chapter 2 - geographical indications retrospect and...
TRANSCRIPT
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Chapter 2 - Geographical Indications – Retrospect and
Prospect
2.1 Understanding Geographical Indications
Some products are unique because they can be produced only in a certain
geographical region and they become reputed because they have certain quality
traits, for instance products such as Champagne, Scotch or Basmati rice. The
important aspect about these products is the link between their quality
characteristics and the geographical attributes of the region where these
products are being produced and manufactured.8
For certain products over a period of time, the particular product made in a
specific place can develop a unique reputation. This reputation is attributed to
various factors and special characteristics present in the place of production, its
people, its climate and its landscape. At times, the reputation is due to the
people or the climate or the landscape alone. Sometimes it is due to a
combination of all the characteristics combined.9
Property rights are often sought for such goods based on the fact that they are
produced in a geographical region which has unique geo-climatic
8 See generally Sanjeev Agarwal & Michael J. Barone, ‘Emerging Issues for Geographical Indication Branding Strategies’, MATRIC Research Paper 05-MRP 9, January 2005 9 Id
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characteristics and uses traditional skills. These render a unique value to the
product and make replication of these goods elsewhere impossible. Since goods
that originate from another region must, by definition, be different, there can be
no justification for using the same geographical term or sign for them. It will in
fact be a gross misrepresentation to do so. It is in this context that a special right
for such products makes appropriate sense than to provide for an action which
requires proof of misrepresentation.10
Such products are not only agricultural commodities like wine, cheese, rice,
fruits, and coffee and whisky but also refer to handicraft items such as silk
clothes with traditional paintings on them. These products may also be herbal
medicines such as Neem and Turmeric to which quality of the same can be
attributable to a specific geographic region.11
The granting of GI protection dates back to the fifteenth (15) century, when
Roquefort a specialty sheep milk blue cheese from the south of France, was
regulated by a French parliament decree, and was soon followed by similar
regulations of other products in France as well as in other European countries.12
10 Pradyot R. Jena and Ulrike Grote, ‘Changing Institutions to Protect Regional Heritage: A Case for Geographical Indications in the Indian Agrifood Sector at http://www.pegnet.ifw-kiel.de/activities/pradyot.pdf 11 See generally - International Conclave on Traditional Medicine, 16-17th November, 2006 New Delhi, available at http://www.niscair.res.in/conclave/downloadables/Backgrounder.pdf 12 Carina Folkeson - Geographical Indications and Rural Development in the EU at http://biblioteket.ehl.lu.se/olle/papers/0000429.pdf
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From a historical perspective the sale of products from a particular region were
sought more than those of another region because of a quality trait associated
with the region.
The quality of these products was attributed to various factors such as climatic
conditions, soil fertility, availability of specific raw materials, manufacturing
skills and techniques specific to the region. The marks associated with these
products gave the consumer the confidence as to its quality.
In Europe the laws for the protection of GIs have existed for hundreds of
years.13
For instance as early as 1222 in Yugoslavia a Charter of Steven I
governed the sale of wine. In the middle Ages in the South-West of France, and
also in other French wine producing regions, the sale and consumption of wines
from other regions were prohibited. Only wines originating in the region were
allowed entry into its towns.14
GIs have long been associated with Europe as an entity, where there is a
tradition of associating certain food products with particular regions. A lot of
the impetus for the expansion of GIs emanates from France and other European
nations.
13 Bernard O'Connor - The Law of Geographical Indications, Cameron May, London; 2004 pp. 501. 14 Id
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GIs are signs which identify a good as originating in the territory of a particular
country, or a region or locality in that country, where a given quality, reputation
or other characteristic of the good is essentially attributable to its geographical
origin.15
There is no universally accepted definition of a GI, but the meaning is primarily
derived from international agreements, and best encapsulates the universal spirit
of the concept of GI.16
Products protected by means of GIs must have qualities linked to the territory
from which they derive. For instance agricultural products typically have
qualities that derive from their place of production and are influenced by
specific local factors, such as climate and soil.17
GI protection involves recognizing a collective exclusive right to the use of a
geographical name or sign on a good. GI may be used for a wide variety of
products, whether natural, agricultural or manufactured. GIs are usually
geographical names, but they can also be composed of symbols and icons as
long as they convey geographical information.
15 See http://www.lexorbis.com/Appellation_Of_Origin_In_The_Milieu_Of_Indicator_Of_A_Geographical_Origin.htm
16 See http://www.carib-export.com/obic/documents/Geographical_Indications.pdf 17 Jorge Larson Guerra, ‘Geographical Indications, in Situ Conservation and Traditional Knowledge’, ICTSD Policy Brief Number 3, November 2010 available at http://ictsd.org/downloads/2011/02/larsen_v4.pdf
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GIs are recognised as tools for securing the link between product quality and
the region of geographical origin. Items that meet geographical origin and
quality standards may be endorsed with a government-issued stamp which acts
as official certification of the origins and standards of the product to the
consumer.18
GIs are associated with unique products that embody rich cultures and history.
It is also expected that there is a direct link between the distinguishing
characteristics, cultural aspects or the quality of a product and the place of
origin or geographic area.
In order for a product to be seen and the indication to serve the function of a GI,
it must communicate that the product is not only from the noted region but also
has a particular quality or a particular reputation, thereby creating a link
between some characteristic of the product and the particular region where it
was produced.19
Although there are many products that have long been distinguished by their
geographic origins, a product or service may be described and designated as a
GI only where specific aspects of that geography contribute to its uniqueness,
often in the distinctive characteristics and processing associated with the local
18 See generally Cerkia Bramley, Estelle Biénabe & Johann Kirsten, ‘The Economics Of Geographical Indications: Towards A Conceptual Framework for Geographical Indication Research in Developing Countries’, available at http://www.wipo.int/ip-development/en/economics/pdf/wo_1012_e_ch_4.pdf 19 See Jorge Larson Guerra, ‘Geographical Indications, in Situ Conservation and Traditional Knowledge’
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culture and tradition of its place of origin. Some GIs, such as Basmati (Indo-
Pakistani rice) and Feta (cheese from Greece), may be from a particular place
but do not use direct geographical names.
GIs make it possible to add value to the natural riches of a country and to the
skills of the population, and they give local products a distinguishable identity.
Some examples of GIs are, Darjeeling tea, Parmigiano cheese, Bordeaux wine,
Kobe beef, Idaho potatoes, Jamaica Blue Mountain coffee, and Tequila.
GIs allow producers to create an image of “exoticness” or scarcity that enables
them to obtain premium prices for products that would otherwise be ascribed
commodity status. The main source of this exoticness comes from unique
quality differences that may be attributed to production in a particular
geographical area based on quality characteristics associated with that
location.20
The definition of a geographical indication is flexible enough, as it can protect
the geographical names of localities, regions or countries or any name that
evokes a geographical origin as long as the name meets the above requirements.
At the same time, such a definition clearly excludes rules of origin or
indications of source that indicate only the GI, but not any quality, reputation or
other characteristic of the product. In this vein, rules of origin are a tool for
20 See Rachael M. Williams ‘Do Geographical Indications Promote Sustainable Rural Development?’ available at http://researcharchive.lincoln.ac.nz/dspace/bitstream/10182/585/1/williams_mnrmee.pdf
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tariff classification and must be distinguished from geographical indications
within the meaning of the TRIPS Agreement.21
The first attempt to harmonize different standards and approaches that
governments used to register GIs was found in the Paris Convention on
Trademarks in 1883.22
Article 1 includes ‘indication of source’ and
‘appellations of origin’ among industrial property, protected by the Convention
and it outlined;
Protection of geographical indications against false indications of source
Protection of geographical indication depends on the law of the country
providing protection.
