41

CHAPTER-2

Evolution of Mining Industry

Mining has a long chequered history and underwent many twists and turns

depending upon the changing economic, technological and political conditions. To

understand the current structure, scale and nature of mining operations, it is

necessary to take into account how exactly the industry has evolved. Accordingly

an attempt has been made to provide a historical account of this industry. In India

mining is the second largest industry after agriculture and has played a vital role in

the development of civilization from ancient days. The physical needs of human

being are met mainly by the products of agricultural and mining. The mining

Industry has evolved gradually in response to the availability and the depletion of

resources. Mining has played vital role in the process of modern economic

development and socio-cultural changes.

Mining is undertaken in both hill and plain environment in order to meet the

crucial mineral raw materials for industries. Hence, the mineral extraction has

increased in the 20 & 21st Century and it has taken rapid development in the

mineral based industry. Given the developing countries struggling to establish

themselves in the mineral production as well as utilization in a country like India

mining does provide substantial national income and foreign exchange. Over the

years national income from mining & quarrying has increased due to the

production and value realization of the minerals.

Mining activities are generally accompanied by a variety of environmental

disturbances. Among much else, process includes environmental degradation

which starts with the extraction of minerals resulting in land-degradation and

42

addition of pollutants to air, water and on vegetation continues as the mineral is

split and further processed. The noise and vibration problems are also the other

effects of mining on people living nearby. In addition the mining operations lead to

various socio-economic changes and they have adverse visual impact by

disfiguring the natural landscape.

During the mining activity most of the mining authorities show least interest

for maintaining the quality of the environment as their only aim is to maximize

their returns. Hence the waste materials are never backfilled into the mine pits

from where the raw material had been excavated. Due to this, large waste dump in

the area will be created and the huge void left after the excavation of overburden.

Also, most of the extractions were done very indiscriminately without much

concern about the impacts on vegetation because vegetation covers the first

sufferer.

The nature of environmental impacts of mining depends upon natural of

mineral deposits and the methods of mining. Besides the topography ground

conditions, machinery used, blasting ore-production, disposal of waste material,

the most spectacular aspect of mining activity is the degradation of land and water

resources which has resulted in the loss of flora and fauna in the mining area. The

Chikkanayakanahally Taluk & Gubbi Taluk of Tumkur District are specially

important due to mining potential in the ecological sensitivity areas which have a

variety of plants and trees, the prominent fauna in the region are spotted deers,

sambars, wildpigs, panthers. Due to the growth of mining industries and extraction

of minerals, there has been steady rise in human activity in the

Chikkanayakanahally & Gubbi Taluk regions. Some of the prominent mining

activities are taking place particularly Shivasandra, Musakondli, Gollarahalli,

43

Bullenahalli and Honnebagi villages. Certainly a detailed study throws light on the

situation of mining and their impact on environment in these sensitive regions.

Mining Industry in Ancient India:

In the pre - Vedic period (circa 400-1600 BC) mining and use of metals

especially gold, silver, copper and gemstones have been mentioned extensively.

Besides mining and use of building stones and various earths, lime and soda and

gypsum, chemical and metallurgical process of copper alloys specially bronze and

copper-antimony were known to the highly skilled artisans of the pre-Harappan

(Circa 4000-2000 BC) and Harappa-Mohenjodar-Indus valley (C,3000-1500 BC) –

civilizations. Though use of iron or coal was unknown in the Indus Valley

civilization in the Vedic Period(C 1500-600 BC), Iron and Steel besides most other

mining and metallurgical Industries were quite well developed. The word ‘angara’

(derived from ‘Agni’, the Vedic God) meaning fuel, occurs in several places.

It is difficult to ascertain the exact nature of ‘angara’ i.e., whether it meant

wood charcoal or coal. The Yajurveda (1100-1000 BC) mentions copper, gold,

silver, lead, tin and iron specially, but it is significant to note the Vedic Sage’s-

desire to dig the earth in search of Agni. It is not entirely fanciful to separate

whether digging the earth for fire meant mining for coal. In the latter purana Period

state ownership of all mines had become firmly established. Most of the megalithic

(Iron age-1600-1200 BC) sites in South India (present Tamilnadu, Andhra Pradesh

& Karnataka) provide a very mature display of Iron culture.

