiring and firing people at will. Jacksonresponded that a new set of federal employeeswould be good for democracy.

One Jackson supporter explained it anotherway: “To the victors belong the spoils.” In otherwords, because the Jacksonians had won theelection, they had the right to the spoils—benefits of victory—such as handing out gov-ernment jobs to supporters. The practice ofreplacing government employees with the win-ning candidate’s supporters became known asthe spoils system.

Electoral ChangesJackson’s supporters worked to make the

political system more democratic as well. Theyabandoned the unpopular caucus system. In thissystem major political candidates were chosen bycommittees made up of members of Congress.The caucuses were replaced by nominating con-ventions in which delegates from the statesselected the party’s presidential candidate.

The Democrats held their first national partyconvention in 1832 in Baltimore, Maryland. Theconvention drew delegates from each state inthe Union. The delegates decided to nominatethe candidate who could gather two-thirds ofthe vote, and Jackson won the nomination. This system allowed many people to participatein the selection of political candidates.

Describing What is a caucus system?

B Nicholas BiddleA Andrew Jackson C Henry Clay D John C. Calhoun

A

D

C

B

A Political Card Game Andrew Jacksonplays a card game with his political ene-mies. Why did Jackson’s opponentscriticize the spoils system?

Analyzing Political Cartoons

Economics

The Tariff DebateAmericans from different parts of the country

disagreed strongly on some issues. One suchissue was the tariff, a fee paid by merchantswho imported goods. While president, Jacksonfaced a tariff crisis that tested the national gov-ernment’s powers.

In 1828 Congress passed a very high tariff on manufactured goods from Europe. Manu-facturers in the United States—mostly in the Northeast—welcomed the tariff. Becausetariffs made European goods more expensive,American consumers were more likely to buyAmerican-made goods.

Southerners, however, hated the new tariff.They called it the Tariff of Abominations—something hateful. These critics argued that,while tariffs forced consumers to buy Americangoods, tariffs also meant higher prices.

The South ProtestsSouthern politicians and plantation owners

were ready to act. Vice President John C. Calhounargued that a state or group of states had the right

$

to nullify, or cancel, a federal law it consideredagainst state interests. Some Southerners calledfor the Southern states to secede, or break away,from the United States and form their own gov-ernment. When Calhoun explored this idea,troubling questions arose. The United States hadbeen a nation for nearly 50 years. What if a statedisagreed with the federal government? Did astate have the right to go its own way?

Calhoun drew from the ideas that Madisonand Jefferson wrote in the Virginia and Ken-tucky Resolutions of 1798–1799. Calhoun arguedthat since the federal government was a cre-ation of the states, the states themselves are thefinal authority of the constitutionality of federallaws. The alternative to state sovereignty, Cal-houn pointed out, is to allow the Supreme Courtor Congress to tell the people what our Consti-tution means and what orders we must obey.

The Webster–Hayne DebateIn January 1830, Senator Daniel Webster deliv-

ered a stinging attack on nullification. Websterstood on the floor of the Senate to challenge aspeech given by Robert Hayne, a young senatorfrom South Carolina. Hayne had defended theidea that the states had a right to nullify acts ofthe federal government, and even to secede.

In his response, Webster defended the Consti-tution and the Union. He argued that nullificationcould only mean the end of the Union. Websterclosed with the ringing statement, “Liberty andUnion, now and forever, one and inseparable!”

Jackson Takes a StandNobody knew exactly where President Jack-

son stood on the issue of nullification. ManySoutherners hoped that Jackson might side withthem. In April 1830 supporters of states’ rightsinvited the president to speak at a dinner. The


King Andrew Some people called Andrew Jack-son “a man of the people.” Others called him apower-hungry ruler. What symbols does thecartoonist use to suggest items of royalty?


guests, including Calhoun, waited anxiously forJackson to speak. Finally, the president rose tohis feet and spoke directly to Calhoun.

“Our federal union . . . must be preserved!”The states’ rights supporters were shocked and

disappointed, but Calhoun answered the presi-dent’s challenge. He raised his glass and said,

“The Union—next to our liberty, most dear.”He meant that the fate of the Union must takesecond place to a state’s liberty to overrule theConstitution if its interests were threatened.

Calhoun realized that Jackson would notchange his views. Wishing to return to Congressto speak for Southern interests, Calhoun wonelection to the Senate in December 1832. Notlong after, he resigned the vice presidency.

The Nullification CrisisSouthern anger over the tariff continued to

build. The Union seemed on the verge of split-ting apart. In 1832 Congress passed a new, lowertariff, hoping that the protest in the South woulddie down. It did not.

