chapter 2 examining the social world: how do we know? © pine forge press, an imprint of sage...

Chapter 2Chapter 2Examining the Social Examining the Social

World:World:

How Do We Know?How Do We Know?

© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.


Ideas Underlying Science

How do we know?Sociology uses scientific methods to expand knowledge of the social worldThe Systematic use of theories and research methods makes sociology much more than guesswork or opinion


Assumptions of scienceThere is a real physical and social world that can be studied systematicallyThe world is ordered by relations of cause and effectThe best way to know the world is through empirical testing, based on observed facts Things that can’t be observed lie outside the scope of scientific inquiryScience should be objective, or based on evidence rather than opinions

Ideas Underlying Science


Theory & research are interdependentTheories are statements regarding how facts are related to each other

Sociological theories attempt to explain and make predictions about the social world

The researcher’s choice of theory and research method is guided by the research question and level of social analysis

Theories tell researchers what kinds of facts to look for

Researchers use facts to test theories

Empirical Research & Social Theory


The research process

Planning a research study

Designing the research plan and method for collecting data

Making sense of the data

How Sociologists Study the Social World


Steps in planning a study:1. Define the problem clearly

The question must be specific and precise

2. Find out what is already known about topicReview existing theory and research

3. Formulate hypotheses and define variablesHypothesis: educated guess about the relationship between two variables, which can be testedVariable: concept that can vary in frequency of occurrence across persons, places, or timeOperationalizing a variable: linking the variable concept to a specific measurement

Planning a Study


Research aims to find causal relationshipsWays that two variables can be related:

Correlation: variables change together

Causation: one variable causes another to change• Independent variable (IV): the cause of change• Dependent variable (DV): the variable that

changes• Timing: change in IV must precede change in DV

Spurious relationship: IV and DV change together due to effects of a third variable; not a causal relationship• Control variables help eliminate effects not related

to the hypothesis, especially spurious relationships

Planning a Study (cont.)


Deductive reasoning: moves from general theories to specific hypotheses

Planning a Study (cont.)

Inductive reasoning: moves from specific facts (data) to more general theories


Research design is important: the value of a study depends upon the quality of its data

Research methods depend upon the level of analysis of the research question

Primary sociological research methods: SurveysField studiesControlled experimentsExisting sourcesTriangulation

Designing Research & Collecting Data


Survey methodsUsed to gather information from many people about how they think or what they want

Involves asking respondents a set of questionsInterviews: questions asked by phone or in personQuestionnaire: questions and responses are written

Question typesOpen-ended: respondents can say what they wishClosed-ended: respondents must choose from a set of predetermined answers



Survey methods: considerations

Interviews and open-ended questions yield in-depth information, but are time consuming and costly

Questionnaires and closed-ended questions provide less information, but are cheaper and more practical



Field studies (observational methods)

Used to systematically observe and record interaction in the settings where it takes place

Types of field studyNon-participant observation: observation onlyParticipant observation: researcher participates in and observes activities of group being studiedEthnography: researcher uses observation, interviews, self-reflection, and other techniques to pursue any data relevant to the research problem, which may evolve over the course of the study



Field study: considerationsProduces qualitative data

Qualitative data: written or verbal observations, used to interpret the meaning of somethingQuantitative data: numerical, “hard” data, can be conveyed with percentages or tables

Participant observation: potential problemsResearch effects: the group being studied may be altered by the presence of the researcherBias: researcher may become so involved in the group that objectivity becomes difficult



Controlled experimentsUsed as a powerful test of cause and effectElements of a controlled experiment

Researchers manipulate an independent variable and determine its effects while all other variables are held constantExperimental group: subjects who are exposed to the effects of the independent variableControl group: subjects not exposed to the independent variableAfter the experimental group is exposed to the variable, the two groups are compared to determine its effectsCannot be used to study many sociological questions, research effects may result, and it is unethical to introduce many variables into the laboratory

Designing the Research & Collecting the Data


Controlled experiments: considerations

A valuable test, but:Can’t be used for questions dealing with macro-level phenomenon that can’t be placed in a controlled situation

Can’t study questions involving independent variables that might cause harm to subjects

Research effects: subjects may be affected by the fact that they are in a laboratory setting

Designing the Research & Collecting the Data


Existing sources

Existing data is used in new ways, especially if:

Data from past years is desired

Study concerns meso- or macro- level social patterns

Major typesSecondary analysis: employs data already collected for other studies or by agencies such as the Census Bureau or United Nations

Content analysis: systematic recording and classification of information from written or recorded sources, e.g. newspapers or letters



Existing sources: considerationsExisting data sources may be inexpensive; research is unobtrusive and may be easy to doPotential problems:

Data may not represent the precise population the researcher wishes to studyAny problems with the original data will carry over into the secondary analysisData does not capture the “human side” of research questions as well as interview or observational data



Triangulation (or multiple methods)

Multiple methods of data collection are used to increase the amount of data and the accuracy of findings

Survey methods, field study, experimentation, and existing sources may be used in various combinations



Sampling (all methods)Sample: a small group of people who are systematically chosen to represent the larger population being studiedTypes of samples:

Representative: accurately reflects the population being studied, so findings can be generalized to the populationRandom: every person in the population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample; the most common type of representative sample



Analyzing dataThe goal is to determine relationships between the variables

Variables must be clearResearcher must choose most effective tools for analyzing relationships among variablesDiscussion with and criticism from other researchers aids accuracy of analysisStudy should be replicable, or capable of being repeated so results can be compared

Analysis: Making Sense of the Data


Reporting conclusionsThe researcher develops a report, including

Outline of project Data analysis, which may include tables or figures that summarize the dataConclusions: Are hypotheses supported by data?Interpretations and recommendations

In social science no one study can definitively prove a hypothesis; instead, findings may tend to support or reject a hypothesis

Analysis: Making Sense of the Data


Why do social research if conclusions remain uncertain?Even if we can’t reach absolute truth, we can use social science to get as close as possibleFindings from multiple studies build a stronger case than just one studyPolicy and our understanding of society can be based on the best knowledge available

Science and Uncertainty


What makes social research scientific?

