chapter 2 review of litrature -...
TRANSCRIPT
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CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITRATURE
Sr. No. Contents Page No.
2.1 Introduction 30
2.2 History of training programs 30
2.3 Training and Development: Meaning and Definitions 32
2.3.1 Difference between training and development 35
2.4 Opinions of Different Authors Regarding Training &
Development
37
2.5 Training and development Models and Theories 42
2.5.1 ADDIE Model 42
2.5.2 Instructional Systems Design Model 44
2.5.3 Human performance technology (HPT) 45
2.5.4 Performance-Based Training Design 46
2.5.5 Maslow’s theory of Hierarchy of Needs 47
2.5.6 Kirkpatrick’s evaluation model 47
2.6 Types of training and development programs 49
2.6.1 Technical training 49
2.6.2 Sales training 49
2.6.3 Communications training 49
2.6.4 Organizational development 49
2.6.5 Career development 49
2.6.6 Management development 49
2.6.7 Supervisory development 49
2.7 Training and development methods 50
2.7.1 On the job training 51
2.7.2 Off the Job Training 51
2.8 Training and developmental techniques 52
29
Sr. No. Contents Page No.
2.8.1Description of training and development techniques 52
2.8.2 Main factors affecting the choice of training
method
58
2.9 Training and development process 59
2.9.1 Stages of training and development programs 60
2.9.2 Training process 60
2.9.3 Development process 62
2.9.4 Training design 63
2.9.5 Evaluating training programs 64
2.10 Applications of training programs 64
2.11 Studies related to training and development 67
2.12 Training and development in hospital industry 78
30
2.1 Introduction:
Review of literature on training and development includes the history, development and
effectiveness of employee training and development practices. This chapter also includes models
of training and development, methods of needs assessment for training and development
programs for employers and employees, managerial techniques that contribute to improve
productivity and morale. The main thrust of this chapter is on the employee training and
development in the hospital industry. The focus naturally is on employee training and
development to improve the individual abilities and skills. This review will give idea for
implementation of employee training and development practices in hospitals. Based on these
aspects, the researcher has tried to focus on the training and development programs and the
practices in the hospital industry. This chapter will help in formulating solutions to employee
training and development in hospitals that can be applied to hospitals in PCMC.
2.2 History of training programs:
The apprenticeship system emerged in ancient cultures to provide a structured approach to the
training of unskilled workers by master craftsmen. With the onset of the Industrial Age, the
training of the unskilled underwent a dramatic transformation in which vocational education and
training emerged to replace the traditional apprentice system. The division of labor in an
industrial factory resulted in specific job tasks that required equally specific training in a much
shorter time span. As training activities grew more methodical and focused, the first recognizable
modern training methods began to develop during the 19th and early 20th centuries: gaming
simulations became an important tool in the Prussian military during the early 1800s and
psychodrama and role playing were developed by Dr. J. L. Moreno of Vienna, Austria, in 1910.22
The early 20th century witnessed the emergence of training and development as a profession,
resulting in the creation of training associations and societies, the advent of the assembly
line requiring greater specificity in training and the dramatic training requirements of the world
wars.
The enormous production needs of the World War I and II created a heavy influx of new workers
with little or no industrial education or skills to the workplace, thereby necessitating massive
22 http://www.referenceforbusiness.com/encyclopedia/Thir-Val/Training-andDevelopment.html
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training efforts that were at once fast and effective. In particular, the heavy demand for shipping
construction during World War I resulted in a tenfold increase in workers trained on-site by
instructors who were supervisors using a simple four-step method: show, tell, do, check. During
World War II, large numbers of trained industrial workers left their jobs to enter the armed
forces, severely limiting the organizational support normally provided by coworkers in training
their replacements. Heavy demands were placed on foremen and supervisors and the training
within industry service was formed to train supervisors as instructors.
Job instruction training was employed to train defense-plant supervisors in instructing new
employees in necessary job skills as quickly as possible. Other programs included job relations
training, job methods training and job safety training. During this time, the American Society for
Training and Development was formed.
By the end of World War II most companies and organizations realized the importance of
training and development as a fundamental organizational tool. Training programs that originally
were developed in response to national crises had become established corporate activities with
long-term strategies working toward improving employee performance. In the mid1950s gaming
simulations gained popularity. Trainers began giving serious consideration to the efficacy of
their training programs and interest in the evaluation of training programs grew.
The 1960s witnessed an explosion of training methods as the number of corporations
using assessment centers increased from one to 100 by the end of the decade. Government
programs to train young men for industrial jobs, such as the job development program 1965 and
the job corps, were initiated to improve the conditions of the economically disadvantaged. New
methods included training laboratories, sensitivity training, programmed instruction,
performance appraisal and evaluation, needs assessments, management training, and
organizational development.
By the 1970s a new sense of professionalism emerged in the training community. Training
programs grew dramatically and the ASTD produced the Professional Development Manual for
Trainers. Government programs were aimed increasingly at minorities as a group and required
corporations to increase their efforts to recruit minorities. With the rise of organizational
development, the focus of training shifted away from the individual and toward the organization
32
as a whole. Technological advances in training programs included the use of videotapes,
satellites and computers.
The 1980s and early 1990s saw important social, economic and political changes that have had a
profound effect on the way corporations do business, resulting in an ever increasing need for
effective training. In a time of economic constraints coupled with increasing international
competition, training and development programs needed to respond more quickly and effectively
to technological change. Increasing governmental regulations also require a greater breadth of
training programs to reflect the greater diversity of employees.
Furthermore, computers became an integral part of business and industry in the 1980s and 1990s,
making knowledge of computer use essential for many workers. As a consequence, companies
launched computer training and development programs to ensure that their employees possessed
the needed computer skills. In addition, companies used computers as a training method known
as computer-based training, relying on specially designed computer programs to impart
knowledge and skills needed for a host of tasks.
2.3 Training and Development: Meaning and Definitions:
Every human activity needs up-to-date knowledge and required skills to perform it. Employee
training and development becomes more important, when job becomes more complex.
According to Mukherjee (2007)23 organizations cannot survive without training and development
of employees. Improvement in skills increases versatility and adaptability of employees that
leads to required performance level in the current job. Training is planned effort concerned with
helping an employee acquire specific and immediately usable skills, knowledge, concepts,
attitudes and behavior to enable him or her perform efficiently and effectively on his present job.
Various authors have given various definitions on training and development. Training is a
learning process that seeks to bring about permanent improvement in the ability and behavior of
employees by enabling them to learn new skills, knowledge, attitude and behavior. Training in a
general sense refers to a planned effort by an organization to facilitate employees in acquiring
skill, attitude and behavior that are critical for successful performance on the job.
23Mukherjee, A. K. (2007). Training and Development in Human Resource Outlook for the Future, HRM Review,
ICFAI University press, pp. 18-19.
33
Michael Jucius (1955)24 defines training as "a process by which the aptitudes, skills and abilities
of employees to perform specific jobs, are increased.
According to Flippo (1971)25, “Training is the act of increasing the knowledge and skills of an
employee for doing a particular job”.
Beach (1980)26 referred that "Training is the organized procedure by which people learn
knowledge and/or skills for a definite purpose.
Dubashi (1983)27 defined training as “A process of improving the knowledge skill and attitude of
employees to achieve organizational objectives. It is only through a systematic program of
training that necessary professional knowledge is imparted, skills developed and attitudes attuned
to work situation.
Drucker (1984)28 defined training as a “Systematic process of altering the behavior and/or
attitude of employees in a direction to achieve organizational goals.
Klatt et al, (1985)29 said that training is concerned with technical/manual skills to non-managerial
staff. Development, on the other hand, is planned activities which focus on increasing and
enlarging the capabilities of employees so that they can successfully handle greater and/or
assume higher positions in the organizations hierarchy to better handle current responsibilities.
Mirza Saiyadain (1988) 30stated that “Training is an activity aimed to improve the performance
of the existing staff to meet the future needs of the organization”.
24 Michael Jucius (1955). Personnel Management - Richard D. Irwin Inc., - Hanewood, U.S.A - pp. 142
25 Edwin B. Flippo, (1971). Principles of Personnel Management, McGraw Hill Book Company, New Delhi pp. 194
26 Dale S. Beach (1980). Personnel : The Management of People at Work, Macmillan Publishing Company, New
York pp. 244
27 Dubbashi P.R. (1983). Strengthening of training facilities, Souvenir of Cooperative Training College, Bangalore
pp.1
28 Drucker, P. I. (1984). The Practice of Management, London Heinemann, , pp.201
29 Klatt, L. A., Murdick, R.G., and Schuster, F. E. (1985). Human Resource Management. Columbus: Charles E.
Merril Publishing Company.
30 Mirza S. Saiyadain, (1988). Human Resources Management, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co., Ltd., New Delhi.
34
David and Stephen (1989) 31 described training as "A learning experience in that it seeks a
relatively permanent change in an individual that will improve his or her ability to perform on
the job.
Noe et al., (2006)32 referred training as a planned effort facilitates the learning of job-related
knowledge, skill and behavior by employee.”
In view of various aspects and definitions on training and development, it suggests that training
helps in changing the behaviour, knowledge, skill and attitude of individual which leads to
motivation in a direction to increase organizational goal achievement and development means
the advancement in ones experience, skills and attitudes to become or remain successful leaders
in organizations.
In the corporate world training is considered as very important, training for performance, training
for improvement and training for development. Technological advancements are constantly
changing in every field, in addition jobs are becoming increasingly complex and that’s why
training is essential even though the employees highly meet the job demands. This necessitates
acquisition of different skill sets by the employees as skilled human resources are needed
everywhere to carryout various activities.
Training and development are closely related to each other, training a person for bigger and
higher job is development. Training helps employees improving the preference on the current job
or prepares them for an intended job. Development covers not only those activities which
improve job performance but also those which bring about growth of the personality.
Development is intended to equip the persons to earn promotion and hold greater responsibility.
Development also includes imparting specific skills and knowledge and improving certain
personality and mental attitudes. Training includes updating knowledge, skill and attitude in tune
with the changing requirements of the organization. Accordingly the training process ensures the
improvement in the employees' behavior and organizational effectiveness.
31 David A. DeCenzo and Stephen P. Robins (1989). Personnel/Human Resource Management, Prentice-Hall of
India, New Delhi. pp. 240
32 Noe, R. A, Hollenbeck, J. R., Gerhart, B. & Wright, P. M. (2006). Human Resources Management: Gaining A
Competitive Advantage. 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill/Irwin New York
35
Udai Pareek (1997) 33 has described three elements of training such as purpose, place and time.