South Carolina, Calhoun’s home state, hadled the fight against the so-called Tariff ofAbominations. Now South Carolina took the

Check for Understanding1. Key Terms Use each of these terms

in a complete sentence that will helpexplain its meaning: favorite son,majority, plurality, mudslinging,landslide, suffrage, spoils system,secede.

2. Reviewing Facts Why did the Houseof Representatives select the presidentin the 1824 presidential election?

Reviewing Themes3. Continuity and Change What elec-

tion practices used in the 1828 presi-dential campaign are still used today?

Critical Thinking4. Drawing Conclusions What was the

main reason President Adams wasnot popular with the Democratic-Republicans?

5. Organizing Information Re-createthe diagram below and describe thechanges that took place in the politi-cal system under Andrew Jackson.

Analyzing Visuals6. Analyzing Political Cartoons Look

at the cartoon on page 338. Whatsymbols are used to represent theUnited States? How does the cartoon-ist use labels? What does the car-toonist want readers to think ofPresident Jackson?

CHAPTER 11 The Jackson Era 339

Interviewing Prepare a list of fivequestions that you might haveasked President Jackson if you hadinterviewed him.

Changes

battle one step further. The state legislaturepassed the Nullification Act, declaring that itwould not pay the “illegal” tariffs of 1828 and1832. The South Carolina legislators threatenedto secede from the Union if the federal govern-ment tried to interfere with their actions.

To ease the crisis, Jackson supported a com-promise bill proposed by Henry Clay that wouldgradually lower the tariff over several years. Atthe same time, Jackson made sure that the Southwould accept Clay’s compromise. Early in 1833he persuaded Congress to pass the Force Bill,which allowed the president to use the UnitedStates military to enforce acts of Congress.

In response, South Carolina accepted the newtariff. However, to show that they had not beendefeated, state leaders voted to nullify the ForceAct. Calhoun and his followers claimed a vic-tory for nullification, which had, they insisted,forced the revision of the tariff. For the timebeing, the crisis between a state and the federalgovernment was over. Yet South Carolina andthe rest of the South would remember the lessonof the nullification crisis—that the federal gov-ernment would not allow a state to go its ownway without a fight.

Summarizing Why did South Carolina pass the Nullification Act?

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Analyzing Primary SourcesWhy Learn This Skill?

Historians determine what happened in the past by combing through bits of evidence to reconstructevents. This evidence—both written and illus-trated—is called primary sources. Examining primary sources can help you understand history.

Learning the SkillPrimary sources are records of events made by the

people who witnessed them. They include letters,diaries, photographs and pictures, news articles, andlegal documents. To analyze primary sources, followthese steps:

• Identify when and where the document was written.

• Read the document for its content and try toanswer the five “W” questions: Who is it about?What is it about? When did it happen? Where didit happen? Why did it happen?

• Identify the author’s opinions.

Practicing the SkillThe primary source that follows comes fromSpeckled Snake, an elder of the Creek Nation, in1829. He was more than 100 years old at the time

he said these words. Read the quote, then answerthe questions that follow.

“Brothers! I have listened to many talksfrom our Great Father. When he first cameover the wide waters, he was but a little man.. . . But when the white man had warmed

himself before the Indians’ fireand filled himself with theirhominy, he became very large.With a step he bestrode themountains and his feet coveredthe plains and the valleys. Hishand grasped the eastern and thewestern sea, and his head restedon the moon. Then he becameour Great Father. Brothers, I havelistened to a great many talksfrom our Great Father. But they

always began and ended in this—‘Get a littlefurther; you are too near me.’”

1 What events are described?

2 Who was affected by these events?

3 What is the general feeling of the person whostated this opinion?

Study & WritingStudy & Writing


Choctaw forced from their land

Applying the SkillAnalyzing Primary Sources Find a primarysource from your past—a photograph, a reportcard, an old newspaper clipping, or your first base-ball card. Bring this source to class and explainwhat it shows about that time in your life.

Glencoe’s Skillbuilder InteractiveWorkbook CD-ROM, Level 1, providesinstruction and practice in key social studies skills.

341

1830Congress passes theIndian Removal Act

1832Black Hawk leads Saukand Fox people to Illinois

1835Seminole refuse toleave Florida

1838Cherokee driven fromtheir homelands on theTrail of Tears

Main IdeaAs more white settlers moved into theSoutheast, conflict arose between theNative Americans who lived there andthe United States government.

