ssessment of Children Cognitive Foundations

Fifth Edition

Jerome Me Sattler San Diego State University

Jerome M .. Sattler, Publisher, Inc .. San Diego

Assessment of Children Cognitive Foundations

Fifth Edition

Jerome M. Sattler San Diego State University

Jerome M. Sattler, Publisher,·Inc. San Diego

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CHALLENGES IN ASSESSING CHILDREN: THE PROCESS

Tests not accompanied by detailed data on their construc­tion, validation, uses, and limitations should be suspect.

-Oscar K. Buros, founder of the Institute of Mental Measurements (1905-1978)

Types of Assessment

Four Pillars of Assessment

Multimethod Assessment

Guidelines for Conducting Assessments

Steps in the Assessment Process

Thinking Through the Issues

Summary

Key Terms, Concepts, and Names

~ Study Questions

1

Goals and Objectives This chapter is designed to enable you to do the following:

• Identify the purposes of assessment • Delineate principles guiding the use of tests • Describe the skills needed to become a competent clini­

cal assessor • Describe the basic techniques used in the assessment

process • List the steps in the assessment process

CHALLENGES IN ASSESSING CHILDREN: . '. .

THE PROCESS

Tests not accompanied by detailed data on their construc­tion, validation, uses, and limitations should be suspect.

-Oscar K. Buros, founder of the Institute of Mental Measurements (1905-1978)

'!Ypes of Assessment

Four Pillars of Assessment

Multimethod Assessment

Guidelines for Conducting Assessments

Steps in the Assessment Process

Thinking Through the Issues

Summary

Key Terms, Concepts, and Names

. Study Questions

1

Goals and Objectives This chapter is designed to enable you to do the following:

• Identify the purposes of assessment • Delineate principles guiding the use of tests • Describe the skills needed to become a competent clini­

cal assessor • Describe the basic techniques used in the assessment

process • List the steps in the assessment process

2 CHAPTER 1 CHALLENGES IN ASSESSING CHILDREN: THE PROCESS

Exhibit 1-1 Psychological Reports Do Count: The Case of Daniel Hoffman v. the Board of Education of the City of New York

Introduction The case of Daniel Hoffman v. the Board of Education of the City of New York is instructive because it illustrates the important role that testing and psychological reports can play in people's lives. In this case, a psychological report contained a recommenda­tion that was ignored by the school administrators. Years later, when the case was tried, the failure to follow the recommenda­tions became a key issue.

Basis of Litigation Daniel Hoffman, a 26-year-old man, brought suit against the New York City Board of Education in 1978 to recover damages for injuries resulting from his placement in classes for the men­tally retarded. The complaint alleged that (a) the Board was .. negligent in its original testing procedures and placement of Mr. Hoffman, causing or permitting him to be placed in an edlJca­tional environment for mentally retarded children and conse­quently depriving him of adequate speech therapy, which would have addressed his diagnosed disability, a speech impediment, and (b) the Board was negligent in failing or refusing to follow adequate procedures for the recommended retesting of Mr. Hoffman's intelligence. After entering special education classes, he remained in them throughout his school years.

Board of Education's Position The Board of Education took the position that Mr. Hoffman's 10 of 74, obtained on the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale when he was 5 years, 9 months old, indicated that his placement in a class for children with mental retardation was appropriate. The Board contended that the test was proper and administered by a competent and experienced psychologist. It also noted that it was the unanimous professional judgment of Mr. Hoffman's teachers, based on their evaluation and his performance on standardized achievement tests, that a retest was not war­ranted. The Board made clear that at the time Mr. Hoffman was in school, its policy was to retest only when retesting was rec­ommended by teachers or requested by parents.

The .psychological report in which the psychologist had rec­ommended that Mr. Hoffman be placed in a class for children with mental retardation was one" of the key documents on which the entire case rested. The key"sentence in the 1957 report was as follows:. "Also, his intelligence should be reevaluated within a two-year period so that a more accurate estimation of his abilities can be made" (italics added). The Board of Education argued that the psychologist did not literally mean retesting be­cause he did not use this word in the report. Although a minority of the court concurred with this interpretation, the majority sup­ported Mr. Hoffman's position that reevaluation meant only one thing-administration of another intelligence test.

Removal from Training Program In a curious twist of fate, testing, which resulted in Mr. Hoffman's being assigned to special education, also played an important role in removing him from a special workshop program during

his late teenage years. Mr. Hoffman had made poor progress during his school years, and there had been no significant change in his severe speech defect. At the age of 17, he en­tered a sheltered workshop for youths with mental retardation. After a few months in the program, he was given the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale and obtained a Verbal Scale 10 of 85, a Performance Scale 10 of 107, and a Full Scale 10 of 94. His overall functioning was in the Normal range. On the basis of these findings, Mr. Hoffman was not permitted to remain at the Occupational Training Center. On learning of this decision, he became depressed, often staying in his room at home with the door closed.

Mr. Hoffman tlien received assistance from the Division of Vocational Rehabilitation. At the age of 21, he was trained to be a: messenger, but he did not like this work. At the time of the trial, he had obtained no further training or education, had not advanced vocationally, and had not improved his social life.

Inadequate Assessment Procedures During the trial it was shown that the psychologist who tested Mr. Hoffman in kindergarten had failed (a) to interview Daniel's mother, (b) to'obtain a social history, and (c) to discuss the re­sults of the evaluation with Daniel's mother. If a history had been obtained, the psychologist would have learned that Mr. Hoffman had been tested 10 months previously at the National Hospi­tal for Speech Disorders and had obtained an 10 of 90 on the Merrill-Palmer Scale of Mental Tests.

Verdict and Appeals The case was initially tried before a jury, which returned a ver­dict in favor of Mr. Hoffman, awarding him damages of $750,000. This decision was appealed to the Appellate DiVIsion of the New York State Supreme Court, which affirmed the jury verdict on November 6, 1978, but lowered damages to $500,000. The New York State Appeals Court overturned the Appellate Court's deci­sion on December 17, 1979, finding that the court system was not the proper arena for testing the validity of educational deci­sions or for second-guessing such decisions.

THE IMPORTANCE OFTHE CASE FOR THE PRACTICE OF SCHOOL AND CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY The case of Daniel Hoffman v. the Board of Education of the City of New York is one of the first cases in which the courts carefully scrutinized psychological reports and the process of special education placement. Despite the outcome of the case for the plaintiff, the case raises several important issues related to the psychoeducational assessment process.

Psychological reports do count. Psychological reports are key documents used by mental health professionals, teachers, administrators, physicians, courts, parents, and children.

Words can be misinterpreted. A pivotal factor in the case was the meaning of the words reevaluate and retest. Partici­pants in the case, including judges, assigned different meanings

( Continued)

2 CHAPTER 1 CHALLENGES IN ASSESSING CHILDREN:THE PROCESS

Exhibit 1-1 Psychological Reports Do Count: The Case of Daniel Hoffman v. the Board of Education of the City of New York

Introduction The case of Daniel Hoffman v. the Board of Education of the City of New York is instructive because it illustrates the important role that testing and psychological reports can play in people's lives. In this case, a psychological report contained a recommenda­tion that was ignored by the school administrators. Years later, when the case was tried, the failure to follow the recommenda­tions became a key issue.

Basis of Litigation Daniel Hoffman, a 26-year-old man, brought suit against the New York City Board of Education in ·1978 to recover damages for injuries resulting from his placement in classes for the men­tally retarded. The complaint alleged that (a) the Board was .. negligent in its original testing procedures and placement of Mr .. Hoffman. causing or permitting him to be placed in an edllca­tional environment for mentally retarded children and conse­quently depriving him of adequate speech therapy, which would have addressed his diagnosed disability, a speech impediment, and (b) the Board was negligent in failing or refusing to follow adequate procedures for the recommended retesting of Mr. Hoffman's intelligence. After entering special education classes, he remained in them throughout his school years.

Board of Education's Position The Board of Education took the position that Mr. Hoffman's 10 of 74, obtained on the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale when he was 5 years, 9 months old, indicated that his placement in a class for children with mental retardation was appropriate. The Board contended that the test was proper and administered by a competent and experienced psychologist. It also noted that it was the unanimous professional judgment of Mr. Hoffman'S teachers, based on their evaluation and his performance on standardized achievement tests, that a retest was not war­ranted. The Board made clear that at the time Mr. Hoffman was in school, its policy was to retest only when retesting was rec­ommended by teachers or requested by parents.

The .psychological report in which the psychologist had rec­ommended that Mr. Hoffman be placed in a class for children with mental retardation was one" of the key documents on which the entire case rested. The ketsentence in the 1957 report was as follows:. "Also, his intelligence should be reevaluated within a two-year period so that a more accurate estimation of his abilities can be made" (italics added). The Board of Education argued that the psychologist did not literally mean retesting be­cause he did not use this word in the report. Although a minority of the court concurred with this interpretation, the majority sup­ported Mr. Hoffman's position that reevaluation meant only one thing-administration of another intelligence test.

Removal from Training Program In a curious twist of fate, testing, which resulted in Mr. Hoffman's being assigned to special education. also played an important role in removing him from a special workshop program during

his late teenage years. Mr. Hoffman had made poor progress during his school years, and there had been no significant change in his severe speech defect. At the age of 17, he en­tered a sheltered workshop for youths with mental retardation. After a few months in the program, he was given the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale and obtained a Verbal Scale 10 of 85, a Performance Scale 10 of 107, and a Full Scale 10 of 94. His overall functioning was in the Normal range. On the basis of these findings. Mr. Hoffman was not permitted to remain at the Occupational Training Center. On learning of this decision, he became depressed. often staying in his room at home with the door closed.

Mr. Hoffman tlien received assistance from the DiVision of Vocational Rehabilit'ation. At the age of 21. he was trained to be a messenger, but he did not like this work. At the time of the trial, he had obtained no further training or education, had not advanced vocationally, and had not improved his social life.

" ~'".'

Inadequate Assessment Procedures During the trial it was shown that the psychologist who tested Mr. Hoffman in kindergarten had failed (a) to interview Daniel's mother. (b) to obtain a social history, and (c) to discuss the re­sults of the evaluation with Daniel's mother. If a history had been obtained, the psychologist would have learned that Mr. Hoffman had been tested 10 months previously at the National Hospi­tal for Speech Disorders and had obtained an 10 of 90 on the Merrill-Palmer Scale of Mental Tests.

Verdict and Appeals The case was initially tried before a jury, which returned a ver­dict in favor of Mr. Hoffman, awarding him damages of $750,000. This decision was appealed to the Appellate Division of the New York State Supreme Court, which affirmed the jury verdict on November 6, 1978, but lowered damages to $500,000. The New York State Appeals Court overturned the Appellate Court's deci­sion on December 17, 1979, finding that the court system was not the proper arena for testing the validity of educational deci­sions or for second-guessing such decisions.

THE IMPORTANCE OFTHE CASE FOR THE PRACTICE OF SCHOOL AND CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY The case of Daniel Hoffman v. the Board of Education of the City of New York is one of the first cases in which the courts carefully scrutinized psychological reports and· the process of special education placement. Despite the outcome of the case for the plaintiff, the case raises several important issues related to the psychoeducational assessment process.

Psychological reports do count. Psychological reports are key documents used by mental health profeSSionals, teachers, administrators, physicians, courts, parents, and children.

Words can be misinterpreted. A pivotal factor in the case was the meaning of the words reevaluate and retest. Partici­pants in the case, including judges, assigned different meanings

( Continued)

". .' -'. -.-.'. --. -.

Exhibit 1~~(Colitinued)

to.these words . .Therefore, careful attention must be given to the

wording of reports: Reports must be written clearly, with find­

ings and recommendations stated as precisely as pOSSible, and

carefully proofread. .

lOs ohange. Children's IQs do not remain static. Although

there is substantial stability after children reach 6 years of age,

their IQs do change.

Differenttests may provide different lOs. The three IQs ob­

tained by Mr. Hoffman at 5, 6,and 18 years of age may reflect

differences in.the content and stancjardization of the three tests,

. rather than genuine changes in cognitive performance.

Interviewing parents' before conducting a formal evaluatior

is important. An interview with the parents (or other key adults)

may provide valuable information about the child's development,

prior assessments, and any prior lnterventionsthat,the child re-.

ceived and their effectiveness. .

Decisions must be based on more thail':one assessment

. approach. A battery of psychological tests and procedures, in­

cluding achievement tests, along with interViews with parents

and teachers and reports from teachers, should be used in the

assessment process. All available information, including the

GOALS AND OBJECTIVES 3

case history, should be reviewed before recommendations are

made. The instruments used must be appropriate. A child who has

a speech or language disability may need to be assessed with

performance tests in addition tcr--or instead of-verbal tests.

Previous findings must be reviewed. Before carrying out a

formal assessment, the clinician must determine whether the

child has been evaluated previously and, if so, review all relevant

assessment findings. Then previous findings must be compared

with present findings~

Assessment results should be discussed with the parent(s).

Parents need to have a copy of the report and an opportunity to

discuss the assessment findings and recommendations.

Although many issues were involved in Mr. Hoffman's case,

the preceding pOints are particularly germane to the practice of

school and clinical psychology. They illustrate that a psychologi­

caf.evaluation, including the formulation of recommendations,

requires a high level of competence. The case also demon­

strates that it is incumbent on admipistrators to carry out the

psychologist's or school committees' recommendations.

Note. The citations for this case are.41 0 N. Y. S.2d 99 and 400 N. E.2d 317-49 N. Y.2d 121.

You are about to begin a study of assessment procedures that

affect children, their families, schools, and society. The as­

sessment procedures covered in this text are rooted in tradi­

tions of psychological, clinical, and educational measurement

that are a century old. This text is designed to help you con­

duct psychological and psychoeducational evaluations in

order to make effective decisions about children. (In this

book, the term children refers to the age range from 1 year to

18 years.) Effective decision making is the hallmark of sound

clinical and psycho educational assessment.

To become a skilled clinical assessor, you should have

some background in testing and measurement, statistics,

child development, personality theory, child psychopathol­

ogy, and clinical"and educational interventions. Knowledge

in each of these'areas will help you administer and interpret

tests, amve at accurate conclusions, and formulate appropri­

ate recommendations. If you are evaluating children with

severe sensory or motor disabilities (e.g., deafness, blind­

ness, or cerebral palsy), you may' need to collaborate with

teachers or other specialists to determine which assessment

instruments to use. Among the technical and clinical skills needed to be a com-

petent clinical assessor are the abilities to do the following:

1. Select an appropriate assessment battery

2. Evaluate the psychometric properties of tests

3. Establish and maintain rapport with children, their par­

ents, and their teachers

4. Observe, record, and evaluate behavior

5. Perform informal assessments

6. Interview parents, children, teachers, and relevant

others 7. Administer and score tests and other assessment tools by

following standardized procedures

8. Interpret assessment results and formulate hypotheses

9. Take relevant ethnic and cultural variables into consider-

10. 11.

< 12. 13. 14.

15.

ation in the assessment and intervention process

Use assessment findings to help develop interventions

Communicate assessment findings both orally and in

writing Collaborate effectively with other professionals

Adhere to ethical standards

Keep up with the current literature in clinical and psy­

choeducatiomil assessment and intervention

Keep up with and follow federal and state laws and regu­

lations concerning the assessment and placement of chil­

dren with special needs r

In using this text, consider the following limitations. First,

this text is not a substitute for test manuals or for texts on

child development or child psychopathology; it supplements

material contained in test manuals and summarizes major

findings in the areas of child development and psychopathol­

ogy. Second, this text cannot substitute for clinically super­

vised experiences. Each student should receive supervision

in all phases of assessment, including test selection, adminis­

tration, scoring, and interpretation; report writing; and com­

munication of results and recommendations. Ideally, every

student should examine children who have mental retarda­

tion, learning disabilities, or developmental delays, as well as

to.these words. Therefore, careful attention must be given to the wording of reports.' Reports must be written clearly, with find­ingsand recommendations stated as precisely as possible,and carefully proofread. ,

lOs ohange.·Childre!1's IQs do not 'remain static. Although thereissubs~ntial stability after children reach 6 years of age, their IQsdo 9hange.

Differenttests.may provide different/Os. The three lOs ob­tained by Mr. Hoffman at 5,6,and 18years of age may reflect differences in. the content and standardization of the three tests, rather than genuine changes in cognitive performance.

interviewing parents' before' conduCting· a formal evaluatio(l is important. An.interview with the parents (or other key adults) may provide valuable information aboutthe child's development, prior assessments, and any prior'interventionsthat,the child nil-ceivedandtheir effectiveness. .

Decisionsmusfbe based on more thai1'ime assessment approach. A -battery of psychological tests and procedures, in­cluding aChievement tests, along with interViews with parents and teachers and reports from teachers, should be used in the assessmenLprocess. All available information, including the

GOALS AND OBJECTIVES 3

case history, should be reviewed before recommendations are made.

, The instruments used must be appropriate. A child who has a speech or language disability may-need to be assessed with performance tests in addition tcr-or instead of-verbal tests.

Previous findings must be reviewed. Before carrying out a formal assessment, the clinician must determine whether the child has been evaluated previously and, if so, review all relevant assessment findings. Then previous findings must be compared with present findings;

Assessment results should be discussed with the parent(s). _ Parents need to have a copy of the report and an opportunity to _ discuss the assessment findings and recommendations.

Although many issues were involved in Mr. Hoffman's case, the preceding points are particularly germane to the practice of school and clinical psychology. They illustrate that a psychologi­caf-evaluation, including the formulation of recommendations, reqLiires a high level of competence. The case also demon- . strates that it is incumbent on administrators to carry out the psychologisfs or school committees' recommendations.

: Note. The citations for this case are .41 0 N. y. S.2d 99 and 400 N. E.2d 317-49 N. Y.2d 121.

You are about to begin a study of assessment procedures that affect children, their families, schools, and society. The as­sessment procedures covered in this text are rooted in tradi­tions of psychological, clinical, and educational measurement that are a century old. This text is designed to help you con­duct psychological and psychoeducational evaluations in order to make effective decisions about children. (In this book, the telTIl children refers to the age range from 1 year to 18 years.) Effective decision making is the hallmark of sound clinical and psycho educational assessment.

To become a skilled clinical assessor, you should have some background in testing and measurement, statistics, child development, personality theory, child psychopathol­ogy, and clinical" and educational interventions. Knowledge in each of these··areas will help you administer and interpret tests, airive at accurate conclusions, and fOlTIlulate appropri­ate recommendations. If you are evaluating children with severe sensory or motor disabilities (e.g., deafness, blind­ness, or cerebral palsy), you may-need to collaborate with teachers or other specialists to determine which assessment instruments to use.