Training without a purpose is useless because nothing would be achieved out of it. After having
identified the purpose of a training program, its place must be decided i.e. whether it has to be on
the job or off the job. Place would decide the choice of training method and also influence its
effectiveness. Training must be provided at the right time.
A late training would provide outdated knowledge, which would be useless for the employees.
The purpose of training is to bring about improvement in the performance of the human
resources.
Employee development programs are designed to meet specific objectives, which contribute to
both employee and organizational effectiveness. There are several steps in the process of
management development. These includes reviewing organizational objectives, evaluating the
organization’s current management resources, determining individual needs, designing and
implementing development programs and evaluating the effectiveness of these programs and
measuring the impact of training on participants quality of work life.
Employee development depends on education and skills, training effectiveness and quality of
work life.
2.3.1 Difference between training and development:
Major Difference between training and development is as follows:
a. Training is planned by others; Development is planned by self
b. Training is planned for others; Development is planned for self
c. Training is planned for a specific reason; Development is planned for more generic
reasons
According to Tejinder Sharma34 Table 2.1 shows difference between training and development
and Table 2.235 shows this difference on the basis of learning dimensions.
33 Udai Pareek (1997). Training Instruments for HRD, Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi.
34 Tejinder Sharma, Management Training & Development Dept. of Commerce, K.U., Kurukshetra.
35 http://digitallibrary.srmuniv.ac.in/dspace/bitstream/123456789/8193/1/P4628.pdf
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Table: 2.1 - Difference between training and development
Training Development
Training means learning skills and knowledge
for doing a particular job and increases skills
required for a job
Development refers to the growth of an
employee in all respects. It is more concerned
with shaping the attitudes.
Training generally imparts specific skills to the
employees.
Development is more general in nature and
aims at overall growth of the executives.
Training is concerned with maintaining and
improving current job performance. Thus, it
has a short-term perspective.
Development builds up competences for future
performance and has a long-term perspective
Training is job centered in nature. Development is career-centered in nature.
The role of trainer or supervisor is very
important in training.
All development is ‘self-development’ and the
executive has to be internally motivated for the
same.
Table: 2.2 - Difference between training and development on the basis of learning
dimensions
Learning dimension Training Development
Meant for Operatives Executives
Focus Current job
Current & future jobs
Scope
Individual employees
Work group or organization
Goal Fix current skill deficit
Prepare for future work demands
Initiated by Management The Individual
Content Specific job related
General knowledge
Time-frame Information Immediate Long term
37
2.4 Opinions of Different Authors Regarding Training & Development:
Oatey (1970)36 stated that training improves a person’s skill at a task. Training helps in socially,
intellectually and mentally developing an employee, which is very essential in facilitating not
only the level of productivity but also the development of personnel in any organization.
Mathis and Jackson (1982)37 stated that training is related to improving upon the present job
experience.
Raymond Noe and Neal Schmitt (1986)38 studied influence of trainee attitudes on training
effectiveness. They stated that the influences of trainees’ characteristics on training effectiveness
have focused on the level of ability necessary to learn program content. Motivational and
environmental influences of training effectiveness have received little attention. This analysis
integrates important motivational and situational factors from organizational behavior theory and
research into a model which describes how trainees' attributes and attitudes may influence the
effectiveness of training.
Beach (1991)39 focused on need based nature of training and he termed training as “The
organized procedure by which people learn knowledge or skill or attitude for a definite purpose”.
This definition emphasizes need based nature of the training calculated to serve a definite
objective.
Monappa and Mirza (1991)40 stated that the primary purpose of the teaching activities carried in
the organization is to acquire and supply the knowledge, skills, abilities and attitudes needed by
that organization.
36Oatey, Michael (1970). The Economics of training with respect to the firm. British Journal of Industrial Relations
8(1), pp.1–21.
37 Mathis, L. and Jackson. J. H. (1982). Personnel: Contemporary Perspectives and Applications. 3rd Edition St.
Paul: West Publishing Company.
38Noe Raymond and and Schmitt Neal (1986). Influence of trainee attitudes on training effectiveness: Test of a
model, Personnel Psychology, 39
39 Dale S. Beach, (1991). Personnel Management, McMillan, New York.
40 Arun Monappa and Mirza Saiyadain (1991). Personnel Management, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co., Ltd.,
New Delhi.
38
Adeniyi (1995)41 referred staff training and development as a work activity that can make a very
significant contribution to the overall effectiveness and profitability of an organization.
Obisi (1996) stated that the concepts of training and development are used interchangeably.
However, it can be differentiated from the other. Training is for specific job purpose while
development goes beyond specifics development covers not only those activities which improve
job performance, but also those which bring about growth of personality.
According to Seyler, et al., (1998)42, training is an effective measure used by employers to
supplement employees’ knowledge, skills and behaviour to the continuous changing scenario of
business world.
According to Akinpelu (1999)43, the need to perform one’s job efficiently and the need to know
how to lead others are sufficient reasons for training and development and the desire to meet
organizations objectives of higher productivity, makes it absolutely compulsory.
According to Isyaku (2000)44 the process of training and development is a continuous one. It is
an avenue to acquire more and new knowledge and develop further the skills and techniques to
function effectively.
Oribabor (2000)45 said that training and development aim at developing competencies such as
technical, human, conceptual and managerial for the furtherance of individual and organization
growth.
41Adeniyi, O.I. (1995). “Staff training and development” in Ejiogu, A; Achumba, I. Asika (eds). Reading in
Organizational Behaviour in Nigeria, Lagos. Maltho use Press Ltd, pp. 159-167.
42 Seyler, D.L., Holton, E.F. III, Bates, R.A., Burnett, M.F., and Carvalho, M.A. (1998). “Factors Affecting
Motivation to Transfer Training” International Journal of Training and Development, Vol. 2 (1), pp. 2–16.
43 Akinpelu, B. (1999). “Educational Technology and teaching - learning process in the 21st century” in
Adesomowo, P.O. (Ed), Basic of Education, Lagos Triumph Books publishers.
44 Isyaku, I.A. (2000). Training and retraining of Teachers through Distance Education. Paper presented at the
National Workshop on Distance Education Held at Abuja ,Nigeria. pp 27-29.
45 Oribabor, P.E. (2000). “Human Resources Management, A Strategic Approval" Human Resources Management ,
9 (4), pp 21 – 24
39
According to Obisi (2001)46, training is a process through which the skills, talent and knowledge
of an employee is enhanced and increased. He argues that training should take place only when
the need and objectives for such training have been identified.
According to Tan et al., (2003)47, companies are making huge investment on training programs
to prepare them for future needs. The researchers and practitioners have constantly emphasized
on the importance of training due to its role and investment.
Stavrou, et al., (2004)48 stated the main goal of training is to provide, obtain and improve the
necessary skills in order to help organizations achieve their goals and create competitive
advantage by adding value to their key resources – i.e. managers.
According to Asha (2007)49, the need for training and development can be emphasized in various
work situations, such as in harnessing skills for existing jobs, planning out one’s future job
profile, elevating employee’s performance and so on. The training and development function in
an organization has gained a lot of importance due to advancement in technology and changes in
market force.
Chih et al., (2008)50 opined that training program is dependent on the following parameters for
its success (i) perceived value of leaning program (ii) attitude to teacher (iii) response to learning
conditions (iv) desire to learn: the degree to which trainees really want to learn and do well.
46 Obisi Chris (2001). Employee development, Issues and dimensions, Unical Journal of public Administrator Sept
Vol. 1
47 Tan, J.A., Hall, R.J., and Boyce, C. (2003), ‘The Role of Employee Reactions in Predicting Training,’ Human
Resource Development Quarterly, Vol. 14, 4, pp. 397–411.
48 Stavrou, E., Brewster, C., and Charalambous, C. (2004), ‘Human Resource Management as a Competitive Tool in
Europe,’ working paper, London: Henley College.
49 Asha, S., (2007). Psychological Dimensions of Training and Development, HRM Review, ICFAI University press,
pp.21.
50 Chih, Jin-Ton.; Li, Ching-Hsiang and Lee, Hung-Wen. (2008). “Relationship between Trainee Attitudes and
Dimensions of Training Satisfaction: An Empirical Study with Training Institute Employees”, International
Journal of Management, Vol. 25, No. 4, December, pp. 756-765.
40
Giangreco et.al, (2009)51, stated the key determinants of overall satisfaction with training (OST)
are perceived training efficiency (PTE) and Perceived usefulness of training (PUT).
Bates et al., (2010)52 stated that usefulness of training program is possible only when the trainee
is able to practice the theoretical aspects learned in training program in actual work environment.
They highlighted the use of role playing, cases, simulation, mediated exercises and computer
based learning to provide exposure to a current and relevant body of knowledge and real world
situations.
Kalaiselvan and Naachimuthu (2011)53 described training by graphical representation, training
cost and business benefits are drawn on X and Y axis respectively. Four quadrants were
identified to highlight (i) strategic (Lower training cost and higher business benefits), (ii)
Payback (Higher training cost and higher business benefits) (iii) Think (Lower training cost and
lower business benefits) (iv)Drop (Higher training cost and higher business benefits).
According to Karthik, R. (2012)54 training objectives tell the trainee that what is expected out of
him at the end of the training program. Training objectives are of great significance from a
number of stakeholder perspectives; Trainer, trainee, designer, evaluator.
Subramanian et al., (2012)55 developed ROI plan document which captures information on
several key issues necessary and the factors related with training: (i) significant data items (ii)the
method for isolating the effects of the training and education programme (iii)the method for
51 Giangreco, A., Sebastiano, A., and Peccei, R. (2009). “Trainees’ Reactions to Training: An Analysis of the
Factors Affecting Overall Satisfaction with Training” The International Journal of Human Resources Management,
Vol. 20, 1, pp. 96–111.
52 Bates, Donald L. and Davis, Tammy J. (2010). “The Application Bridge: A Model for Improving Trainee
Engagement in the Training Process”, International Journal of Management, Vol. 27, No. 3, Part 2, December, pp.
770-776.
53 Kalaiselvan, K. and Naachimuthu, K. P. (2011). “A Synergetic Model to Training & Development”, Indian
Journal of Industrial Relations, Vol. 47, No. 2, pp. 366-379.
54 Karthik, R. (2012). “Training and Development in ITI Limited – Bangalore”, Advances In Management, Vol. 5
(2), pp. 54-60.
55 Subramanian, K. S.; Sinha, Vinita and Gupta, Priya D. (2012). “A Study on Return on Investment of Training
Programme in a Government Enterprise in India”, VIKALPA, Vol. 37, 1, pp. 31-48.