Key Termsrelocate, guerrilla tactics

Reading StrategyAs you read Section 2, create a chartlike the one below that describes whathappened to each group of NativeAmericans as the United Statesexpanded.

Read to Learn• how Native American peoples were

forced off their lands in the South-east.

• how President Jackson defied theSupreme Court.

Section ThemeGroups and Institutions In the1830s many Native American peopleswere forced to relocate.

Conflicts Over Land


The Cherokee held their land long before European settlers arrived. Through treatieswith the United States government, the Cherokee became a sovereign nation withinGeorgia. By the early 1800s the Cherokee had their own schools, their own newspaper,and their own written constitution. Sequoya’s invention of a Cherokee alphabet enabledmany of the Cherokee to read and write in their own language. The Cherokee farmedsome of Georgia’s richest land, and in 1829 gold was discovered there. Settlers, miners,and land speculators began trespassing on Cherokee territory in pursuit of riches.

Moving Native AmericansWhile the United States had expanded westward by the 1830s, large numbers

of Native Americans still lived in the eastern part of the country. In Georgia,Alabama, Mississippi, and Florida lived the “Five Civilized Tribes”—the Cherokee, Creek, Seminole, Chickasaw, and Choctaw. The tribes had estab-lished farming societies with successful economies.

Description

Cherokee

Sauk/Fox

SeminolePreview of Events

Guide to Reading

✦ 1830 ✦1833 ✦1836 ✦1839

Sequoya

INDIANTERR.

MO.

ARK. TERR.

MISS.

LA.

ALABAMA

FLORIDATERR.

GEORGIA

TENN.

KENTUCKY

ILL.

WISCONSINTERR.

MICH.

IND.

OHIO

S.C.

N.C.

VA.

PA.

N.Y.

ME.

VT.N.H.

MASS.

R.I.

N.J.

DEL.

MD.

CONN.

Fox

Sauk

Red R.

Missouri

R.

Mississippi R

.

Ohio R.

LakeSuperior

Lak

eM

ichi

gan

Lake Huron

Lake Erie

Lake Ontario

Gulf ofMexico

ATLaNTICOCEaN

40°N

30°N

70°W80°W90°W

New Orleans

Vicksburg

MemphisFt. CoffeeFt. Gibson

Ft. Smith

11

22

33

Albers Conic Equal-Area projection

300 kilometers0

300 miles0

N

S

EW

Because the area west of the Mississippi wasdry and seemed unsuitable for farming, fewwhite Americans lived there. Many settlerswanted the federal government to relocateNative Americans living in the Southeast. Theyproposed to force the Native Americans toleave their land and move west of the Missis-sippi River. President Andrew Jackson, a manof the frontier himself, supported the settlers’demand for Native American land.

Indian Removal ActCongress responded by passing the Indian

Removal Act in 1830. The act allowed the fed-eral government to pay Native Americans tomove west. Jackson then sent officials to negoti-ate treaties with Native Americans of the South-east. Most felt compelled to accept payment fortheir lands. In 1834 Congress created the IndianTerritory, an area in present-day Oklahoma, forNative Americans from the Southeast.

Chief Black Hawk led Native Americans back to Illinois in 1832, but they were driven away.

The Cherokee took their refusal to move tothe Supreme Court – and won. Federaltroops forced them to leave anyway.

Chief Osceola led the Seminole in rebellion.

11

22

33

Ceded by Native AmericansCeded to Native AmericansCommon Removal RouteCherokee Removal RouteChickasaw Removal RouteChoctaw Removal RouteCreek Removal RouteSeminole Removal RouteFortBorders as of 1840

Removal of Native Americans, 1820–1840

30°N

80°W

LakeOkeechobee

Dade Massacre1835

Ft. King

Ft. Dade

N

S

EW

100 kilometers0

100 miles0

Albers Conic Equal-Area projection

Seminole area, 1740–1822Seminole area, 1822–1842Seminole Reservation,1823–1832Fort

Battle

Between 1830 and 1840, the U.S. government moved about60,000 Native Americans to reservations.1. Movement What group was forced to move farthest

from its homeland?2. Analyzing Information Which groups were forced to

move from Mississippi?

MotionIn

The Cherokee NationThe Cherokee Nation, however, refused to

give up its land. In treaties of the 1790s, the fed-eral government had recognized the Cherokeepeople in the state of Georgia as a separatenation with their own laws. Georgia, however,refused to recognize Cherokee laws.