Among the technical and clinical skills needed to be a com-petent clinical assessor are the abilities to do the following:

1. Select an appropriate assessment battery 2. Evaluate the psychometric properties of tests 3. Establish and maintain rapport with children, their par­

ents, and their teachers 4. Observe, record, and evaluate behavior 5. PerfOlTIl infOlTIlal assessments

6. Interview parents, children, teachers, and relevant others

7. Administer and score tests and other assessment tools by following standardized procedures

8. Interpret assessment results and fOlTIlulate hypotheses 9. Take relevant ethnic and cultural variables into consider-

10. 11.

< 12. 13. 14.

15.

ation in the assessment and intervention process Use assessment findings to help develop interventions Communicate assessment findings both orally and in writing Collaborate effectively with other professionals Adhere to ethical standards Keep up with the current literature in clinical and psy­choeducatiomil assessment and intervention Keep up with and follow federal and state laws and regu­lations concerning the assessment and placement of chil­dren with special needs

;-

In using this text, consider the following limitations. First, this text is not a substitute for test manuals or for texts on child development or child psychopathology; it supplements material contained in test manuals and summarizes major findings in the areas of child development and psychopathol­ogy. Second, this text cannot substitute for clinically super­vised experiences. Each student should receive supervision in all phases of assessment, including test selection, adminis­tration, scoring, and interpretation; report writing; and com­munication of results and recommendations. Ideally, every student should examine children who have mental retarda­tion, learning disabilities, or developmental delays, as well as

4 CHAPTER 1 CHALLENGES IN ASSESSING CHILDREN: THE PROCESS

typical and gifted children, in order to develop skills with dif­ferent populations. Thir~, although this text covers the major psychological instruments used to assess children, it does not cover all of them, nor does it cover more than a small frac­tion of the thousands of informal assessment procedures used by clinicians and researchers. New editions of assessment in­struments and new procedures will be published throughout your career. You will need to study these materials carefully in order to use them effectively. The principles you willieam in this text will help you evaluate many kinds of assessment tools with a more discerning eye.

The text summarizes the reliability and validity informa­tion presented in test manuals; however, it does not provide a comprehensive review of all the published research on each measure. You will need to keep abreast of current research· on assessment and intervention throughout your training and career. You will want to pay close attention to research on the reliability and Validity of the tests, interview procedures, observational techniques, behavioral checklists, and oilie~/ relevant assessment techniques. You may also want to con­duct your own informal (and formal) research on intelligence tests, tests of special abilities, interviewing, observation, and other assessment procedures.

You will want to pay close attention to new findings about children with special needs. In order to work with children with special needs, you will have to become familiar with state and federal regulations concerning the practice of clinical and school psychology. It is especially important that those con­ducting assessments understand state and federal regulations that address nonbiased assessment, classification of disabling

u-·

"It's about Benny, doctor. He'sjustcome from school with an 10 of 1041 Should I put him right to bed?" -

Copyrighf© 1955, Cowles Magazines, Inc.

I

t

conditions, eligibility criteria for special education programs, designing individualized educational programs, and confi­dentiality and safekeeping of records. Those who work in school settings will need to know about and follow precisely such federal regulations as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 (public Law 108-446, or IDEIA; also referred to as IDEA 2004), Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), and the Fa,mily Educational Rights to Privacy Act (FERPA). These laws are discussed in Chapter 3.

TYPES OF ASSESSMENT

Assessment is a way of understanding a child in order to make informed decisions about the child. There are several types of

. assessment, including screening assessments, focused assess­ments, diagnostif: assessments, counseling and rehabilitation assessments, progress evaluation assessments, and problem­solving assessments.

• A screening assessment is a relatively brief evaluation in­tended to identify children who are at risk for developing certain disorders or disabilities, who are eligible for cer­tain programs, who have a disorder or disability in need of remediation, or who need a more comprehensive as­sessment. Screening may involve, for example, evaluating the readiness of children to enter kindergarten programs or programs for the gifted and talented. Decisions based on a screening assessment should not be viewed as definitive and should be revised, if necessary, as new information becomes available.

• Afocused assessment is a detailed evaluati6n of-a specific area of functioning. The assessment may address a diag­nostic question (e.g., Does the child have attention deficit! hyperactivity disorder?), a skill question (e.g., Does the child exhibit a verbal memory deficit?), or an etiological question (e.g., Why is the child failing mathematics?). The examiner may also examine, at his or her discretion and on the basis of clinical judgment, additional areas such as reading ability. Settings in which time and financial pressures are severe (such as private medical facilities, schools, and health maintenance organizations) often use a focused or problem-solving assessment instead of a longer and more expensive diagnostic assessment.

• A diagnostic assessment is a detailed evaluation of a child's strengths and weaknesses in several areas, such as cogni­tive, academic, language, behavioral, emotional, and social functioning. It may be conducted for a variety of reasons, including establishing a diagnosis (determining the clas­sification that best reflects the child's level and type of functioning and/or assisting in the determination of mental disorder or educational disabilities) and suggesting educa­tional or clinical placements, programs, and interventions.

• A counseling and rehabilitation assessment focuses on a child's abilities to adjust to and successfully fulfill daily 4 CHAPTER 1 CHALLENGES IN ASSESSING CHILDREN: THE PROCESS

typical and gifted children, in order to develop skills with dif­ferent populations. Thir~, although this text covers the major psychological instruments used to assess children, it does not cover all of them, nor does it cover more than a small frac­tion of the thousands of informal assessment procedures used by clinicians and researchers. New editions of assessment in­struments and new procedures will be published throughout your career. You will need to study these materials carefully in order to use them effectively. The principles you willieam in this text will help you evaluate many kinds of assessment tools with a more discerning eye.

The text summarizes the reliability and validity informa­tion presented in test manuals; however, it does not provide a comprehensive review of all the published research on each measure. You will need to keep abreast of current research· on assessment and intervention throughout your training and career. You will want to pay close attention to research on the reliability and Validity of the tests, interview procedures, observational techniques, behavioral checklists, and oilie~/ relevant assessment techniques. You may also want to con­duct your own informal (and formal) research on intelligence tests, tests of special abilities, interviewing, observation, and other assessment procedures.

You will want to pay close attention to new findings about children with special needs. In order to work with children with special needs, you will have to become familiar with state and federal regulations concerning the practice of clinical and school psychology. It is especially important that those con­ducting assessments understand state and federal regulations that address nonbiased assessment, classification of disabling

u-·

"It's about Benny, doctor. He'sjust come from school with an 10 of 1041 Should I put him right to bed?" -

Copyrighf© 1955, Cowles Magazines, Inc.

I

t

conditions, eligibility criteria for special education programs, designing individualized educational programs, and confi­dentiality and safekeeping of records. Those who work in school settings will need to know about and follow precisely such federal regulations as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 (public Law 108-446, or IDEIA; also referred to as IDEA 2004), Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), and the Fa,mily Educational Rights to Privacy Act (FERPA). These laws are discussed in Chapter 3.

TYPES OF ASSESSMENT

Assessment is a way of understanding a child in order to make informed decisions about the child. There are several types of assessment, including screening assessments, focused assess­ments, diagnostif: assessments, counseling and rehabilitation assessments, progress evaluation assessments, and problem­solving assessments.

• A screening assessment is a relatively brief evaluation in­tended to identify children who are at risk for developing certain disorders or disabilities, who are eligible for cer­tain programs, who have a disorder or disability in need of remediation, or who need a more comprehensive as­sessment. Screening may involve, for example, evaluating the readiness of children to enter kindergarten programs or programs for the gifted and talented. Decisions based on a screening assessment should not be viewed as definitive and should be revised, if necessary, as new information becomes available.

• Afocused assessment is a detailed evaluati6n of-a specific area of functioning. The assessment may address a diag­nostic question (e.g., Does the child have attention deficit! hyperactivity disorder?), a skill question (e.g., Does the child exhibit a verbal memory deficit?), or an etiological question (e.g., Why is the child failing mathematics?). The examiner may also examine, at his or her discretion and on the basis of clinical judgment, additional areas such as reading ability. Settings in which time and financial pressures are severe (such as private medical facilities, schools, and health maintenance organizations) often use a focused or problem-solving assessment instead of a longer and more expensive diagnostic assessment.

• A diagnostic assessment is a detailed evaluation of a child's strengths and weaknesses in several areas, such as cogni­tive, academic, language, behavioral, emotional, and social functioning. It may be conducted for a variety of reasons, including establishing a diagnosis (determining the clas­sification that best reflects the child's level and type of functioning and/or assisting in the determination of mental disorder or educational disabilities) and suggesting educa­tional or clinical placements, programs, and interventions.

• A counseling and rehabilitation assessment focuses on a child's abilities to adjust to and successfully fulfill daily

$

I,L

responsibilities. Possible responses to treatment and po­tential for J:ecovery (e.g., in cases of traumatic brain injury) also are considered.

• A progress evaluation assessment focuses on a child's progress over time, such as day to day, week to week, month to month, or year to year. It is used to evaluate changes in the child's development, skills, or abilities and in the effectiveness of intervention procedures.

• A problem-solving assessment focuses on specific types of problems (e.g., dyslexia) in a series of steps from problem identification to problem analysis, intervention, and out­come evaluation.

Let's compare and contrast psychological assessment and psychological testing. Both involve identifying critical ques­tions and areas of concern and planning data collection. They also differ. Psychological testing involves administering and scoring tests; the focus is on collecting data., Psychological assessment encompasses several clinical tools, such as formal and informal tests, observations, and interviews. The focus of psychological assessment is not only on collecting data, but also on integrating the findings, interpreting the data, and syn­thesizing the results. Testing produces findings; assessment gives meaning to the findings within the context of the child's life. For example, information from children and parents can be skewed by their personal agendas or desire to please you or by a negative attitude toward mental illness or medications. You might need to consider such factors when you interpret the results of the evaluation and formulate intervention strategies. With each type of evaluation, you will usually share the find­ings and recommendations with the referral source, the child, his or her parents, the school, or other relevant parties.

FOUR PILLARS OF ASSESSMENT

The"fourpillars of assessment-norm-referenced measures, interviews, behavioral observations, and informal assessment procedures-provide information about a child's knowledge, skill, behavior, or personality (see Figure 1-1). The four pil­lars complement one'another and provide a basis for making decisions about children. Each procedure must be interpreted

. ill its own right, and the information obtained from all four , must be woven together so that the final tapestry is integrated, understandable, meaningful, and consistent. Let's look at

, each assessment procedure more closely.

Norm-Referenced Measures

We have based this text on the premise that norm-referenced measures are indispensable for clinical and psychoeduca­tional assessment. Norm-referenced measures are measures that are standardized on a clearly defined group, termed the norm group. A norm group is a group of individuals, repre­sentative with respect to characteristics such as age, gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic status (SES), or geographic region, who have taken the test. The test items are selected to rep-

FOUR PILLARS OF ASSESSMENT

III l!? :::I III ca Q)

E

" Q). u'· c l!? .l!!

~ ~ E -... '--:0 z

~ Q)

'$ ... Q) .... .E

Assessment Methods

Figure 1-1. Four pillars of assessment.

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resent the domain of interest addressed by the test. The test instructions, wording of items, probing questions, recording of responses, time limits, and scoring criteria (with objective guidelines and examples) are specified in detail in the test manuals so that they can be used bj'all examiners in the same way. Test authors design standard procedures to reduce the effect of personal biases of examiners and to reduce extra­neous sources of influence on the child's performance (see Chapter 2). The intent of a norm-referenced test is to provide a fair and equitable comparison of children by providing ob­jective, quantitative scores.

Norm-referenced measures are scaled so that each score reflects a rank within the norm group (see Chapter 4 for a dis­cussion of psychometric issues). Norm-referenced measures have been designed to assess, for example, individual differ­ences in intelligence, reading, mathematics, problem solving, organizational skills, writing, attention, visual-motor skills, gross-and fine-motor skills, and behavior. Although we are fortunate to have a choice of well-standardized and psycho­metrically sound tests with which to evaluate children, some tests do not meet psychometric standards. When you have completed your study of this text, you will be able to evaluate which tests have adequate psychometric standards.

Norm-referenced measures are an economical and efficient means of sampling behavior within a few hours and quan­tifying a child's functioning. Quantification (i.e., assigning numbers to responses) serves several purposes. First, it gives a picture of the child's cognitive, motor, and behavioral defi-

, responsibilities. Possible responses to treatment and po­tential for J:ecovery (e.g., in cases of traumatic brain injury) also are considered.

• A progress evaluation assessment focuses on a child's progress over time, such as day to day, week to week, month to month, or year to year. It is used to evaluate changes in the child's development, skills, or abilities and in the effectiveness of intervention procedures.

• A problem-solving assessment focuses on specific types of problems (e.g., dyslexia) in a series of steps from problem identification to problem analysis, intervention, and out­come evaluation.

Let's compare and contrast psychological assessment and psychological testing. Both involve identifying critical ques­tions and areas of concern and planning data collection. They also differ. Psychological testing involves administering and scoring tests; the focus is on collecting data., Psychological assessment encompasses several clinical tools, such as formal and informal tests, observations, and interviews. The focus of psychological assessment is not only on collecting data, but also on integrating the findings, interpreting the data, and syn­thesizing the results. Testing produces findings; assessment gives meaning to the findings within. the context of the child's life. For example, information from children and parents can be skewed by their personal agendas or desire to please you or by a negative attitude toward mental illness or medications. You might need to consider such factors when you interpret the results of the evaluation and formulate intervention strategies. With each type of evaluation, you will usually share the find­ings and recommendations with the referral source, the child, his or her parents, thf! school, or other relevant parties.

FOUR PILLARS OF ASSESSMENT

The" four pillars of assessment-norm-referenced measures, interviews, behavioral observations, and informal assessment procedures---provide information about a child's knowledge, skill, behavior, or personality (see Figure 1-1). The four pil­lars complement onedanother and provide a basis for making decisions about children. Each procedure must be interpreted

.. ill its own right, and the information obtained from all four . must be woven together so that the final tapestry is integrated,

. understandable, meaningful, and consistent. Let's look at . each assessment procedure more closely.

Norm-Referenced Measures

We have based this text on the premise that norm-referenced measures are indispensable for clinical and psychoeduca­tional assessment. Norm-referenced measures are measures that are standardized on a clearly defined group, termed the nonn group. A norm group is a group of individuals, repre­sentative with respect to characteristics such as age, gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic status (SES), or geographic region, who have taken the test. The test items are selected to rep-

FOUR PILLARS OF ASSESSMENT 5

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Ul

I 2

l!! ;::

a.

::I

g! 1:

Ul

... m 3l (I) ~

E

E

.c Ul

0

Ul

.~

3l .e .5

Ul It!

iii E ... E

Figure 1-1. Four pillars of assessment.

resent the domain of interest addressed by the test. The test instructions, wording of items, probing questions, recording of responses, time limits, and scoring criteria (with objective guidelines and examples) are specified in detail in the test manuals so that they can be used by:hll examiners in the same way. Test authors design standard procedures to reduce the effect of personal biases of examiners and to reduce extra­neous sources of influence on the child's performance (see Chapter 2). The intent of a norm-referenced test is to provide a fair and equitable comparison of children by providing ob­jective, quantitative scores.

Norm-referenced measures are scaled so that each score reflects a rank within the norm group (see Chapter 4 for a dis­cussion of psychometric issues). Norm-referenced measures have been designed to assess, for example, individual differ­ences in intelligence, reading, mathematics, problem solving, organizational skills, writing, attention, visual-motor skills, gross- and fine-motor skills, and behavior. Although we are fortunate to have a choice of well-standardized and psycho­metrically sound tests with which to evaluate children, some tests do not meet psychometric standards. When you have completed your study of this text, you will be able to evaluate which tests have adequate psychometric standards.

Norm-referenced measures are an economical and efficient means of sampling behavior within a few hours and quan­tifying a child's functioning. Quantification (Le., assigning numbers to responses) serves several purposes. First, it gives a picture of the child's cognitive, motor, and behavioral defi-

& Hi

6 CHAPTER 1 CHALLENGES IN ASSESSING CHILDREN: THE PROCESS

cits and strengths. (Note that norm-referenced rating scales are particularly valuable in evaluating behavioral deficits and strengths; see Sattler and Roge, 2006). Second, it describes the child's present functioning in reference to his or her peer group. Third, it provides a baseline against which to measure progress during and after interventions. Finally, it promotes communication between the psychologist and parents, teach­ers, or others who requested the evaluation.

Norm-referenced measures allow us to evaluate changes in several aspects of a child's physical and social world. They inform us about developmental changes, changes in the child's cognitive and neurological condition, and the effects of educational or behavioral interventions and other forms of remediation. For example, the effects of a medication regimen can be periodically evaluated through ongoing evaluation of fine-motor control and integration, processing speed, atten-_ tion and concentration, cognitive flexibility, and short-term memory. Repeated evaiuations are particularly needed when medications may have potentially detrimental side effects_

Interviews

You will gain valuable assessment information by interview­ing a child and his or her parents, teachers, and other indi­viduals familiar with the child. (Note that the term parents refers to the child's parents or to other caregivers, such as foster parents, grandparents, or other relatives who are raising the child.) Results of an assessment may be meaningless or inconclusive if you examine the child without interviewing those who play an important role in his or her life.

Unstructured or semistructured interviews are less rigid than formal tests. They allow interviewees to convey informa­tion in their own words and interviewers to ask questions in their own words--opportunities that neither may have while taking or admifiistering standardized tests. Unstructured in­terviews are usually open-ended, without a set agenda. Semi­structured interviews provide a list of questions, but the focus of the interview can change as needed. Structured interviews provide a rigid, but comprehensive, list of questions usually designed to arrive at a psychiatric diagnosis. In addition, all three inter:view formats allow direct observation of a child's social interaction skills, language skills, and communication skills. Chapters 5, 6, and 7 in Sattler and Roge (2006) discuss interviewing techniques, and Appendix B in that text includes 15 semistructured interviews for obtaining information from parents and teachers about normal development and several childhood developmental disorders. Clinical and Forensic Interviewing of Children and Families (Sattler, 1998) also discusses interviewing techniques, including those needed for child maltreatment investigations. Another valuable re­source for interviewing children is the text by McConaughy (2005a).

Following are some examples of the types of information that you can obtain from unstructured and semistructured in­terviews with a child, a parent, and a teacher.