41
converting data into monetary values (iv)the cost categories, noting how certain costs should be
prorated (v)the anticipated intangible benefits (vi)the communication targets to receive the
information and (vii)other issues or events that might influence programme implementation
attitude into appropriate behaviour.
According to Michael and Stephen (1973)56, the prediction of trainability has been an
important area of personnel research for years. Cost savings have resulted from the
identification of individuals who will perform best in training, who will complete training
most rapidly, or who can be permitted to skip portions of the training.
Training is a key to productivity. As the knowledge, skill and attitude of the employees has a
direct bearing on the quality of the output, training occupies a fundamental position in the
organizational framework. Some sort of training and development is required for better fit of the
employees into the job and organization as initially no one is perfect. In addition to it the
employees who are assigned new roles need the imparting of the required knowledge and skill to
perform the new tasks effectively and efficiently. Training and development programs are very
important for the development of the organization’s human resource and hence to achieve aims
and objectives of the organization. So to achieve the purpose of training and development
program, training needs assessment requires to be effectively managed to provide right training
to the right people, in the right form, at the right time and at the right costs.
The term ‘training’ indicates the process involved in improving the aptitudes, skills and abilities
of the employees to perform specific jobs. Training helps in updating old talents and developing
new ones. Training also offers them a possibility to keep abreast with the latest developments in
the fields of technology and management. This helps them to respond effectively to competition.
In order to build up a strong, efficient, effective, motivated and dedicated managerial cadre,
continuing management training is required. Training is a vital part of human resource
management. The effectiveness of business activities demands that the managers should possess
diverse skills and performance management abilities. This can be accomplished only through
56 Gordon Michael E. and Cohenz Stephen L. (1973). “Training behavior as a predictor of trainability”
Personnel psychology , 26, pp.261-272.
42
training efforts. Thus, training and development activities can play a key role in the development
of individuals for organizational growth.
2.5 Training and Development Models and Theories:
There are several models of training and development that have made better improvement into
organizational settings, which have began to have a greater impact on instructional design.
Research in the area of organizational development formed training and development model such
as Instructional Systems Design (ISD), Human Performance Technology (HPT), Performance-
Based Instructional Design (PBID) and Total Quality Management (TQM).
2.5.1 ADDIE model:
Rothwell & Kanzanas (1992)57 stated that, Instructional system design (ISD) was created by the
United States military as an efficient and effective way to train soldiers. Main objective of ISD is
to improve human performance. ISD is mostly based on the assumption that learning should not
be developed in a random practice, but should be occurred in correspondence with organized
processes, be organized to the target audience, and have outcomes that can be measured. There
have been many different versions of the ISD model published, but the common model has been
the ADDIE model. Figure 2.1 shows the ADDIE model.
Figure: 2.1 - The ADDIE Model
57 Rothwell, W. J., & Kazanas, H. C. (1992). Mastering the instructional design process: A systematic approach, 1 st
edition,(The Jossey-Bass management series)
Analyze
Design
DevelopImplement
Evaluate
43
Rothwell, W., & Benkowski, J. (2002)58 in their book “Basic principles of instructional systems
design” described the word ADDIE , in this each key word denotes Analyze, Design, Develop,
Implement and Evaluate respectively. This model allows the learners to master a skill,
knowledge, or attitude. The model focuses on the job by having the learner achieve standards
necessary for the proper job performance. ADDIE model is a step-by-step process of the training.
These are as follows:
1. In Analysis stage job needs are analyzed to identify the performance problem or the gap
between the current and the desired performance.
2. Design stage process is performed to determine the learning objectives, both in
knowledge and performance. The objectives are determined by using the task
requirements and performance information collected during analysis stage to specify the
knowledge, skills and attitudes that are provided in the training.
3. In Development stage the trainer will organize the knowledge and performance
objectives, instructional materials, course design and model from the design stage are put
together for employees to achieve learning objectives. The objective will describe how
the trainer and employees will perform during training to achieve the learning objectives.
The results of the training materials are reviewed for technical accuracy. The
Development stage ends when the validation demonstrates that the instruction meets the
performance standards specified by the objectives and the employer accepts the final
product.
4. Implementation stage is the process when conditions are determined (who, what, when,
where) under which the training will be offered and the solution implemented. The
outcome of this step defines the guidance and support needed to ensure successful
training plan. This stage ends when the company is prepared to carry out the tasks
required to provide and support the product and administer the materials independently.
5. Evaluation stage enables the trainer to determine if the training methods and material
were effective and successful as well as accomplishing the goal and objective that were
established. In this stage data will be gathered from participants and the results will be 58 Rothwell, W., & Benkowski, J. (2002). Basic Principles of Instructional Systems Design. In R. Taft (Ed.),
Building Effective Technical Training: How to Develop Hard Skills Within Organizations San Francisco, CA:
Jossey- Bass/Pfeiffer pp.124
44
carefully analyzed to identify any unforeseen problems or changing conditions to
evaluate the program effectively. It is also essential to monitor the return on investment
in the training program where productivity issues are the driving factor.
2.5.2 Instructional Systems Design Model:
The design of training programs covers the planning and creation of training and development
programs. Instructional systems design includes the systematic design and development of
instructional methods and materials to facilitate the process of training and development and
ensure that training programs are necessary, valid and effective. Although the instructional
design process can take on variety of sequences, the process must include the collection of data
on the tasks or skills to be learned or improved, the analysis of these skills and tasks, the
development of methods and materials, delivery of the program and finally the evaluation of the
training's effectiveness. A typical instructional systems design model includes needs analysis,
task assessment, stating objectives, Assessment, development of materials, plotting the program
and Evaluation. Table 2.3 describes a typical instructional systems design model59.
Table 2.3: A Typical Instructional Systems Design Model
Step Description
Needs analysis Measuring the disparity between current and desired skill levels
Task assessment Collection of data on job tasks and the subsequent identification of
learning requirements and possible difficulties
Stating objectives Creation of concise statement of objectives and purpose as a benchmark
Assessment/testing Development of testing materials designed to measure the performance of
the objectives
Development of
materials
Selection of effective instructional strategies followed by the development
of materials based on the chosen strategies
Plot programs Plotting the program to gauge the effectiveness of the materials as well as
identify potential weaknesses through subsequent evaluation
Evaluation Evaluation of the efficacy of the methods and materials
59 http://www.referenceforbusiness.com/encyclopedia/Thir-Val/Training-andDevelopment.html
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Training and development programs often rely on the principles and theories of various
behavioral sciences such as psychology and sociology. The behavioral sciences provide useful
theories on individual behavior, motivations, organizational dynamics, and interpersonal
relationships, which the developers of training programs can draw on when creating their
programs.
2.5.3 Human performance technology (HPT):
Stolovtich& Keeps (1999)60 in their handbook of human performance technology described that
it is a systematic process of identifying opportunities for performance improvement, setting
performance standards, identifying performance improvement strategies, performing
cost/benefit analysis, selecting performance improvement strategies, ensuring integration with
current systems, evaluating the effectiveness of performance improvement strategies and
monitoring performance improvement strategies. This model has improved human competence
and productivity beyond traditional concepts of training and human resource development.
Additionally, HPT analyzes elements of a system, and directly generates significant economic
impact on organization. A description of this performance improvement strategy emerges are
clearly explained in this book. HPT is drawn from many disciplines such as behavioral
psychology, instructional systems design, organizational development, and human resources
management. This allows organizations to identify the cause for the performance gap, offers a
wide range of interventions to improve performance, guides the change management process,
and evaluates the results.
The International Society for Performance Improvement (2007)61 breaks down the three words of
HPT as follows:
Human: The individuals and groups that make up organizations
Performance: Activities and measurable outcomes
Technology: A systematic and systemic approach to solve practical problems
60 Stolovtich, H. D., & Keeps, E. J. (1999). Handbook of Human Performance Technology: A comprehensive guide
for analyzing and solving performance problems in organizations. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publications. pp.
4-7
61 International Society for Performance Improvement (ISPI), www.ispi.org
46
Rothwell (1996)62 also described Human performance technology model (HPT). He explained
that, HPT is a training and instructional system that many businesses use to enhance productivity
and to achieve the business goals of the organization. HPT provides a strategy for focusing
directly on performance improvement combined with learning and instructional technology.
According to Rothwell, there are six causes of performance gaps:
• Consequences, incentives, and rewards
• Data, information, and feedback
• Resources, tools, and environmental support
• Individual capacity
• Motives and expectations
• Skills and knowledge
Once the performance gap and the causes have been determined, the appropriate training
program is then designed and developed. These may include measurement and feedback systems,
new tools and equipment, compensation and reward systems, selection and placement of
employees, and training and development. The program is then implemented and the desired
outcome is achieved. Similar to the HPT model is the Human Performance Improvement (HPI)
model that was developed by the American Society of Training and Development (ASTD)63
2.5.4 Performance-Based Training Design:
Performance-Based Training Design was designed by Pucel, (1989)64. Performance-Based
Training Design teaches employees job performance that enables them to go back to work and
do the job, not just know how to do the job. The design includes hands-on exercises to replicate
the actual function of what is being taught. Performance-Based Instructional Design (PBID) is
designed to help learners perform more effectively in the workplace. PBID is systems that has
seven major components, and are as follows:
1. Program description
62 Rothwell, W. J. (1996). ASTD Models for human performance improvement, roles, competencies, and outputs,
ASTD Publications Dept., 1640 King Street, Box 1443, Alexandra, Virginia 22313.
63 www.astd.org
64 Pucel, D. J. (1989). Performance-Based Instructional Design. Gregg Division, McGraw-Hill Publishers Co.
pp.16, 17, 20-22, 25
47
2. Content analysis
3. Content selection
4. Content sequencing
5. Lesson structuring
6. Lesson delivery formatting
7. Evaluation and feedback procedures development
2.5.5 Maslow’s theory of Hierarchy of Needs:
Maslow (1943)65 developed the Hierarchy of Needs Theory as a general theory of human
motivations. He proposes that human beings are motivated by a number of basic needs, of which
Maslow (1954)66 stated the five types of needs that are consistently present are given below.
1. Physical needs' are the needs of the human body, including the needs for food, water,
sleep, and sensory gratification.
2. Safety needs' include the desire to be free from danger and environmental threats.
3. Affiliation needs.
4. Esteem needs' refers to the desire of individuals to feel a sense of achievement and
accomplishment.
5. Self actualization need is the need Maslow characterizes as the desire to "become more
and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of.