The Cherokee sued the state government andeventually took their case to the Supreme Court.In Worcester v. Georgia (1832), Chief Justice JohnMarshall ruled that Georgia had no right tointerfere with the Cherokee. Only the federalgovernment had authority over matters involv-ing the Cherokee. ; (See page 627 of the Appendix for a

summary of Worcester v. Georgia.)

President Jackson had supported Georgia’sefforts to remove the Cherokee. He vowed toignore the Supreme Court’s ruling. “John Mar-shall has made his decision,” Jackson reportedlysaid. “Now let him enforce it.”

The Trail of TearsIn 1835 the federal government persuaded a

few Cherokee to sign a treaty giving up theirpeople’s land. Yet most of the 17,000 Cherokeerefused to honor the treaty. They wrote a protestletter to the government and people of theUnited States.

“We are aware that some persons suppose itwill be for our advantage to [re]move beyondthe Mississippi. . . . Our people universally thinkotherwise. . . . We wish to remain on the land ofour fathers.”

The Cherokee plea for understanding didnot soften the resolve of President Jackson orthe white settlers of the area. In 1838 GeneralWinfield Scott and an army of 7,000 federaltroops came to remove the Cherokee from theirhomes and lead them west.

Scott threatened to use force if the Cherokeedid not leave. He told them he had positionedtroops all around the country so that resistanceand escape were both hopeless. “Chiefs, headmen, and warriors—Will you then, by resist-ance, compel us to resort to arms?” The Chero-kee knew that fighting would only lead to theirdestruction. Filled with sadness and anger, theirleaders gave in, and the long march to the Westbegan. One man in Kentucky wrote of seeinghundreds of Cherokee marching by:

Trail of Tears by Robert Lindneux NativeAmericans who were forced from their landtraveled west in the 1830s. Why was theforced march called the “Trail of Tears”?

History Through Art


Osceola was born in1804. His ancestors wereCreek, African American,British, Irish, and Scot-tish. After President Jack-son signed the IndianRemoval Act in 1830,Osceola became theleader of the Seminolesand led successful

attacks on United Statesforts. Hiding in theswampy lands of theEverglades, the Semi-noles grew tired, sick,and hungry. Osceolaattempted to surrenderbut was captured. He andhis family were impris-oned at Fort Moultrie,

South Carolina, where hedied of a throat infectionin 1838. Although he hadwaged a war against theUnited States, the publicconsidered Osceola anhonorable hero and a vic-tim of trickery, and hewas given a funeral withfull military honors.

“Even [the] aged . . . nearly ready to drop inthe grave, were traveling with heavy burdensattached to their backs, sometimes on frozenground and sometimes on muddy streets, withno covering for their feet.”

Brutal weather along the way claimed thou-sands of Cherokee lives. Their forced journeywest became known to the Cherokee people asthe Trail Where They Cried. Historians call it theTrail of Tears.

Explaining What was the purposeof the Indian Removal Act?

Native American ResistanceIn 1832 the Sauk chieftain, Black Hawk, led

a force of Sauk and Fox people back to Illinois,their homeland. They wanted to recapture thisarea, which had been given up in a treaty. TheIllinois state militia and federal troopsresponded with force, gathering nearly 4,500soldiers. They chased the Fox and Sauk to theMississippi River and slaughtered most of theNative Americans as they tried to flee west-ward into present-day Iowa.

The Seminole peopleof Florida were the onlyNative Americans whosuccessfully resistedtheir removal. Althoughthey were pressured inthe early 1830s to signtreaties giving up theirland, the Seminole chief,Osceola, and some of his people refused to leaveFlorida. The Seminole decided to go to waragainst the United States instead.

In 1835 the Seminole joined forces with a groupof African Americans who had run away toescape slavery. Together they attacked white settlements along the Florida coast. They usedguerrilla tactics, making surprise attacks andthen retreating back into the forests and swamps.In December 1835, Seminole ambushed soldiersunder the command of Major Francis Dade. Onlya few of the 110 soldiers survived the attack. TheDade Massacre pressured the call for more troopsand equipment to fight the Seminole.

By 1842 more than 1,500 American soldiershad died in the Seminole wars. The governmentgave up and allowed some of the Seminole toremain in Florida. Many Seminole, however,

CHAPTER 11 The Jackson Era344

HISTORY

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had died in the long war, and many more werecaptured and forced to move westward. After1842 only a few scattered groups of NativeAmericans lived east of the Mississippi. Mosthad been removed to the West. Native Ameri-cans had given up more than 100 million acresof eastern land to the federal government. Theyhad received in return about $68 million and 32million acres in lands west of the MississippiRiver. There they lived, divided by tribes, inreservations. Eventually, these reservations, too,would face intrusion from white civilization.