The Madrid Agreements from 1891 extended the Paris Convention but major
improvements in the area were not made until the mid-twentieth century.23
The Appellation d’Origine Controlée (AOC) (roughly translated to “term of
origin” or “appellation of origin”) was created and mandated in France in the
1950s, 60s and 70s. The controlled term of origin guarantees the following
product criteria24
:
The product will be produced consistently in the traditional manner
21 Felix Addor & Alexandra Grazioli, ‘Geographical Indications beyond wines and spirits—A Roadmap for Better Protection for GIs’, Journal of World Intellectual Property, vol. 5, No. 6, November 2002, pp. 865-897. 22 See generally http://www.iitrade.ac.in/kmarticle.asp?id=206 23 See generally Amir Zahir, ‘North & South – the WTO TRIPS Agreement: Intellectual Property Disputes and Conflict of Visions’, Respect, Sudanese Journal for Human Rights’ Culture and Issues of Cultural Diversity, (7) March 2008. 24 See Carina Folkeson - Geographical Indications and Rural Development in the EU
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It will be produced with products from a designated geographical area,
and will be made and at least partially aged in this area.
The characteristics of the product will be consistent and in line with
clearly defined standards;
The production is strictly regulated by a control commission following
AOC defined standards;
The standards outlined were25
:
A seal identifies all AOC products.
To prevent misrepresentation, no part of an AOC name may be used on
a label of product not qualifying for that of AOC.
Producers located in towns where the AOC is the name of the town,
may only list a postal code and not the actual name of the town.
The term “indication of source” is used in Articles 1(2) and 10 of the Paris
Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property of 1883.26
It is also used
throughout the Madrid Agreement for the Repression of False or Deceptive
Indications of Source on Goods of 1891.27
25 Albert Céline, ‘Appellation d’Origine Controlée (AOC) and other official product identification standards’ at http://www.rural.org/publications/aoc.pdf 26 See generally http://www.adb.org/Documents/Produced-under-TA/39255/39255-01-prc-dpta-02.pdf 27 Worldwide Symposium On Geographical Indications, July, 2003 organised by WIPO and USPTO (WIPO Document No: WIPO/GEO/SFO/03/1)
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There is no definition of “indication of source” in those two treaties, but Article
1(1) of the Madrid Agreement on Indications of Source contains language
which clarifies what is meant by the term. That Article reads as follows:
“All goods bearing a false or deceptive indication by which one of the
countries to which this Agreement applies, or a place situated therein, is
directly or indirectly indicated as being the country or place of origin shall be
seized on importation into any of the said countries.”28
Consequently an indication of source can be defined as an indication referring
to a country, or to a place in that country, as being the country or place of origin
of a product. It is important that the indication of source relates to the
geographical origin of a product and not to another kind of origin, for example,
an enterprise that manufactures the product.
This definition does not imply any special quality or characteristics of the
product on which an indication of source is used. Examples of indications of
source are the mention, on a product, the name of a country, or indications such
as “made in India”.
The term “appellation of origin” is defined in the Lisbon Agreement for the
Protection of Appellations of Origin and their International Registration, of
1958 (which came into force in 1966).29
The Lisbon Agreement establishes an
28 http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/madrid/trtdocs_wo032.html#P24_540 29 http://www.wipo.int/lisbon/en/general/
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international system of protection for appellations of origin which are already
protected under the national law of one of the States party to that Agreement.
Protection is subject to the international registration of that appellation of
origin. Article 2(1) of the Lisbon Agreement defines the term “appellation of
origin” as follows:
“Appellation of origin” means the geographical name of a country, region, or
locality, which serves to designate a product originating therein, the quality
and characteristics of which are due exclusively or essentially to the
geographical environment, including natural and human factors.”30
Under this definition, an appellation of origin can be regarded as a special kind
of indication of source, because the product for which an appellation of origin is
used must have quality and characteristics which are due exclusively or
essentially to its origin. Examples for protected appellations of origin are
“Bordeaux” for wine, “Noix de Grenoble” for nuts, “Tequila” for spirit drinks,
or “Jaffa” for oranges.31
Many other countries have based their controlled place name systems on AOC,
for example Italy’s Denominazione di Origine Controllata (DOC), Spain’s
Denominación de Origen, Portugal’s Denominação de Origem Controlada,
Austria’s Districtus Austria Controllatus and South Africa’s Wine of Origin.
The European way of protecting geographical indications is referred to as sui
generis (meaning ‘of its own kind’).
30 http://www.wipo.int/lisbon/en/legal_texts/lisbon_agreement.html#P15_193 31 See WIPO Document No: WIPO/GEO/SFO/03/1
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The United States also has a variety of laws allowing farmers to control and
label product qualities, the earliest documents on protection dating back to 1922
and the Capper-Volstead Act. The legislation allows any number of farmers to
act cooperatively in “processing, preparing for market, handling, and
marketing” their products by exempting them from certain facets of anti-trust
legislation.32
Today, the United States protects GI under the trademark law, but wine related
GIs are regulated under the Federal Alcohol Administration Act. As such, a US
certification mark protects one or more products and one or more producers or
manufacturers of the products(s) within a specified region. The detailed
analysis of GIs in the US and Europe shall be considered in Chapter 3.
Basic Definition of GI
TRIPS agreement has specifically defined Geographical Indication under Part
II, Section 3, Article 22.1 TRIPS states that: ‘Geographical indications are, for
the purposes of this Agreement, indications which identify a good as originating
in the territory of a Member, or a region or locality in that territory, where a
given quality, reputation or other characteristic of the good is essentially
attributable to its geographical origin.’33
32 Donald M. Barnes & Christopher E. Ondeck, ‘The Capper-Volstead Act: Opportunity Today and Tomorrow / In Commemoration of the 75th Anniversary of the Capper-Volstead Act – available at http://www.uwcc.wisc.edu/info/capper.html 33 http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/trips_e/t_agm3b_e.htm#3
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The World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO) states that GIs are ‘a sign
used on goods that have a specific geographical origin and possess qualities,
reputation or characteristics that are essentially attributable to that place of
origin. Most commonly, a geographical indication includes the name of the
place of origin of the goods.’34
From the above two definitions it can be seen that ‘A Geographical Indication
identifies a good as originating in a delimited territory or region where a noted
quality, reputation or other characteristic of the good is essentially attributable
to its geographical origin and/or the human or natural factors there.’35
2.2 Role of GI in the Intellectual Property family
GIs are a branch of Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) which deal with
identification and attribution of a product to a specific geographic location. GIs
are collective IPR, which identify a good as originating in a certain territory or
a region where a given quality, reputation or other characteristics is essentially
attributable to its geographical origin. These indications consist of a name that
is used to designate a product. A geographical indication cannot be created, but
it can be identified and developed.36
34 http://www.wipo.int/geo_indications/en/about.html 35 Guide to Geographical Indications: Linking products and their origins at www.intracen.org/WorkArea/DownloadAsset.aspx?id=37595 36 Dr. Prabuddha Ganguli – Geographical Indications and its evolving contours available at http://www.iips.ac.in/main_book.pdf
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The rationale for granting any intellectual property rights is the furtherance of
the public interest. Exclusive rights afforded by copyright and patents are seen
as a means to encourage authors, performers and inventors to create and share
their works with the public. Trademarks and geographical indications are
afforded protection for different reasons. They are used to balance competing
interests in the market place: to protect consumers from misinformation and
producers from ‘unfair’ business practices.37
Legal protection of GIs has traditionally been based on the idea that
geographical origin endows a product exclusive qualities and characteristics.