2.5.6 Kirkpatrick’s evaluation model:
Kirkpatrick (1959)67 originally discussed reactions in terms of how well participants liked a
particular program. Kirkpatrick (1976)68 stated that there are four levels of learning evaluation
and that there should be measurement of each of the four levels. All these measures are
recommended for full and meaningful evaluation of learning in organizations, although their
application broadly increases in complexity, and usually cost, through the levels from level 1-4.
65 Maslow Abraham. (1943). A Theory of Human Motivation. Psychology Review, Vol. 50, pp.370-396.
66 Maslow Abraham. (1954). Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper and Row.
67 Kirkpatrick, D. L. (1994). Evaluating training programs: the four levels. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.
68Kirkpatrick, D. L. (1976). ‘Evaluation of Training’, in Training and Development Handbook, edited by R. L.
Craig, McGraw-Hill.
48
Kirkpatrick’s (1994)69 training evaluation model delineates four levels of training outcomes:
reaction, learning, behavior, and results.
The four levels of Kirkpatrick’s evaluation model essentially measure:
1. Reaction of learner : what they thought and felt about the education and training
2. Learning: the resulting increase in knowledge or capability
3. Behaviour: extent of behaviour and capability improvement and
implementation/application
4. Results – the effects on the business or environment resulting from the learner’s
performance
Table-2.4: Four levels of Kirkpatrick’s evaluation model
Level Evaluation type Evaluation description Evaluation method
1 Reaction Reaction evaluation is how the
delegates felt about the training or
learning experience
feedback forms; also verbal reaction,
post-training surveys
or questionnaires
2 Learning Learning evaluation is the
measurement of the increase in
knowledge - before and after
Typically assessments or tests before
and after the training Interview or
observation can also be used
3 Behaviour Behaviour evaluation is the extent
of applied learning back on the job
- implementation
Observation and interview over time
are required to assess change,
relevance of change, and
sustainability of change
4. Result Results evaluation is the effect on
the business or environment by the
trainee
Measures are already in place via
normal management systems
An organization can facilitate the satisfaction of this need through the provision of jobs that
allow an individual to exercise responsibility and creativity at workplace.
69 Kirkpatrick, D. L. (1959). Techniques for evaluating training programs. Journal of ASTD, 11, pp.1–13.
49
2.6 Types of training and development programs:
The goal of the training programs is for trainees to acquire new knowledge or skills in their fields
to enhance their knowledge and skills in these areas. Companies can apply these different
methods of training and development to any number of subjects to ensure the skills needed for
various positions are instilled. Companies gear training and development programs towards both
specific and general skills, including technical training, sales training, clerical training, computer
training, communications training, organizational development, career development, supervisory
development, and management development70. Training programs described are as follows:
2.6.1 Technical training:
Technical training seeks to impart technical knowledge and skills using common training
methods for instruction of technical concepts, factual information, and procedures, as well as
technical processes and principles.
2.6.2 Sales training:
Sales Training concentrates on the education and training of individuals to communicate with
customers in a persuasive manner and inculcate other skills useful for sales positions.
2.6.3 Communications training:
Communications training concentrates on the improvement of interpersonal communication
skills, including writing, oral presentation, listening, and reading. In order to be successful, any
form of communications training should be focused on the basic improvement of skills
2.6.4 Organizational development:
Organizational development (OD) refers to the use of knowledge and techniques from the
behavioral sciences to analyze existing organizational structure and implement changes in order
to improve organizational effectiveness. It is a development process with an organizational focus
to achieve the same goals as other training and development activities aimed at individuals.
2.6.5 Career development:
Career development of employees covers the formal development of an employee's position
within an organization by providing a long-term development strategy and training programs to
implement this strategy and achieve individual goals. Career development represents a growing 70 http://www.referenceforbusiness.com/encyclopedia/Thir-Val/Training-andDevelopment.html
50
concern for employee welfare and the long-term needs of employees. To remain effective, career
development programs must allow individuals to articulate their desires.
2.6.6 Management development:
Management and supervisory development involves the training of managers and supervisors in
basic leadership skills enabling them to function effectively in their positions. For managers this
typically involves the development of the ability to focus on the effective management of their
employee resources, while striving to understand and achieve the strategies and goals of the
organization.
Management development may also include programs that teach decision-making skills, creating
and managing successful work teams, allocating resources effectively, budgeting,
communication skills, business planning, and goal setting.
2.6.7 Supervisory development:
Supervisory development addresses the unique situation of the supervisor as a link between the
organization's management and workforce. Important considerations include the development of
personal and interpersonal skills, understanding the management process, and productivity and
quality improvement.
2.7 Training and development methods:
There are several training and development methods available. The use of a particular method
depends which method accomplishes the training needs and objectives. There are
various methods of training, which can be divided in to cognitive and behavioral methods71 .
Trainers need to understand the pros and cons of each method, also its impact on trainees
keeping their background and skills in mind before giving training.
Cognitive methods are more of giving theoretical training to the trainees.
The various methods under Cognitive approach provide the rules for how to do something,
written or verbal information, demonstrate relationships among concepts, etc. These methods are
associated with changes in knowledge and attitude by stimulating learning. Behavioral
methods are more of giving practical training to the trainees. The various methods under
71 Reference: http://traininganddevelopment.naukrihub.com/methods-of-training/
51
Behavioral approach allow the trainee to behavior in a real fashion. These methods are best used
for skill development.
Table: 2.5 - Training and development methods
Training and development methods
Sr. No. Cognitive Methods Behavioral methods
1. Lectures Games and Simulations
2. Demonstrations Behaviour Modeling
3. Discussions Business games
4. Computer based training Case studies
5. Intelligent tutorial system Equipment stimulators
6. Programmed instruction In basket techniques
7. Virtual reality Role plays
Many avenues exist to train employees. The key is to match the training method to the
situation. Many methods of training are available- each has certain advantages and
disadvantages. Training & development methods for managerial personnel can be divided into
two groups as on the Job training and off the job training.
2.7.1 On Job Training:
On the job training is the employee training at the place of work while doing the actual job.
Usually a professional trainer or sometimes an experienced employee serves as the course
instructor using hands on training often supported by formal classroom training.
2.7.2 Off Job Training:
Off the job training is the employee training at the site away from actual work environment. This
method requires trainees to leave their workplace and concentrate their entire time towards the
training objectives.
These days’ off-the-job training methods have become popular due to limitations of the on-the-
job training methods such as facilities and environment, lack of group discussion and full
participation among the trainees from different disciplines etc. In the off-the job methods, the
development of trainees is the primary task rest everything is secondary.
52
2.8 Techniques of training and Development:
Training and Development techniques differentiated on the basis of training methods i.e. on the
job and off the job method of training. These are as follows.72 73
Table: 2.6 - Techniques of training and development
Training and development Techniques
Sr. No. On the Job training Off the job training
1. Coaching Lectures
2. Mentoring Conferences and Seminars
3. Job instruction technique Programmed instruction learning
4. Job rotation Brain storming
5. Orientation/ Induction training Role playing
6. Team building exercises Sensitivity training
7. Committee assignments Transactional analysis
8. Planned progression Simulation exercises
9. Junior Boards Case studies
10. Understudy position In Basket Exercise
11. Special projects Business games
12. Experience Behaviour modeling
2.8.1 Description of training and development techniques:
Table 2.6 shows various training and development techniques differentiated on the basis of
training methods. Various techniques of training and development are described in detail as
follows:
2.8.1.1 Coaching and Mentoring:
In coaching, the superior plays an active role in training the subordinate. The superior may
assign challenging task to the subordinate for the purpose of training. The superior
may assist and advice the subordinate to complete the assigned task. In this case, the superior
acts as a coach in training the subordinate.
72 http://management-chandrasekhar.blogspot.in/2011/05/training-and-development-t-methods.html 73 http://www.bms.co.in/explain-methods-of-training-and-development/
53
2.8.1.2 Special projects:
The trainees' may ask to work on special projects related with departmental objectives. By this,
the trainees will acquire the knowledge of the assigned work and also learn how to work with
others.
2.8.1.3 Job instruction Technique:
Job instruction training is a step-by-step, relatively simple technique used to train employees on
the job. It is especially suitable for teaching manual skills or procedures; the trainer is usually an
employee's supervisor but can be a co-worker.
2.8.1.4 Job rotation:
Another type of experience-based training is job rotation, in which employees move through a
series of jobs in order to gain a broad understanding of the requirements of each. Job rotation
may be particularly useful in small businesses, which may feature less role specialization than is
typically seen in larger organizations. Job rotation involves the transfer of trainees from one job
to another and sometimes from one branch to another. Job assignment under a rotation system
may last for a period of 3 months to 2 years. The trainee is given full duties and responsibilities
of the rotated position. It is more suitable for lower level executives.
2.8.1.5 Orientation training:
Orientation training is vital in ensuring the success of new employees. Whether the training is
conducted through an employee handbook, a lecture, or a one-on-one meeting with a supervisor,
newcomers should receive information on the company's history and strategic position, the key
people in authority at the company, the structure of their department and how it contributes to the
mission of the company, and the company's employment policies, rules, and regulations.
2.8.1.6 Team-Building Exercises:
Team building is the active creation and maintenance of effective work groups with similar goals
and objectives. Team building is a formal process of building work teams and formulating their
objectives and goals, usually facilitated by a third-party consultant. Team building may include a
broad range of different training methods, from outdoor immersion exercises to brainstorming
sessions. The main drawback to formal team building is the cost of using outside experts and
taking a group of people away from their work during the training program.
54
2.8.1.7 Committee assignments:
In this, the trainees become members of a committee. The committee is assigned a problem to
discuss and make recommendations.
2.8.1.8 Planned progression:
It is similar to job rotation, except that every movement from one job to another involves higher
pay, position and duties. In job rotation, every movement involves more or less same pay and
position. Planned progression is more likely to occur at higher managerial levels, whereas, job
rotation occurs mainly at lower level positions.
2.8.1.9 Junior Boards:
In western countries, junior boards are formed. It permits promising young middle-level
managers to experience problems and responsibilities faced by top-level executives in their
company. About 10 to 12 executives from diverse functions within the organization serve on the
board for a term of say 6 months or more. The board is allowed to study any problem faced by
the organization, in respect of personnel policies, organizational design, interdepartmental
conflicts, etc, and to make recommendations to the senior board of directors.
2.8.1.10 Understudy method:
The trainee is given an understudy position. The trainee handles some important aspects of his
superior’s job. The trainee, at a future date, is likely to assume the duties and responsibilities of
the position currently held by his immediate superior.