The area of present-day Oklahoma became partof the United States in 1803 with the LouisianaPurchase. The United States set aside this area asthe home for various Native American groups.

The Five Civilized Tribes were relocated inthe eastern half of present-day Oklahoma onlands claimed by several Plains groups, includ-ing the Osage, Comanche, and Kiowa. UnitedStates Army leaders got agreements from thePlains groups to let the Five Civilized Tribeslive in peace. Settled in their new homes, theFive Tribes developed their governments,improved their farms, and built schools. TheFive Tribes also developed a police force calledthe Lighthorsemen. This law enforcement unitmaintained safety for the region.

Comparing How was the responseof the Seminoles different from that of the Cherokee whenthey were removed from their lands?

Checking for Understanding1. Key Terms Use the terms relocate

and guerrilla tactics in complete sentences that will explain theirmeanings.

2. Analyzing Analyze how PresidentJackson reacted to the SupremeCourt decision supporting theCherokees’ rights.

Reviewing Themes3. Groups and Institutions How

were the Seminole able to resist relocation?

Critical Thinking4. Drawing Conclusions How was

Georgia’s policy toward the Cherokeedifferent from the previous federalpolicy?

5. Organizing Information Re-createthe diagram below to show how theCherokee were eventually removedfrom their land.

Analyzing Visuals6. Geography Skills Study the maps

on page 342. Which groups of NativeAmericans were located in Alabama?What does the inset map show? Inwhat area of Florida was the Semi-nole reservation?


Persuasive Writing Write a letterto Andrew Jackson telling him whythe Native Americans should orshould not be allowed to stay intheir homelands.

“We told them to letus alone and keepaway from us; butthey followed on.”

—Black Hawk, Sauk leader (far right),pictured here with his son, Whirling Thunder

1835treatywithCherokee



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LewisburgFort Coffee

Fort Gibson

Decatur

Hopkinsville

Memphis

Tahlequah

Tulsa

FortSmith

Fayetteville

Stilwell

Springfield

Nashville

Little Rock

ALABAMA

MISSISSIPPI

TENNESSEE

ARKANSAS

OKLAHOMA

ILLINOIS

MISSOURI

O z a r kP

la

te

au

Cherokee Nation

Territory prior to

Oklahoma statehood

Cherokee Outlet

Ohio River

Mis

siss

ippi

Rive

rArkansas River

N

S

W E

&GEOGRAPHY HISTORY

Cherokee

CreekChoctaw

Seminole

Indian

Territory

Chickasaw

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

Gulf of Mexico

0 300 miles

0 300 kilometers

Removal and Relocation

0 50 miles

0 50 kilometers

Cherokee Trail of Tears(East to West)

September 28, 1838–January 17, 1839

October 11, 1838–January 7, 1839

October 23, 1838–March 24, 1839

June 6–19, 1838

Historic site

John Ross (left), the principal chief of the Cherokee, opposed the removal of hispeople. Rebecca Neugin (right) was one of the Cherokee forced to march west to Oklahoma. In this 1931 photograph, Neugin is 96 years old.

The Cherokee supple-mented their meager dietwith ground acorns andother foods they foundalong the route.


1. To what present-day state were the Five CivilizedTribes forced to move?

2. Through what cities did the Cherokee travel duringthe removal that began on June 6, 1838?

L E A R N I N G f r o m G E O G R A P H Y

TRAIL OF TEARSLONG BEFORE EUROPEAN EXPLORERS ARRIVED,the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole were living in eastern North America. TheNative Americans built permanent communities,practiced agriculture, and developed complex tribalgovernments—thereby earning the name of Five Civilized Tribes.

REMOVAL

As white settlers moved into the southeastern states,they began demanding the land held by Native Americans.In 1830, Congress passed the Indian Removal Act to movethe Five Civilized Tribes west of the Mississippi. Underpressure, the Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Creek moved westwhile the Cherokee and the Seminole resisted.

RESISTANCE

Despite protests from the Cherokee people, they wereforced to march west. In 1838, 13 ragged groups trekked toFort Gibson in the newly created Indian Territory (seemaps). Along the journey, which became known as the“Trail of Tears,” 4,000 Cherokee died of cold, hunger, ordisease.

Some of the Seminole refused to abandon their home-land and waged a guerrilla war in the Florida Evergladesuntil the government gave up its efforts to resettle them in 1842.