CHILD

• Child's view of the referral • Child's concerns about being evaluated • Child's view of which school subjects are easy and difficult • Child's self-perceptions of strengths, weaknesses, inter­

ests, and goals, including thoughts about why he or she is having problems

• Child's conversational language abilities, cooperativeness, interaction skills, and personal hygiene

• Child's interests and hobbies • Child's view of his or her family, teachers, and peer group • Stressors in the child's life

PARENT

• Parent's view of 1;he child's presenting problems • Parent's knowledge about the child's presenting problems • Child's developmental history • Child's medical, social, and academic history • Child's behavior, temperament, personality, interpersonal

style (includu:;g relationship with parents, siblings, and teachers), interests, and hobbies

• Family situation, including sociocultural variables (e.g., so­cioeconomic status [SES], parental occupations, and level of acculturation), language used in the home, individuals living in the home, and factors that may be contributing to the child's problems (such as marital discord, financial strain, alcoholism, or drug abuse)

• Prior intervention attempts • Parenting styles • Parental disciplinary techniques

Table 1-1 Examples of Information Obtained from Behavioral Observations

• When and where the child shows the target behaviors • Frequency, duration, and rate of the target behaviors • How the child's behavior compares with that of a

nonreferred child in the same setting • How the child functions in situations that require planning,

decision making, memory, attention, and related skills • Child's reaction to social and interpersonal stressors • Child's reaction to environmental stressors • How the child's behavior changes during the day • How others respond to the child's behavior • How the child behaves in multiple settings, with different

caretakers, and at different times during the day • Factors that contribute to and sustain the problem behavior,

including those that increase or decrease the frequency of the behavior

• How the child responds to various instructional methods, materials, and settings

• How the child responds to current interventions (if appropriate)

• Clues helpful in formulating changes in interventions or new interventions

4

6 CHAPTER 1 CHALLENGES IN ASSESSING CHILDREN:THE PROCESS

cits and strengths. (Note that norm-referenced rating scales are particularly valuable in evaluating behavioral deficits and strengths; see Sattler and Hoge, 2006). Second, it describes the child's present functioning in reference to his or her peer group. Third, it provides a baseline against which to measure progress during and after interventions. Finally, it promotes communication between the psychologist and parents, teach­ers, or others who requested the evaluation.

Norm-referenced measures allow us to evaluate changes in several aspects of a child's physical and social world. They inform us about developmental changes, changes in the child's cognitive and neurological condition, and the effects of educational or behavioral interventions and other forms of remediation. For example, the effects of a medication regimen can be periodically evaluated through ongoing evaluation of fine-motor control and integration, processing speed, atten-" tion and concentration, cognitive flexibility, and short-term memory. Repeated evaluations are particularly needed whf;lll medications may have potentially detrimental side effects.

Interviews

You will gain valuable assessment information by interview­ing a child and his or her parents, teachers, and other indi­viduals familiar with the child. (Note that the term parents refers to the child's parents or to other caregivers, such as foster parents, grandparents, or other relatives who are raising the child.) Results of an assessment may be meaningless or inconclusive if you examine the child without interviewing those who play an important role in his or her life.

Unstructured or semistructured interviews are less rigid than formal tests. They allow interviewees to convey informa­tion in their own words and interviewers to ask questions in their own words--opportunities that neither may have while taking or administering standardized tests. Unstructured in­terviews are usually open-ended, without a set agenda. Semi­structured intervitnvs provide a list of questions, but the focus of the interview can change as needed. Structured interviews provide a rigid, but comprehensive, list of questions usually designed to arrive at a psychiatric diagnosis. In addition, all three inter:view formats allow direct observation of a child's social interaction skills, language skills, and communication skills. Chapters 5, 6, and 7 in Sattler and Hoge (2006) discuss interviewing techniques, and Appendix B in that text includes 15 semistructured interviews for obtaining information from parents and teachers about normal development and several childhood developmental disorders. Clinical and Forensic Interviewing of Children and Families (SattIer, 1998) also discusses interviewing techniques, including those needed for child maltreatment investigations. Another valuable re­source for interviewing children is the text by McConaughy (2005a).

Following are some examples of the types of information that you can obtain from unstructured and semistructured in­terviews with a child, a parent, and a teacher.

CHILD

• Child's view of the referral • Child's concerns about being evaluated • Child's view of which school subjects are easy and difficult • Child's self-perceptions of strengths, weaknesses, inter­

ests, and goals, including thoughts about why he or she is having problems

• Child's conversational language abilities, cooperativeness, interaction skills, and personal hygiene

• Child's interests and hobbies ; Child's view of his or her family, teachers, and peer group • Stressors in the child's life

PARENT

• Parent's view of the child's presenting problems • Par~nt's knowledge about the child's presenting problems • Child's developmental history • Child's medical, social, and academic history • Child's be~vior, temperament, personality, interpersonal

style (including relationship with parents, siblings, and teachers), interests, and hobbies

• Family situation, including sociocultural variables (e.g., so­cioeconomic status [SES), parental occupations, and level of acculturation), langnage used in the home, individuals living in the home, and factors that may be contributing to the child's problems (such as marital discord, financial strain, alcoholism, or drug abuse)

• Prior intervention attempts • Parenting styles • Parental disciplinary techniques

Table 1"1 Examples of Information Obtained from Behavioral Observations

:if"

• When and where the child shows the target behaviors • Frequency, duration, and rate of the target behaviors • How the child's behavior compares with that of a

nonreferred child in the same setting • How the child functions in situations that require planning,

decision making, memory, attention, and related skills • Child's reaction to social and interpersonal stressors • Child's reaction to environmental stressors • How the child's behavior changes during the day • How others respond to the child's behavior • How the child behaves in multiple settings. with different

caretakers. and at different times during the day • Factors that contribute to and sustain the problem behavior,

including those that increase or decrease the frequency of the behavior

• How the child responds to various instructional methods, materials, and settings

• How the child responds to current interventions (if appropriate)

• Clues helpful in formulating changes in interventions or new interventions

FOUR PILLARS OF ASSESSMENT 7

• Resources available to the family • 'Interventions attempted and results

• Teacher's goals for the assessment • Factors that ~ay interfere with or enhance intervention

efforts • Parents' goals for the assessment

Behavioral Observations TEACHER

• Teacher's view of the child's presenting problems You will obtain valuable information by observing the child

during the formal assessment, as well as in his or her natural

surroundings such as the classroom, playground, or home (see

Table 1-1). Chapters 8 and 9 in Sattler and Roge (2006) ex­

plain how to make different structured observations and how

to record and evaluate the data obtained from them. Chapter 6

in this text presents useful guidelines for conducting observa­

tions during an evaluation.

• Child's grades and academic history

• Child's academic strengths and weaknesses

• Child's school attendance record

• Child's behavior in class

• Situations in which the child shows problem behavior

• Factors that exacerbate the child's problem

• Situations that are stressful to the child

• Child's social skills and peer relationships

• Child's interests and participation in class and extracur­

ricular activities Informal Assessment Procedures

• Teacher's view of the parents (if the teacher has had con­

tact with them)

You may need to supplement norm-referenced measures with

informal assessment procedures (see Table 1-2). Many infor-

Table 1-2 Examples of Informal Assessment Procedures

Procedure Purpose

Criterion-referenced tests To determine whether a child has reached a performance standard, usually in some academic

, subject area or skill area. Districtwide and teacher-made criterion-referenced tests give informa-

tion about the child's competencies in mastering the classroom curriculum.

Written language samples To evaluate the breadth of the child's writing skills. Examples are essays, term papers, and writ-

ten answers to test questions.

Informal assessments of To evaluate factors that may contribute to the child's reading difficulties. Examples are phonics

reading ability tests and reading fluency tests.

Prior and current school records To provide information about the child's achievement record, behavior,:and attendance in school

over time, which allows comparison of the child's current school performance and prior school

performance.

Medical records To provide information about the child's past and current health history, developmental history,

and medication history.

Personal documents To provide information about the child's thoughts and perceptions at the time the documents

• were written. If documents were written at different times, they also reveal changes in the child's

"

thoughts and perceptions over time. Examples are diaries, poems, stories, drawings, and musi-

cal compositions.

'. --To monitor the child's behavior, thoughts, and feelings. Chapter 9 in Sattler and Hoge (2006) Self-monitoring records

provides several self-monitoring forms.

Role playing To allow observation of the child's behavior in a simulated situation. For example, you could

evaluate how the child feels about speaking in front of the classroom by assuming the role of

the teacher and asking the child to play himself or herself.

Referral document To define the prob,lems as seen by the referral source and assist you in choosing an assess-

ment battery. AreC),s not mentioned in the referral document may also need to be assessed to

determine the cause of the problems and/or to develop appropriate interventions.

Background Questionnaire, To gather useful information about the child and the problem behavior from a parent, the child,

Personal Data Questionnaire, and and a teacher, respectively. See Appendix A in Sattler and Hoge (2006).

School Referral Questionnaire

Social work reports To provide information about the child's family, foster family, or adopted family; involvement in

the juvenile justice system; or child maltreatment.

r I:

• Resources available to the family • Factors that ~ay interfere with or enhance intervention

efforts • Parents' goals for the assessment

TEACHER

• Teacher's view of the child's presenting problems • Child's grades and academic history • Child's academic strengths and weaknesses • Child's school attendance record • Child's behavior in class • Situations in which the child shows problem behavior • Factors that exacerbate the child's problem • Situations that are stressful to the child • Child's social skills and peer relationships • Child's interests and participation in class and extracur­

ricular activities • Teacher's view of the parents (if the teacher has had con­

tact with them)

Table 1-2 Examples of Informal Assessment Procedures

Procedure

FOUR PILLARS OF ASSESSMENT 7

• 'Interventions attempted and results • Teacher's goals for the assessment

Behavioral Observations

You will obtain valuable information by observing the child during the formal assessment, as well a,s in his or her natural surroundings such as the classroom, playground, or home (see Table 1-1). Chapters 8 and 9 in Sattler and Hoge (2006) ex­plain how to make different structured observations and how to record and evaluate the data obtained from them. Chapter 6 in this text presents useful guidelines for conducting observa­tions during an evaluation.

Informal Assessment Procedures

You may need to supplement norm-referenced measures with informal assessment procedures (see Table 1-2). Many infor-

Purpose

Criterion-referenced tests To determine whether a child has reached a performance standard, usually in some academic subject area or skill area. Districtwide and teacher-made criterion-referenced tests give informa­tion about the child's competencies in mastering the classroom curriculum.

--------~---------------+------ --.-~--~~~----------------Written language samples To evaluate the breadth of the child's writing skills. Examples are essays, term papers, and writ-

ten answers to test questions.

Informal assessments of To evaluate factors that may contribute to the child's reading difficulties. Examples are phonics reading ability tests and reading fluency tests.

--------------------------------~---------------Prior and current school records To provide information about the child's achievement record, behavior"and attendance in school

over time, which allows comparison of the child's current school performance and prior school performance.

Medical records To provide information about the child's past and current health history, developmental hIstory, and medication history.

--~----------------.~-~--

Personal documents To provide information about the child's thoughts and perceptions at the time the documents ~ • were written. If documents were written at different times, they also reveal changes in the child's

. . thoughts and perceptions over time. Examples are diaries, poems, stories, drawings, and musi­cal compositions.

--------.------~--~~-~------

Self-monitoring records To monitor the child's behavior, thoughts, and feelings. Chapter 9 in Sattler and Hoge (2006) provides several self-monitoring forms.

-~~-------

Role playing To allow observation of the child's behavior in a simulated situation. For example, you could evaluate how the child feels about speaking in front of the classroom by assuming the role of

_. .~ _____ .~. the teacher and asking the child to play himself or herself.

Referral document To define the problems as seen by the referral source and assist you in choosing an assess­ment battery. Are~s not mentioned in the referral document may also need to be assessed to determine the cause of the problems and/or to develop appropriate interventions.

--------.~.-. . ---~-~

Background Questionnaire, To gather useful information about the child and the problem behavior from a parent, the child, Personal Data Questionnaire, and and a teacher, respectively. See Appendix A in Sattler and Hoge (2006). School Referral Questionnaire

- -Social work reports To provide information about the child's family, foster family, or adopted family; involvement in __ ~_ ~~ __ --.!.he juvenile justice systemi or child maltreatment. ____ __ _~ .~ .. _

Ii

'j I

8 CHAPTER 1 CHALLENGES IN ASSESSING CHILDREN: THE PROCESS

mal assessment procedures have been developed for different purposes. You might use one or more of these informal as­sessment procedures, or you might want to develop your own. However, informal assessment procedures that have unknown or questionable technical adequacy (e.g., unknown reliability and validity) must be used cautiously. Informal assessments are particularly helpful for developing interventions. This text describes some informal assessment procedures that can be used in cognitive evaluations, such as testing-of-limits (see Chapter 6), but does not devote a chapter exclusively to in­formal tests and procedures. Appendix D in Sattler and Hoge (2006) provides several informal measures to help assess learnillg disabilities in particular.

MULTIMETHOD ASSESSMENT

This text advocates a multimethod assessment (see Figure 1-2). First, a multirnethod assessment involves obtaining informa~ tion from several sources (including the referral source, the child, parents, teachers, and other relevant parties) and re-

viewing (if available) the child's educational records, medical reports, social work reports, and previous evaluations. Second, a multimethod approach uses several assessment techniques, including norm-referenced measures, interviews, observa­tions, and informal assessment procedures. Third, it assesses multiple areas (e.g., intelligence, attention and memory, pro­cessing speed, planning and organization, achievement, visual skills, auditory skills, motor skills, oral language, adaptive behavior, and social-emotional-personality functioning). Fi­nally, it involves recommending interventions. Table 1-3 lists the main factors to consider in a multimethod assessment.

A multimethod assessment allows you to do the following:

• Obtain information about the child's medical, develop­mental, academic, familial, and social history

• Obtain information about the child's current cognitive, ac­ademic, behavioral, social, and interpersonal functioning

• Determine the child's cognitive, academic, and social strengths and weaknesses

• Understand thenature, presence, and degree of any dis­abling conditions that the child might have

. Areas Assessed

. -Intelligence Sources of Data

.Referral source . Assessment Methods·

.Child

-Parellts • Norm-referenced measures

• Interviews

• Behavioral observations -Informal assessment . procedures

Figure 1-2. Multimethod assessment approach.

.Achievement

• Visual skills

.. Auditoryskills

• Motor skills

-Oral. language

-Adaptive behavior

• Socialcemotional­personality functioning

-

8 CHAPTER 1 CHALLENGES IN ASSESSING CHILDREN: THE PROCESS

mal assessment procedures have been developed for different purposes. You might use one or more of these informal as­sessment procedures, or you might want to develop your own. However, informal assessment procedures that have unknown or questionable technical adequacy (e.g., unknown reliability and validity) must be used cautiously. Informal assessments are particularly helpful for developing interventions. This text describes some informal assessment procedures that can be used in cognitive evaluations, such as testing-of-limits (see Chapter 6), but does not devote a chapter exclusively to in­formal tests and procedures. Appendix D in Sattler and Hoge (2006) provides several informal measures to help assess learnillg disabilities in particular.

MULTIMETHOD ASSESSMENT

This text advocates a multimethod assessment (see Figure 1-2). First, a multimethod assessment involves obtaining informa~ tion from several sources (including the referral source, the child, parents, teachers, and other relevant parties) and re-

viewing (if available) the child's educational records, medical reports, social work reports, and previous evaluations. Second, a multimethod approach uses several assessment techniques, including norm-referenced measures, interviews, observa­tions, and informal assessment procedures. Third, it assesses multiple areas (e.g., intelligence, attention and memory, pro­cessing speed, planning and organization, achievement, visual skills, auditory skills, motor skills, oral language, adaptive behavior, and social-emotional-personality functioning). Fi­nally, it involves recommending interventions. Table 1-3 lists the main factors to consider in a multimethod assessment.

A multimethod assessment allows you to do the following:

• Obtain information about the child's medical, develop­mental, academic, familial, and social history

• Obtain information about the child's current cognitive, ac­adefnic, behavioral, social, and interpersonal functioning

• Determine the child's cognitive, academic, and social strengths and weaknesses

• Understand the nature, presence, and degree of any dis­abling conditions that the child might have

.. Assessment Methods·

·Teachers .•• · .••. · •• ·

• OWer !amily~embers . • Other informants • Child's records and· previous evaluation:3

··.Interviews

-Behavioral observations -Informal assessment . procedures

Figure 1-2. Multimethod assessment approach.

-Motor skills .

.Or~llaflguage .

-Adaptivebeh,avior .• Social-emotiohaf~

persol1afity·functioning

i

L

Table 1-3 Factors to Consider in a Multimethod Assessment

Referral Information • Referral source • Reason for referral • Behaviors of concern to referral source

Demographic and Background Information • Child's date of birth and age • Child's gender • Child's residence • Child's grade level • Child's ethnicity • Child's prenatal, birth, and postnatal developmental histories

and developmental milestones • Child's languages, such as language spoken at home, at

school, and with friends, and competency in each _ , • Child's educational history, such as grades, behavior.in

school, grade placements, retentions, and special class placements

• Child's social and interpersonal history, including involvement in court and family services

• Child's medical history, such as serious diseases, disabilities, and medications

• Family's history and socioeconomic status, such as number of children, birth order of children, and resources

• Interventions attempted by parents and teachers and their results

• Recent changes in child's life (e.g., parents' divorce or remarriage, loss of a close family member or friend, move, change in teacher)

• Child's school environment (e.g., violence, teacher-child ratio, overcrowding)

• Resources available to child (e.g., computer in home, parental support, tutoring, proximity to community resources such as library)

Assessment Findings • Description of problem behavior, such as (a) its origin,

(b) age of child when it began, (c) its frequency, duration, intensity, and severity, and (d) its antecedents and consequences

• Overall level of inteiligence, level of verbal ability, level of nonverbal abilitY, and cognitive strengths and weaknesses

• Reading ability, such as decoding, phonemic awareness, reading comprehension, and reading fluency

• Written language ability, such as spelling, writing mechanics, and written expression

• Cross-validate impressions provided by multiple informants • Determine the conditions that inhibit or support the acqui­

sition of appropriate skills • Obtain baseline information prior to the implementation

of an intervention program • Develop useful instructional programs

MULTIMETHOD ASSESSMENT 9

• Mathematics ability, such as math computations, fluency, and math applications

• Abilities in other academic areas • Attention and concentration, such as ability to filter out

extraneous stimuli and focus on a task over a period of time • Executive functions, such as planning, organization, setting

priorities, creating and applying effective strategies, attending to the most salient aspects of a task, and applying the correct amount of effort and attention to a task

• Adaptive skills, such as self-help skills and ability to function in the environment

• Work and study skills, such as (a) study habits, including length of time spent studying, frequency of studying, when ~md where studying takes place, (b) note-taking strategies, (c) study strategies such as writing and answering study questions, (d) text-reading strategies, (e) use of supplementary materials, (f) use of computer software, and (g)use of the Web and online resources

• AUditory perception, such as ability to identify, discriminate, interpret, and organize elements of acoustical stimuli

• Fine-motor coordination, such as ability to integrate small muscles,usually in conjunction with visual perception

• Gross-motor activity, such as degree of coordination and ability to organize movements of the large muscle groups

• Memory, such as ability to store and retrieve information • Visual perception, such as ability to identify, discriminate,

interpret, and organize physical elements of visual stimuli • Personal and emotional functioning, such as ability to

relate to others, ability to express and modulate emotions, ability to show a range of emotions, coping strategies, and temperament

• Activity level in various situations • Effect of problems on ordinary activities • Compensatory strategies used by child

Interventions • Child's, family's, and school's expectations for changes in the

child's behavior • Most feasible interventions, including educational programs

and settings, given family, school, and community resources • Realistic goals • PrognOSis • (For reevaluations) Changes in functioning

• Guide students in selecting educational and vocational programs

• Monitor cognitive, academic, or social cbanges in the child (and in the family, scbool, and community as needed)

• Measure the effectiveness of interventions

III I

k.