2.8.1.11 Experience:
It refers to learning by doing. This is one of the oldest methods of on-the-job training. Although
this is very effective method but it is very time-consuming and wasteful. Thus it should
be followed by other training methods.
2.8.1.12 Lectures:
A verbal method of presenting information, lectures are particularly useful in situations when the
goal is to impart the same information to a large number of people at one time. Since they
eliminate the need for individual training, lectures are among the most cost-effective training
methods. But the lecture method does have some drawbacks. Since lectures primarily involve
one-way communication, they may not provide the most interesting or effective training. In
55
addition, it may be difficult for the trainer to gauge the level of understanding of the material
within a large group.
2.8.1.13 Conferences and Seminars:
In this, the participants are required to pool their thoughts, ideas, viewpoints, suggestions and
recommendations. By attending conferences and seminars, trainees try to look at a problem from
different angles as the participants are normally from different fields and sectors.
2.8.1.14 Programmed instruction learning:
This is step-by-step self-learning method where the medium may be a textbook, computer or the
internet. This is a systematic method for teaching job skills involving presenting questions or
facts, allowing the person to respond and giving the learner immediate feedback on the accuracy
of his or her answers."
2.8.1.15 Role Playing:
In role playing, students assume a role outside of them and play out that role within a group. A
facilitator creates a scenario that is to be acted out by the participants under the guidance of the
facilitator. While the situation might be contrived, the interpersonal relations are genuine.
Furthermore, participants receive immediate feedback from the facilitator and the scenario itself,
allowing better understanding of their own behavior. This training method is cost effective and is
often applied to marketing and management training.
2.8.1.16 Case Study:
The case method is a non-directed method of study whereby students are provided with practical
case reports to analyze. The case report includes a thorough description of a simulated or real-life
situation. By analyzing the problems presented in the case report and developing possible
solutions, students can be encouraged to think independently as opposed to relying upon the
direction of an instructor. Independent case analysis can be supplemented with open discussion
with a group. The main benefit of the case method is its use of real-life situations. The
multiplicity of problems and possible solutions provide the student with a practical learning
experience rather than a collection of abstract knowledge and theories that may be difficult to
apply to practical situations.
56
2.8.1.17 Brain storming:
This is creativity-training technique; it helps people to solve problems in a new and different
way. In this technique, the trainees are given the opportunity to generate ideas openly and
without any fear of judgment. Criticism of any idea is not allowed so as to reduce inhibiting
forces. Once a lot of ideas are generated then they are evaluated for their cost and feasibility.
2.8.1.18 Simulations:
Games and simulations are structured competitions and operational models that emulate real-life
scenarios. The benefits of games and simulations include the improvement of problem-solving
and decision-making skills, a greater understanding of the organizational whole, the ability to
study actual problems, and the power to capture the student's interest.
2.8.1.19 In Basket Exercise:
In this technique, the trainees are provided background information on a simulated firm and its
products, and key personnel. After this, the trainees are provided with in-basket of memos,
letters, reports, requests and other documents related with the firm. The trainee must make sense
out of this mass of paperwork and prepare memos, make notes and delegate tasks within a
limited time period."
2.8.1.20Business games:
Business games involve teams of trainees. The teams discuss and analyze the problem and arrive
at decisions. Generally, issues related with inventories, sales, R&D, production process, etc. are
taken up for consideration.
2.8.1.21Sensitivity training:
In this type of training, a small group of trainees are formed which meets in an unstructured
situation. There is no set agenda or schedule or plan. The main objectives are more openness
with each other, increased listening skills, trust, support, tolerance and concern for others. The
trainers serve a catalytic role. The group meets in isolation without any formal agenda. There is
great focus on inter-personal behaviour. The trainer provides honest but supportive feedback to
members on how they interacted with one another.
57
2.8.1.22 Behaviour modeling:
This is structured approach to teach specific supervisory skill. This is based on the social
learning theory in which the trainee is provided with a specific model of behaviour and is
informed in advance of the consequences of engaging in that type of behaviour.
2.8.1.23 Transactional analysis: When people interact with each other there is transaction for
which one person responses to other. The study of these social transactions between people is
called transactional analysis.
2.8.1.24 Computer-Based Training:
Computer-based training involves the use of computers and computer-based instructional
materials as the primary medium of instruction. Computer-based training programs are designed
to structure and present instructional materials and to facilitate the learning process for the
student. A main benefit of this training is that it allows employees to learn at their own pace,
during convenient times.
2.8.1.25 Web-based training:
Web-based training is an increasingly popular form of CBT. The greatly expanding number of
organizations with Internet access through high-speed connections has made this form of CBT
possible. By providing the training material on a Web page that is accessible through any
Internet browser, CBT is within reach of any company with access to the Web. The terms
"online courses" and "web-based instruction" are sometimes used interchangeably with WBT.
2.8.1.26 Self-Instruction:
Self-instruction describes a training method in which the students assume primary responsibility
for their own learning. Unlike instructor- or facilitator-led instruction, students retain a greater
degree of control regarding topics, the sequence of learning, and the pace of learning. Depending
on the structure of the instructional materials, students can achieve a higher degree of customized
learning. Forms of self-instruction include programmed learning, individualized instruction,
personalized systems of instruction, learner-controlled instruction, and correspondence study.
Benefits include a strong support system, immediate feedback, and systematization.
58
2.8.1.27Audiovisual Training:
Audiovisual training methods include television, films, and videotapes. Like case studies, role
playing, and simulations, they can be used to expose employees to "real world" situations in a
time-and cost-effective manner. The main drawback of audiovisual training methods is that they
cannot be customized for a particular audience, and they do not allow participants to ask
questions or interact during the presentation of material.
2.8.1.28Apprenticeship training:
Apprenticeships are a form of on-the-job training in which the trainee works with a more
experienced employee for a period of time, learning a group of related skills that will eventually
qualify the trainee to perform a new job or function. Apprenticeships are often used in
production-oriented positions.
2.8.1.29Internships:
Internships are a form of apprenticeship that combines on-the-job training under a more
experienced employee with classroom learning.
2.8.2 Main factors affecting the choice of training method:
It is important to decide strategy to meet training needs, e.g., by designing courses, modules,
suggesting various methodologies, deciding key learning points trainees must grasp. Designing
training program is an important component of systematic approach to training. It should be
designed enlisting active participation of the personnel at varying levels.
Training is designed to achieve the objectives formulated and appropriate training methods
should be adopted to achieve the objectives effectively. The trainer has a wide range of training
methods to choose from a judicious mix of one or more methods should be adopted to suit each
training program. Training program usually has more than one purpose, such as providing
knowledge, enhancing technical skills and effecting attitudinal changes. Emphasis on a particular
purpose may, however, vary from program to program depending upon factors such as the type
of audience, level of participants, etc. Designing training program involves determining the level
of participants, identifying the resource persons and selecting appropriate methods and
59
techniques for training. The training objective and the outcome an event seeks to achieve
determine the choice of training method. 74
Table 2.7: Main factors affecting the choice of training method:
Human factors - Trainer/ Teacher
- Trainer/ Participant
Objectives of
Training
- Knowledge,
- Skills
- Attitude
Subject area - Specific subject
- Interdisciplinary problem
Time and material
factor
- Time
- Finance
- Teaching Facilities
Principles of
learning
- Motivation
- Individual approach
- Feedback
- Active involvement
- Sequencing and structuring
- Transfer
2.9 Training and development process:
Training should be conducted in a systematic order so as to derive expected benefits from it. P.
Subba Rao (2009)75 described training and development process considering four stages. The
training system involves four stages, namely:
74 www.unodc.org/pdf/india/publications/guide_for_Trainers/03_systematicapproachtotraining.pdf
75 P. Subba Rao (2009), “Essentials of Human Resource management and Industrial Relations” Himalaya
Publication House, 3rd Revised & Enlarged Edition, Pg-199-203
60
2.9.1 Stages of training and development programs:
a. Assessment of training and development programs needs.
b. Designing the training and development programs.
c. Implementation of the training program
d. Evaluation of the training program
Figure: 2.2 - Stages of training and development programs
2.9.2 Training process:
In the training process, training need identification is a tool utilized to identify what educational
courses or activities should be provided to employees to improve their work productivity.
Training need is a difference between standard performance and actual performance.
After the identification of training needs, the most crucial task is to determine the objectives of
training. Training methods are desired means of attaining training objectives. After the
determination of training needs and specification of objectives, an appropriate training method is
to be identified and selected to achieve the stated objectives.
After the selection of an appropriate method, the actual functioning takes place. After selecting
training method, the prepared plans and programs are implemented to get the desired output. In
Stage 1
Assessment of
Training Needs
Organizational
Analysis
Departmental
Analysis
Job Analysis
Employee
Analysis
Stage 2
Designing of
Training Programs
Instructional
objectives
Learning
Principles
Teaching
Principles
Training Principles
Content design
Stage 3
Implementation of
Training Programs
On-the-Job
Methods
Off-the-Job
Methods
Characteristics of
the Instructor
Conducting the
Program
Stage 4
Evaluations of
Training
Programs
Reactions
Learning
Job Behaviour
Organization
Ultimate Value
61
this stage employees are trained to develop for better performance of organizational
activities. This stage is followed by evaluation of various aspects of training in order to know
whether the training program was effective. In Training evaluation refers to the training utility in
terms of effect of training on employees' performance. Training is separately described in Figure
2.376.
Figure: 2.3 - Training process
76 Source: www.allprojectreports.com
Selection and Design of
Instructional Programs
Instructional
Objectives
Needs Assessment
- Organization Support
- Organizational Analysis
- Tasks and KSA Analysis
- Person Analysis
Training
Use of Evaluation
model
Development
of criteria
Inter organizational
validity
Training
validity
Transfer
validity
62
2.9.3 Development process:
Management development is a combination of various training program, though some kind of
training is necessary, it is the overall development of the competency of managerial personal in
the light of the present requirement as well as the future requirement. Development process is
designed to improve the performance of existing managers and to provide for a planned growth
of managers to meet future organizational requirements is management development.
Development process is describes in Figure 2.377 as follows.
Figure: 2.4 - Development process
77 Source: www.allprojectreports.com
Competitive environment
Organizational objectives
Organizational strategy
Review of
training activities
Conduct of training
Annual training plan
Training needs
assessment
Identifying competency gaps
Internal training
programs
External training
programs
Customized training
programs
Career Planning Competency mapping
Stage 1
Stage 2
Stage 3
63
2.9.4 Training design:
Dessler (1999)78 had given training design model. It is as follows.