Fort Cass

New Echota

Chattanooga

Fort Payne

Cherokee

Atlanta

SOUTH

CAROLINA

NORTH

CAROLINA

KENTUCKY

GEORGIA

APPA

LA

CH

I AN

MO

UN

TA I NS

Most Cherokee farmers lived in log cabins.

Choctaw

Creek

Chickasaw

Cherokee

Seminole

Number of people

Forced Migration, 1830–1840

0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000

347

1832Andrew Jackson challengesthe Bank of the United States

1836Martin Van Buren iselected president

1837Panic of 1837 strikesthe nation

1841Vice President John Tylerbecomes president

Main IdeaEconomic issues affected the presidencies of Andrew Jackson andMartin Van Buren.

Key Termsveto, depression, laissez-faire, logcabin campaign

Reading StrategySequencing Information As youread the section, re-create the dia-gram below. In the spaces provided,describe the steps Andrew Jacksontook that put the Bank of the UnitedStates out of business.

Read to Learn• why Jackson wanted to destroy the

Bank of the United States.• how the Whigs came to power

in 1840.

Section ThemeEconomic Factors Economic issuesinfluenced politics in the mid-1800s.

Jackson and the Bank

President Andrew Jackson made many enemies. His most outspoken rivals, theWhigs, were strong in Congress. They accused “King Andrew” of increasing his powerand spreading corruption with the spoils system. In response, Jackson declared that thepresident was responsible for the protection of “the liberties and rights of the peopleand the integrity of the Constitution against the Senate, or the House of Representa-tives, or both together.”

War Against the BankJackson had another great battle during his presidency. For years, he had

attacked the Bank of the United States as being an organization of wealthy East-erners over which ordinary citizens had no control. The Bank of the United Stateswas a powerful institution. It held the federal government’s money and con-trolled much of the country’s money supply. Although the Bank had been char-tered by Congress, it was run by private bankers rather than elected officials.


Bank note issued inthe mid-1800s

Preview of Events

Guide to Reading

✦ 1830 ✦1835 ✦1840 ✦1845

Jacksonstops Bank


The Bank’s president, Nicholas Biddle, repre-sented everything Jackson disliked. Jacksonprided himself on being a self-made man whostarted with nothing. Biddle, on the other hand,came from a wealthy family and had a goodeducation and social standing.

In 1832 Jackson’s opponents gave him thechance to take action against the Bank. SenatorsHenry Clay and Daniel Webster, friends of Bid-dle, planned to use the Bank to defeat Jackson inthe 1832 presidential election. They persuadedBiddle to apply early for a new charter—a gov-ernment permit to operate the Bank—eventhough the Bank’s current charter did not expireuntil 1836.

Clay and Webster believed the Bank had pop-ular support. They thought that an attempt byJackson to veto its charter would lead to hisdefeat and allow Henry Clay to be elected president.

When the bill to renew the Bank’s charter cameto Jackson for signature, he was sick in bed. Jack-son told his friend Martin Van Buren, “The bank,Mr. Van Buren, is trying to kill me. But I will killit!” Jackson vetoed, or rejected, the bill.

Jackson, like many others, still felt the Bankwas unconstitutional despite the SupremeCourt’s decision to the contrary in McCulloch v.Maryland (1819). In a message to Congress, Jack-son angrily denounced the Bank, arguing that

“. . . when laws . . . make the rich richer andthe potent more powerful, the humble membersof society—the farmers, mechanics, and labor-ers—who have neither the time nor the meansof securing like favors to themselves, have aright to complain of the injustice of their Government.”

The Election of 1832Webster and Clay were right about one thing.

The Bank of the United States did play a largepart in the campaign of 1832. Their strategy for

Many cartoons from the period depicted Jackson’s battleagainst the Second Bank of the United States. Does thiscartoon support the president or the Bank? Explain.


B President JacksonA The Bank C American people

A B C

Shortly after Van Buren’s elec-tion, the country entered a severeeconomic depression, a period inwhich business and employmentfall to a very low level. The depres-sion began with the Panic of 1837,a time when land values droppedsharply, investments declined sud-denly, and banks failed. Thousandsof businesses closed and hundredsof thousands of people lost theirjobs. In the South, cotton prices fellto record lows. Farmers plungedinto debt and lost their land. In thecities, many people could not afford

food or rent. In February 1837, people in NewYork put up signs voicing their anger:

“Bread, Meat, Rent, and Fuel!Their prices must come down!The Voice of the People shall be heard and will prevail!”