Only local producers are entitled to exclusive use of a product name because no
one outside the locale can truly make the same product. In today’s world we are
able to replicate almost any product anywhere, including its qualities and
characteristics. One would think that this would preclude protection from most
geographical names, yet the number of geographical indications seems to be
rising.38
IPRs are granted or denied legal protection and recognition on the basis of the
rules, laws and regulations applicable in a given country, which is generally
based on the historical principle of territoriality. However, problems and
37 Oskari Rovamo, ‘Monopolising Names? The Protection of Geographical Indications in the European Community’ available at http://ethesis.helsinki.fi/julkaisut/oik/julki/pg/rovamo/monopoli.pdf 38 Id
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disputes as to the right of exclusive use of marks and signs for goods or services
are not uncommon.39
Difficulties and disputes arise, for example, where different parties may try to
claim entitlement to such an exclusive use. Secondly, the same or similar marks
and signs may be used by different parties as a TM or GI or both for the same
or similar products or class of products. Thirdly, different parties may use the
same marks and signs as a TM or GI for different goods or services but one of
these goods or services, and its TM or GI, has had an established reputation or
has been well-known among consumers within the territory or country
concerned.
Intellectual property law is traditionally territorial in nature, but the various
major multilateral agreements on copyright, patent and the other forms of IP
have created a measure of convergence in substantive law across countries. In
the 1980s, the rise of knowledge-based economies made the importance of IP
greater. The growth of technological and especially the internet made copying
of many intellectual property-related protected products far easier.40
39 Thitapha Wattanapruttipaisan, ‘Trademarks and Geographical Indications: Policy Issues and Options in Trade Negotiations and Implementation’, Asian Development Review, vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 166−205. 40 Kal Raustiala and Stephen R. Munzer - The Global Struggle over Geographic Indications, The European Journal of International Law Vol. 18 no. 2, 2007.
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The current mechanisms of IP protection were primarily designed to cater to the
needs of the modern Research and Development oriented businesses and
industries.
Essentially intellectual property law balances private monopoly rights
guaranteed by the state against the general public. The core rights of copyright
and patent are time-limited: at a certain point, creations move into the public
domain and can be used and copied freely by all.
The importance of the public domain rests on innovation concerns, because
most creations derive from earlier creations, as well as liberty concerns,
because private monopolies on inventions and expressions restrain free
economic competition and may inhibit free expression.
While similar to trademarks, GIs differ in that they attach to goods from a
particular region rather than from a particular producer. A few GIs are well
known across the world, for instance Champagne, however others such as
Kolhapuri Slippers (Chappals) are not necessarily so.41
The recognition of a geographical indication in its country of origin needs to be
understood in the light of IPRs, since the geographical indication associated
with a product signifies the link between the quality, reputation or other
41 Surbhi Jain, ‘Effects Of The Extension Of Geographical Indications: A South Asian Perspective’, Asia-Pacific Development Journal Vol. 16, No. 2, December 2009.
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characteristic of the product and its geographical origin. The essence of GIs is
that the product is tied to a particular place, which implies that the same
indication may not be used with a product of the same or similar kind produced
elsewhere. 42
Geographical indications being territorial in nature, the territoriality principle
generally associated with the protection of intellectual property rights is also
quite naturally referred to in the field of geographical indications as well.
Indeed, geographical indications are established and protected (or are denied
legal recognition) on the basis of the laws and regulations applicable in a given
territory.43
However, by virtue of the territoriality principle, several international situations
of conflict can arise. For example, identical geographical indications can come
into existence in two or more territories. Or a given geographical name
associated with a product may be protected as a geographical indication in one
or more countries, but the same geographically significant term (or its linguistic
equivalent) may be considered in a third country as a generic expression for that
42 Lina Monten,’Geographical Indications of Origin: Should They Be Protected and Why? - An Analysis of the Issue From the U.S. and EU Perspectives’, January, 2006, 22 Santa Clara Computer & High Technology Law .Journal. 315 43 See generally Dinwoodie, Graeme B., Developing a Private International Intellectual Property Law: The Demise of Territoriality? (November 8, 2009). William & Mary Law Review, Forthcoming; Oxford Legal Studies Research Paper No. 52/2009. Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1502228
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product, or as having acquired a secondary meaning under that country’s
trademark law.44
One can argue that once the product of intellectual property for which
protection is granted or claimed has been identified, why it should be necessary
to define more precisely the product (such as geographical area, methods of
production, controls, package, etc.). The main answer is that a GI product
benefits from a certain reputation as long as the basis for such a reputation goes
on existing; in other words, protecting IPRs which are associated to the
reputation requires maintaining the conditions of such a reputation. Therefore it
is imperative that GIs fit in and be defined as a critical part of the IP family.
Protection of IP creates important incentives for innovation and new research
that would not have taken place without the protection. This is due to the high
cost to the innovator and the relatively small, if any, profit the innovator can
make from the innovation unless it is being protected. The monopoly right can
therefore yield benefits to the society in excess of the costs that are incurred.45
Patents are typically granted for innovations that are novel, non-obvious and
that have a practical utility. Copyrights protect the creation of written and
artistic works. These two forms of IP give rise to the production and creation of
44 WIPO Secretariat - Standing Committee On The Law Of Trademarks, Industrial Designs And Geographical Indications- Ninth Session, Geneva, November 11 to 15, 2002 - Geographical Indications And The Territoriality Principle at www.wipo.int/edocs/mdocs/sct/en/sct_9/sct_9_5.doc 45 Josling T, ‘The War on Terroir: Geographical Indications as a Transatlantic Trade Conflict’, 2006, Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol.57, No.3, 337-363.
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goods and services that the society values. In other words the outcome of the
patent or the copyright holder’s work can be shared by anyone.
Trade and Service marks differ from patents and copyrights in that the trade and
service marks do not give rise to the production of goods and services that
would otherwise not have been produced or provided. Instead, trade and service
marks give ownership to words and symbols considered to be unique to a
particular organisation or individual; the mark then becomes an asset of the
creator.
Trade and service marks are used by manufacturers, sellers and service
providers to identify a product or a service and distinguish it from other goods
or services. They hardly say anything about the composition or specification of
the goods or services; instead, trade and service marks identify the maker of the
good. The buyer infers information about the features of the good and services
by remembering his or her previous experience with that product or service.
Words that are merely descriptive terms for a good, the good’s features or the
purpose of it, do not qualify as trademarks due to three reasons. First, a
descriptive word does not identify the good of a particular seller. Secondly, if
the law gave monopoly rights to a term of general use it would be unfair
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competition. The new “owner” of the word would benefit from the general use
of the word, as it was understood before registration.46
Additionally, if a descriptive term were to be registered as a trade or service
mark, the society in general would be deprived of the usage of the word, such
that competing firms could not use that word to describe what they were selling
or producing. Often, the big success of certain brand names makes them
vulnerable to becoming generic by describing a whole class of goods rather
than the product(s) of a particular manufacturer.47
Famous examples of trademarks that became generic are Xerox, Aspirin,
Escalator and Thermos.48
The main argument for advocating trademarks is the existence of information
asymmetry in many markets. The purpose of most trademark laws is primarily
to protect the consuming public, not the trademark owners. Often, the seller has
more and better information about the unobservable features of the goods and
services for sale, than does the consumer. And often, the unobservable features
are the key determinants of the value of the good. In the absence of the marks,
consumers would often pick a product or service with undesirable qualities.49
46 http://www.essp-law.com/trademark.htm 47 Peter Siegelman & Gideon Parchomovsky, ‘Towards an Integrated Theory of Intellectual Property’, available at http://papers.ssrn.com/paper.taf?abstract_id=304064 48 http://www.inta.org/TrademarkBasics/Documents/INTAGenericidePresentation.pptx. 49 Nicholas S Economides, ‘The Economics of Trademarks’ Vol. 78 Trademark Reporter.