The most authoritative and informative work available is ‘Arthashastra’ (c,

400 BC), it is a comprehensive treatise on statecraft, political economy, sciences

and arts and also deals intensively with rules and regulations in force during the

period. Written by Chanakya(Kautilya), the Prime Minister of Chandragupta

44

Maurya, founder of the Imperial Magadha, this gives the earliest and most

authentic record of geology of minerals (Khanija) and the mining industry.

That the geological, mining and metallurgical knowledge was highly

advanced during Chanakya’s time is evident (translations by N.C.Bandopadhya

and Dr.shamastri). The organization of mines and mining industry was wholly a

government monopoly and was under the Minister of Revenue. Among the 35

departments and sub-departments in the government, the department under this

ministry related to mines, minerals, manufacture of metals and alloys, gemstone

and metal working. The Heads of the Departments were known as Akaradhyaksha

(Akarmine/ore, adhyaksha - Superintendent/Officer-in-charge) or Superintendent

of Mining, Khanyadhyaksha (Superintendent of ocean mining/placer deposits,

gemstones etc.), Lohadhyaksha (Superintendent of manufacture of metals and

alloys and all other metallurgical processes) etc.

The extensive traces of ancient mining about 250 ft deep workings in copper

in the Singhbhum Copper belt (Bihar) and Zinc (Lead-Zinc-Silver deposits of

Jawar, Rajasthan), and 600 ft deep perfectly vertical shaft in the Hutti gold mine

region and the large number of finely polished rock tunnels (caves) and

excavations in extremely hard bed rock are instances of a high degree of technical

competence of Indian mine workers.

Similar descriptions of metals and metallurgy, especially good quality steel,

and uses of various mineral salts in medicine have been described in the later

Charaka and Susruta Samhitas (C, 1200-400 BC). Detailed descriptions of the 64

branches of arts and sciences in Vatsayana’s famous Kamasutra (5th Century AD)

include knowledge of minerals and mining besides testing for gold and gemstones.

45

Emperor Ashoka’s numerous stone inscriptions suggest use of very fine steel

for their execution during 4th century BC. From the records of foreign travelers and

historians like Megasthenes (c.300 BC) Pliny (AD77), Fa Hien (5th Century), Huen

Tsang (7th Century), Al Beruni (11th Century), Travernier (1665-69) information on

mining and trade of various metals and gemstones, use of steel and other alloys in

India in the various ages is obtained. The 80 ft high enormous copper statue of

Lord Buddha which existed till the close of the 5th century in front of the great

Nalanda University (near present Gaya, Bihar). 4.5m high and 42 cm dia rustles

iron piller beside the Qutb Minar near Delhi, built around 4th century AD by the

Gupta emperors as a victory column, is a marvel of metallurgy, which has

wonderfully withstood all weathering action for the last sixteen centuries.

It can be presumed that large scale use of coal as a fuel for iron ore smelting

process was either unknown or very sparingly practiced anywhere in the world

before the sixteenth century. Timber and charcoal were universally used for such

work even for complex and controlled metallurgy. Demand for coal increased with

the growing scarcity of timber (wood for charcoal was priced six times higher than

coal in England) in European continent and England. India at that time faced no

such problems, but it is evident from the ruins of smruthi, furnaces and slag heaps

very close to the coal regions in eastern India, that coal was being commercially

used during the period much before that. Indian metallic implements, ornaments,

gemstones were widely exported through the Arab and Persian routs besides the

traditional silk, spices and ivory, and later over the seas to the Western Europe

from as early as 2000 years ago till the 17th Century AD. Some historians and other

experts, however, believe that the evidence of finished high grade copper and steel

alloys found in India from the 14th century BC onwards throughout the Muslim

46

period bears evidence of metallurgical processes undertaken with the help of coal

and coke, especially in the eastern coal-bearing regions of the country.