Table 1-3 Factors to Consider in a Multimethod Assessment

Referral Information • Referral source • Reason for referral • Behaviors of concern to referral source

Demographic .and Background Information • Child's date of birth and age • Child's gender • Child's residence • Child's grade level • Child's ethnicity • Child's prenatal, birth, and postnatal developmental histories

and developmental milestones • Child's languages, such as language spoken at home, at

school, and with friends, and competency in each _ . • Child's educational history, such as grades, behavior';n

school, grade placements, retentions, and special class placements

• Child's social and interpersonal history, including involvement in court and family services

• Child's medical history, such as serious diseases, disabilities, and medications

• Family's history and socioeconomic status, such as number of children, birth order of children, and resources

• Interventions attempted by parents and teachers and their results

• Recent changes in child's life (e.g., parents' divorce or remarriage, loss of a close family member or fri.end, move, change in teacher)

• Child's school environment (e.g., violence, teacher-child ratio, overcrowding)

• Resources available to child (e.g., computer in home, parental support, tutoring, proximity to community resources such as library)

Assessment Findings • Description of problem behavior, such as (a) its origin,

(b) age of child when it began, (c) its frequency, duration, intenSity, and severity, and (d) its antecedents and consequences

• Overall level of inteiligence, level of verbal ability, level of nonverbal abilitY, and cognitive strengths and weaknesses

~. Reading ability, such as decoding, phonemic awareness, reading comprehension, and reading fluency

• Written language ability, such as spelling, writing mechanics, and written expression

• Cross-validate impressions provided by multiple infonnants • Determine the conditions that inhibit or support the acqui­

sition of appropriate skills • Obtain baseline infonnation prior to the implementation

of an intervention program • Develop useful instructional programs

MULTIMETHOD ASSESSMENT 9

• Mathematics ability, such as math computations, fluency, and math applications

• Abilities in other academic areas • Attention and concentration, such as ability to filter out

extraneous stimuli and focus on a task over a period of time • Executive functions, such as planning, organization, setting

priorities, creating and applying effective strategies, attending to the most salient aspects of a task, and applying the correct amount of effort and attention to a task

• Adaptive skills, such as self-help skills and ability to function in the environment

• Work and study skills, such as (a) study habits, including length of time spent studying, frequency of studying, when and where studying takes place, (b) note-taking strategies, (c) study strategies such as writing and answering study questions, (d) text-reading strategies, (e) use of supplementary materials, (f) use of computer software, and (g) use of the Web and online resources

• AUditory perception, such as ability to identify, discriminate, interpret, and organize elements of acoustical stimuli

• Fine-motor coordination, such as ability to integrate small muscles,-usually in conjunction with visual perception

• Gross-motor activity, such as degree of coordination and ability to organize movements of the large muscle groups

• Memory, such as ability to store and retrieve information • Visual perception, such as ability to identify, discriminate,

interpret, and organize physical elements of visual stimuli • Personal and emotional functioning, such as ability to

relate to others, ability to express and modulate emotions, ability to show a range of emotions, coping strategies, and temperament

• Activity level in various situations • Effect of problems on ordinary acllvities • Compensatory strategies used by child

Interventions • Child's, family's, and school's expectations for changes in the

child's behavior • Most feasible interventions, including educational programs

and settings, given family, school, and community resources • Realistic goals • Prognosis • (For reevaluations) Changes in functioning

• Guide students in selecting educational and vocational programs

• Monitor cognitive, academic, or social cbanges in the child (and in the family, scbool, and community as needed)

• Measure the effectiveness of interventions

10 CHAPTER 1 CHALLENGES IN ASSESSING CHILDREN: THE PROCESS

Table 1-4 Guidelines That Form a Foundation for the Assessment Process

Background • Assessment should be used for the benefit of the child. • Assessment should be a systematic process of arriving at an

understanding of a child.

Selection of Assessment Measures • Assessment measures should have adequate reliability and

validity for the situations in which they are being used. • Assessment measures should have representative

standardization groups. • Assessment measures should provide information

needed to answer the referral question and make useful

recommendations.

Administration of Assessment Measures • Assessment measures should be administered under

standard conditions (e.g., using the exact wording in the manuals and following administrative instructions and time limits precisely).

• Assessment measures should be scored according to

well-defined rules.

Interpretation of Assessment Measures • Scores may be adversely affected by the child's (a) poor

comprehension of English, (b) temporary fatigue, anxiety, or stress, (c) uncooperative behavior, (d) limited motivation, (e) disturbances in temperament or personality, and/or (f) physical illnesses or disorders.

• Assessment strategies include comparing a child's performance with that of other children (Le., normative comparisons) and evaluating the child's unique profile of scorf3s or individual patterns (Le., idiographic comparisons).

GUIDELINES FOR CONDUCTING ASSESSMENTS

A clinical assessor should neve:r focus exclusively on a child's test scores; instead, he or she should interpret them by asking what the ~cores suggest about the child's competencies and limitation~. Each child has a range of competencies and limi­tations that can be evaluated quantitatively and qualitatively. Note that the aim is to assess both limitations and competen­cies, not just limitations. Table 1-4 provides guidelines that form a foundation for the assessment process.

Tests and other assessment procedures are powerful tools, but their effectiveness depends on the examiner's knowledge, skill, and experience. Clinical and psychoeducational evalu­ations lead to decisions and actions that affect the lives of children and their families. When used wisely and cautiously, assessment procedures can assist you in helping children, parents, teachers, and other professionals. When used inap­propriately, assessment procedures can be misleading and harmful. The case of Daniel Hoffman in Exhibit 1-1 shows

• Interpretations are developed by use of inductive methods (Le., gathering information about a child and then drawing conclusions) and deductive methods (Le., proposing a hypothesis about the child's behavior and then collecting information that relates to the hypothesis).

• Results from psychological measures should be interpreted in relation to other behavioral data and case history information (including a child's cultural background and primary language), never in isolation.

• Assessment measures assess a child's performance based on her or his answers to a set of items administered at a particular time and place. The answers represent samples of behavior; they do not directly reveal traits or capacities, but they allow you to make inferences about these characteristi.cs.

• Divergent assessment findings need to be carefully considered and reported, not minimized or ignored.

• Assessmentconclusions and recommendations should be based on all sources of information obtained about a child, not on any single piece of information.

• Reevaluations may be needed periodically (e.g., 1 year after an intervention begins and/or every 3 years for special education classification). However, reevaluations should be conducted only when there is a good reason to do so, unless required by state or federal statute (see Chapter 3 for the requirements for reevaluation under IDEA 2004).

• Assessment measures intended to assess the same area may yield different scores (e.g., two different intelligence tests purporting to measure similar constructs may yield scores that differ). In such cases, you should discuss the implications of these findings.

how assessment results directly affect children'and their par­ents. You must be careful about the words you choose when writing reports and when communicating with ciiildren, their families, and other professionals. Your work is a major pro­fessional contribution to children and their families, to their schools, and to society.

STEPS IN THE ASSESSMENT PROCESS

The assessment process comprises 11 steps (see Figure 1-3). These steps represent a multistage process for planning, collecting data, evaluating results, formulating hypotheses, developing recommendations, communicating results and recommendations, conducting reevaluations, and following up on a child's performance. The original assessment plan may need to be modified as questions develop from the as­sessment findings. Sometimes you will want to change assess-. ment procedures as a result of information obtained early on, so that you can gain more information about specific areas of 10 CHAPTER 1 CHALLENGES IN ASSESSING CHILDREN: THE PROCESS

Table 1-4 Guidelines That Form a Foundation for the Assessment Process

Background • Assessment should be used for the benefit of the child. • Assessment should be a systematic process of arriving at an

understanding of a child.

Selection of Assessment Measures • Assessment measures should have adequate reliability and

validity for the situations in which they are being used. • Assessment measures should have representative

standardization groups. • Assessment measures should provide information

needed to answer the referral question and make useful

recommendations.

Administration of Assessment Measures • Assessment measures should be administered under

standard conditions (e.g., using the exact wording in the manuals and following administrative instructions and time limits precisely).

• Assessment measures should be scored according to

well-defined rules.

Interpretation of Assessment Measures • Scores may be adversely affected by the child's (a) poor

comprehension of English,(b) temporary fatigue, anxiety, or stress, (c) uncooperative behavior, (d) limited motivation, (e) disturbances in temperament or personality, and/or (f) physical illnesses or disorders.

• Assessment strategies include comparing a child's performance with that of other children (Le., normative comparisons) and evaluating the child's unique profile of scorr::s or individual patterns (Le., idiographic comparisons).

GUIDELINES FOR CONDUCTING ASSESSMENTS

A clinical assessor should never focus exclusively on a child's test scores; instead, he or she -should interpret them by asking what the scores suggest about the child's competencies and limitation~. Each child has a range of competencies and limi­tations that can be evaluated quantitatively and qualitatively. Note that the aim is to assess both limitations and competen­cies, not just limitations. Table 1-4 provides guidelines that form a foundation for the assessment process.

Tests and other assessment procedures are powerful tools, but their effectiveness depends on the examiner's knowledge, skill, and experience. Clinical and psychoeducational evalu­ations lead to decisions and actions that affect the lives of children and their families. When used wisely and cautiously, assessment procedures can assist you in helping children, parents, teachers, and other professionals. When used inap­propriately, assessment procedures can be misleading and hannful. The case of Daniel Hoffman in Exhibit 1-1 shows

• Interpretations are developed by use of inductive methods (i.e., gathering information about a child and then drawing conclusions) and deductive methods (i.e., proposing a hypothesis about the child's behavior and then collecting information that relates to the hypothesis).

• Results from psychological measures should be interpreted in relation to other behavioral data and case history information (including a child's cultural background and primary language), never in isolation.

• Assessment measures assess a child's performance based on her or his answers to a set of items administered at a particular time and place. The answers represent samples of behavior; they do not directly reveal traits or capacities, but they allow yoti to make inferences about these characteristi.cs.

• Divergent assessment findings need to be carefully considered and reported, not minimized or ignored.

• Assessment. conclusions and recommendations should be based on all sources of information obtained about a child, not on any single piece of information.

• Reevaluations may Qe needed periodically (e.g., 1 year after an intervention begins and/or every 3 years for special education classification). However, reevaluations should be conducted only when there is a good reason to do so, unless required by state or federal statute (see Chapter 3 for the requirements for reevaluation under IDEA 2004).

• Assessment measures intended to assess the same area may yield different scores (e.g., two different intelligence tests purporting to measure similar constructs may yield scores that differ). In such cases, you should discuss the implications of these findings.

~.::

how assessment results directly affect children'and their par­ents. You must be careful about the words you choose when writing reports and when communicating with children, their families, and other professionals. Your work is a major pro­fessional contribution to children and tbeir families, to their schools, and to society.

STEPS IN THE ASSESSMENT PROCESS

The assessment process comprises 11 steps (see Figure 1-3). These steps represent a multistage process for planning, collecting data, evaluating results, formulating hypotheses, developing recommendations, communicating results and recommendations, conducting reevaluations, and following up on a child's performance. The original assessment plan may need to be modified as questions develop from the as­sessment findings. Sometimes you will want to change assess- . ment procedures as a result of information obtained early on, so that you can gain more information about specific areas of

............................................................ ,

I L

Step 1 Review referral information

Step 2 Decide whether to accept the referral

Step 3 I

Obtain relevant background information

Step 4 Consider the influence of relevant others

Step 5 Observe the child in several settings

,

Step 6 Select and administer an assessment test battery -

Step 7 Interpret the assessment results

Step 8 Develop intervention strategies and recommendations

Step 9 Write a report

Step 10

I Meet with parents, the child (if appropriate),

and other concerned individuals

Step 11 I

Follow up on recommendations and conduct a reevaluation

Figure 1-3. Steps in the assessment process.

functioning. For example, suppose your original plan does not call for an in-depth developmental history interview with the mother. However, the interview with the child reveals a period of hospitalization last summer. Consequently, you decide that you need to interview the mother to obtain more detailed de­

. velopmental information and, if necessary, ask for written per­mission to obtain a copy of the medical report. Finally, as you review your findings, you may decide that the child needs a specialized assessment, such as a neuropsychological evalu­ation or a speech and language evaluation. In this case, you would refer the child to an appropriate specialist.

The steps in the assessment process are not necessarily fixed in the order presented here. For example, you may want to observe the child after you administer the assessment bat­tery. The referral question, as well as case history informa­tion, will guide your selection of assessment tools. As you conduct the examination and review the results, your initial

. STEPS IN THE ASSESSMENT PROCESS 11

hypotheses may be modified and new ones may emerge. In some cases, it may not be practical to conduct observations or home visits, especially in clinics or hospitals with limited staff. Also, in school settings, the intervention strategies and recommendations usually will be made by the multidisci­plinary team rather than by one person.

Step 1 : Review Referral Information

When you receive a referral, read it carefully and, if neces­sary, consult with the referral source to clarify any ambiguous or vague information. For example, if a teacher asks you to find out why a child is having difficulty in class, you will want to know the teacher's specific concerns (e.g., reading deficit, inattention, social skills deficit). You may find it necessary to redefine the referral question to focus on a particular concern. You will want to know what the referral source expects you to accomplish and to identify the areas of most concern to the refe~al source. If you can't identify these areas, it will be dif­ficult to formulate an appropriate assessment strategy. If you can identify these areas and identify the referral source's ex­pectations, you will begin the assessment on a firm footing.

Remember that you and the referral source are working together to help the child. You want to establish rapport and a good working relationship with the referral source. Commu­nication and decision making will be easier if you and the re­ferral source share a common vocabulary and agree about the referral question. Rapport with the referral source also may help you with the assessment process, as that person may be able to provide timely access to school records, conduct class­room observations, and contact other individuals with insights about the child. Finally, a referral s()Jlfce who has confidence in the process and results of an assessment will be more likely to implement appropriate interventions.

Describe the assessment procedures to the referral source, and discuss potential benefits and limitations (e.g., placement in a special education program, effect of the testing process on the child). In some cases, based only on the information provided by the referral source, you may be able to suggest interventions that can be implemented in the classroom prior to a formal assessment. If the child's problem behavioris alle­viated, a formal assessment may not be needed. Some school districts have prereferral committees or teacher support teams to work with teachers who have concerns about students' academic performance or behavior. Prereferral committees may recommend interventions. Their advice may reduce the number of children unnecessarily referred for assessment, making it easier to provide prompt and intensive services to those most in need of individual assessment.

Step 2: Decide Whether to Accept the Referral

You are not obligated to accept all referrals, nor do you need to give all children who are referred to you a complete assess-

, L_ dIiiI'~·

Step 1

Step 2 I

Step 3

Step 4

StepS

Step 6

Step 7

Step 8

Step 9

Step 10

Step 11

Review referral information

Decide whether to accept the referral

Obtain relevant background information

Consider the influence of relevant others

Observe the child in several settings

:

Select and administer an assessmeDt test battery

I nterpret the assessment results

Develop intervention strategies and recommendations

Write a report

Meet with parents, the child (if appropriate), and other concerned individuals

Follow up on recommendations and conduct a reevaluation

Figure 1-3. Steps in the assessment process.

functioning. For example, suppose your original plan does not call for an in-depth developmental history interview with the mother. However, the interview with the child reveals a period of hospitalization last summer. Consequently, you decide that you need to interview the mother to obtain more detailed de­

< velopmental information and, if necessary, ask for written per­mission to obtain a copy of the medical report. Finally, as you review your findings, you may decide that the child needs a specialized assessment, such as a neuropsychologic~ evalu­ation or a speech and language evaluation. In this case, you would refer the child to an appropriate specialist.

The steps in the assessment process are not necessarily fixed in the order presented here. For example, you may want to observe the child after you administer the assessment bat­tery. The referral question, as well as case history informa­tion, will guide your selection of assessment tools. As you conduct the examination and review the results, your initial

< STEPS IN THE ASSESSMENT PROCESS 11

hypotheses may be modified and new ones may emerge. In some cases, it may not be practical to conduct observations or home visits, especially in clinics or hospitals with limited staff. Also, in school settings, the intervention strategies and recommendations usually will be made by the multidisci­plinary team rather than by one person.

Step 1 : Review Referral Information

When you receive a referral, read it carefully and, if neces­sary, consult with the referral source to clarify any ambiguous or vague information. For example, if a teacher asks you to find out why a child is having difficulty in class, you will want to know the teacher's specific concerns (e.g., reading deficit, inattention, social skills deficit). You may find it necessary to redefine the referral question to focus on a particular concern. You: will want to know what the referral source expects you to accomplish and to identify the areas of most concern to the refe~al source. If you can't identify these areas, it will be dif­ficult to formulate an appropriate assessment strategy. If you can identify these areas and identify the referral source's ex­pectations, you will begin the assessment on a firm footing.

Remember that you and the referral source are working together to help the child. You want to establish rapport and a good working relationship with the referral source. Commu­nication and decision making will be easier if you and the re­ferral source share a common vocabulary and agree about the referral question. Rapport with the referral source also may help you with the assessment process, as that person may be able to provide timely access to school records, conduct class­room observations, and contact other individuals with insights about the child. Finally, a referral s(»)lfce who has confidence in the process and results of an assessment will be more likely to implement appropriate interventions.