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On top of that, producers would choose to produce goods or services with the
cheapest possible unobservable qualities, since they, without the marks, would
be unable to transmit to the consumer signals of the unobservable high qualities
of their goods.
Basically, trade and service marks provide information in summary form,
through a symbol that the consumer identifies with a specific combination of
features. This is efficient and time saving for the consumer, it promotes brand
competition, which leads to higher quality goods in the marketplace, and
furthermore, allows the consumer to get the quality that they are paying for.50
In other words, the risk that the consumers get confused would be eliminated. If
confusion exists in the market, and products with a similar name but with other
features (such as lower quality) exist, the success of the trademark will be
limited.51
To expand, the producer receives a price mark-up for products appreciated by
the consumers. The negative aspect of trademarks is that the protection of law
that is offered is still a form of monopoly right, which distorts the market.
50 See generally Christopher Lovelock & Lauren Wright, ‘Principles of Service Marketing and Management’, available at http://www.scribd.com/doc/9691385/Customer-Service-Principles-of-Service-Marketing-and-Management 51 See generally http://www.nowsell.com/marketing-guide/trademark.html
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Essentially, GIs are valuable for the same reasons that trade and service marks
are important and valuable. Hence, GIs functions as assets for producers and the
designations further serves as a means for consumers to distinguish between
different products. Furthermore, protection of GIs prevent the terms from
becoming generic. This is especially true when some products, such as
Champagne, which are essentially GIs get used to refer to sparkling wines.
As in the case with trade and service marks, the main argument for advocating
GIs is the existence of information asymmetry. Hence, consumers are protected
from confusion by receiving information on a products geographical origin, at
the same time as producers can signal the exact value of their product, which
allow appreciated producers to receive price premiums for their products.
The major difference between trademarks and GIs is that GIs are linked with
territory; a trademark can be sold and re-localized but not a GI. Furthermore, a
trademark is an exclusive individual right whereas a GI is accessible to any
producer of the locality or region concerned. Though there are important
differences between GIs and trademarks, it should be noted that the use of a GI
may be combined with a trademark which identifies a specific producer within
the geographical area.52
52 See generally Giulio Enrico Sironi, ‘Protection of Trademarks and Geographic Indications’ available at http://ipr2.org/storage/Sironi_GIs-EN940.pdf
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2.3 GI under International Agreements – Scope and Extent
Local and national laws protecting the geographical origin of products have
existed for hundreds of years in Europe. With the expansion of international
trade during the 19th
century, GI protection was included in international
agreements on the protection of intellectual property.53
France was the first country to take the initiative and enact a comprehensive
system for the protection of geographical indications that later influenced the
making of both national laws and international treaties.54
The TRIPS Agreement is not the first invocation of GIs in international law,
though it can be said that it is the most important. GI protection was part of the
Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property (1883), but under a
different label (‘false indications’). The 1891 Madrid Agreement for the
Repression of False or Deceptive Indications also addresses GIs, though it has
relatively few parties. In the 20th century, the Lisbon Agreement on
53 Study on the protection of geographical indications for products other than wines, spirits, agricultural products or foodstuffs. November 2009, Study commissioned by the Directorate General for Trade of the European Commission available at http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2011/may/tradoc_147926.pdf 54 William van Caenegem. (2003) "Registered Geographical Indications Between Intellectual Property and Rural Policy—Part II". http://epublications.bond.edu.au/law_pubs/4
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Appellations of Origin (1958) set the standard until the negotiation of TRIPS.
National law on GIs is even older.55
The TRIPs Agreement’s protection of geographical indications is quite unusual
in that the Agreement first provides for general protection for all geographical
indications, and then affords special, elevated protection to geographical
indications that concern wine and spirits.56
An interesting aspect of the TRIPs Agreement’s on geographical indications
protection is the fact that the TRIPs Agreement itself calls for continued
negotiations regarding further protection of geographical indications in certain
areas of the Agreement. The same have been discussed at length later in this
chapter.
2.3.1 GI history in the WTO & TRIP’s Provisions
The term “Geographical Indication” has been around for many decades, but it is
really since the World Trade Organisation (WTO) Agreement on TRIPS
entered into force in the mid-1990s, that it has come into common use.
55 See Kal Raustiala and Stephen R. Munzer - The Global Struggle over Geographic Indications 56 See generally Justin Hughes, ‘Champagne, Feta, and Bourbon: The Spirited Debate about Geographical Indications’, 58 Hastings Law Journal. 299 (2006).
44
The concept of GI comes from the concept of “country of origin” or a regional
or sub-regional geographic origin. Over time, some locations, regions, or
countries become synonymous with producing high-quality products. Producers
from those locations can benefit from the “geographic origin” image, which is a
set of generalized beliefs about specific products from that geographic origin on
a set of attributes.57
International protection of origin-labeled products has a long history.58
Today,
international IP and related laws offer two main options for GI protection.
These include (a) defense against unfair competition; and (b) positive protection
through registration mainly under sui generis systems or through trademarks. 59
The Uruguay Round of the GATT negotiations began in 1986, precisely when
India’s development policy making process was at a watershed. By the time
India launched its massive economic reforms package in 1991, marking a
paradigm shift in its policy, the Uruguay Round negotiations were well under
way, paving the path towards Marrakesh in 1994 and the establishment of the
WTO. India remained a cautious and somewhat passive player during the initial
years of the Uruguay Round negotiations, given its long legacy of inward
looking development strategy and protectionist trade policy regime.60
57 Warren J Bilkey & Erik Nes. 1982. ‘Country-of-Origin Effects on Product Evaluations.’ Journal of International Business Studies (13) pp. 89-99. 58 Petra van de Kop, Denis Sautier, and Astrid Gerz, ‘Origin-Based Products- Lessons for pro-poor market development’, Bulletins No: 372 of the Royal Tropical Institute (KIT), Netherlands. 59 Paul J Heald, ‘Trademarks and Geographical Indications: Exploring the Contours of the TRIPS Agreement’, 29 Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law, 635 (1996). 60 Dr. Sudhir Ravindran & Ms. Arya Mathew, ‘The Protection of Geographical Indication in India – Case Study on ‘Darjeeling Tea’.
45
However, at Doha India wanted to extend protection under GI beyond wine and
spirit, to other products. A number of countries wanted to negotiate extending
this higher level of protection to other products as they see a higher level of
protection as a way to improve marketing their products by differentiating them
more effectively from their competitors and they object to other countries
“usurping” their terms. Some others opposed the move, and the debate has
included the question of whether the Doha Declaration provides a mandate for
negotiations.61
The development of international rules on GIs has been a result of distinct
periods before and after TRIPS.62
These distinct periods may be summarized as:
(a) before the negotiation and passage of the TRIPS Agreement;
(b) after the adoption of TRIPS obligations by member countries;
(c) the post-TRIPS period marked by the:
i) Doha negotiations and
ii) Developments in bilateral and regional trade arrangements as well as
developments at World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO).