After the decline of the Imperial Mauryas followed by the Kushanas in

North India, the Gupta Empire was established around early 4th century and lasted

till the 6th century. This Gupta period has been called by the historians as the

Golden Age, in more than one sense. Besides the fabulous advances in the literary

and cultural life, mining of metallic ferrous ores and gemstones, steel and alloy

making and sizable exports have been recorded. The famous copper image of

Buddha and the iron pillar in Delhi were also of this period. From about 700 to

1200 AD there was a gradual destabilization and general social decline in

cultivation of sciences except some exceptionally brilliant work, in the fields of

mathematics and astronomy. This period was interspersed with the arrival of

plundering and departure of invading hordes from the West. There was a large

scale destruction of universities, monasteries which were also the depositories of

all scientific texts.

The Muslims came in 1200 AD to stay and then the invaders were entirely

assimilated in India. Documented material on mining and metallurgy during the

Muslim rule is very scarce and recorded histories are not easily available. But it is

not difficult to imagine that the mining and metallic industries and stone mining

together with other commerce were of a high order. Some of the rulers at Delhi

like Shershah before the imperial Mughals, were very competent and maintained

regular control of the mining metallurgy and ancillary industries. Iron and copper

alloys were essential material for the armies. Construction of large buildings and

civil structures and road making, which required a massive back up of stone and

metallic ferrous mining, were taken up on a wide scale. A royal mint was in

operation. Even the rulers of the different independent states encouraged mining

47

and metallurgical industries to fight their local wars and making their implements,

ornaments and supply items for lavish living. The Mughal period (1520’s to

1800’s) reaching zenith of glory in the 17th century, the Great Age, consolidated

the Indian subcontinent and gave prosperity. Most of the early Mughals were

highly talented rulers and besides being patrons of art and culture when they were

not waging wars to subjugate the recalcitrant provincial rebels or the smaller

independent states, also encouraged building, metal and mining trades. The land

and consequently, the minerals belonged to the local chiefs and landlords who paid

royalty and other dues to the emperor, which was collected by the governors or

“subedars” of the provinces subahs.

The 18th century has been called ‘Dark Age’ in India by some historians.

With the collapse of the Mughal Empire, practically everything decayed and

languished, the country disintegrated and industry and commerce greatly declined.

In the meantime major changes were occurring during the industrial, scientific and

technological revolution in Europe. Concurrently with the increasing European

prosperity the aggressive European adventures and traders together with religious

missions started looking for profitable footholds all round the globe, the

beginnings of the vast colonial empires. Significantly direct and peaceful European

trade had been established with India during the Mughal times besides the

commercial and very high academic and cultural exchanges with the Middle East.

The history of mining in India is lost in the limbo of antiquity. The presence

of old mine workings and slag heaps testify that the mining industry flourished in

olden times. The skill and industry of the ancient miners in winning gold,

extraction and smelting the metallic ores and in receiving diamonds from deposits

of various kinds, is well established and recognized. However, it was not until the

last decades of the 19th century that prospecting activities increased to an

48

appreciable extent. Consequently mining of mineral started: Several coal fields

were developed oil – fields discovered: and the famous Iron deposits of Bihar

(Jharkhand) and Orissa proved. The mining of copper, lead, zinc, manganese ores,

beach sand and gold mica flourished. At present India produces 87 minerals: 4

fuels, 11 metals, 50 non – metallic and 22 minor minerals aggregating about 1500

million tones of production per year. In India mining activity is prevalent

throughout the country; however the concentration of mines is higher in a few

regions. The high concentration mining areas are mostly in remote and tribal areas

where prior to mining agriculture was the only source of income (G.S. Roonwal, K

shahriar and H. Ranjbar –, 2005).