Figure 2.5: Training design
78 Dessler, G. (1999). Human Resource Management, 8th edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
64
The process for developing performance-based training includes the following 10 steps. The first
four steps constitute the task analysis that is necessary to design and develop relevant, useful
training materials. Steps 5–10 constitute the design and development process. 79
1. Define the target population for training.
2. List the tasks to be performed by the target population on the job.
3. List the skills and knowledge needed to do the tasks.
4. Select the skills and knowledge to be taught. (These make up the “training objectives.”)
5. Organize the selected skills and knowledge into suitable teaching units (modules) and develop
the training design (including brief outlines of module content and planned training methods).
6. Draft expanded outlines of modules, including instructional objectives, main body of text, and
descriptions of training methods, examples and exercises.
7. Experts provide realistic examples and information for use in exercises.
8. Draft the complete modules, facilitator guidelines, and course director guidelines.
9. Field-test the training materials.
10. Revise and finalize training materials based on the field test
2.9.5 Evaluating training programs:
Once a company implements a training program, it must evaluate the program's success, even if
it has produced desired results for other companies and even if similar programs have produced
desires for it. Companies first must determine if trainees are acquiring the desired skills and
knowledge. If not, then they must ascertain why not and they must figure out if the trainees are
failing to acquire these skills because of their own inability or because of ineffective training
programs80. In order to evaluate training programs, companies must collect relevant data. The
data should include easily measurable and quantifiable information such as costs, output, quality
and time. Throughout the training process, employers monitor how well trainees are learning
about the company, the atmosphere, and their jobs.
2.10 Applications of training programs:
Applications of training and development are as various as the functions and skills required by
an organization. Several common training applications can be distinguished, including technical
79 http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2005/WHO_HTM_TB_2005.354_part1_eng.pdf 80 http://www.referenceforbusiness.com/encyclopedia/Thir-Val/Training-andDevelopment.html
65
training, computer training, communications training, sales training, clerical training,
organizational development, career development, supervisory development, and management
development81.
Technical training describes a broad range of training programs varying greatly in application
and difficulty. Technical training utilizes common training methods for instruction of technical
concepts, factual information, and procedures, as well as technical processes and principles.
Computer training teaches the effective use of the computer and its software applications, and
often must address the basic fear of technology that most employees face and identify and
minimize any resistance to change that might emerge. Furthermore, computer training must
anticipate and overcome the long and steep learning curves that many employees will
experience. To do so, such training is usually offered in longer, uninterrupted modules to allow
for greater concentration, and structured training is supplemented by hands-on practice. This area
of training is commonly cited as vital to the fortunes of most companies, large and small,
operating in today's technologically advanced economy.
Communications training concentrates on the improvement of interpersonal communication
skills, including writing, oral presentation, listening, and reading. In order to be successful, any
form of communications training should be focused on the basic improvement of skills and not
just on stylistic considerations. Furthermore, the training should serve to build on present skills
rather than rebuilding from the ground up. Communications training can be taught separately or
can be effectively integrated into other types of training, since it is fundamentally related to other
disciplines.
Sales training concentrates on the education and training of individuals to communicate with
customers in a persuasive manner. Sales training can enhance the employee's knowledge of the
organization's products, improve his or her selling skills, instill positive attitudes and increase the
employee's self-confidence. Employees are taught to distinguish the needs and wants of the
customer and to persuasively communicate the message that the company's products or services
can effectively satisfy them.
81 http://www.inc.com/encyclopedia/training-and-development.html/4
66
Clerical training concentrates on the training of clerical and administrative support staffs, which
have taken on an expanded role in recent years. With the increasing reliance on computers and
computer applications, clerical training must be careful to distinguish basic skills from the ever-
changing computer applications used to support these skills. Clerical training increasingly must
instill improved decision-making skills in these employees as they take on expanded roles and
responsibilities.
Organizational development (OD) refers to the use of knowledge and techniques from the
behavioral sciences to analyze an existing organizational structure and implement changes in
order to improve organizational effectiveness. OD is useful in such varied areas as the alignment
of employee goals with those of the organization, communications, team functioning, and
decision making. In short, it is a development process with an organizational focus to achieve the
same goals as other training and development activities aimed at individuals.
Career development refers to the formal progression of an employee's position within an
organization by providing a long-term development strategy and designing training programs to
achieve this strategy as well as individual goals. Career development represents a growing
concern for employee welfare and their long-term needs. For the individual, it involves the
description of career goals, the assessment of necessary action and the choice and
implementation of necessary steps. For the organization, career development represents the
systematic development and improvement of employees. To remain effective, career
development programs must allow individuals to articulate their desires. At the same time, the
organization strives to meet those stated needs as much as possible by consistently following
through on commitments and meeting the employee expectations raised by the program.
Management and supervisory development involves the training of managers and supervisors in
basic leadership skills, enabling them to effectively function in their positions. For managers,
training initiatives are focused on providing them with the tools to balance the effective
management of their employee resources with the strategies and goals of the organization.
Managers learn to develop their employees effectively by helping employees learn and change,
as well as by identifying and preparing them for future responsibilities. Management
development may also include programs for developing decision-making skills, creating and
67
managing successful work teams, allocating resources effectively, budgeting, business planning,
and goal setting.
2.11 Studies related to training and development:
1. Juliana (2004)82 studied training and development techniques for improving
organizational performance for Ghanaian firms. Researcher described selected successful
models of training and development as they may apply to firms in Ghana. This study
critically analyses the ADDIE model, useful for training and development. Researcher
explained selected methods of needs assessment for training and development programs
for employers and employees. This research paper used to identify selected managerial
techniques that contribute to lost productivity and morale. The researcher also carried a
survey to selectively assess what business skills are mostly required for career success.
The results of this study suggest recommendations for developing a comprehensive plan
(model) for the creation of effective employee training and development program in
Ghana.
2. ERC (2010)83 conducted a survey on organizations in Northeast Ohio to determine trends
in administering training, identifying and prioritizing employee training needs, annual
training activities, evaluating training and other employee development practices. They
observed variability in terms of their training and development practices. They also
observed that in many of the organizations external consultants, trainers, or specialists
tend to provide the majority of training for organizations. This research paper also states
that content of training, costs/pricing of training, effectiveness of program and needs of
participants are the most common factors influencing organizations’ decision to
outsource training. This research paper also states that most organizations do not require
employees to participate in a specific number of training hours or courses annually. This
survey found that the most common methods of delivering training are on-the-job,
classroom, webinar and self-study aid methods. It was found that most of the
organizations have a training budget that is 2-3% of payroll. It was observed that several
82 Juliana S. Manu (2004) Training and development techniques for improving organizational performance for
Ghanaian firms, The Graduate School University of Wisconsin-Stout
83 ERC (2010). Training & Development Practices Survey www.ercnet.org
68
organizations use follow-up tools including job aids and action plans to help employees
transfer training to the job. The research study on ERC training & development practices
survey concluded that the most common way organizations assess the effectiveness of
their training is by measuring performance improvement/behavior on the job.
3. Kulkarni (2013)84 carried out a literature review on training & Development and quality
of work life. This paper focuses and analyses the literature findings on importance of
training and development and its relation with the employees’ quality of work life. It also
termed development as a continuous process whereas training has specific areas and
objectives. This review paper states that employee training and development programs
are important aspects which are needed to be studied and focused on. It also suggests the
need for training & development which can be determined by the employee’s
performance deficiency. According to this review paper the major areas where employees
are normally trained in an organization are Soft- skill Development, Personality
Development, Interpersonal Relationship, Problem solving techniques, Managerial and
Supervisory Training Program, quality improvement programs, technical processes,
quality circle programs, Time management skills, employee efficiency development
programs, violence prevention programs, regulatory compliances, goal setting and
implementation of programs, workplace safety management, workplace communication,
and so on. She suggested that every organization needs to study the role, importance and
advantages of training and its positive impact on development for the growth of the
organization as training and development programs improve the quality of work-life by
creating an employee supportive workplace. This review paper concluded that training
plays an important role in the competent and challenging format of business in this
competitive world and enhances the overall performance of an organization in various
ways.
4. Ajit Jadhav85 carried a study on training and development in Indian banks. In this
research paper an attempt is made to learn that training and development exist in banks
84 Kulkarni Pallavi P. (2013). A literature review on training & Development and quality of work life,
ResearchersWorld -Journal of Arts, Science & Commerce E-ISSN 2229-4686 ISSN 2231-4172 136-143
85 Ajit Jadhav A Study on Training and Development in Indian Banks, National monthly refereed Journal of
reasearch in commerce & management www.abhinavjournal.com volume no.1, issue no.1 ISSN 2277-1166
69
and their impact to generate efficiency of employees to cater to the need of their
customers. He stated that training and development are continuous process in improving
the caliber of employees. He suggested that, in order to meet the ever-growing needs of
business and household banking has to become dynamic and updated in modern scenario
requires best combination of new technology and skillful and talented manpower. He
observed that most of the commercial banks either private or public adopt training and
development programs at the time of induction, promotion and other situation. Author
concluded that private and public Indian banks undertake training and development
programs for their employees to increase their efficiency, to enhance their knowledge and
skills to satisfy the customers.
5. Robyn et al., (2003)86 introduced a largely overlooked feature of the long-term care
system and long term care quality. This paper focuses on the scope of federal quality
initiatives, workforce development issues and link between workforce development and
long-term care quality. Author stated that workforce development activities designed to
increase the capacity of individuals to participate effectively in long-term care settings
should be integrated into all ongoing and new long-term care quality improvement and
quality assurance initiatives.
6. Bhatti & Kaur (2010)87 studied the role individual and training design factors on
training transfer. This paper presented the theoretical model of training transfer in which
they identified many factors that affect the training effectiveness. These factors are:
transfer design, perceive content validity, performance self-efficacy, evaluation of
training and training transfer motivation. Authors concluded that there is a significant
correlation between content validity and motivation to training transfer. They also
concluded that motivation to transfer is one of the fundamental components of training
transfer course; without this motivation it will be difficult to transfer the training
successfully.
86 Robyn I. Stone, DrPH Steven L. Dawson Mary Harahan (2003) “Why Workforce Development Should Be Part of
the Long-Term Care Quality Debate”, American Association of Homes and Services for the Aging and the Institute
for the Future of Aging Services. www.futureofaging.org
87 Bhatti, M. A., & Kaur, S., (2010). “The Role Individual and Training Design Factors on Training Transfer”,
Journal of European Industrial Training, Vol. 34 No. 7 pp. 656-672
70
7. Chiaburu, et al., (2010)88 carried out a longitudinal analysis of social support in the
workplace and training. He observed that in training transfer perspective supervisor
support can be described as providing subordinates (trainee) time for skill practice and
aiding in implementation of skill. He also documented that supervisors are in best
position to inspire and facilitate their subordinates to implement their knowledge at work
place which results in training transfer and increased performance.