61 See Generally December 2008 Package: Briefing Notes- Intellectual property: Geographical indications and biodiversity available at http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dda_e/status_e/gi_e.htm 62 Tegan Brink, ‘Perspectives On Geographical Indications: Prospects for the Development of the International Legal Framework’, Presentation at the International Symposium on Geographical Indications, Beijing, 26-28 June 2007 at http://www.wipo.int/edocs/mdocs/geoind/en/wipo_geo_bei_07/wipo_geo_bei_07_www_81778.pdf
46
The Pre TRIPS Provisions
The pre TRIPS agreements, did not seek to provide protection for GIs as a
prescriptive matter. Rather, all of these agreements addressed particular needs,
gaps, and challenges in cross-border trade in goods.63
The international protection of GIs, in one form or another, dates back to the
time of the adoption of the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial
Property in 1883. Under the Paris Convention, the scope of protected subject
matter, in terms of Article 1.2 included ‘indications of source and appellations
of origin’.
The protection required to be offered by the members of the Paris Convention
was to assure nationals of other Convention members’ effective protection
against unfair competition.
Article 10bis of the Convention defines an act of unfair competition as “any act
of competition contrary to honest practices in industrial and commercial
matters”.64
Acts specifically prohibited by the Paris Convention include, among others,
“indications or allegations the use of which in the course of trade is liable to
63 Ruth L. Okediji, ‘The International Intellectual Property Roots Of Geographical Indications’ Chicago-Kent Law Review 2007 [Vol 82:3] 1329-1365. 64 http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/paris/trtdocs_wo020.html#P213_35515
47
mislead the public as to the nature, the manufacturing process, the
characteristics, the suitability for their purpose, or the quantity, of the goods.”
A few years after the Paris Convention, The Madrid Agreement for the
Repression of False or Deceptive Indications of Source on Goods came into
force in 1891. The Madrid Agreement expanded protection by prohibiting
products with false and deceptive indications of origin.
However, the Madrid Agreement did not protect generic terms and further
allowed national courts to determine which indications of origin are generic. As
a result, with the exception of wine, which is specifically excluded from generic
treatment by Article 4, the national courts were free to develop different
approaches to the Madrid Agreement and often have provided limited
protection for foreign GIs. This article is noteworthy, since it constitutes a
departure from the general rule that the conditions of protection of an indication
of source and, in particular, whether a specific indication of source is
considered generic, are to be determined by the country in which protection is
sought.
Moreover, the small number of signatories, thirty-five in all, has limited the
scope of the international GI protection the Madrid Agreement provides.
48
One of the results of the Lisbon Diplomatic Conference of 1958, which had
attempted, inter alia, to improve the international protection for geographical
indications within the framework of the Paris Convention and the Madrid
Agreement on Indications of Source, was the adoption of the Lisbon Agreement
for the Protection of Appellations of Origin and their International
Registration.65
The Lisbon Agreement was adopted in 1958 and revised at Stockholm in 1967.
It entered into force on September 25, 1966, and is administered by the
International Bureau of WIPO, which keeps the International Register of
Appellations of Origin.66
The Lisbon Agreement provided additional protection for GIs. The Lisbon
Agreement defined an appellation of origin under Article 2(1) as “the
geographical name of a country, region, or locality, which serves to designate a
product originating therein, the quality and characteristics of which are due
exclusively or essentially to the geographical environment, including natural
and human factors.”67
The Lisbon Agreement however only protects GIs to the extent they are
protected in the country of origin. Article 2 (2) of the Lisbon Agreement defines
65 See WIPO Document No: WIPO/GEO/SFO/03/1 66 Amy P. Cotton, ‘123 Years At The Negotiating Table And Still No Dessert? The Case In Support Of Trips Geographical Indication Protections’, Chicago-Kent Law Review 2007 [Vol 82:3] 1295-1316. 67 http://www.wipo.int/lisbon/en/general/
49
the “country of origin” as “the country whose name, or the country in which is
situated the region or locality whose name, constitutes the appellation of origin
that has given the product its reputation”.
The key elements from the definition note that68
:
First, the requirement that the appellation of origin should be the geographical
denomination of a country, region or locality means that the appellation is to
consist of a denomination that identifies a geographical entity in the country of
origin.
Secondly, the requirement that the appellation of origin must serve to designate
a product originating in the country, region or locality concerned means that, in
addition to identifying a place, the geographical denomination in question must
be known as the designation of a product originating in that place – requirement
of reputation.
The third requirement concerns the quality or characteristics of the product to
which the appellation of origin relates, which must be due exclusively or
essentially to the geographical environment of the place where the product
originates. The reference to the geographical environment means that there is to
be a qualitative connection between the product and the place in which the
product originates. The geographical environment is determined on the one
68 Key concepts on GIs at http://www.origin-gi.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=44&Itemid=42&lang=en
50
hand by a set of natural factors (such as soil and climate), and on the other hand
by a set of human factors – for instance, the traditional knowledge or know how
used in the place where the product originates).
The impact of the Lisbon Agreement's GI protection however has been limited
mainly because many states have been unwilling to enact legislation enforcing
added GI protection. However an effect of registration under the Lisbon
Agreement is that the international registration of an appellation of origin
assures it of protection, without any need for renewal, for as long as the
appellation is protected in the country of origin.69
Under the Lisbon Agreement International registration must be applied for by
the competent Office of the country of origin, in the name of any natural
persons or legal entities, public or private, having a right to use the appellation
according to the applicable national legislation. The International Bureau of
WIPO has no competence to examine the application with respect to substance;
it may only make an examination as to form. Under Article 5(2) of the Lisbon
Agreement, the International Bureau notifies the registration without delay to
the Offices of the countries party to the Lisbon Agreement.70
In accordance with Article 5(3) to (5), the Office of any State party to the
Lisbon Agreement may, within a period of one year from the receipt of the
69 Sergio Escudero, ‘International Protection of Geographical Indications and Developing Countries’, Trade-Related Agenda, Development And Equity (T.R.A.D.E.), Working Papers 10, South Centre, July 2001. 70 www.wipo.int/lisbon/en/legal_texts/lisbon_agreement.html
51
notification of registration, declare that it cannot ensure the protection of a
given appellation, indicating the grounds for refusal as discretionally
determined by each country. The registered appellation enjoys protection in all
countries not having refused it. However, if third parties had been using the
appellation prior to the notification of the registration, the Office of that country
may grant them a maximum of two years in which to terminate such use
(Article 5(6)).
The protection conferred by international registration is unlimited in time.
Article 6 provides that an appellation that has been granted protection cannot be
deemed to have become generic, as long as it is protected as an appellation of
origin in the country of origin.71
Article 7 provides that the registration need not be renewed and is subject to
payment of a single fee. An international registration ceases to have effect only
in two cases: either the registered appellation has become a generic name in the
country of origin, or the international registration has been canceled by the
International Bureau at the request of the Office of the country of origin.72
71 Protection of Geographical Indications on the International Level through Multilateral Treaties at http://www.wipo.int/edocs/mdocs/sme/en/wipo_wasme_ipr_ge_03/wipo_wasme_ipr_ge_03_2.pdf 72 See generally The Lisbon System: International Protection for Identifiers of Typical Products from a defined Geographical Area at http://www.wipo.int/freepublications/en/geographical/942/wipo_pub_942.pdf
52
Like the Madrid Agreement, the Lisbon Agreement too has a small membership
and as on date there are only twenty-seven members / contracting parties to the
Lisbon Agreement.