President Van Buren believed in the principleof laissez-faire—that government should inter-fere as little as possible in the nation’s economy.Van Buren did persuade Congress to establishan independent federal treasury in 1840. Thegovernment would no longer deposit its moneywith private individual banks as it had startedto do during President Jackson’s war with theBank of the United States. Instead the govern-ment would store its money in the federal treas-ury. The private banks had used governmentfunds to back their banknotes. The new treasurysystem would prevent banks from using gov-ernment funds in this way and so help guardagainst further bank crises.

Van Buren and his supporters hailed the newlaw as a “second declaration of independence.”However, criticism of the act came from members

gaining support for Clay as president, however,backfired. Most people supported Jackson’sveto of the bank charter bill. Jackson was re-elected, receiving 55 percent of the popular voteand collecting 219 electoral votes to Clay’s 49.Martin Van Buren was elected vice president.

Once re-elected, Jackson decided on a plan to“kill” the Bank ahead of the 1836 schedule. Heordered the withdrawal of all governmentdeposits from the Bank and placed the funds insmaller state banks. In 1836 he refused to sign anew charter for the Bank, and it closed.

EconomicsThe Panic of 1837

When Jackson decided not to run for a thirdterm in 1836, the Democrats selected Martin VanBuren of New York, Jackson’s friend and vicepresident, as their candidate. Van Buren facedbitter opposition from the Whigs, a new politicalparty that included former National Republi-cans and other anti-Jackson forces. Jackson’sgreat popularity and his personal supporthelped Van Buren easily defeat several Whigopponents. Van Buren was inaugurated in 1837.

$


William Henry Harrison

Miniature log cabin

In the 1840 election campaign, the Whigs marchedin street parades, often carrying miniature log cab-ins on poles. Why did Harrison’s supportersmake the log cabin their symbol?

History

of Van Buren’s own Democratic Party as well asfrom Whigs. The split in the Democratic Partymeant the Whigs had a chance to win the presi-dency in 1840.

Explaining What was the newtreasury system supposed to prevent?

The Whigs Come to PowerThe Democrats had controlled the presidency

for 12 years. However, with the country still in thedepths of depression, the Whigs thought they hada chance to win the election in 1840. They nomi-nated William Henry Harrison, a hero of the Warof 1812, to run against President Van Buren. JohnTyler, a planter from Virginia, was Harrison’srunning mate. Because Harrison had gainednational fame defeating Tecumseh’s followers inthe Battle of Tippecanoe, the Whigs’ campaignslogan was “Tippecanoe and Tyler Too.”

To win the election, Harrison had to gain thesupport of the laborers and farmers who hadvoted for Jackson. The Whigs adopted a log cabinas their symbol. Political cartoons in newspapersshowed Harrison, a wealthy man from Virginia,in front of a log cabin. The Whigs wanted to showthat their candidate was a “man of the people.”

The Whigs also ridiculed Van Buren as “KingMartin,” a wealthy snob who had spent the peo-ple’s money on fancy furniture for the White

House. The log cabin campaign seemed towork, and Harrison went on to defeat Van Burenby a wide margin.

William Henry Harrison was inaugurated in1841 as the first Whig president. The Whigswere still celebrating their victory when Harri-son died of pneumonia on April 4, 1841. JohnTyler of Virginia became the first vice presidentto gain the presidency because the elected pres-ident died in office.

Although Tyler had been elected vice presi-dent as a Whig, he had once been a Democrat. Aspresident, Tyler, a strong supporter of states’rights, vetoed several bills sponsored by Whigsin Congress, including a bill to recharter theBank of the United States. His lack of party loy-alty outraged Whigs. Most of Tyler’s cabinetresigned, and Whig leaders in Congress expelledTyler from the party.

It seemed that the Whigs could not agree ontheir party’s goals. Increasingly, Whigs votedaccording to sectional ties—North, South, andWest—not party ties. This division may explainwhy the Whig candidate, Henry Clay, lost theelection of 1844 to Democratic candidate JamesPolk. After only four years, the Whigs were outof power again.

Describing How did John Tylerbecome president?

Checking for Understanding1. Key Terms Use each of these terms

in a complete sentence that will helpexplain its meaning: veto, depression,laissez-faire, log cabin campaign.

2. Reviewing Facts List Jackson’s rea-sons for wanting to “kill” the Bank ofthe United States.

Reviewing Themes3. Economic Factors Why did Presi-

dent Van Buren do little to solve thenation’s economic problems duringthe depression?

Critical Thinking4. Analyzing Information What tactics

did the Whigs borrow from Jackson’scampaign to win the election of1840?

5. Organizing Information Re-createthe diagram below to show how thePanic of 1837 affected the presidencyof Martin Van Buren.