Describe the assessment procedures to the referral source, and discuss potential benefits and limitations (e.g., placement in a special education program, effect of the testing process on the child). In some cases, based only on the information provided by the referral source, you may be able to suggest interventions that can be implemented in the classroom prior to a formal assessment. If the child's problem behavior is alle­viated, a formal assessment may not be needed. Some school districts have prereferral committees or teacher support tearns to work with teachers who have concerns about students' academic performance or behavior. Prereferral committees may recommend interventions. Their advice may reduce the number of children unnecessarily referred for assessment, making it easier to provide prompt and intensive services to those most in need of individual assessment.

Step 2: Decide Whether to Accept the Referral

You are not obligated to accept all referrals, nor do you need to give all children who are referred to you a complete assess-

i ""i

j •

12 CHAPTER 1 CHALLENGES IN ASSESSING CHILDREN: THE PROCESS

ment battery. It is also important to know your competencies. Ask yourself questions such as these:

• Do I need to confer with the referral source about what questions an _assessm~nt can and cannot answer? Identi­fying differences among the expectations of the referral source, the parents, and other parties involved at the outset of the evaluation may prevent misunderstandings after the evaluation is complete.

• Are there other professionals who are more competent to handle the referral because of its higbly specialized nature? For example, a child who has recently sustained a head injury would be best served by a neuropsychological and neurological assessment rather than by a psychoedu­cational assessment.

• Is formal testing needed? Can I answer the concerns of the referral source with assessment procedures other than formal testing (e.g., by examining work samples, class­room assessments, or report cards)?

• Do I need to refer the child for a medical evaluation be­cause the referral indicates (or I have discovered in the course of my evaluation) that the child has physical con­cerns that may affect the assessment or has had a sudden change in cognitive ability, physical condition, behav­ior, or personality? For example, has the child displayed changes in any of these areas?

• Changes in cognitive ability-difficulties in recalling, memorizing, speaking, reading, writing, attention, or concentration

• Changes in physical condition--complaints of nausea, dizziness, headache, vomiting, sleeplessness, difficulty ill arousal from sleep, listlessness, easy fatigability, blurred or double vision, motor weakness, clumsiness, loss of sensory acuity, ringing in the ears, or sensations of pain; numbness, or tingling

• Changes in behavior-becoming more hyperactive, impUlsive, withdrawn, moody, or distractible

• Changes in personality-becoming more introverted or extroverted or showing increased anxiety or fear or increased distrust of others

Generally, if problems are likely neurological or physiologi­cal, you should refer the child to a specialist in the appro­priate area. If you decide to conduct the evaluation, obtain pe~ssion from the parents.

Step 3: Obtain Relevant Background Information

A thorough knowledge of a child's current problems and past history is a key to planning and conducting an appropriate assessment. It is important to obtain information about the child's physical, social, psychological, linguistic, and educa­tional development. You can obtain this information in several ways. First, you can ask the parents to complete the Back­ground Questionnaire, the teacher to complete the School

Referral Questionnaire, and older children and adolescents to complete the Personal Data Questionnaire (see Appen­dixes A-I, A-3, and A-2, respectively, in Sattler and Roge, 2006). Second, you can interview the child, parents, teach­ers, and others familiar with the child's problem. Third, you can review the child's cumulative school records (including records from previous schools), which provide information regarding grades, curricula, and state and district standard­ized testing. Finally, if applicable, you can review reports of previous psychological or other evaluations, medical reports, and reports from other agencies.

Note whether the child was exposed to any risk factors during prenatal development, delivery, early childhood, or later development (risk factors are factors that may lead to psychological, neurological, and/or psychoeducational prob­lems). AlsO note whether the family has a history of any disorders related to the referral question. In school settings, you will want to note information about what the child has or has not learned and any corrective actions taken by the schoohitaff (e.g., curriculum changes or behavioral or en­vironmental interventions) and obtain samples of the child's classroom _ work (e.g., essays, writing samples, drawings, constructions). If you plan to contact other sources to obtain information about the child, be sure to have the parents sign a release-of-information consent form. If the child was re­cently hospitalized, ask the hospital staff and tutors who have worked with the child whether they think the child is ready to return to school and to tell you about any factors that might interfere with the child's schooling and adjustment.

Step 4: Consider the Influence of Relevant Others

To obtain a comprehensive evaluation of a child's problems, it is critical that you (or a member of the interdisciplinary team or clinical staff) interview the child's parents, siblings, teachers, and other adults. Determine each parent's preferred language and use a trained interpreter as needed (see Chapter 5 for in­formation about using an interpreter). Carefully explain to the parents the policies of the clinic, school, or your own prac­tice. Also explain the limits of confidentiality (see Chapter 3), fees, time constraints, and what you think you can accomplish. Give parents the opportunity to ask questions, and answer their questions as simply, clearly, and directly as possible.

When you interview the child's parents and teachers, find out how they view the problem and what they have done to alleviate the problem, and explore their roles in maintaining the problem. Because different adults see the child in differ­ent settings and play different roles with the child, do not be surprised to find that adults' reports about the same child conflict. When the assessment findings do not agree with the parents' or teachers' accounts of what the child can do, in­vestigate the reasons for the disagreement. Do not assume that conflicting reports are wrong; rather, consider them to be based on different samples of behavior. i

1

12 CHAPTER 1 CHALLENGES IN ASSESSING CHILDREN:THE PROCESS

ment battery. It is also important to know your competencies. Ask yourself questions such as these:

• Do I need to confer with the referral source about what questions an .assessment can and cannot answer? Identi­fying differences among the expectations of the referral source, the parents, and other parties involved at the outset of the evaluation may prevent misunderstandings after the evaluation is complete.

• Are there other professionals who are more competent to handle the referral because of its highly specialized nature? For example, a child who has recently sustained a head injury would be best served by a neuropsychological and neurological assessment rather than by a psychoedu­cational assessment.

• Is formal testing needed? Can I answer the concerns of the referral source with assessment procedUres other than formal testing (e.g., by examining work samples, class­room assessments, or report cards)?

• Do I need to refer the child for a medical evaluation be­cause the referral indicates (or I have discovered in the course of my evaluation) that the child has physical con­cerns that may affect the assessment or has had a sudden change in cognitive ability, physical condition, behav­ior, or personality? For example, has the child displayed changes in any of these areas?

• Changes in cognitive ability-<lifficulties in recalling, memorizing, speaking, reading, writing, attention, or concentration

• Changes in physical condition-complaints of nausea, dizziness, headache, vomiting, sleeplessness, difficulty ill arousal from sleep, listlessness, easy fatigability, blurred or double vision, motor weakness, clumsiness, loss of sensory acuity, ringing in the ears, or sensations of pain; numbness, or tingling

• Changes ill behavior-becoming more hyperactive, impulsive, withdrawn, moody, or distractible

• Changes in personality-becoming more introverted or extroverted or showing increased anxiety or fear or increased distrust of others

Generally, if problems are likely neurological or physiologi­cal~ you should refer the child to a specialist in the appro­priate area. If you decide to conduct the evaluation, obtain pe~ssion from the parents.

Step 3: Obtain Relevant Background Information

A thorough knowledge of a child's current problems and past history is a key to planning and conducting an appropriate assessment. It is important to obtain information about the child's physical, social, psychological, linguistic, and educa­tional development. You can obtain this information in several ways. First, you can ask the parents to complete the Back­ground Questionnaire, the teacher to complete the School

Referral Questionnaire, and older children and adolescents to complete the Personal Data Questionnaire (see Appen­dixes A-I, A-3, and A-2, respectively, in Sattler and Hoge, 2006). Second, you can interview the child, parents, teach­ers, and others familiar with the child's problem. Third, you can review the child's cumulative school records (including records from previous schools), which provide information regarding grades, curricula, and state and district standard­ized testing. Finally, if applicable, you can review reports of previous psychological or other evaluations, medical reports, and reports from other agencies.

Note whether the child was exposed to any risk factors during prenatal development, delivery, early childhood, or later development (risk factors are factors that may lead to psychological, neurological, and/or psychoeducational prob­lems). Also' note whether the family has a history of any disorders related to the referral question. In school settings, you will want to note information about what the child has or has riot learned and any corrective actions taken by the schoohitaff (e.g., curriculum changes or behavioral or en­vironmental interventions) and obtain samples of the child's classroom _ work (e.g., essays, writing samples, drawings, constructions). If you plan to contact other sources to obtain information about the child, be sure to have the parents sign a release-of-information consent form. If the child was re­cently hospitalized, ask the hospital staff and tutors who have worked with the child whether they think the child is ready to return to school and to teU you about any factors that might interfere with the child's schooling and adjustment.

Step 4: Consider the Influence of Relevant Others

To obtain a comprehensive evaluation of a child's problems, it is critical that you (or a member of the interdisciplinary team or clinical staff) interview the child's parents, siblings, teachers, and other adults. Detennine each parent's preferred language and use a trained interpreter as needed (see Chapter 5 for in­formation about using an interpreter). Carefully explain to the parents the policies of the clinic, school, or your own prac­tice. Also explain the limits of confidentiality (see Chapter 3), fees, time constraints, and what you think you can accomplish. Give parents the opportunity to ask questions, and answer their questions as simply, clearly, and directly as possible.

When you interview the child's parents and teachers, find out how they view the problem and what they have done to alleviate the problem, and explore their roles in maintaining the problem. Because different adults see the child in differ­ent settings and play different roles with the child, do not be surprised to find that adults' reports about the same child conflict. When the assessment findings do not agree with the parents' or teachers' accounts of what the child can do, in­vestigate the reasons for the disagreement. Do not assume that conflicting reports are wrong; rather, consider them to be based on different samples of behavior.

Step 5: Observe the Child in Several Settings

Information obtained from observations will help you in­dividualize the clinical evaluation and will supplement the more objective test information. You will want to observe the child in several school settings and at home, if possible. For example, after visiting the classroom, you should be able to answer questions such as these: What is the classroom en­vironment like? Is the curriculum appropriate for the child? What instructional strategies and rewards are being used and how effective are they? Row does the child's behavior com­pare to that of other children? Careful observation will help you to develop hypotheses about the child's coping behav­iors. Ask the teacher to tell the students that you are there to observe the class so that they do not wonder about why you are there. If you (or a social worker) visit the child's home, ask a parent to tell the family that you are there. to observe the family.

Classroom and home visits provide added benefits, includ­ing the opportunity to establish rapport with the child, teach­ers, and parents and to observe such aspects of the child's environment as the layout and structure of the classroom and the home (see Chapters 8 and 9 on behavioral observations in Sattler and Roge, 2006). Developing a collaborative relation­ship with the child's teachers and parents will be important both during assessment and during any subsequent interven­tions. When you observe in these settings, avoid interfering with classroom or home routines, and remind the adults that you don't want the child to. know that you are there to observe him or her. Ask the teachers or parents to follow their usual routines when you are present.

Also, ask the teacher, parent, or other adult whether the behavior the child exhibited is typical and, if atypical, how it differed from his or her usual behavior. Although you should make every effort to reduce the parents' or teachers' anxi­ety about your visit, they must understand that their behavior may be part of the problem and that changes in their behav­ior may be part of the solution. You should therefore observe how the behaviors of the ,parents and teachers affect the child. The behaviors of a child and his or her parents or teachers are usually so .interdependent that it is almost impossible to exariiine the child's behavior without evaluating that of the parents or teachers.

Step 6: Select and Administer an Assessment Test Battery

Consider the following questions about test selection and administration:

How do I select an assessment test battery? An effective assessment strategy requires that you choose as­sessment procedures that will help you reach your goals. The tests you select should be related to the referral question. For

STEPS IN THE ASSESSMENT PROCESS 13

SCflOOL. PS'YCHOLOGISl"

Courtesy of Herman Zielinski and Jerome M. Sattler.

example, a reading fluency test with brief items will not ad­dress a referral question about the child's inability to compre­hend textbook chapters; likewise, a short-term memory test will not answer questions about long-term recall difficulties.­The questions in Table 1-5 will help Y9u evaluate assessment instruments and determine whether a test is appropriate for a particular child. You should consider these questions for each assessment instrument you use, to ensure that it is appropriate for the child and for the specific purpose for which it will be used. Carefully study the information contained in each test manual, such as the reliability and validity of the test and the norm group. Use tests only for the purposes recommended by the test publisher, unless there is evidence to support other uses for a test.

For information on a vast number of tests, consult the latest edition of the Mental Measurements Yearbook. Consult Stan­dards for Educational and Psychological Testing (American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, & National Council on Measurement in Educa­tion, 1999) for information about technical and professional standards for test construction and use. Journals that review tests and present research on assessment include Psychologi­cal Assessment, loumal of Psychoeducational Assessment, Psychology in the Schools, School Psychology Review, lour­nal of Clinical Psychology, loumal of School Psychology, Educational and Psychological Measurement, Intelligence, Applied Psychological Measurement, loumal of Educational Psychology, loumal of Educational Measurement, School Psychology Quarterly, and loumal of Personality Assess-

-' -'~-' -' --

Step 5: Observe the Child in Several Settings

Infonnation obtained from observations will help you in­dividualize the clinical evaluation and will supplement the more objective test infonnation. You will want to observe the child in several school settings and at home, if possible. For example, after visiting the classroom, you should be able to answer questions such as these: What is the classroom en­vironment like? Is the curriculum appropriate for the child? What instructional strategies and rewards are being used and how effective are they? Row does the child's behavior com­pare to that of other children? Careful observation will help you to develop hypotheses about the child's coping behav­iors. Ask the teacher to tell the students that you are there to observe the class so that they do not wonder about why you are there. If you (or a social worker) visit the child's home, ask a parent to tell the family that you are there. to observe the family.

Classroom and home visits provide added benefits, includ­ing the opportunity to establish rapport with the child, teach­ers, and parents and to observe such aspects of the child's environment as the layout and structure of the classroom and the home (see Chapters 8 and 9 on behavioral observations in Sattler and Roge, 2006). Developing a collaborative relation­ship with the child's teachers and parents will be important both during assessment and during any subsequent interven­tions. When you observe in these settings, avoid interfering with classroom or home routines, and remind the adults that you don't want the clilld to. know that you are there to observe him or her. Ask the teachers or parents to follow their usual routines when you are present.

Also, ask the teacher, parent, or other adult whether the behavior the child exhibited is typical and, if atypical, how it differed from'tJis or her usual behavior. Although you should make every effort to reduce the parents' or teachers' anxi­ety about your visit, they must understand that their behavior may be part of the problem and that changes in their behav­ior may be part of the solution. You should therefore observe how the behaviors of the ,parents and teachers affect the child. The behaviors of a cIilld and his or her parents or teachers are usually so .interdependent that it is almost impossible to examine the child's behavior without evaluating that of the parents or teachers.

Step 6: Select and Administer an Assessment Test Battery

Consider the following questions about test selection and administration:

How do I select an assessment test battery? An effective assessment strategy requires that you choose as­sessment procedures that will help you reach your goals. The tests you select should be related to the referral question. For

STEPS IN THE ASSESSMENT PROCESS 13

NOW SERVING

ITIJ 8CflOOl.. PSYCHOLOGISi

Courtesy of Herman Zielinski and Jerome M. Sattler.

example, a reading fluency test with brief items will not ad­dress a referral question about the child's inability to compre­hend textbook chapters; likewise, a short-tenn memory test will not answer questions about long-tenn recall difficulties.­The questions in Table 1-5 will help Y9U evaluate assessment instruments and determine whether a test is appropriate for a particular child. You should consider these questions for each assessment instrument you use, to ensure that it is appropriate for the child and for the specific purpose for which it will be used. Carefully study the infonnation contained in each test manual, such as the reliability and validity of the test and the norm group. Use tests only for the purposes recommended by the test publisher, unless there is evidence to support other uses for a test.

For infonnation on a vast number of tests, consult the latest edition of the Mental Measurements Yearbook. Consult Stan­dards for Educational and Psychological Testing (American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, & National Council on Measurement in Educa­tion, 1999) for infonnation about technical and professional standards for test construction and use. Journals that review tests and present research on assessment include Psychologi­cal Assessment, Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, Psychology in the Schools, School Psychology Review, Jour­nal of Clinical Psychology, Journal of School Psychology, Educational and Psychological Measurement, Intelligence, Applied Psychological Measurement, Journal of Educational Psychology, Journal of Educational Measurement, School Psychology QlIaJ1erly, and Journal of Personality Assess-

14 CHAPTER 1 CHALLENGES IN ASSESSING CHILDREN: THE PROCESS

Table 1-5 Questions to Conside~ When Reviewing an Assessment Measure

Information About the Assessment Measure 1. What is the name of the assessment measure? 2. Who are the authors? 3. Who published it? 4. When was it published? 5. What is the purpose of the assessment measure? 6. What do the reviewers say about the assessment measure? 7. When were the norms collected? 8. Are the populations to which the norms refer clearly defined

and described? 9. Are norms reported in an appropriate form (usually as stan-

dard scores or percentile ranks)? 10. What was the standardization group? 11. How representative was the standardization group? 12. Are data presented about the performance of diverse

groups on the test? 13. What reliability measures are provided and how reliable is

the assessment measure? 14. What validity measures are provided and how valid is the

assessment measure for its stated purposes? 15. If a factor analysis has been performed, what were the

results? 16. How recently was the assessment measure revised?

Information About Administering the Assessment Measure 17. Is the assessment measure appropriate to answer the refer­

ral question? 18. Does the publisher provide an administration manual and a

technical manual? 19. Does the manual include interpretation guidelines and infor­

mation to support the recommended interpretations? 20. Is an alternative form available? 21. If more than one form is available, does the publisher offer

tables showing equivalent scores on the different forms?

ment. Also check publishers' Web sites for notices of errors, new interpretive infonnation, newsletters and technical re­ports (often free), and download,able updates of computer scoring programs. In some cases, you may have to call the publisher directly to obtain answers to your questions.

Select the test battery based on your infonnation about the child. Consider the referral question and the child's age, physical capabilities, language proficiency, culture, and prior test results. Also consider teacher, parent, and medical re­ports. In selecting tests, consider the questions listed in Table 1-5. Recognize that no one test can give you all the infor­mation you need to perfonn a comprehensive evaluation of a child. An objective measure of intelligence, for example, provides little or no infonnation about the child's word recog­nition and reading comprehension abilities; competencies in arithmetical operations and spelling; behavior outside of the test situation; self-concept; attitudes toward peers, siblings, and parents; temperament and personality; adaptive behavior; or interpersonal skills. To conduct a thorough evaluation, you

22. How much does the assessment measure cost? 23. How long does it take to administer? 24. What qualifications are needed to administer and interpret

the assessment measure?