In the pre-TRIPS period, there was also a multiplicity of regional and bilateral
agreements on GIs involving both developed and developing countries as well
as product specific treaties. One of the earliest bilateral agreements is the 1932
Convention between El Salvador and France concerning the Protection of
Appellations of Origin. Product specific agreements included the International
Convention for the Use of Appellations D’Origine and Denominations of
Cheeses commonly known as the Stresa Convention of 1951 and the
International Agreement on Olive Oil and Table Olives of 1986.
In general, however, it is fair to say that until the entry into force of the TRIPS
Agreement, global protection of GIs was mainly based on the limited protection
offered under the Paris Convention. It would also be significant to note that the
Paris Convention and the Lisbon Agreement had great influence on the TRIPS
agreement, specifically in relation to GIs.
Overview of TRIPS
The TRIPS Agreement, which provides a comprehensive definition of a GI, is
the first truly multilateral agreement for the international protection of GIs.
53
In order to understand the development of the legal frame work adopted
nationally with respect to GIs, it is essential to understand some of the main
features of the TRIPS agreement.
The salient features of the TRIPS Agreement are73
:
Standards: In respect of each of the main areas of intellectual property covered
by the TRIPS Agreement, the Agreement sets out the minimum standards of
protection to be provided by each Member. Each of the main elements of
protection is defined, namely the subject-matter to be protected, the rights to be
conferred and permissible exceptions to those rights, and the minimum duration
of protection.
The Agreement sets these standards by requiring, first, that the substantive
obligations of the main conventions of the WIPO, the Paris Convention for the
Protection of Industrial Property (Paris Convention) and the Berne Convention
for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (Berne Convention) in their
most recent versions must be complied with.
With the exception of the provisions of the Berne Convention on moral rights,
all the main substantive provisions of these conventions are incorporated by
reference and thus become obligations under the TRIPS Agreement between
TRIPS Member countries.
73 http://www.wipo.int/meetings/en/doc_details.jsp?doc_id=5074
54
The relevant provisions are found in Articles 2.1 and 9.1 of the TRIPS
Agreement, which relate, respectively, to the Paris Convention and to the Berne
Convention. Secondly, the TRIPS Agreement adds a substantial number of
additional obligations on matters where the pre-existing conventions are silent
or were seen as being inadequate. The TRIPS Agreement is thus sometimes
referred to as a Berne and Paris-plus agreement.
Enforcement: The second main set of provisions deals with domestic
procedures and remedies for the enforcement of intellectual property rights. The
Agreement lays down certain general principles applicable to all IPR
enforcement procedures. In addition, it contains provisions on civil and
administrative procedures and remedies, provisional measures, special
requirements related to border measures and criminal procedures, which
specify, in a certain amount of detail, the procedures and remedies that must be
available so that right holders can effectively enforce their rights.
Dispute settlement: The Agreement facilitates dispute resolution amongst
WTO Members about the respect of the TRIPS obligations subject to the
WTO's dispute settlement procedures.
In addition the Agreement provides for certain basic principles, such as national
and most-favoured-nation treatment, and some general rules to ensure that
procedural difficulties in acquiring or maintaining IPRs do not nullify the
substantive benefits that should flow from the Agreement. The obligations
55
under the Agreement will apply equally to all Member countries, but
developing countries will have a longer period to phase them in.
With respect to GIs TRIPS74
outlines the follows:
Section 3 of Part II of the TRIPS Agreement contains a set of international rules
on geographical indications with an almost universal applicability and
enforceability. The scope of protection for geographical indications under the
TRIPS Agreement may be characterized as follows:
Protection is limited to qualified geographical indications. For the purposes of
the TRIPS Agreement protection needs only to be granted to:
"indications which identify a good as originating in the territory of a Member,
or a region or locality in that territory, where a given quality, reputation or other
characteristic of the good is essentially attributable to its geographical origin"
(Article 22.1).
Though this definition resembles the one contained in the Lisbon Agreement, it
adds “reputation” as one of the conditions that (like quality or other
characteristic) an indication may meet in order to attract protection under the
Agreement.
74 Available at http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/trips_e/t_agm3b_e.htm#3
56
Secondly protection extends to any good i.e. it covers not only food and
agricultural products (the main domain of concern for geographical indications)
but also manufactured products (e.g. watches, textiles, etc.) where certain
characteristics, reputation or quality may be attributed to its geographical
origin. It has also been discussed whether geographical indications, as defined,
may cover services and not only physical goods.75
Though such an
interpretation is unlikely to prevail if a dispute were brought to a panel in WTO,
Members may consider extending protection of geographical indications to
services, as currently provided for in a few countries.76
Also protection is not limited to "direct" indications of origin, but embraces
"the use of any means in the designation or representation of a good that
indicates or suggests" a certain geographical origin (Article 22.2.b).
The use of homonymous geographical indications is prevented when though
literally true as to the territory, region or locality in which the goods originate,
they falsely represent to the public that the goods originate in another territory
(Article 22.4).
A special, stronger, protection is provided for geographical indications for
wines and spirits.
75 Lynne Beresford, Geographical Indications: The Current Landscape, 17 Fordham Intellectual Property Media and Entertainment Law Journal. 979 (2007) 76 Correa, C.M., 2002. Protection of Geographical Indications in Caricom Countries at http://www.crnm.org/documents/studies/Geographical%20Indications%20%20Correa.pdf
57
Under the TRIPS Agreement, Members have considerable leeway to determine
the means to protect geographical indications:
“In respect of geographical indications, Members shall provide the legal means
for interested parties to prevent:
1. The use of any means in the designation or representation of a good that
indicates or suggests that the good in question originates in a
geographical area other than the true place of origin in a manner which
misleads the public as to the geographical origin of the good;
2. Any use which constitutes an act of unfair competition within the
meaning of Article 10bis of the Paris Convention (1967)” (Article 21.2).
Members should, however, apply trademark law in a manner consistent with
said protection. A Member shall, ex officio if its legislation so permits or at the
request of an interested party, refuse or invalidate the registration of a
trademark which contains or consists of a geographical indication with respect
to goods not originating in the territory indicated, if use of the indication in the
trademark for such goods in that Member is of such a nature as to mislead the
public as to the true place of origin" (Article 22.3).
Nevertheless, the Agreement shall not affect the eligibility or validity of
trademarks applied for, registered or acquired through use in good faith, which
are identical to a geographical indication, if they were applied for or the rights
58
acquired before the date of application of the TRIPS Agreement provisions in
the relevant Member or before the geographical indication is protected in its
country of origin, (Article 24.5).
In cases where the previous conditions are not met Members may, in addition,
subject the right to challenge a trademark applied for or acquired to a five year
time limit. Members are not obliged to recognize rights relating to geographical
indications if these are identical with a term "customary in common language as
the common name" for certain goods or services in those countries (Article
24.6). The same applies to the "products of the vine for which the relevant
indication is identical with the customary name of a grape of a variety" existing
as of the date of entry into force of the TRIPS Agreement.
Article 23 contains a number of rules specifically related to geographical
indications providing for an additional protection to wines and spirits. These
rules state:
1. Each Member shall provide the legal means for interested parties to
prevent use of a geographical indication identifying wines for wines not
originating in the place indicated by the geographical indication in
question or identifying spirits not originating in the place indicated by
the geographical indication in question, even where the true origin of the
goods is indicated or the geographical indication is used in translation or
59
accompanied by expressions such as "kind", "type", "imitation" or the
like.