Commitment to testing and confirming empirical evidence

Being convinced by evidence rather than preconceived ideas

Integrity and objectivity in conducting and reporting research

Continual openness to having findings re-examined and re-interpreted

Science and Uncertainty


Sociological research is bound by ethical codes which generally require that: Research subjects give informed consent to participate in studiesSubjects are not harmed or put at riskSubjects’ privacy is not invaded unnecessarilySubjects’ private information is protectedStudy findings do not cause harm

Human Subjects Review Boards at universities and other research institutions help protect subjects

Ethical Issues in Social Research


Social thought before sociology: strongly influenced by religion and philosophy

Modern sociology arose in 19th century Europe, influenced by several conditions:

Colonialism: exposure to other cultures

Industrial Revolution & French Revolution: desire to know how dramatic change could be systematically explained

Advances in the natural sciences: desire to apply scientific method to the social world

The Development of Sociology


August Comte & the science of societyCoined the term “sociology” in 1838Thought society’s problems could not be understood by philosophical or religious speculation; scientific knowledge was neededTwo main concerns

What holds society together? (social statics or structure)

Why is there change in society? (social dynamics or process)



Early sociology after Comte Focus on massive social and economic change brought by Industrial RevolutionFocus on relationship between micro-, meso-, and macro-level processesEarly sociological theorists: Emile Durkheim, Karl Marx, Harriet Martineau, Max Weber, W.E.B. DuBoisUse of scientific method to test ideas



Scientific sociology focuses on pure, objective analysis, modeled on natural scienceHumanistic sociology focuses on the human capacity to create meaning, which can’t be captured by quantitative dataSociology centered on improving society

Critical sociology focuses on critical thinking about issues of social justiceApplied sociology focuses on practical ways to bring about changePublic sociology aims to move the focus from classrooms and labs to communities

Three Sociological Traditions


Theoretical perspective: a basic view of society that

Guides sociological research and analysis

Provides an overall approach to understanding social behavior, social systems, and relationships between them

Can be micro- or macro-level; all can be used at the meso-level

Sociology’s Major Theoretical Perspectives


Symbolic interaction theory (or social construction, interpretative theory)Main ideas:

People interact on the basis of shared symbols to construct a meaningful world—which then serves as a basis for further interaction.Some emphasize agency, individuals’ active role in constructing their social environments, or how their social positions shape their constructions

Main criticisms: Neglects macro-structuresDifficult to study concepts like “mind” and “self”

Key theorists: George H. Mead, the Iowa School

Micro-to-Meso Level Theories


Rational choice theory (or exchange theory)Main ideas:

People act by making rational, self-interested decisions that will maximize their rewards and minimize costs

Main criticisms: Neglects macro-level processes and micro-level, internal mental processesCannot easily explain altruistic behaviorPeople do not always act rationally or accurately assess their self-interest

Micro-to-Meso Level Theories


Structural-functional theory (or functional theory)Main ideas:

Each part of society has a necessary functionParts fit together into a stable, orderly wholeFunctions may be manifest (planned) or latent (unintended); some things may be dysfunctional

Main criticisms:Some claims are abstract, difficult to testCan’t easily explain social changeAssumes conflict is harmful, which isn’t always trueAssumes stability is good, ignoring inequities

Key theorists: Comte, Durkheim, Merton

Meso- and Macro-Level Theories


Conflict theoryMain ideas:

Inequalities in resources and power create conflict, which underlies all social relations The powerful impose their values and beliefs on weaker groupsChange leading to greater equality is desirable

Main criticisms: Neglects the micro-level Difficult to test empiricallyCannot easily explain cohesion and cooperationRests on assumption of self-interest

Key theorists: Marx, DuBois, Dahrendorf, Coser

Meso- and Macro- Level Theories


Feminist sociological theoryMain ideas:

Rooted in conflict theory, symbolic interactionismSocial hierarchies disadvantage women and advantage menSociology has traditionally been male dominated, resulting in an incomplete view of the world

Main criticisms: Theory should address the intersection of gender, race, class, and other inequalities

Meso- and Macro- Level Theories


Max Weber’s contributionsMain ideas

Verstehen (understanding): emphasized the importance of interpreting the meanings people give to their actions (micro-level)Focused on bureaucracy guided by rationality as key element of modern organizations (meso-level)Examined how history has been shaped by politics, economics, religion, psychology, and ideas (macro-level)

Multi-Level Analysis


No theory is right or wrong; each has advantages and disadvantages for studying particular levels or aspects of society.

Using Different Theoretical Perspectives


Basic sociology (professional or academic sociology): emphasis on scientific analysis, theory building, knowledge production

Applied sociology (sociological practice): uses sociology to develop practical ways of improving society, often through policy

Public sociology: attempts to integrate sociology into communities in order to promote public debate and social change

Putting Sociology to Work

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