Information About Scoring the Assessment Measure 25. How clear are the directions for administration and scoring? 26. What standard scores are used? 27. What is the range of standard scores? 28. Are the scales used for reporting scores clearly and care-

fully described? 29. Is hand scoring available? 30. Is computer scoring available? 31. Is a computer report available?

Child Considerations 32. What prerequisite skills does the child need in order to

complete t~eassessment measure? 33. In what languages or modes of communication can the

assessment measure be administered? 34. What adaptations can be made in presentation and

response modes for children with disabilities who need spe­cial accommodations?

35. Is the vocabulary level of the assessment measure's direc­tions appropriate for the child?

36. Does the child have any physical limitations that will inter­fere with his or her performance?

37. How much is the assessment measure affected by gender and ethnic bias?

38. Will the assessment measure materials be interesting to the child?

39. Is the assessment measure suitable for indivjdual or group administration? ,--

will need to supplement a measure of intellectual ability with other assessment measures. Your personal preferences, based on your experience and evaluations, will also guide you in selecting tests.

How much information should I obtain? Your primary goal is to help the child. You do this by obtaining infonnation needed to answer the referral question. However, as part of the initial assessment, you may obtain meaningful leads that need to be followed up by administering additional tests.

How many tests and procedures are necessary and how long should the assessment be? The number of tests and procedures and the length of each assessment will be determined by factors such as the severity of the child's problem, the child's age, the child's attention and motiva­tion, and the time available to you to conduct the assessment. Again, there are no absolute guidelines about these issues. You will need to use clinical judgment in each case. How-14 CHAPTER 1 CHALLENGES IN ASSESSING CHILDREN: THE PROCESS

Table 1·5 Questions to Conside~ When Reviewing an Assessment Measure

Information About the Assessment Measure 1. What is the name of the assessment measure? 2. Who are the authors? 3. Who published it? 4. When was it published? 5. What is the purpose of the assessment measure? 6. What do the reviewers say about the assessment measure? 7. When were the norms collected? 8. Are the populations to which the norms refer clearly defined

and described? 9. Are norms reported in an appropriate form (usually as stan-

dard scores or percentile ranks)? 10. What was the standardization group? 11. How representative was the standardization group? 12. Are data presented about the performance of diverse

groups on the test? 13. What reliability measures are provided and how reliable is

the assessment measure? 14. What validity measures are provided and how valid is the

assessment measure for its stated purposes? 15. If a factor analysis has been performed, what were the

results? 16. How recently was the assessment measure revised?

Information About Administering the Assessment Measure 17. Is the assessment measure appropriate to answer the refer­

ral question? 18. Does the publisher provide an administration manual and a

technical manual? 19. Does the manual include interpretation guidelines and infor­

mation to support the recommended interpretations? 20. Is an alternative form available? 21. If more than one form is available, does the publisher offer

tables showing equivalent scores on the different forms?

ment. Also check publishers' Web sites for notices of errors, new interpretive infonnation, newsletters and technical re­ports (often free), and download,able updates of computer scoring programs. In some cases, you may have to call the publisher directly to obtain answers to your questions.

Select the test battery based on your infonnation about the child. Consider the referral question and the child's age, physical capabilities, language proficiency, culture, and prior test results. Also consider teacher, parent, and medical re­ports. In selecting tests, consider the questions listed in Table 1-5. Recognize that no one test can give you all the infor­mation you need to perfonn a comprehensive evaluation of a child. An objective measure of intelligence, for example, provides little or no infonnation about the child's word recog­nition and reading comprehension abilities; competencies in arithmetical operations and spelling; behavior outside of the test situation; self-concept; attitudes toward peers, siblings, and parents; temperament and personality; adaptive behavior; or interpersonal skills. To conduct a thorough evaluation, you

22. How much does the assessment measure cost? 23. How long does it take to administer? 24. What qualifications are needed to administer and interpret

the assessment measure?

Information About Scoring the Assessment Measure 25. How clear are the directions for administration and scoring? 26. What standard scores are used? 27. What is the range of standard scores? 28. Are the scales used for reporting scores clearly and care-

fully described? 29. Is hand scoring available? 30. Is computer scoring available? 31. Is a computer report available?

Child Considerations 32. What prerequisite skills does the child need in order to

complete t~e.assessment measure? 33. In what languages or modes of communication can the

assessment measure be administered? 34. What adaptations can be made in presentation and

response modes for children with disabilities who need spe­cial accommodations?

35. Is the vocabulary level of the assessment measure's direc­tions appropriate for the child?

36. Does the child have any physical limitations that will inter­fere with his or her performance?

37. How much is the assessment measure affected by gender and ethnic bias?

38. Will the assessment measure materials be interesting to the child?

39. Is the assessment measure suitable for indivl.dual or group administration? ,- -

will need to supplement a measure of intellectual ability with other assessment measures. Your personal preferences, based on your experience and evaluations, will also guide you in selecting tests.

How much information should lobtain? Yourpriruary goal is to help the child. You do this by obtaining infonnation needed to answer the referral question. However, as part of the initial assessment, you may obtain meaningful leads that need to be followed up by administering additional tests.

How many tests and procedures are necessary and how long should the assessment be? The number of tests and procedures and the length of each assessment will be detennined by factors such as the severity of the child's problem, the child's age, the child's attention and motiva­tion, and the time available to you to conduct the assessment. Again, there are no absolute guidelines about these issues. You will need to use clinical judgment in each case. How-

L

ever, an efficient way of gathering relevant information is to have a parent, a t~acher, and the child (if possible) complete a questionnaire and a rating scale before the formal assess­ment begins.

Should I use a group test or an individually admin­istered test? In order to decide whether to use group or individually administered tests, you will again need to con­sider the referral question. How important is it that tests be administered individually? Would group tests be as effective as individual tests in answering the referral question? Are there any motivational, personality, linguistic, or physical disability factors that may impair the child's performance on group tests?

Individually administered tests are more expensive and time consuming than group tests, but they are essential as supple­ments to--or sometimes replacements for-group tests. Indi­vidually administered tests can also provide a second opinion when results of group tests are questionable or when you need to observe the child's performance. Finally, individually ad­ministered tests are usually required when children are evalu­ated for special education services or when testing is court ordered.

Group tests are valuable when a large number of nonre­ferred children need to be evaluated in a short period of time. Group tests, however, are not frequently used in the assessment of children with special needs for four reasons (Newcomer & Bryant, 1993). First, group tests usually require some degree of reading proficiency (e.g., to read the directions), and many children with special needs have reading difficulties. Individu­ally administered tests, in contrast, usually rely on examiners to read the test directions and interact verbally with children. (Obviously, individually administered tests designed to mea­sure reading ability require children to read.)

Second, because children taking group tests typically com­plete them by filling in bubbles, circling letters, or underlining answers instead of giving their answers orally, it is difficult to determine whether they know the answers or are merely guessing. (This is truy ef any multiple-choice test, whether a group test or an individually administered one.) Students with visual perceptual problems or attention problems may have difficulty using answer sheets correctly. They may, for example, follow instructions to skip difficult items but forget to skip corresponding items on the answer sheet. Also, group tests do not allow you to observe the child's behavior as he or she solves problems.

Third, group tests tend to use recognition rather than recall, requiring children to select one out of several answers. Al­though some individually administered tests require the child to select an answer from four or five choices (e.g., WISC-IV Matrix Reasoning subtest, Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-3, Peabody Individual Achievement Test-Revised Normative Update, and Comprehensive Test of Nonverbal Intelligence), most have children answer questions directly rather than choosing the correct answer from among several.

STEPS IN THE ASSESSMENT PROCESS 15

Fourth, the examiner may not even notice when children taking a group test become lost, bored, fatigued, or indiffer­ent. With an individual test, the examiner can monitor the child and take steps to reduce any problems by providing en­couragement, helping the child focus, taking short breaks, or maintaining motivation.

What do I need to know about administering an as­sessment test battery? You need to know how to pres­ent the test materials, how to interact with children, how to score their responses, and how to complete the record book­lets (or test protocols or test forms). To score responses ac­curately, you need to understand the scoring principles and scoring criteria discussed in the test manuals and guard against allowing halo effects that might bias scoring. (Halo effects occur when a judgment about one characteristic of a person is influenced by another characteristic or general impression of that person. For example, if you think a child is bright; you may give him or her credit for borderline or ambiguous responses.) You may also want to know how the child functions with additional cues, a process called testing­of-limits (see Chapter 6). The material in this text is intended to complement-the material contained in test manuals and to help you administer an assessment battery.

Step 7: Interpret the Assessment Results

After you have gathered the background and observational information, conducted the interviews, and administered and scored the tests, you need to interpret the findings.

C 1998 by John P. Wood

I marked them all "True." I just can't believe that

you'd ever lie to us.

Copyright © 1998, John P. Wood. Reprinted with nor,mi"·,,inn

ever, an efficient way of gathering relevant information is to have a parent, a teacher, and the child (if possible) complete a questionnaire aDd a rating scale before the formal assess­ment begins.

Should I use a group test or an individually admin­istered test? In order to decide whether to use group or individually administered tests, you will again need to con­sider the referral question. How important is it that tests be administered individually? Would group tests be as effective as individual tests in answering the referral question? Are there any motivational, personality, linguistic, or physical disability factors that may impair the child's performance on group tests?

Individually administered tests are more expensive and time consuming than group tests, but they are essential as supple­ments to--or sometimes replacements for-group tests. Indi­vidually administered tests can also provide a second opinion when results of group tests are questionable or when you need to observe the child's performance. Finally, individually ad­ministered tests are usually reqnired when children are evalu­ated for special education services or when testing is court ordered.

Group tests are valuable when a large number of nonre­ferred children need to be evaluated in a short period of time. Group tests, however, are not frequently used in the assessment of children with special needs for four reasons (Newcomer & Bryant, 1993). First, group tests usually require some degree of reading proficiency (e.g., to read the directions), and many children with special needs have reading difficulties. Individu­ally administered tests, in contrast, usually rely on examiners to read the test directions and interact verbally with children. (Obviously, individually administered tests designed to mea­sure reading ability require children to read.)

Second, because children taking group tests typically com­plete them by filling in bubbles, circling letters, or underlining answers instead of giving their answers orally, it is difficult to determine whether they know the answers or are merely guessing. (This is tru~ ef any multiple-choice test, whether a group test or an individually administered one.) Students with visual perceptual problems or attention problems may have difficulty using answer sheets correctly. They may, for example, follow instructions to skip difficult items but forget to skip corresponding items on the answer sheet. Also, group tests do not allow you to observe the child's behavior as he or she solves problems.

Third, group tests tend to use recognition rather than recall, requiring children to select one out of several answers. Al­though some individually administered tests require the child to select an answer from four or five choices (e.g., WISC-N Matrix Reasoning subtest, Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-3, Peabody Individual Achievement Test-Revised Normative Update, and Comprehensive Test of Nonverbal Intelligence), most have children answer questions directly rather than choosing the correct answer from among several.

STEPS IN THE ASSESSMENT PROCESS 15

Fourth, the examiner may not even notice when children taking a group test become lost, bored, fatigued, or indiffer­ent. With an individual test, the examiner can monitor the child and take steps to reduce any problems by providing en­conragement, helping the child focus, taking short breaks, or maintaining motivation.

What do I need to know about administering an as­sessment test battery? You need to know how to pres­ent the test materials, how to interact with children, how to score their responses, and how to complete the record book­lets (or test protocols or test forms). To score responses ac­curately, you need to understand the scoring principles and scoring criteria discussed in the test manuals and guard against allowing halo effects that might bias scoring. (Halo effects occur when a judgment about one characteristic of a person is influenced by another characteristic or general impression of that person. For example, if you think a child is bright; you may give him or her credit for borderline or ambiguous responses.) You may also want to know how the child functions with additional cues, a process called testing­of-limits (see Chapter 6). The material in this text is intended to complement-the material contained in test manuals and to help you administer an assessment battery.

Step 7: Interpret the Assessment Results

After you have gathered the background and observational information, conducted the interviews, and administered and scored the tests, you need to interpret the findings.

01998 by John P. Wood

I marked them all "True." I just can't believe that

you'd ever lie to us.

Copyright © 1998, John P. Wood. Reprinted with permission.

I

16 CHAPTER 1 CHALLENGES IN ASSESSING CHILDREN: THE PROCESS

Interpretations should never rely solely on scores from formal procedures. Test scores are valuable, but so are your judg­ments of the child's ~peech, voice quality, language, motor skills, physical appearance, posture, gestures, affect, and social and interpersonal skills, as well as judgments about the child's family, school, and community. Interpreting the findings is one of the most challenging of all assessment ac­tivities, as it will draw on your knowledge of developmental psychology, personality theory, psychopathology, psychomet­rics, and individual tests. The interpretive process involves (a) integrating the assessment data, (b) making judgments about the meaning of the data, and (c) exploring the implica­tions of the data for diagnosis, placement, and intervention.

As you integrate and interpret the assessment data, ask yourself these questions:

• Are the test scores from similar measures congruent or incongruent? For example, if you administered two dif-' ferent intelligence tests, are the percentile ranks similar? ' How might you account for any discrepancies between the two measures? Are there differences in the standardiza­tion groups, differences in item types, or differences in the times at which the two tests were administered to the child? If so, what are the differences?

• What are the similarities and differences between the child's behavior in the test session and his or her behavior in the classroom and on the playground? How might you account for any differences?

• What are the similarities and differences between your observations of the child's behavior and those of the child's parents and teachers? How might you account for any differences?

• Are the test results congruent with the other information about the child, such as academic grades or scores on group tests?' If they are not congruent, what might explain the differences?

• Are there any discrepancies in the information you ob­tained from the child, parents, teachers, and other sources? If so, '?{hat are the discrepancies and what might account for th~m? Is it possible that what appear to be discrep­ancies are instead context-dependent differences? For ex­ample, self-report may be the best measure of internalized states,whereas teacher and parent reports may be the best measur~s,of externaJized behaviors.

• Are there patterns in the assessment results? If so, what are they?

• Do the current findings appear to be reliable and valid or did any factors undermine the reliability and validity of the assessment results? For example, did the child have motivational difficulties or difficulties understanding Eng­lish? Were there problems administering the tests?

• Do the assessment results suggest a diagnosis or approaches to remediation and intervention? If so, what are they?

All of the information you gather should be interpreted in relation to the child as a whole. As you interpret the findings and develop hypotheses, consider the relative importance of biological and environmental factors. Because information

will come from many different sources, the information may not be easy to integrate. But integration is essential, particu­larly in sorting out findings and in establishing trends. This text will assist you with interpreting assessment results.

As you formulate hypotheses, seek independently verifi­able confirming evidence. Usually, be skeptical about hy­potheses supported by only one piece of minor evidence. However, retain hypotheses supported by more than one piece of evidence-especially if the supporting data come from multiple sources (e.g., test results and observations). Also, be diligent in seeking evidence that may disconfirm each hy­pothesis. This process makes it more likely that you will have testable hypotheses. Keep in mind that your interpretations of assessment results are still hypotheses-unproven expla­nations of a complex set of data-but if hypotheses are sup­ported by the data, they are explanations that you can make with, confidence. Use your judgment in deciding whether a response reflects the child's habitual style or a temporary one. For example, if the child is impulsive, is the impUlsiveness related to the, test question, to the psychological evaluation, or to temporary conditions in other areas of the child's life, or is impulsiveness a habitual style? Although you must be care­ful not to overinterpret every minuscule aspect of the child's performance, on some occasions hypotheses developed from single responses may prove to be valuable. For example, if, in response to a sentence completion item, a child says that he or she was sexually molested or is contemplating suicide, you will certainly want to follow up this response.

Recognize that test scores do not tell you about the child's home and school environment, the quality of the instruction that the child has received in school, the quality of the child's textbooks, peer pressures, the family's culture, socioeco­nomic status, community customs, and other factors that may influence the child's test performance. You will need to obtain information about these factors from caregivers, teachers, and other relevant individuals and to consider their effects on the child's performance.

As a beginning examiner, you are not expected to have the fully developed clinical skills and insights needed to make sophisticated interpretations. Developing these skills takes time. With experience, you will learn how to integrate knowledge from various sources--class lectures, textbooks, test manuals, practicums, and internships-and you will feel more comfortable about making interpretations.

Step 8: Develop Intervention Strategies and Recommendations After you interpret the assessment findings, you may need to formulate interventions and recommendations. In school set­tings, for example, you may also need to determine eligibility for a special education program and to work with a multi­disciplinary team to formulate an Individualized Education Program (IEP; see Chapter 3). To formulate interventions and recommendations, you will need to do several things. First, you will need to rely on the assessment findings. Second, you 16 CHAPTER 1 CHALLENGES IN ASSESSING CHILDREN: THE PROCESS

Interpretations should never rely solely on scores from formal procedures. Test scores are valuable, but so are your judg­ments of the child's !lpeech, voice quality, language, motor skills, physical appearance, posture, gestures, affect, and social and interpersonal skills, as well as judgments about the child's family, school, and community. Interpreting the findings is one of the most challenging of all assessment ac­tivities, as it will draw on your knowledge of developmental psychology, personality theory, psychopathology, psychomet­rics, and individual tests. The interpretive process involves (a) integrating the assessment data, (b) making judgments about the meaning of the data, and (c) exploring the implica­tions of the data for diagnosis, placement, and intervention.

As you integrate and interpret the assessment data, ask yourself these questions:

• Are the test scores from similar measures congruent or incongruent? For example, if you administered two dif-' ferent intelligence tests, are the percentile ranks similar? . How might you account for any discrepancies between the two measures? Are there differences in the standardiza­tion groups, differences in item types, or differences in the times at which the two tests were administered to the child? If so, what are the differences?

• What are the similarities and differences between the child's behavior in the test session and his or her behavior in the classroom and on the playground? How might you account for any differences?

• What are the similarities and differences between your observations of the child's behavior and those of the child's parents and teachers? How might you account for any differences?

• Are the test results congruent with the other information about the child, such as academic grades or scores on group tests?, If they are not congruent, what might explain the differences?

• Are there any discrepancies in the information you ob­tained from the child, parents, teachers, and other sources? If so, what are the discrepancies and what might account for thl?m? Is it possible that what appear to be discrep­ancies are instead context-dependent differences? For ex­ample, self-report may be the best measure of internalized states, whereas teacher and parent reports may be the best measures of extern3nzed behaviors.