2. The registration of a trademark for wines which contains or consists of a
geographical indication identifying wines or spirits which contains or
consists of a geographical indication identifying spirits shall be refused
or invalidated, ex officio if domestic legislation so permits or at the
request of an interested party, with respect to such wines or spirits not
having this origin.
3. In the case of homonymous geographical indications for wines,
protection shall be accorded to each indication, subject to the provisions
of paragraph 4 of Article 22. Each Member shall determine the practical
conditions under which the homonymous indications in question will be
differentiated from each other, taking into account the need to ensure
equitable treatment of the producers concerned and that the consumers
are not misled.
4. In order to facilitate the protection of geographical indications for
wines, negotiations shall be undertaken in the Council for Trade-Related
Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights concerning the establishment of
a multilateral system of notification and registration of geographical
indications for wines eligible for protection in those Members
participating in the system" (Article 23).
60
There is not a wider coverage in terms of the type of protected indications (only
those covered by the definition of Article 22.1). The additional protection stems
from the following:
a) there is no need to prove that the public is misled or that there is unfair
competition;
b) the exclusion of "delocalizing" additions, i.e., references to the "type" or
"style" of a product which allude to its true geographical origin;
c) a provision stronger than the general one (Article 22.3) with respect to
the refusal and invalidation of trademarks for wines which contain or
consist of a protected indication;
d) the establishment of a multilateral system of notification and registration
for wines is provided for.
However, the continued use of a geographical indication of another Member
identifying wines and spirits shall not be affected where such a use takes place
"in connection with goods or services by any of its nationals or domiciliary who
have used that geographical indication in a continuous manner with regard to
the same or related goods or services in the territory of that Member either (a)
for at least ten years preceding the date of the Ministerial Meeting concluding
the Uruguay Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations or (b) in good faith
preceding that date"(Article 24.4).
61
In addition to the exceptions mentioned above, Article 24.8 and 24.9
specifically excludes the application of Section 3 as follows:
Article 24.8 states that the provisions of this Section shall in no way prejudice
the right of any person to use, in the course of trade, his name of his
predecessor in business, except where such name is used in such a manner as to
mislead the public.
Article 24.9 stipulates that there shall be no obligation under this Agreement to
protect geographical indications which are not or cease to be protected in their
country of origin, or which have fallen into disuse in that country". A provision
that is similar to Article 1.2 under the Lisbon Agreement.
In a unique provision in the whole Agreement, under Article 24.1 Members can
undertake "to enter into negotiations aimed at increasing the protection of
individual geographical indications under Article 23" (i.e., those relating to
wines and spirits).
The exceptions provided for in Article 24 shall not be used to refuse to conduct
negotiations or to conclude bilateral or multilateral agreements. This means that
despite that Members are not obliged to confer protection in cases governed by
an exception (see Article 1 of the TRIPS Agreement), they may be forced to
enter into negotiations.
62
The Council for TRIPS can also undertake consultations and "action as may be
agreed to facilitate the operation and further the objectives of this Section"
(Article 24.2).
The TRIPS Council shall also be required to keep under review the application
of the provisions on the protection of geographical indications.
The obligation under Section 3 (Part II) as seen above is non-specific; in that,
Articles 22 and 23 require the provision of ‘legal means’ for the protection of
GIs to be available for interested parties. The TRIPS Agreement neither
specifies the preferred legal means nor does it identify the range of legal
options. It has been suggested that this reflects the diverse range of legal means
for the protection of GIs existing at the time of Uruguay Round negotiations.77
The reform of IP systems in WTO Members, particularly the developing and
least developed among them, to implement their obligations under the TRIPS
Agreement are far from complete. Nevertheless, new rules and obligations on
GIs continue to come into play through various processes.78
77 Dr. Dwijen Rangnekar; CSGR and the Law School, University of Warwick- UNCTAD / ICTSD Regional Dialogue, ‘Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs), Innovation and Sustainable Development’ 8 – 10 November; Hong Kong, SAR, People’s Republic of China at http://www.iprsonline.org/unctadictsd/dialogue/docs/Rangnekar_2004-11-08.pdf 78 Sisule F. Musungu, ‘The Protection of Geographical Indications and the Doha Round: Strategic and Policy Considerations For Africa’, QUNO IP Issue Paper NO. 8, December 2008.
63
The commonly shared features between Articles 22 and 23 of TRIPS, include
the following79
:
‘Public’ or ‘Collective’ Right - Particularly where GIs are available through a
sui generis legislation (e.g. the EC system, Indian Law), GIs are
public/collective rights that are not vested in an individual firm, person or
enterprise. According to the Secretariat’s survey, eligibility criteria seek to
ensure that producer associations, public entities, local or regional governments,
etc. are the appropriate bodies initiating the application process.80
Moreover, in some cases the producer group is not the owner of the right but
only a user of the GI much like any other entity that fulfills the conditions
specified by the GI, as such a ‘collective’ right. Yet, the survey also notes that
in jurisdictions, where the legal means are not through a sui generis law but,
say, through trademark law (e.g. the US system), then it is possible for
collective / private rights like certification marks to be available.81
The same
will be seen later in the Chapter dealing with Trademarks/Collective marks and
GIs.
79 See Dr. Dwijen Rangnekar – ‘Geographical Indications’, A Review of Proposals at the TRIPS Council: Extending Article 23 to Products other than Wines and Spirits, June 2003 at http://www.iprsonline.org/resources/docs/Rangnekar%20-%20GI%20-%20Blue%204.pdf 80 See generally Sachin K Bhimrajka, ‘ Study on Relationship of Competition Policy and Law and Intellectual Property Rights’ at http://www.cci.gov.in/images/media/ResearchReports/sachin_report_20080730103728.pdf 81 See http://www.bitlaw.com/source/tmep/1306_01.html
64
2.3.2 The Doha Development Round – key issues
The protection of GIs has, over the years, emerged as one of the most
contentious IPR issues in the realm of the TRIPS agreement of the WTO. 82
At the Fourth Ministerial Conference in Doha, Qatar, in November 2001 WTO
member governments agreed to launch new negotiations. They also agreed to
work on other issues, in particular the implementation of the present
agreements. The entire package is called the Doha Development Agenda
(DDA).83
The negotiations take place in the Trade Negotiations Committee and
its subsidiaries, which are usually, either regular councils and committees
meeting in “special sessions”, or specially-created negotiating groups. Other
work under the work programme takes place in other WTO councils and
committees.
The DDA was the Fourth Ministerial Conference undertaken by the World
Trade Organization (WTO), taking place in Doha, Qatar, in 2001. The DDA’s
aim was twofold. On the one hand it was to strengthen the global multilateral
trading system. On the other it aimed to establish conditions in order to increase
global welfare with a special focus on the needs of developing countries.
82 Chia, S. Y. 2010. Regional Trade Policy Cooperation and Architecture in East Asia. ADBI Working Paper 191. Tokyo: Asian Development Bank Institute. Available: http://www.adbi.org/working-paper/2010/02/02/3450.regional.trade.policy.east.asia/ 83 For a general reading on the Doha Agenda see http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/doha1_e.htm
65
Thereby the DDA intends to support developing countries to reach the standard
they are aiming at and integrating further them in the global market. Though the
initial negotiations failed all of the unsettled items from the DDA still
remain at the center of all follow-up Ministerial Rounds, which failed all
together.
The Fifth Ministerial Conference in Cancún, Mexico, in September 2003, was
intended as a stock-taking meeting where members would agree on how to
complete the rest of the negotiations. But the meeting was soured by discord on
agricultural issues, including cotton, and ended in deadlock on the “Singapore
issues”. Real progress on the Singapore issues and agriculture was not evident
until the early hours of 1 August 2004 with a set of decisions in the General
Council (sometimes called the July 2004 package).