Analyzing Visuals6. Analyzing Political Cartoons Study

the cartoon on page 349. Do youthink the Bank of the United States isportrayed positively or negatively?Explain your answer.


Art Write a campaign slogan forVan Buren or Harrison in the elec-tion of 1840. Then design a cam-paign button that incorporatesyour slogan.

Panic of1837



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352

Reviewing Key TermsOn graph paper, create a word search puzzle using thefollowing terms. Crisscross the terms vertically and hori-zontally. Then fill in the remaining squares with extra let-ters. List the definitions below the puzzle as clues. Shareyour puzzle with a classmate.1. plurality 5. nullify2. landslide 6. secede3. suffrage 7. depression4. majority

Reviewing Key Facts8. How did the supporters of Jackson and Adams differ

in their beliefs?9. What were some of the political tactics used by

Democratic-Republicans and the National Republicansin the election of 1828?

10. Which Americans were prohibited from voting in moststates before the 1800s?

11. How did nominating conventions make the selectionof political candidates more democratic?

12. Why was the South against high tariffs?13. Who did the Seminoles join forces with as they fought

against forced removal from their land?14. How did the Panic of 1837 affect the nation’s economy?15. Why was Harrison’s log cabin campaign successful?

Critical Thinking16. Drawing Conclusions President Andrew Jackson

promised “equal protection and equal benefits” for allAmericans. Do you think he included Native Ameri-cans in his promise? Why or why not?

17. Analyzing Themes: Groups and Institutions Whatagreement did the Cherokee Nation make with thefederal government that Georgia refused to recognize?

18. Organizing Information Re-create the chart below.List the issues that Jackson dealt with during his presi-dency. Then describe how he responded to each issue.

The Jackson Era

Issues Jackson’s response

Stopped South Carolinafrom seceding

Established spoils system

Jacksonpresidency

Supported nominating conventions

Congress passed IndianRemoval Act

Closed the Bank of the

United States

Self-Check QuizVisit and click on Chapter 11—Self-Check Quizzes to prepare for the chapter test.

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HISTORY


Directions: Choose the bestanswer to the following question.

Which of the following statements expresses anopinion about Andrew Jackson?

A Jackson served two terms as president. B He spoke out against South Carolina’s

Nullification Act.C Because of Jackson, the United States has the

best system of filling government positions.D Jackson supported the Indian Removal Act.

Test-Taking Tip

An opinion is a person’s belief. It is not a proven fact (such as answer A). Opinions often contain

subjective words, like easier or best.

22. Whose opinion is stated in the excerpt?23. What is the speaker’s attitude toward Native Americans?24. According to the speaker, why should Native Americans

be assigned to a country west of Missouri and Arkansas?

Citizenship Cooperative Activity25. Becoming an Informed Voter With a partner, choose

an election in your community. Outline how you wouldbecome informed on the candidates and/or the issues.Then follow your outline and become an informed voter.Share your outline and your findings with the class.

Economics Activity26. Look in a dictionary to find definitions of “recession” and

“depression.” Write a paragraph to explain the differencebetween the two.

200 kilometers0Lambert Equal-Area projection

200 miles0

N.H. 8

MAINE

MASS.15

VT. 7

N.Y.

PA. 28R.I. 4

CONN. 8N.J. 8

DEL. 3MD. 6MD. 5

KY. 14VA. 24

N.C. 15

1

8

20 16

TENN. 11

S.C.11GA.

9

OHIO16IND.

5ILL.3

MO.3

ALA.5

MISS.3

LA.5

40ºN

30ºN

90ºW 80ºW

ATLaNTICOCEaN

N

S

EW

Geography and History ActivityThe issue of states’ rights was debated in the election of 1828.Study the map below and answer the questions that follow.

19. Region Which general areas of the United States votedfor Andrew Jackson in the election of 1828?

20. Location Which candidate won more votes in Adams’shome state of Massachusetts?

21. Place Which three states divided their total electoralcount between the two candidates?

Practicing SkillsAnalyzing Primary Sources In an annual message to Con-gress in 1835, President Andrew Jackson spoke the wordsbelow. Read the excerpt and answer the questions that follow.

“All preceding experiments for the improvementof the Indians have failed. It seems now to be anestablished fact that they cannot live in contactwith a civilized community and prosper. . . . A country west of Missouri and Arkansas has beenassigned to them, into which the white settlementsare not to be pushed.”

Total electoral votes received

Jackson

Adams

17883

Democrat

Republican

Election of 1828

Standardized Test Practice


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