49

KARANATAKA (Mineral Map)

50

Development of Mining Industry in Karnataka:

Environment impact assessment studies have been the main concern of not

only policy makers, administrators and environmental activists but also of life

sciences. Apparently environmental impact of major development projects and

policies have revealed that it adversely affected nature, natural resources like air,

water, soil, green cover, fauna and flora the impact on human beings, their culture

their livelihoods and their food security and the welfare and well being has been no

less severe have been either taken for granted or at best given only peripheral –

importance. Ultimately it is people like farmers, workers, forest dwellers, who bear

the brunt of environmental impact. It is only recently social scientist in general and

sociologist in particular started take some interest in environmental concern of all

the activities by their organized and unorganized mining and the impact of mining

on environment the people have become a subject of raging controversy and

contention. Mining activities have been going on in certain district of Karnataka

particularly Bellary, Tumkur, & Chitradurga.

The Mining in Karanataka has a very respectable antiquity as the extensive

workings for gold and base metals in Hatti gold mines in Raichur and at Rajapura –

Dariba make evident, the task of mining in India between 1400 – 1800A.D. is best

with formidable difficulties. For one thing, we have had no Georgius Agricola

(Georg Bauer, to document the technology of this period). Recourse has therefore

to be made to – gleanings from the writings of Tavernier, Alberuni, Buchnan –

Hamilton and from works such as Ain – I – Akbari to fit the pieces of Jig – saw

puzzle and reconstruct the level of industrial activity and technology during this

period. The period is conceivably a gray area in the annals of mining. The lack of

well – documented works support to such a contention

51

Mining in Karnataka:

The history of mining in Karnataka goes back to the ancient days. The Gold

found in the Harappan sites is believed to have been excavated from the mines of

Karnataka. Karnataka is one of the two mineral rich states of the country. It ranks

fifth among the states in India for mining. Karnataka still continues to be equally

rich in its mineral wealth. Gold along with Iron ore are the main mineral wealth’s

of Karnataka. Chitradurga, Bellary, Belgam and Bagalkote and Tumkur are some

of the districts in which mining in Karnataka have continued to be major

industries.

The first large scale industry to be started in Mysore / Karnataka consuming

the mineral raw materials locally available was the Mysore Iron and Steel works at

Bhadravati in the year 1923. This created a demand for large quantities of Iron ore

and limestone (Mineral development in Mysore, 1958).

Gold Mining Industry:

The oldest among the mineral based industries in Karnataka is the gold –

mining industry. From pre – historic times down in the present day, interest in gold

mining had persisted. Old workings for gold are found in various parts of the state.

Large scale development however, has been confined only to two fields, Kolar and

Hatti(Raichur district) Iron ore lies at the very center of – Karnataka’s mining

industry, Balidala, Donimalai and Panna are some of the leading Iron – ore

producing areas of – Karnataka gold and diamond mines are chief attractions of

Karnataka mining. The Hatti gold mines have supplied gold the world from very

ancient times. More than 40,000 square kilometers of green stones belts contain

vast mineral deposits of gold, silver, platinum, copper, diamond, iron, manganese,

chromite, lime stone, dolomite etc of the total area.

52

Kudremukh Iron Ore Company: Vast quantities of low – grade iron ore

having 30 percent Iron ore available in the high ranges forming the Kudremukh

Baba – budan and Kodachadri ranges in the western ghats, close to the parts of

Mangalore and Kundapur. The iron portion is strongly magnetic and it is possible

to beneficiate the Ore and produce a high grade concentrate one of the largest

mining installations in the whole of Asia for iron ore has taken shape at

Kudremukh where 7.5million tones of concentrates are of be produced annually for

supply to iron under an agreement and production has started in 1980 (Karnataka

state gazetteer part I, 1982).

Presently twenty varieties of major minerals and five varieties of minor

minerals are exploited in the state. The state government declared some areas as de

– reserved area in 2002. Thus it is indirectly increasing the mining and quarrying

activities in the state. There has been increase in the mineral production over a

period of time. The state has 568 major mines in an area of 21,247 sq km and

5,650 quarries in 4,526 sq km area. Thus according to ministry of environment and

forestry department, that there are 128 illegal mines present in the state.