In 2003, the Doha Development Agenda was dealt a severe blow after the
Ministerial Conference in Cancun, Mexico, failed spectacularly to agree upon
how to proceed with the round. Without the willingness of developed countries
to commit to decreased agricultural protection and subsidies and of developing
countries to engage in the Singapore issues (which include investment,
competition policy, government procurement, and trade facilitation) , the
meeting failed to deliver any consensus.
The deadlock was broken in Geneva when the General Council agreed on the
“July package” in the early hours of August 1st, 2004. The main achievements
66
of the meeting include a road map for the future elimination of agriculture
export subsidies, new commitments to discipline trade-distorting farm
subsidies, and commitment to reduce agriculture tariffs to achieve substantial
improvements in market access while allowing for flexibility in the treatment of
sensitive products.
There was also agreement to initiate negotiations on trade facilitation, with the
objective to expedite the movement, release, and clearance of goods to
substantially reduce red-tape and improve customs procedures around the
world. The other Singapore issues were dropped. The delay in reaching
agreement meant that the original January 1st, 2005, deadline for finishing the
talks could not be met. Unofficially, members aimed to complete the next phase
of the negotiations at the Hong Kong Ministerial Conference in December
2005, including full “modalities” in agriculture and market access for non-
agriculture products, and to finish the talks by the end of the following year.
The original 1 January 2005 deadline was missed. After that, members
unofficially aimed to finish the negotiations by the end of 2006, again
unsuccessfully. Further progress in narrowing members’ differences was made
at the Hong Kong Ministerial Conference in December 2005, but some gaps
remained unbridgeable and Director-General Pascal Lamy suspended the
67
negotiations in July 2006. Efforts then focused on trying to achieve a
breakthrough in early 2007.84
By early 2008, substantial progress has been made in the Doha Round
negotiations in narrowing or resolving differences in negotiating positions. As a
result, a WTO Ministerial Conference was held in Geneva during July 21-29,
2008, in hopes of resolving the remaining differences.
However, the Ministerial Conference failed to narrow the gap on the most
contentious issues. In order to revive the negotiations before momentum was
lost, the chair of the WTO’s Committee on Agriculture released a new draft text
in December 2008, referred to as a “modalities framework” (i.e., specific
formulas and timetables for reducing trade-distorting farm support, tariffs, and
export subsidies, and for opening import markets). The “modalities framework”
summarized the current mutually agreed changes to existing disciplines, as well
as highlighting the areas of disagreement. As such, it was an attempt to lock in
the status of current concessions, while adding detail to outstanding issues and
providing a basis for further, more specific talks.
The WTO Ministerial Conference, the highest-level WTO governing body, met
in Geneva November 30 to December 2, 2009. The conference was not a
negotiating session for the Doha Round, but one of its main agenda items was
the Doha Round work program for 2010. Director-General Lamy had said that
84 See generally The Doha Declaration explained available at http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dda_e/dohaexplained_e.htm
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the 2009 Ministerial Conference would be “an important platform for ministers
to send a strong signal of commitment to concluding the Doha Development
Round.” At the Ministerial, the U.S. Trade Representative, Ambassador Kirk,
stressed that to address gaps in the agriculture and other negotiations, the
multilateral negotiations in the Doha Round need to be supplemented with
sustained direct bilateral engagement, especially with advanced developing
countries. The WTO Director-General had called for a stock taking during the
last week of March 2010 to assess whether concluding the Doha Round in 2010
is “doable”.
Since the launch of the Doha Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations the
WTO Members have, among other subjects, been negotiating possible rules for
enhanced protection of GIs.
There are two main issues being addressed. The first relates to the
establishment of a multilateral register for wines as mandated in Article 23 of
the TRIPS Agreement. The second issue relates to whether the level of
protection provided for wines and spirits under Article 23 of TRIPS, including
the requirement to establish a multilateral register for wines, should be extended
to cover all products.
In these negotiations, WTO Members remain sharply divided on a range of
procedural and technical points. The differences range from political issues
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such as mandates through to substantive questions regarding the costs and
benefits of the various proposed solutions.
Those opposing extension argue that the existing (Article 22) level of protection
is adequate. They caution that providing enhanced protection would be a burden
and would disrupt existing legitimate marketing practices. India, along with a
host of other likeminded countries pressed an ‘extension’ of the ambit of Article
23 to cover all categories of goods.
However, countries such as the United States, Australia, New Zealand, Canada,
Argentina, Chile, Guatemala and Uruguay are strongly opposed to any
‘extension’. The ‘extension’ issue formed an integral part of the Doha Work
Programme (2001). However, as a result of the wide divergence of views
among WTO members, not much progress has been achieved in the
negotiations and the same remains as an ‘outstanding implementation issue’.85
The subject of GIs is rather contentious, involving a significant split in views on
the WTO / TRIPS agreement protecting GIs; protection is currently limited to
GIs for wine and spirits. The European Union, India, Thailand, Kenya,
Switzerland and Turkey as also some Eastern European countries such as
Poland and Hungary wish to extend Article 23 WTO / TRIPS to protect all GI
products. These nations also wish this extension to involve the establishment of
85 Sidley Austin Brown & Wood, ‘Updated Analysis Of The Doha Round Of Trade Negotiations: New Opportunities & Challenges For Global Business’ available at http://www.sidley.com/db30/cgi-bin/pubs/dohaupdate.pdf
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a legally binding multilateral register for GI products. Australia, Canada,
Guatemala, New Zealand, Paraguay, Philippines and United States do not
support this extension.86
The Doha Development Agenda discussions about food GIs raise important
questions of policy regarding GIs and rural development, private (personal)
versus communal rights, traditional versus new creations, the expansion of the
protections offered for foods other than wines and spirits and the trade effects
of GIs, among others. Other issues are more technical and result from the
current TRIPS text, e.g., TRIPS provides less extensive protections for GIs for
foods than for trademarks or for wines and spirits. For example, the Agreement
permits on food labels the use of the word "style" or "type" in combination with
a GI, so long as consumers are not misled and there is no unfair competition. In
addition, the Agreement does not provide for an international registry, mandate
the international recognition of food GIs, or require that they be enforced.
India, along with a number of other countries has sought extended protection
for GIs especially in light of Article 23 of the TRIPS agreement. The additional
protection has been sought for products other than wine and spirits.87
On 21 April 2011, Darlington Mwape of Zambia circulated a 5-page report to
the Trade Negotiations Committee as did chairs of all the Doha Round
86 Josephberg, K., D. Lange, et al. (2003). "WTO Members Oppose New Geographical Indications Protections." Intellectual Property & Technology Law Journal 15(2): 23. 87 Doha Work Programme- The Extension of Additional Protection for GIs to Products other than Wines and Spirits at https://www.ige.ch/e/jurinfo/documents/j10409e.pdf
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negotiating groups. He concluded by saying that: “All delegations have made a
genuine effort to find common language while defending their interests. (…) I
do believe that working on treaty language formulations regarding the
structure, operation and implications of the Register has — for the first time —
helped all delegations to have a clearer view of each other’s positions,
proposals and wordings. While I am aware that there still is a long way to go, I
do believe that the Draft Composite Text (…) provides a good basis on which to
continue negotiations towards a multilateral system of notification and
registration for geographical indications for wines and spirits.”88
88 http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/trips_e/gi_background_e.htm#wines_spirits