• Are there patterns in the assessment results? If so, what are they?

• Do the current findings appear to be reliable and valid or did any factors undermine the reliability and Validity of the assessment results? For example, did the child have motivational difficulties or difficulties understanding Eng­lish? Were there problems administering the tests?

• Do the assessment results suggest a diagnosis or approaches to remediation and intervention? If so, what are they?

All of the information you gather should be interpreted in relation to the child as a whole. As you interpret the findings and develop hypotheses, consider the relative importance of biological and environmental factors. Because information

will come from many different sources, the information may not be easy to integrate. But integration is essential, particu­larly in sorting out findings and in establishing trends. This text will assist you with interpreting assessment results.

As you formulate hypotheses, seek independently verifi­able confirming evidence. Usually, be skeptical about hy­potheses supported by only one piece of minor evidence. However, retain hypotheses supported by more than one piece of evidence--especially if the supporting data come from multiple sources (e.g., test results and observations). Also, be diligent in seeking evidence that may disconfirm each hy­pothesis. This process makes it more likely that you will have testable hypotheses. Keep in mind that your interpretations of assessment results are still hypotheses-unproven expla­nations of a complex set of data-but if hypotheses are sup­ported by the data, they are explanations that you can make with, confidence. Use your judgment in deciding whether a response reflects the child's habitual style or a temporary one. For example, if the child is impulsive, is the impulsiveness related to the, test question, to the psychological evaluation, or to temporary conditions in other areas of the child's life, or is impulsiveness a habitual style? Although you must be care­ful not to overinterpret every minuscule aspect of the child's performance, on some occasions hypotheses developed from single responses may prove to be valuable. For example, if, in response to a sentence completion item, a child says that he or she was sexually molested or is contemplating suicide, you will certainly want to follow up this response.

Recognize that test scores do not tell you about the child's home and school environment, the quality of the instruction that the child has received in school, the quality of the child's textbooks, peer pressures, the family's culture, socioeco­nomic status, community customs, and other factors that may influence the child's test performance. You will need to obtain information about these factors from caregivers, teachers, and other relevant individuals and to consider their effects on the child's performance.

As a beginning examiner, you are not expected to have the fully developed clinical skills and insights needed to make sophisticated interpretations. Developing these skills takes time. With experience, you will learn how to integrate knowledge from various sources--class lectures, textbooks, test manuals, practicums, and internships-and you will feel more comfortable about making interpretations.

Step 8: Develop Intervention Strategies and Recommendations

After you interpret the assessment findings, you may need to formulate interventions and recommendations. In school set­tings, for example, you may also need to determine eligibility for a special education program and to work with a multi­disciplinary team to formulate an Individualized Education Program (IEP; see Chapter 3). To formulate interventions and recommendations, you will need to do several things. First, you will need to rely on the assessment findings. Second, you

L

will need to consider factors in the school that may inter­fere with the child's ability to learn. Consider, for example, whether modifications are needed in the child's courses, the teaching methods used in the classroom, course schedules, or the physical layout of the building. Also consider whether the child needs a specific type of assistance, can tolerate a full day or only a half day, needs special equipment to help with communication, or needs to be reassigned to another teacher or to a new school. Note that some schools are reluctant to reassign a student to another teacher within the same school. In such cases, the multidisciplinary team will need to be tact­ful, persuasive, and persistent to arrange for a reassignment. Evaluate how flexible, accepting, and patient the child's teacher is and whether he or she is willing to take suggestions and work with other professionals.

Third, you will need to be guided by the services available in a particular school district. Some schools offer speech and language training; remedial classes in basic academic subjects; adaptive physical education; computer-assisted instruction; tutoring for mainstream classes; social skills retraining; mo­bility and transportation assistance; academic, vocational, and personal counseling; and career development and employment assistance. Recommendations for these services should be practical and should take into account the realities of classroom and home life. However, do not let a school district's limita­tions prevent you from recommending a needed intervention. If a school district cannot provide legally mandated services, it is required to find some way to provide them, including con­tracting with outside agencies. Also consider family and com­munity resources and determine the parents' preferences and reactions to the proposed interventions.

Finally, you will need to apply the relevant information you ha'le learned from the fields of school psychology, ab­normal psychology, clinical psychology, developmental psy­chology, educational psychology, special education, and, of course, your own experience.

Be cautious in naming a specific intervention program. If you-know that a type of program would be significantly su­perior to all others for a child, you should; of course, give an example of the program.,However, if you are merely citing a program with which Yb\1 happen to be familiar as an example ofa class of acceptable interventions, be clear that this is only an example and that there are equally appropriate alternatives. Unwarranted specificity in recommendations (e.g., "only the XYZ Miracle Phonics Program" or "a class size of no more than six children") can cause unnecessary difficulties, delays in implementing programs, and needless conflict between the parents and the school.

Traditional psychometric assessments usually do not pro­vide information about the conditions that best facilitate the child's learning-for example, how the type of material, rate and modality of presentation, cues, and reinforcements dif­ferentially affect learning. Information about these and re­lated factors can help us design more effective intervention programs that might improve children's cognitive abilities and skills. An integration of experimental, clinical, and psy­choeducational approaches, which has been in the making

STEPS IN THE ASSESSMENT PROCESS 17

for many years, has yet to occur. Until this union occurs, we must use what we can learn from assessments to determine the conditions that will best facilitate a child's ability to learn and succeed in school.

It is a complex and difficult task to design interventions to ameliorate a child's problems and to foster behavioral change, learning, social adjustment, and successful participation in the community. Still, we need to use our present knowledge to design interventions, apply them carefully and thought­fully, and then evaluate their effectiveness. Some problems may better be bypassed than remediated. For example, a child with intractable graphomotor weaknesses might be better served by being taught word-processing skills than by hours of penmanship training. Currently, developing interventions is as much an art as it is a science.

This text provides general information on how to formu-. late recommendations. However, it is not designed to cover

remediation or intervention procedures. You will obtain this knowledge from other texts and sources that cover behav­ioral interventions, educational interventions, psychotherapy, counseling techniques, and rehabilitation counseling. Valu­able knowledge can also be obtained from supervision and clinical experience and from skilled teachers and therapists with whom you work.

Step 9: Write a Report

Shortly after completing the evaluation, write a report that clearly communicates your findings, interpretations, and rec-ommendations. It is important that you the as-sessment results and recommendations because the· referral source is no doubt anxious t9 receive The value of your assessment results and recoIILIil.(~ndlati'ons will depend, in part, on your communicative report may be read by parents, teachers, \"UI~U"C;lU'l",\ and language therapists, psychiatrists, probation VUJl"''''~'', diatricians, neurologists, social workers, attorneys, tors, judges, other professionals, and the child. Thprpf{)r,p \

report should be understandable to any relevant parties. though your report may be used for purposes other than you originally intended, it is important to specify in the report its original intent; doing so can help prevent misuse.

One of the best ways to learn how to write a report is to study reports written by competent clinicians. Use these re­ports as general guides; ideally, you should develop your own style and approach to report writing. Because the psychologi­cal report is a crucial part of the assessment process, it de­serves your care and attention (see Chapter 19).

Step 10: Meet with Parents, the Child (If Appropriate), and Other Concerned Individuals

After writing the report, discuss the results with the child (when appropriate), the child's parents, and the referral

--

will need to consider factors in the school that may inter­fere with the child's ability to learn. Consider, for example, whether modifications are needed in the child's courses, the teaching methods used in the classroom, course schedules, or the physical layout of the building. Also consider whether the child needs a specific type of assistance, can tolerate a full day or only a half day, needs special equipment to help with communication, or needs to be reassigned to another teacher or to a new school. Note that some schools are reluctant to reassign a student to another teacher within the same school. In such cases, the multidisciplinary team will need to be tact­ful, persuasive, and persistent to arrange for a reassignment. Evaluate how flexible, accepting, and patient the child's teacher is and whether he or she is willing to take suggestions and work with other professionals.

Third, you will need to be guided by the services available in a particular school district. Some schools offer speech and language training; remedial classes in basic academic subjects; adaptive physical education; computer-assisted instruction; tutoring for mainstream classes; social skills retraining; mo­bility and transportation assistance; academic, vocational, and personal counseling; and career development and employment assistance. Recommendations for these services should be practical and should take into account the realities of classroom and home life. However, do not let a school district's limita­tions prevent you from recommending a needed intervention. If a school district cannot provide legally mandated services, it is required to find some way to provide them, including con­tracting with outside agencies. Also consider family and com­munity resources and determine the parents' preferences and reactions to the proposed interventions.

Finally, you will need to apply the relevant information you hav.e learned from the fields of school psychology, ab­normal psychology, clinical psychology, developmental psy­chology, educational psychology, special education, and, of course, your own experience.

Be cautious in naming a specific intervention program. If you~know that a type of program would be significantly su­perior to all others for a child, you should; of course, give an example of the program .• However, if you are merely citing a program with which Y01,,1 happen to be familiar as an example ofa class of acceptable interventions, be clear that this is only an: example and that there are equally appropriate alternatives. UJ;lwarranted specificity in recommendations (e.g., "only the XYZ Miracle Phonics Program" or "a class size of no more than six children") can cause unnecessary difficulties, delays in implementing programs, and needless conflict between the parents and the school.

Traditional psychometric assessments usually do not pro­vide information about the conditions that best facilitate the child's learning-Ior example, how the type of material, rate and modality of presentation, cues, and reinforcements dif­ferentially affect learning. Information about these and re­lated factors can help us design more effective intervention programs that might improve children's cognitive abilities and skills. An integration of experimental, clinical, and psy­choeducational approaches, which has been in the making

STEPS IN THE ASSESSMENT PROCESS 17

for many years, has yet to occur. Until this union occurs, we must use what we can learn from assessments to determine the conditions that will best facilitate a child's ability to learn and succeed in school.

It is a complex and difficult task to design interventions to ameliorate a child's problems and to foster behavioral change, learning, social adjustment, and successful participation in the community. Still, we need to use our present knowledge to design interventions, apply them carefully and thought­fully, and then evaluate their effectiveness. Some problems may better be bypassed than remediated. For example, a child with intractable graphomotor weaknesses might be better served by being taught word-processing skills than by hours of penmanship training. Currently, developing interventions is as much an a/1 as it is a science.

This text provides general information on how to formu-" late recommendations. However, it is not designed to cover

remediation or intervention procedures. You will obtain this knowledge from other texts and sources that cover behav­ioral interVentions, educational interventions, psychotherapy, counseling techniques, and rehabilitation counseling. Valu­able knowledge can also be obtained from supervision and clinical experience and from skilled teachers and therapists with whom you work.

Step 9: Write a Report

Shortly after completing the evaluation, write a report that clearly communicates your findings, interpretations, and rec­ommendations. It is important that you communicate the as­sessment results and recommendations promptl~\, because the . referral source is no doubt anxious t9, receive Yfur report. The value of your assessment results and recommendations

\ will depend, in part, on your communicative ability. Your

\ report may be read by parents, teachers, counselors,\speech and language therapists, psychiatrists, probation officers, pe­diatricians, neurologists, social workers, attorneys, prd~ecu­tors, judges, other professionals, and the child. Therefore:'fhe report should be understandable to any relevant parties. Al-

\ though your report may be used for purposes other than thos~ you originally intended, it is important to specify in the report \ • its original intent; doing so can help prevent misuse. '\ •

One of the best ways to learn how to write a report is to \ I study reports written by competent clinicians. Use these re- \ ports as general guides; ideally, you should develop your own I '"

style and approach to report writing. Because the psychologi- '\11 cal report is a crucial part of the assessment process, it de- .. mf" serves your care and attention (see Chapter 19). • ill!'

Step 10: Meet with Parents, the Child (If Appropriate), and Other Concerned Individuals

After writing the report, discuss the results with the child (when appropriate), the child's parents, and the referral

I, ,.i\',!,!, ;/' ; {

/tl:1I ! IJlII i /1;'

~<'ilr Ii ,I II

18 CHAPTER 1 CHALLENGES IN ASSESSING CHILDREN: THE PROCESS

source. You may also be called on to present your results at a staff conference, at an IEP meeting conducted as part of IDEA 2004 regulations (see Appendix H in the Resource Guide), at a due process hearing conducted under IDEA 2004 regula­tions, or in court. All of these face-to-face contacts will re­quire skill in explaining your findings and recommendations. If children or parents are at the conference, you will need to help them understand the findings and your recommended interventions, encourage their participation, and reduce any anxiety or defensiveness. This text will foster your ability to present and support your findings.

Step 11: Follow Up on Recommendations and Conduct a Reevaluation Effective delivery of services requires close monitoring of recommendations, interventions, and changes in the child's­development. Both short-and long-term follow-ups areim­portant components of the assessment process. Short-teim follow-ups (within 2 to 6 weeks) help to identify interven­tions that prove to be ineffective because the child's situation changed, because they were inadequate from the beginning, or because they were not followed. Other issues may be dis­covered that require additional assessment after the initial response to the intervention is reviewed. A member of the multidisciplinary team is in an ideal position to monitor and evaluate the child's progress.

Long-term follow-ups are important because children change as a result of development, life experiences, and treatment; consequently, you should not consider the initial assessment to be an end point. For example, an evaluation conducted when a child is 2 years old may have little meaning a year later, except as a basis for comparison. Reevaluation is an important way to monitor and document a child's response to an intervention, the stability of symptoms, the progression of a disease, or the course of recovery. Repeated assessment is especially important when a medical intervention (e.g., chemotherapy or brain surgery) or a behavioral interven­tion (e.g., a cognitive rehabilitation or behavioral modifica­tion program) is used. Repeated assessment is also required when you place children in special education programs or when preschool children have developmental disabilities. If the child has an IEP, a member of the multidisciplinary team should determine whether the goals and objectives of the plan are being met and how to change the plan if necessary.

Assessment recommendations are not the final solution to a child's difficulties. Recommendations are starting points for the clinician and for those who implement the interventions. Assessment is an ongoing process that includes modifications to the interventions as the child's needs chanae or when the • • I::> mterventIOns become ineffective. Effective consultation re-quires mOnitoring the child's progress with both short-term and long-term follow-ups. It is helpful to recommend a time interval for the follow-up assessment in your report.

Comment on the Steps in the Assessment Process The steps in the assessment process represent a model for making decisions about the child. Figure 1-4 presents a flow­chart depicting a decision-making model for clinical and psy­choeducational assessment. In addition to the 11 steps in the assessment process, Figure 1-4 offers strategies for how to proceed when the assessment findings are not clear or when the child responds poorly to an intervention.

THINKING THROUGH THE ISSUES 1. Most of you will be able to master the skills needed to evaluate,

select, and administer assessment instruments and to record, score, and interpret test responses. However, there is more to clinical assessment than simply mastering techniques. You will have to work with many different types of children and families. Think about why you have embarked on the study of assessment:of children. What experiences influenced your decision? What do you hope to gain by completing this course of study? What skills do you now have and what kinds of ex­periences do you think you will need to become an effective clinical assessor?

J.lAVS-N'j YOl..l C.OMP/.-S--ret:>

YS.T?

From Mainstreaming Series: Individualized Educational Program­ming (IEP), Copyright © 1977 by Judy A. Schrag, Thomas N. Fairchild, and Bart L. Miller, published by Teaching Resources Corporation, Hingham, Massachusetts. Reprinted with permission. All rights reserved.

18 CHAPTER 1 CHALLENGES IN ASSESSING CHILDREN: THE PROCESS

source. You may also be called on to present your results at a staff conference, at an IEP meeting conducted as part of IDEA 2004 regulations (see Appendix H in the Resource Guide), at a due process hearing conducted under IDEA 2004 regula­tions, or in court. All of these face-to-face contacts will re­quire skill in explaining your findings and recommendations. If children or parents are at the conference, you will need to help them understand the findings and your recommended interventions, encourage their participation, and reduce any anxiety or defensiveness. This text will foster your ability to present and support your findings.

Step 11: Follow Up on Recommendations and Conduct a Reevaluation

Effective delivery of services requires close monitoring of recommendations, interventions, and changes in the child's­development. Both short- and long-term follow-ups are im­portant components of the assessment process. Short-term follow-ups (within 2 to 6 weeks) help to identify interven­tions that prove to be ineffective because the child's situation changed, because they were inadequate from the beginning, or because they were not followed. Other issues may be dis­covered that require additional assessment after the initial response to the intervention is reviewed. A member of the multidisciplinary team is in an ideal position to monitor and evaluate the child's progress.

Long-term follow-ups are important because children change as a result of development, life experiences, and treatment; consequently, you should not consider the initial assessment to be an end point. For example, an evaluation conducted when a child is 2 years old may have little meaning a year later, except as a basis for comparison. Reevaluation is an important way to monitor and document a child's response to an intervention, the stability of symptoms, the progression of a disease, or the course of recovery. Repeated assessment is especially important when a medical intervention (e.g., chemotherapy or brain surgery) or a behavioral interven­tion (e.g., a cognitive rehabilitation or behavioral modifica­tion program) is used. Repeated assessment is also required when you place children in special education programs or when preschool children have developmental disabilities. If the child has an IEP, a member of the mUltidisciplinary team should determine whether the goals and objectives of the plan are being met and how to change the plan if necessary.

Assessment recommendations are not the final solution to a child's difficulties. Recommendations are starting points for the clinician and for those who implement the interventions. Assessment is an ongoing process that includes modifications to the interventions as the child's needs change or when the interventions become ineffective. Effective consultation re­quires monitoring the child's progress with both short-term and long-term follow-ups. It is helpful to recommend a time interval for the follow-up assessment in your report.

Comment on the Steps in the Assessment Process

The steps in the assessment process represent a model for making decisions about the child. Figure 1-4 presents a flow­chart depicting a decision-making model for clinical and psy­choeducational assessment. In addition to the 11 steps in the assessment process, Figure 1-4 offers strategies for how to proceed when the assessment findings are not clear or when the child responds poorly to an intervention.

THINKING THROUGH "rHE ISSUES

1. Most of you will be able to master the skills needed to evaluate, select, and administer assessment instruments and to record, score, and interpret test responses. However, there is more to clinical assessment than simply mastering techniques. You will have to work with many different types of children and families. Think about why you have embarked on the study of assessment: of children. What experiences influenced your decision? What do you hope to gain by completing this course of study? What skills do you now have and what kinds of ex­periences do you think you will need to become an effective clinical assessor?

l-lAVe.N',. ."O~ C.OMPI.-E!-rep

YOWR A!>:!>e.~~Me.NT Ye.T?