53

Table No-2.1 District – wise quarry leases and mining leases in the states

Sl. No District Quarry leases Mining leases

1 Bangalore (Rural & Urban) 940 32

2 Belgaum 270 72

3 Bellary 168 135

4 Bidar 17 9

5 Bijapur 173 42

6 Chickmagalur 77 11

7 Chitradurga 75 97

8 Kodagu 17 -

9 Dakshina kannada 618 44

10 Gulbarga 220 60

11 Dharwad 93 40

12 Hasan 69 22

13 Kolar 138 15

14 Mandya 111 16

15 Raichur 45 7

16 Mysore 102 36

17 Shimoga 234 24

18 Tumkur 173 51

19 Uttar kannada 145 138

Total 3685 845

Source: Karnataka State Gazetteer – Part I 1982 – p - 202

54

55

TUMKUR DISTRICT MAP

56

Mining In Tumkur :

The Tumkur district located in the South – eastern part of Karnataka covers

an area of 10558 Km. The district has a population of 2,584.711 as per 2001

census records. The name “Tumkur” the anglicized version of “Tumakooru” was

said to be derived from the kannada word Tumke, a small drum used for tom –

toming public announcements in early days. Alternately some believe that the

word Tummeguru (or Tumakuru) originated from another kannada word Tumme

or Tumbe, a common herb in this part of the country,

The Tumkur town, the headquarters of the Tumkur district is situated on the

Bangalore pune highway (NH4). The land locked town is 70Km from the State

capital Bangalore by road and railways.

The Tumkur district is irregular in outline and is bounded between latitudes

survey of India toposheets Nos. 57 C/ 7 & 8 and 57 G / 7 to G / 11. Tumkur district

consists of ten administrative taluks of chikkanayakanahalli, Gubbi, Koratagere,

Kunigal, Madhugiri, Pavagada, Sira, Tiptur, Tumkur and Turvekere. The climate

in the southern part of the Tumkur district is similar to that of Bangalore, with

temperatures ranging from 22° to 38°C during the year. In the northern part of sira

Madhugiri – Pavagada tracts, the climate is generally hotter, with daytime

temperatures running to 40° to 42°c in summer and night temperatures during cold

season declines upto 9° to 10°. The annual average rainfall in the district is

687.9mm.

57

The main agricultural crops in rain fed dry lands of the district are ground

nut, ragi, mulberry and chillies and in canal and ground water irrigated tracts

sugarcane, and paddy are raised. Canals of Turvekere, Tiptur, Kunigal and Gubbi

taluks.

Mineral Resources and Mining activity:

Tumkur district has considerable mineral wealth. Among the important

minerals available in the district are manganese, Iron ore, gold ore, Limestone,

corundum, granite, silver, sand, quartz, soap stone and china clay. The manganese

deposits occur mixed with limestone near Doddaguni in the district. The correct

figures are not available regarding the quantum of manganese ore deposits in this

district. It is estimated that the deposits may be to the extent of about 100 million

metric tons. The ore is exploited by private mine – owners and is exported to

foreign countries. Large deposits of limestone, containing 40 percent calcium

oxide and 2.80 percent manganese are reported to occur at Voblapura and it is

estimated that the deposits of this mineral in Tumkur and chitradurga districts are

to the extent of about five crore tons. The limestone deposits in the district are

being exploited for the manufacture of cement by the Mysore cement Ltd at

Ammasandra. There are rich deposits of Iron ore in this district about 35 million

tons of iron ore containing 58 to 62 percent iron ore estimated to be available in

various parts of the district as follows:

1) Karekurchi area - 5 million tons

2) Abbigegudda region - 27 million tons

3) Janehar region - 3 million tons

Currently there are 38 leased mining in this district (1967). The mineral wise

distribution of the same is shown below:

58

Minerals No. of mining leases

1) Iron ore - 8

2) Manganese - 7

3) Iron and manganese - 17

4) Clay - 2

5) Soap stone - 1

6) Limestone - 3

Table No-2.2 Revenue Realization from mineral industry in Karnataka

Year Total Revenue

(Rs. In Lakhs)

Revenue from Granites

(Rs. In Lakhs)

1997-98 11312 3928

1998-99 9499 2118

1999-2000 10942 1944

2000-01 15135 2429

2001-02 16500 2301

2002-03 16715 2344

2003-04 22642 3107

2004-05 23643 3308

2005-06 28969 3125

2006-07 36570 3375

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Table No-2.3 Revenue Realization from major and minor minerals in Tumkur

District.

SL.

No Year

Collecting Revenue

(In Rupees)

1 2000-01 12,87,0759

2 2001-02 11,88,5229

3 2002-03 18,77,9825

4 2003-04 23,03,8407

5 2004-05 52,47,2944

6 2005-06 58,42,9927

7 2006-07 70,63,8539

8 2007-08 87,14,9137

9 2008-09 14,44,39802

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Source: Department of Mines & Geology (Karnataka).

Earnings:

State Government - 4% Vat and Royalty

Central Government - 15% Export duty on every tone ore

Royalty Rates:

1) Dolomite - Rs.45/tones 2) Iron ore - Rs.4/tone(Ferrous Content – 40%) to

Rs.27/tone Ferrous Content – 65% or more

3) Manganese - Ore of all grades taxed at 3% 4) Quartz - Rs.20/tone

Types of minerals

Area under mining

(In hectares)

Districts

Area under mining

(In hectares)

Top Six minerals in State

(In lakh tones)

30 1.69 Lakhs 20 of 30 Iron-473.16

Iron ore 95,002.68 Bellary 70,165.83

Lime Stone-145.26

Bauxite- 11.37

Manganese 14,932.96 Bellary 3,403.37 Dolomite – 3.74

Quartz – 11.37

Lime Stones 24,83,701 Gulbarga 1,4632.95 Manganese – 3.6

Gold ore also platinum group elements

Tumkur 0.48 Million

Tones

61

Iron Ore miners in Karnataka earn around Rs.3000/tone but pay a meager

Rs.135/-(If sold in domestic market) and Rs.540/-(If exported) to Governments.

National Mining Policy – 2008

The Times of India daily newspaper reported on 27th August 2008 and has

the potential to disturb the ecological balance of an area. However, the needs of

economic development make the extraction of the nation’s minerals resources an

important priority. These lines from the new National Policy on Mining 2008

adopted recently is clear and from mining would go on across the country, in fact,

more vigoursly. The mining policy has relaxed rules to attract more foreign direct

investment (FDI) in extracting the mineral resources, especially gold and diamond,

which requires high investments and superior technology.

The trust of the new policy, which is based on the recommendations of the

Huda Committee on mining reforms, is on faster decision making by “removing

loopholes & communication gaps in the decision making process” maximizing the

extraction of minerals less strength norms for parties which opt for mining

licenses, and opening up doors for more (FDI) Foreign Direct investment in the

mining sector. The Government does not want to lose even the small deposits in

the land and minerals in the sea; hence the policy has accorded priority to this too.

Rules to obtain Mining Licenses:

As per Mines and Minerals (Department and Regulation) Act 1957, and mineral

exemptions (Rebate) Rules, 1960.

Mining leases can only be in contract areas.

Indian Bureau of Mines (IBM) fixes upper limit of extraction.

Miner as to follow plan obtained from IBM.

62

Permission from State Pollution Control Board and Centre’s forest and

ecology Department needed.

If in forest areas, as per the forest conservation act 1980, miner has to obtain

a no objection certificate (NOC) from centre.

If it is a Revenue land, then NOC has to be obtained from the Jurisdictional

deputy commissioners.

Has to pay Royalty and take permit to Transport ore.