8. Hussain (2011)89 carried out an empirical study of the relationship between motivation to
transfer and transfer of training on job. The proposed model of this paper revolved
around the factors that influenced and contributes to the training effectiveness. The
purpose of this paper is to highlight the effect of motivation to transfer on training
effectiveness. The researcher has identified the factors at three levels i. e individual,
training and organizational, affecting the training transfer. This paper highlighted that
transfer of training can be maximized through increasing motivation and enthusiasm in
trainees to apply their knowledge and skill at their workplace. He also observed that
transfer of training to workplace had been continuous problem for organizations that
pursues maximization of training usefulness. He also suggested that training can only be
effective once trainee apply on job, the knowledge, skills and abilities which he has
acquired during a training program.
9. Anis et al., (2011)90 studied employee retention relationship to training and development
in Lahore. They focused on compensation packages after employee training and
development practices for retention purposes. In this study they used compensation as the
mediating variable between the training and retention of employees. They observed that
for the retention of employee, the work environment and compensation are useful tools.
Training can be an important tool for retaining employees. This research paper concluded
88 Chiaburu, D. S., Dam, K. V., & Hutchins, H. M., (2010). “Social Support in the Workplace and Training Transfer:
A Longitudinal analysis”, International Journal of Selection and Assessment, Vol. 18 No. 2 pp. 187-198
89 Raja Mumtaz Hussain(2011 ). “ An Empirical study of the relationship between motivation to transfer and transfer
of training” Far East Journal of Psychology and Business Vol. 5 No. 1 Far East Research Centre
www.fareastjournals.com pp 47-56
90 Anis Atif, Ijaz-Ur-Rehman, Abdul Nasir and Nadeem Safwan (2011). Employee retention relationship to training
and development: A compensation perspective African Journal of Business Management ISSN 1993-8233Vol.5 (7),
pp. 2679-2685, http://www.academicjournals.org/AJBM DOI: 10.5897/AJBM10.1036 b5
71
that, without increasing the compensation of employee after their training and
development; to retain the employees for a longer time period does not give fruitful result
because of the increase in his abilities and perfection in field.
10. Olaniyan and Lucas (2008) 91 described staff training and development. They suggested
that organizations are encouraged to train and develop their staff to the fullest advantage
in order to enhance their effectiveness. They also discussed that training reduces the work
of the manager in terms of close supervision, it also improves the drive and quality of
work of the employees therefore assist them to be more committed to achieving the goals
and objectives of the organization. They recommended that, for any organization to
succeed, training and re-training of all staff in form of workshops, conferences and
seminars should be vigorously pursued and made compulsory.
11. Kayode, Taiwo (2001)92 carried a research on the role of training in charge management.
He described that training can solve a variety of manpower problems which militate
against optimum productivity. According to author these problems differ in natures such
as these problems can emerge within any groups: except non-except, line and staff,
unskilled, skilled, paraprofessional, professional and lower, middle and upper
management. He suggested that it is essential to conduct training programs to increase
productivity, to develop new skills, knowledge, understanding and attitudes and to
improve the quality of work and raise morale in the organizations.
12. Qasim et al., (2011)93 carried a research to study degree of influence of training and
development on employees’ behavior. They stated that training and development prepare
and enhance employee’s knowledge and skills to enable them to adapt new technology,
91 D. A. Olaniyan and Lucas. B. Ojo (2008). “Staff Training and Development: A Vital Tool for Organisational
Effectiveness” European Journal of Scientific Research ISSN 1450-216X Vol.24 No.3, pp.326-331
http://www.eurojournals.com/ejsr.htm
92 Kayode, Taiwo (2001). “The Role of Training in charge Management” Journal of the Institute of Personnel
Mangement of Nigeria. Vol. 10, No. 7 pp. 24 – 31. B6 Problems Training and Development can Solve in an
Organization
93 Qasim Saleem Mehwish Shahid and Akram Naseem(2011). “Degree of influence of training and development on
employees behavior” International Journal of Computing and Business Research ISSN (Online) : 2229-6166
Volume 2 Issue 3 http://www.researchmanuscripts.com
72
creates chances for promotion, enhances job satisfaction and productivity. They also
stated the other purposes of training and development such as safety considerations,
handling of equipments, facility and materials from the less risky to the very hazardous
and the prevention of the cost of accidents. They opined that with training and
development, errors are reduced and efficiency is increased. This research paper
concluded that training and development of an employee play an important role.
Researcher recommended that organizations should hire already trained employees or
give training and development to existing employees according to organization’s
requirements that lead to organizational efficiency and growth.
13. Chris Obisi, (2011)94 carried a research on employee training and development in
Nigerian organizations. He stated that without training, it will be very difficult to acquire
skills and without skills organizations will not achieve its objectives through people. He
observed that some organizations see training as an expensive venture and also show
poor attitude towards training administration. He pointed out that some organizations are
accepting training programs from their friends and relatives which are not based on the
need of their organization, on the other hand; some employees do not show seriousness
whenever they are sent on a training program. He observed that some of the micro and
macro institutions designed to train and equip employees with the necessary skills and
knowledge are not doing very well in terms of number of people these institutions train.
Obisi concluded that training and development is the tonic need to enhance performance
and potentials of employees that will in turn enhance organization effectiveness. Author
recommended that training should be based on the need of the organization. It must
benefit the employee in terms of performance and knowledge which will in turn affect the
organization.
14. Akhtar et al., (2011)95 studied extent of training in banks and its impact on employees
motivation and involvement in job along with what training methods are widely used in
94 Chris Obisi, (2011). Employee Training and Development in Nigerian Organisaitons: Some Observations and
Agenda for Research Australian Journal of Business and Management Research Vol.1 No.9 pp.82-91
95 Muhammad Farhan Akhtar, Khizer Ali, Miss Shama Sadaqat, Shoaib Hafeez (2011). “Extent of training in Banks
and its Impact on employees motivation and involvement in job”. “Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary
Research in business Vol. 2, No. 12 pp. 793-806
73
the banking sector of Pakistan. They found that training and development has a positive
association with both motivation and job involvement of the employees of banks in
Pakistan. They observed that job instructional training and informal learning are widely
used techniques to impart the knowledge towards the employees in banking sector.
Findings of this paper suggest that by boosting the training and development activities
within the banking sector the employees could be motivated and get attached with their
work. This research study clearly emphasizes the need and importance of the training on
the employees in the banking sector.
15. Miller et al., (1996)96, described the training and development function and how the
needs assessment fits into this process, followed by an in-depth look at the core concepts
and steps involved in conducting a training needs assessment. They explained sequence
of five phases to design a training and development program such as needs assessment,
instructional objectives, design, implementation and evaluation. This paper focuses on
three levels of needs assessment i.e. organizational analysis, task analysis and individual
analysis. They also explained the purpose of training needs assessment such as to identify
performance requirements or needs within an organization in order to help direct
resources to the areas of greatest need, those that closely relate to fulfilling the
organizational goals and objectives, improving productivity and providing quality
products and services.
16. Ojha and Puthali (2013)97 studied the necessity of evaluation of training that calls for
the development of the technical knowledge and skills required for fresher and associates
working in different departments of pharmaceutical industry. They described selected
successful models of training and development, methods of training needs assessment for
and managerial techniques those contribute to lost productivity and morale and build the
confidence in employees. Researchers observed carrier growth of working professional as
they adapted new skills and technologies due to trainings.
96 Janice A. Miller, SPHR and Diana M. Osinski, SPHR(1996). Training needs assessment
97 Rajashri Survase-OJHA and Shivanand Puthali (2013 ).“The Necessity of Evaluation of Training that Calls for the
Development of the Technical Knowledge and Skills Required for Fresheres and Associates Working in Different
Departments of Pharmaceutical Industry” International journal of pharmaceutical and chemical sciences ISSN:
2277-5005 Vol. 2 (2) www.ijpcsonline.com 1135-1143
74
17. Singh and Mohanty (2012)98 carried a review on training practices and employee
productivity and impact of training on employee productivity across various sectors.
They discussed that some studies have found a positive association, some negative and
some no association in between training practices and employee productivity. According
to comparison and analysis studied they suggested that the impact and effect of training
practices on employee productivity varies for different industry. The paper concludes
with directions for future research by applying different level of analysis on exploring the
impact of training practices on employee productivity.
18. Farooq and Khan (2011)99 studied impact of training and feedback on increasing the
performance of employees. They stated that training is a catalyst for employees’
performance improvement. They also concluded that training and feedback can increase
the performance level of all sorts of the organizations; moving either separately or
together training and feedback play their role in achieving organizational targets by
making its employees more work focus and goal oriented.
19. Hameed and Waheed (2011)100 analyzed the theoretical framework & models related to
employee development and its affect on employee performance. They stated the proposed
model which explains the relationship between employee development variables
(employee learning, skill growth, self directed, employee attitude) and employee
performance variable. This paper also states that employee attitude and behavior refers to
the responsiveness of an employee. This study described that when employee is
nominated in different workshops and training sessions, the employee attitude and
behavior will determine the seriousness in training and development programs. They also
stated that the responsive employee will learn different skills which will increase the
employee performance and that will affect the organizational productivity.
98 Rohan Singh and Madhumita Mohanty(2012). “Impact of Training Practices on Employee Productivity: A
Comparative Study” Interscience Management Review (IMR) ISSN: 2231-1513 Volume-2, Issue-2, pp 87-92
99 Mubashar Farooq and Muhamamd Aslam Khan (2011). “Impact of Training and Feedback on Employee
Performance” Far East Journal of Psychology and Business Vol. 5 No. 1 pp23-33
100 Abdul Hameed and Aamer Waheed (2011). “Employee Development and It’s Affect on Employee Performance
a Conceptual Framework”. International Journal of Business and Social Science Vol. 2 No. 13
75
20. Liao (2010)101 investigated the effects of ethics training on employee satisfaction. This
study examined the mediating role of corporate-responsibility practices on the
relationship between ethics training and employee satisfaction in Taiwan. He found that
ethics training positively influenced corporate-responsibility practices and those
corporate-responsibility practices positively influenced employee satisfaction. According
to this research paper corporate responsibility practices had a “partial mediating effect”
on the relationship between ethics training and employee satisfaction.