From Mainstreaming Series: Individualized Educational Program­ming (IEP), Copyright © 1977 by Judy A. Schrag, Thomas N. Fairchild, and Bart L. Miller, published by Teaching Resources Corporation, Hingham, Massachusetts. Reprinted with permission. All rights reserved.

Review referral infOl:mation

Decide whetherto accept the referral

Inform referral source

Obtain relevant background information

Consider the influence of relevant others

Observe the child in several settings

Select and administer an "'nl~rnnri,,,,t'"

Interpret the assessment results

Develop intervention strategies

and recommendations

Meet with parents, child (if appropriate),

and other concerned individuals

Follow up on recommendations and reevaluation 1-----,

Follow up periodically as appropriate

Poor response

Conduct additional assessments or make referrals

for appropriate assessments

Findings clear

Review assessment data Review intervention plan, including its

appropriateness and implementation

Assess placement Assess staff and parental commitment

Findings not clear

Discuss intervention plan with relevant individuals,

such as child, parents, teacher, physiCian,

counselor, ancL'or social worker

Conduct additional assessments as needed

Revise intervention plan and placement ,.,!Ynpl~n<,n

Good response Poor response

Figure 1-4. Flowchart of a decision-making model for clinical and psychoeducational assessment.

19

Review referral info(lTlation -I

Decide whetherto accept the referral

I ~ Inform referral source

Obtain relevant background information

Consider the influence of relevant others

Observe the child in several settings

Select and administer an appr9pri<;!te tesfbattery and other 'assessment procedures

Interpret the assessment resuits

r

Develop intervention strategies and recommendations

Write areport I Meefwith parents,ci'Jild (if appropriate),

and other concerned individuals

Follow'-!p onrecommendations and reevaluation 1---..

G. Follow upp~riodiCallY as appropriate

Good response Poor response

I

I Conduct additiOnal. asses .. s.me. nts.ormake referrals I .. for appropriate assessments

L.....-...:---lIRndi~;~~~r- Findings not clear

Review assessment data Review intervention plan, including its

apPropriateness and implementation Assess placement Assess staff and parental commitment Discuss intervention p.lan with relevant in. dividuals, I I 1---

such as child, parents, teacher, physician, ~----counselor, andlor social worker /

Conduct additional assessments as needed ,/ Revise intervention plan and placement as'needed

I " ~~1I0WUP 1

y ·.GO~d response .1 Po~;r~

Figure 1-4. Flowchart of a decision-making model for clinical and psychoeducational assessment.

19

:;

20 CHAPTER 1 CHALLENGES IN ASSESSING CHILDREN: THE PROCESS

2. The four pillars of assessment-norm-referenced measures, interviews, behavioral observations, and informal assessment procedures-provide different kinds of assessment informa­tion. How do the various assessment procedures overlap? Why is it useful to integrate the information from the four different methods-that is, what do you gain by using the four meth­ods rather than using one or two methods only? What kinds of problems do you foresee in integrating the information ob­tained from the four major types of assessment procedures? What are the strengths and limitations of each type?

3. The assessment process consists of several interrelated steps. What problems can occur at each step that might interfere with your ability to complete the assessment? What might you do to prevent such problems? If problems occur, what can you do to recover and continue the assessment? What negative effects might result from interruptions in the assessment process?

SUMMARY 1. The assessment procedures covered in this text are rooted in

traditions of psychological, clinical, and educational measure­ment that are a century old.

2. This text is designed to help you conduct psychological and psychoeducational evaluations in order to make effective deci­sions about children with special needs.

3. Effective decision making is the hallmark of sound clinical and psychoeducational assessment.

4. To become a skilled clinical assessor, you should have some background in testing and measurement, statistics, child devel­opment, personality theory, child psychopathology, and clinical and educational interventions.

5. This text summarizes the reliability and validity information pre­sented in test manuals; however, it does not provide a compre­hensive review of all the published research on each measure.

6. You will want to pay close attention to new findings about chil­dren with special needs.

Types of Assessment

7. Assessment is a way of understanding a child in order to make informed decisions about the child.

8. A screening assessment is a relatively brief evaluation intended to identify children at risk for,developing certain disorders or disabilities, who are eligible .for certain programs, who have a disorder or disability in need of remediation, or who need a more comprehensive assessment.

9. A focused assessment is a detailed evaluation of a specific area of fun·~tioning.

10. A diagnostic assessment is a detailed evaluation of a child's strengths and weaknesses in several areas, such as cognitive, academic, language, behavioral, and social functioning.

11. A counseling and rehabilitation assessment focuses on a child's abilities to adjust to and successfully fulfill daily responsibilities.

12. A progress evaluation assessment focuses on a child's progress over time, such as day to day, week to week, month to month, or year to year.

13. A problem-solving assessment focuses on specific types of problems (e.g., dyslexia) in a series of steps from problem identification to problem analysis, intervention, and outcome evaluation.

14. Psychological testing involves administering and scoring tests; the focus is on collecting data.

15. Psychological assessment encompasses several clinical tools, such as formal and informal tests, observations, and interviews. The focus of psychological assessment is not only on collecting data, but also on integrating the findings, interpreting the data, and synthesizing the results.

Fonr Pillars of Assessment

. 16. The four pillars of assessment-norm-referenced measures, interviews, behavioral observations, and informal assessment procedures-provide information about a child's knowledge, skill, behavior, or personality.

17. The four pillars complement one another and provide a basis for making decisions about children.

18. We have based'this text on the premise that norm-referenced . measures are indispensable for clinical and psychoeducational assessment.

19. Norm-referenced measures are measures that are standardized on a clearly defined group, termed the norm group.

20. Norm-referenced measures are scaled so that each score re­flects a rank within the norm group.

21. Norm-referenced measures are an economical and efficient means of sampling behavior within a few hours and quantify­ing a child's functioning.

22. Norm-referenced measures allow us to evaluate changes in sev­eral aspects of a child's physical and social world. They inform us about developmental changes, changes in the child's cogni­tive and neurological condition, and the effects of educational or behavioral interventions and other forms of remediation.

23. You will gain valuable assessment information by interviewing a child and his or her parents, teachers, and other individuals familiar with the child.

24. Unstructured or semistructured interviews at.e le~s rigid than formal tests. They allow interviewees to convey information in their own words and interviewers to ask questions in their own words--opportunities that neither may have while taking or administering standardized tests.

25. Unstructured interviews are usually open-ended, without a set agenda.

26. Semistructured interviews provide a list of questions, but the focus of the interview can change as needed ..

27. Structured interviews provide a rigid, but comprehensive, list of questions usually designed to arrive at a psychiatric diagnosis.

28. You will obtain valuable information by observing the child during the formal assessment, as well as in his or her natural surroundings, such as the classroom, playground, or home.

29. You may need to supplement norm-referenced measures with informal assessment procedures.

Multimethod Assessment

30. This text advocates a multimethod assessment. A multimethod assessment involves obtaining information from several sources (including the referral source, the child, parents, teachers, and other relevant parties) and reviewing (if available) the child's educational records, medical reports, social work reports, and previous evaluations; using several assessment techniques; as­sessing multiple areas; and recommending interventions.

20 CHAPTER 1 CHALLENGES IN ASSESSING CHILDREN: THE PROCESS

2. The four pillars of assessment-norm-referenced measures, interviews, behavioral observations, and informal assessment procedures-provide different kinds of assessment informa­tion. How do the various assessment procedures overlap? Why is it useful to integrate the information from the four different methods-that is, what do you gain by using the four meth­ods rather than using one or two methods only? What kinds of problems do you foresee in integrating the information ob­tained from the four major types of assessment procedures? What are the strengths and limitations of each type?

3. The assessment process consists of several interrelated steps. What problems can occur at each step that might interfere with your ability to complete the assessment? What might you do to prevent such problems? If problems occur, what can you do to recover and continue the assessment? What negative effects might result from interruptions in the assessment process?

SUMMARY

1. The assessment procedures covered in this text are rooted in traditions of psychological, clinical, and educational measure­ment that are a century old.

2. This text is designed to help you conduct psychological and psychoeducational evaluations in order to make effective deci­sions about children with special needs.

3. Effective decision making is the hallmark of sound clinical and psychoeducational assessment.

4. To become a skilled clinical assessor, you should have some background in testing and measurement, statistics, child devel­opment, personality theory, child psychopathology, and clinical and educational interventions.

5. This text summarizes the reliability and validity information pre­sented in test manuals; however, it does not provide a compre­hensive review of all the published research on each measure.

6. You will want to pay close attention to new findings about chil­dren with special needs.

Types of Assessment

7. Assessment is a way of understanding a child in order to make informed decisions about the child.

8. A screening assessment is a relatively brief evaluation intended to identify children at risk for, developing certain disorders or disabilities, who are eligible .for certain programs, who have a disorder or disability in need of remediation, or who need a more comprehensive assessment.

9. A focused assessment is a detailed evaluation of a specific area of functioning.

10. A diagnostic assessment is a detailed evaluation of a child's strengths and weaknesses in several areas, such as cognitive, academic, language, behavioral, and social functioning.

11. A counseling and rehabilitation assessment focuses on a child's abilities to adjust to and successfully fulfill daily responsibilities.

12. A progress evaluation assessment focuses on a child's progress over time, such as day to day, week to week, month to month, or year to year.

13. A problem-solving assessment focuses on specific types of problems (e.g., dyslexia) in a series of steps from problem identification to problem analysis, intervention, and outcome evaluation.

14. Psychological testing involves administering and scoring tests; the focus is on collecting data.

15. Psychological assessment encompasses several clinical tools, such as formal and informal tests, observations, and interviews. The focus of psychological assessment is not only on collecting data, but also on integrating the findings, interpreting the data, and synthesizing the results.

Fonr Pillars of Assessment

,16. The four pillars of assessment-norm-referenced measures, interviews, behavioral observations, and informal assessment procedures-provide information about a child's knowledge, skill, behavior, or personality.

17. The four pillars complement one another and provide a basis for making decisions about children.

18. We have based'this text on the premise that norm-referenced , measures ,are indispensable for clinical and psychoeducational assessment.

19. Norm-referenced measures are measures that are standardized on a clearly defined group, termed the norm group.

20. Norm-referenced measures are scaled so that each score re­flects a rank within the norm group.

21. Norm-referenced measures are an economical and efficient means of sampling behavior within a few hours and quantify­ing a child's functioning.

22. Norm-referenced measures allow us to evaluate changes in sev­eral aspects of a child's physical and social world. They inform us about developmental changes, changes in the child's cogni­tive and neurological condition, and the effects of educational or behavioral interventions and other forms of remediation.

23. You will gain valuable assessment information by interviewing a child and his or her parents, teachers, and other individuals familiar with the child.

24. Unstructured or semistructured interviews at.e lells rigid than formal tests. They allow interviewees to convey information in their own words and interviewers to ask questions in their own words--opportunities that neither may have while taking or administering standardized tests.

25. Unstructured interviews are usually open-ended, without a set agenda.

26. Semistructured interviews provide a list of questions, but the focus of the interview can change as needed.

27. Structured interviews provide a rigid, but comprehensive, list of questions usually designed to arrive at a psychiatric diagnosis.

28. You will obtain valuable information by observing the child during the formal assessment, as well as in his or her natural surroundings, such as the classroom, playground, or home.

29. You may need to supplement norm-referenced measures with informal assessment procedures.

Multimethod Assessment

30. This text advocates a multimethod assessment. A multimethod assessment involves obtaining information from several sources (including the referral source, the child, parents, teachers, and other relevant parties) and reviewing (if avaiJable) the child's educational records, medical reports, social work reports, and previous evaluations; using severru assessment techniques; as­sessing multiple areas; and recommending interventions.

Guidelines for Condncting Assessments

31. A clinical assessor should never focus exclusively on a child's test scores; instead, he or she should interpret them by asking what the scores suggest about the child's competencies and

limitations. 32. Each child has a range of competencies and limitations that can

be evaluated quantitatively and qualitatively. 33. Note that the aim is to assess both limitations and competen­

cies, not just limitations. 34. Tests and other assessment procedures are powerful tools, but

their effectiveness depends on the examiner's knowledge, skill,

and experience. 35. Clinical and psychoeducational evaluations lead to decisions

and actions that affect the lives of children and their families. 36. You must be careful about the words you choose when writing

reports and when communicating with children, their families,

and other professionals. 37. Your work is a major professional contribution to chilp.ren and.

their families, to their schools, and to society.

Steps in the Assessment Process

38. The assessment process comprises 11 steps. 39. These steps represent a multistage process for planning, col­

lecting data, evaluating results, formulating hypotheses, developing recommendations, communicating results and rec­ommendations, conducting reevaluations, and following up on

a child's performance. 40. The 11 steps are as follows: review referral information; decide

whether to accept the referral; obtain relevant background in­formation; consider the influence of relevant others; observe the child in several settings; select and administer an assess­ment test battery; interpret the assessment results; develop in­tervention strategies and recommendations; write a report; meet

. with parents, the child (if appropriate), and other concerned individuals; and follow up on recommendations and conduct a

reevaluation.

KEY TERMS, CONCEPTS, AND NAMES Daniel Hoffman v. the Board of Education of the City of New York

(p.2) Technical and clinic~ sKills (p. 3) Types of assessment (p. 4) Screening assessment (p. 4)

. Focused assessment (p. 4) Diagnostic assessment (p. 4) Counseling and rehabilitation assessment (p. 4)

STUDY QUESTIONS 21

'Progress evaluation assessment (p. 5) Problem-solving assessment (p. 5) Psychological testing (p. 5) Psychological assessment (p. 5) Four pillars of assessment (p. 5) Norm-referenced measures (p. 5) Norm group (p. 5) Interviews (p. 6) Unstructured interviews (p. 6) Semistructured interviews (p. 6) Structured interviews (p. 6) Behavioral observations (p. 7) Informal assessment procedures (p. 7) Multimethod assessment (p. 8) Guidelines for conducting assessments (p. 10) Steps in the assessment process (p. 10) Step 1: Review referral information (p. 11) Step 2: Decide whether to accept the referral (p. 11) Step 3: Obtain relevant background information (p. 12) Step4: Consider the influence of relevant others (p. 12) Step 5: Observe the child in several settings (p. 13) Step p:Select and administer an ass~ssment test battery (p. 13) Step 7: Interpret the assessment results (p. 15) Step 8: Develop intervention strategies and recommendations

(p. 16) Step 9: Write a report (p. 17) Step 10: Meet with parents, the child (if appropriate), and other

concerned individuals (p. 17) Step 11: Follow up on recommendations and conduct a

reevaluation (p. 18)

STUDY QUESTIONS 1. What relevance does the case of Daniel Hoffman have to °the

practice of school and clinical psychology? 2. Discuss the technical and clinical skills needed to be a compe-

tent clinical assessor. 3. Discuss the purposes of assessment. Include in your discussion

five different purposes of assessment, questions to consider in an assessment, and how psychological assessment differs from

psychological testing. 4. What are the four pillars of assessment, and how do they com-

plement one another? 5. Describe some informal assessment procedures. 6. What are some important guidelines for assessment? 7. Describe the main steps in the assessment process.

Guidelines for Conducting Assessments

31. A clinical a~sessor should never focus exclusively on a child's test scores; instead, he or she should interpret them by asking what the scores suggest about the child's competencies and limitations.

32. Each child has a range of competencies and limitations that can be evaluated quantitatively and qualitatively.

33. Note that the aim is to assess both limitations and competen­cies, not just limitations.

34. Tests and other assessment procedures are powerful tools, but their effectiveness depends on the examiner's knowledge, skill, and experience.

35. Clinical and psychoeducational evaluations lead to decisions and actions that affect the lives of children and their families.

36. You must be careful about the words you choose when writing reports and when communicating with children, their families, and other professionals.

37. Your work is a major professional contribution tochilpcen and. their families, to their schools, and to society.

Steps in the Assessment Process

38. The assessment process comprises 11 steps. 39. These steps represent a multistage process for planning, col­

lecting data, evaluating results, formulating hypotheses, developing recommendations, communicating results and rec­ommendations, conducting reevaluations, and following up on a child's performance.

40. The 11 steps are as follows: review referral information; decide whether to accept the referral; obtain relevant background in­formation; consider the influence of relevant others; observe the child in several settings; select and administer an assess­ment test battery; interpret the assessment results; develop in­tervention strategies and recommendations; write a report; meet

. with parents, the child (if appropriate), and other concerned individuals; and follow up on recommendations and conduct a reevaluation.

KEY TERMS, CONCEPTS, AND NAMES

Daniel Hoffman v. the Board of Educatioll of the City of New York (p.2)

Technical and clinic~ sKills (p. 3) Types of assessment (p. 4) Screening assessment (p. 4)

. Focused assessment (p. 4) Diagnostic assessment (p. 4) Counseling and rehabilitation assessment (p. 4)

STUDY QUESTIONS 21

'Progress evaluation assessment (p. 5) Problem-solving assessment (p. 5) Psychological testing (p. 5) Psychological assessment (p. 5) Four pillars of assessment (p. 5) Norm-referenced measures (p. 5) Norm group (p. 5) Interviews (p. 6) Unstmctured interviews (p. 6) Sernistmctured interviews (p. 6) Stmctured interviews (p. 6) Behavioral observations (p. 7) Informal assessment procedures (p. 7) Multimethod assessment (p. 8) Guidelines for conducting assessments (p. 10) Steps in the assessment process (p. 10) Step 1: Review referral information (p. 11) Step 2: DeCide whether to accept the referral (p. 11) Step 3: Obtain relevant background information (p. 12) Step 4: Consider the influence of relevant others (p. 12) Step 5: Observe the child in several settings (p. 13) Step 6; Select and administer an ass~ssment test battery (p. 13) Step 7: Interpret the assessment results (p. 15) Step 8: Develop intervention strategies and recommendations

(p.16) Step 9: Write a report (p. 17) Step 10: Meet with parents, the child (if appropriate), and other

concerned individuals (p. 17) Step 11: Follow up on recommendations and conduct a

reevaluation (p. 18)

STUDY QUESTIONS 1. What relevance does the case of Daniel Hoffman have to' the

practice of school and clinical psychology? 2. Discuss the technical and clinical skills needed to be a compe­

tent clinical assessor. 3. Discuss the purposes of assessment. Include in your discussion

five different purposes of assessment, questions to consider in an assessment, and how psychological assessment differs from psychological testing.

4. What are the four pillars of assessment, and how do they com-plement one another?

5. Describe some informal assessment procedures. 6. What are some important guidelines for assessment? 7. Describe the main steps in the assessment process.

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