Highlights of the National Mining policy -2008

a) Mineral health, though limited, is a key for development, zero waste mining

and use of modern technology from the core of National Mining Policy.

b) Huge employer of workers, it should be treated as an economic activity in its

own right and not as an ancillary of manufacturing industry.

c) Conservation of minerals by making use of low grade ore and rejects and

recovery of associated minerals.

d) Government agencies will explore technology and allowing FDI in high

value and scare minerals and encourage Indian companies to set up joint

ventures.

e) No separate leasing license for gold and diamond explorers, if they have a

mining license to allow global companies in gold and diamond mining.

f) Exploration for lower grade hematite, magnetite, base metals, noble metals,

diamonds and high grade hematite will be put on the fast track.

g) Where small deposits are not variable for mining, cluster approach will be

adopted by granting the deposits in an area as a single lease.

h) Minerals in forest areas disturb ecological balance but economic

development is also a priority and sustainable development will be pursued.

63

i) Responsibility to manage mineral resources less with both the Central and

State Governments. The centre has framed the mineral commission Rules,

1960 (MCR) for regulating grant of reconnaissance permit (RP), prospecting

licenses (PL) and Mining leases (ML). In respect of all minerals other than

atomic minerals and minor minerals. The State Governments have framed

the rules of mining small minerals.

Table No-2.4 State and Number of cases of Illegal Mining

SL.No Name of the State No. of cases

1 Andhra Pradesh 35,411

2 Gujarath 23,240

3 Maharastra 17,900

4 Madhyapradesh 16,068

5 Karnataka 11,896

6 Rajasthan 7932

7 Kerala 7685

8 Chattisgarh 6923

9 Tamilnadu 5074

10 Hariyana 3141

Source: Ministry of Mines Government of India, 7th Dec 2008.

64

The fact of the matter and which of serious concern is large-scale illegal

mining. Apart from causing lot of revenue to the government illegal mining thrives

on blatant violation of all rules and regulations. This gives a rise to the

development of vested-interests who start doing everything to protect unaccounted

money. Besides corruption it encourages criminalization of society and

deterioration in the quality of environment and hence quality life of common man.

Common property resources (CPR) which provided a constant source of living for

a large number of small farmers, service castes, Craftsmen and artisans either are

encroached upon by these powerful goons and people who were almost entirely

dependent on these resources an deprived. These people are consequently are left

with only two option-either to work as wage labourers or migrate to towns and

cities and end up there living in slums and live like parasites. For, they may lack

skills, aptitude and knowledge required of them to be able to carry out jobs

available readily in the job market. Seen from any stand point illegal mining has

adversely affected not only the environment but also people living in such

environment.

65

REFERENCES

1. Coal Mining in India (History and perspectives) – 1984, A CMPDIL Publications (Central

Mine Planning and Design Institute) Ltd, Ranchi, Bihar, India.

2. Gazetter of India Karnataka State Tumkur District, Govt Press – 1969.

3. Gazetter of India, Karnataka State Gazetter Part-I, 1982, Govt of Karnataka Publications

Page-202, (775-779)

4. Gazetter of India, Karnataka State Gazetter, Decimal Supplement – 1983-93 Govt of

Karnataka Publication – 1994.

5. Mineral Development in Mysore report of the Committee appointed by Govt of Mysore –

1958 Publication – The Govt Press, Bangalore.

6. Ministry of Mines Govt of India -7 Dec-2008.

7. Pattabiramaiah.N.R & Vasanthkumar-1997, Limestone and Dolomite resources in Gubbi and

Chikkanayakanahalli Taluk, Tumkur district, Geological Studies, No-275, D.M.G Karnataka.

8. Tumkur District at a Glance – 2008-09, Govt of Karnataka Publisher, Zilla panchayat,

Tumkur.

9. Venugopal.T.N, Ravindra.B.M & Ambika.T – 2007, Geological and Mineral Resoruces of

Tumkur District, Geological studies – No.394, DMG, Bangalore.

10. The Times of India – August 27-2008 Department of Mines and Geology.