21. Jan and Muthuvelayutham (2012)102 examined the determinant factor of training
programs in IT sector in Chennai city. They observed that the IT company employees
need effective training which helps to increase the productivity. They found that the
training with real working conditions successfully produces productivity and better
training increases the employees’ confidence level and help them to manage stress in
their working condition. They also reported that that the training supports to maintain
good relationship with their colleagues and subordinates which helps to increase
productivity and helps to promote their job position. According to this paper, good
training programs squeeze out attitude and career of employees. This study infers that the
good training programs will increase the productivity of the organization.
22. Muzaffar et al., (2012)103 investigated the relationship between training program and
employee outcomes in the form of task performance and turnover intention in the
selected IT organizations of Pakistan. According to this paper, an effective training
program is one such organizational practice that can lead to greater employee
commitment and more stable workforce. They suggested that organizations need to
strategically determine who is going to pay for the training. They recommended that
101 Wen-Chih Liao (2010). “The Relationship between Ethics Training and Employee Satisfaction: A Mediator of
Corporate Responsibility Practices”, The Journal of Human Resource and Adult Learning Vol. 6, No. 1
102 N. Akbar Jan and C. Muthuvelayutham (2012). “Employees’ Training and Development in IT Sector: An
Essential Instrument for Effectiveness of Organizational Productivity”. European Journal of Scientific Research
ISSN 1450-216X Vol.81 No.3, pp.397-407 http://www.europeanjournalofscientificresearch.com
103 Muhammad Usman Muzaffar , Hafiz Shahid Hussain Salamat & Hafiz Syed Muhammad Muneeb Ali (2012).
“Impact of Trainings on Employees Outcome in IT Sector, Pakistan, Global Journal of Management and Business
Research Volume 12 Issue 6 Version 1.0
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general training which is transferable to other organizations would likely be paid for by
the employee and company specific training on the other hand would likely be paid for
by the company as the skills acquired are non-portable.
23. Karen Shelton (2001)104 analyzed the significance of employee development programs
on employee retention and job satisfaction. This study determined that training and
development increase employee satisfaction and are significant in an employee’s decision
to stay with a company. Researcher also indicated that employee development would not
exist without support from the organization. He suggested that managers must be trained
to support employee development and embody that spirit in all of their actions. He
observed that when people receive relevant and valuable training, they are generally
happier in their jobs, so reported that there is a clear link between training and job
satisfaction. He concluded that employee development programs clearly play a
significant role in employee satisfaction, which helps lead to employee retention.
24. Brum (2007)105 studied impact of training on employee commitment and employee
turnover. He observed that investment in various training programs continue to rise, it
becomes essential for employers to understand the impact that training has on their
organization. According to this paper social support and access to training can also play a
significant role into the level of commitment that is established. He found that
management behavior was one of the most notable determinants of successful training
programs. He noted that employees enter into training programs with specific
expectations and needs and the result of training programs that do not meet the
expectations and needs of participants may lead to lower commitment, negative attitude
and an increase in turnover.
25. Krueger and Rouse (1998)106 studied the effect of workplace education on earnings,
turnover and job performance. He illustrated the question of workplace education and
training. They examined training outcome through various variables such as performance,
104 Karen Shelton (2001). The Effects of Employee Development Programs on Job Satisfaction and Employee
Retention, University of Wisconsin-Stout.
105 Scott Brum (2007). What impact does training have on employee commitment and employee turnover? Schmidt
Labor Research Center Seminar Research Series, University of Rhode Island
106 Krueger, A., and Rouse, C. (1998). “The effect of workplace education on earnings, turnover and job
performance” . Journal of Labor Economics, 16(1): 61-94.
77
wages, productivity, satisfaction, motivation, and absenteeism. This paper mostly focuses
on the relationship of training and employee commitment and explored its effect on
employee turnover. This paper clarified the impact that training has on employee
commitment and employee turnover by analyzing relevant literature and research.
26. Josef and Rudolf (2000)107 studied the impact of firm specific training on employee
turnover in Switzerland. They carried the survey in Swiss labor force. Researchers found
that firm-specific training leads to a significant reduction in on-the-job search activities of
Swiss workers and a weaker but still significant impact of firm-specific training on actual
job separations. They found that the separation probability of a searching worker is
strongly affected by previous firm specific training, whereas the separation probability of
a non-searcher is not affected by firm specific training. This study resulted that workers
pay most of the cost of firm-specific training.
27. Algranti (1988)108 carried a project on the effects of training on job performance. This
study focuses on the factors affecting the learning transfer process. This study stated the
most important effects of training i.e. acquisition of new approaches and new techniques
and the acquisition of new learning. This study concluded that training is resulting in
favorable changes in the on-the-job behavior of most of the participants. Researcher
suggested that management has to plan interventions to support increased transfer of
training.
107 Josef Zweimuller and Rudolf Winter-Ebmer (2000). “Firm-Specific Training: Consequences for Job Mobility”
Institute for Empirical Research in Economics University of Zurich Working Paper Series ISSN 1424-0459
Working Paper No. 37
108 Carole Ann Algranti (1988). “The effects of training on job performance: A study of the factors affecting the
learning transfer process” McGil1 University, Montreal, Quebec
78
2.12 Training and development in hospital industry:
1. Zingheim and Schuster (2008)109 carried a research on the retention strategies and pay
and rewards practices of a sample of the best performing medical centers and hospitals in
the United States. They observed the trends that the general population is aging, and the
number of nurse-training programs is insufficient for current and future employment
demand. They also documented that medical centers struggle to attract and retain
therapists, medical technologists, pharmacists, physicians and other technology jobs.
Researchers described nine retention factors such as employee satisfaction, employee
engagement, organization culture, supervisor/manager role, work environment, training
and development, communications, career opportunities, pay and rewards. According to
this research paper training and development practices of Medical center enables
opportunities, invest in employees, employee choice, in charge of employees’ own
development. This paper also reports that training and development practices of selected
medical centre help to keep employees’ skills fresh.
2. Singh (2010)110 studied patients’ perception towards government hospitals in Haryana.
He observed that the important reasons to visit government hospitals are fewer charges,
geographical proximity, recommended by their friends or relatives. He discussed that
Patients are quality conscious than before as they need a high level of quality, which can
translate into patient satisfaction. This research paper states that patients’ perceptions
about health services seem to have been largely ignored by health care providers in
developing countries and the reason why patients are found to be dissatisfied with the
doctors’ checkup. Author also found that majority of patients were satisfied with various
diagnostic services provided by hospitals and it was seen that mostly patients did not
transmit the complaint against the behaviour of staff and quality of services.
109 Patricia K. Zingheim and Jay R. Schuster (2008). “Workforce retention and pay and reward Practices in
America’s best hospitals” Article published on World at Work Journal, Second Quarter, Volume 17 No. 2, pages 16-
29. (104)
110 Rajinder Singh.( 2010, ). “Patients’ Perception towards Government Hospitals in Haryana”. VSRD -TNTJ, ISSN
No. 0976-7967 Vol. I (4), pp.198-206
79
3. Naz et al., (2012)111 investigated various problems that are faced by patients in central
public hospitals of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan. They carried a survey to
find out the scarcity of facilities in public hospitals that adversely affect patients’ health.
This research paper states that patients in public hospital face variety of problems in
health sector in regard of facilities and treatment and hospital staff is also frustrated due
to lack of facilities and extra workload. Researchers also observed that majority of the
respondents were disappointed with the facilities of the hospital and performance of staff.
It also states that, many of chronic diseases are transmitted via medical instruments
because number of patients is examined with the same equipments. This research study
suggested that proper attention of government, provision of sound infrastructure and
proper medical equipments with check and balance and health facilities will reduced the
existing problem at public hospital.
4. Odgerel (2012)112 carried a survey on patient satisfaction and service quality perception
at district hospitals in Mongolia. According to this paper patients who had been admitted
in hospital for the first time had lower perceptions and were less satisfied with the overall
healthcare services as compared to patients admitted more than 12 times. It also states
that patient satisfaction significantly depended on empathetic services such as
nursing care, respectfulness of nurses, helpfulness of nurses and attentiveness of
doctors to patients. Researcher suggests that the patient satisfaction scores can also be
used to monitor and improve the performance of the hospital staff. Researcher also stated
that healthcare systems rely on regular feedbacks from their patients and their immediate
service providers, which are then monitored and used for the improvement of the
healthcare service quality.
111 Arab Naz, Umar Daraz, Tariq Khan, Waseem Khan and Mohammad Hussain (2012). “An analytical study of
patients’ health problems in public hospitals of khyber pakhtunkhwa Pakistan” International Journal of Business
and Social Science Vol. 3 No. 5, pp.2
112 Odgerel Chimed-Ochir (2012). “Patient satisfaction and service quality perception at district hospitals in
Mongolia Ritsumeikan”. Journal of Asia Pacific Studies Volume 31.
80
5. Dasgupta and Suresh Kumar (2009)113 studied role stress among doctors working in a
Government Hospital in Shimla (India). The objective of this study was to determine
sources of role stress among doctors and to examine the stress levels among Male and
Female doctors working in the hospital. They observed that the factors causing role stress
among doctors is role overload, self-role distance, role isolation, inter-role distance, role
stagnation, role expectation conflict, role ambiguity and role inadequacy. This research
showed that male doctors are more stressed than the female doctors in cases of inter-role
distance and role inadequacy. This study concluded that role overload is most significant
factor causing role stress among the doctors working in the hospital.
6. Jardali et al., (2009)114 carried a research on assessment of human resources
management practices in Lebanese hospital. The objective of this study was to assess the
perception of HR managers about the challenges they face and the current strategies
being adopted. Researcher studied enabling factors including role, education, experience
and HR training. They reported that most frequent challenges were poor employee
retention, lack of qualified personnel and lack of a system for performance evaluation
which can be improved by offering continuing education and training for employees
improving salaries and developing retention strategies. Researchers concluded that, there
is a need to develop a competency framework for the knowledge, skills, attitudes and
behavior required for various HR managers.
7. Yesilada and Ebru (2010)115 studied health care service quality in both public and
private hospitals. The objectives of this study were to test the dimensionality of the
SERVQUAL instrument in Northern Cyprus health care industry and assess service
quality offered in public and private hospitals. They found that both public and private
113 Dasgupta Hirak and Kumar Suresh (2009). Role stress among doctors working in a Government Hospital in
Shimla (India) European Journal of Social Sciences,Volume 9, Number 3
114 Jardali Fadi El-, Tchaghchagian Victoria and Jamal Diana (2009). “Assessment of human resources management
practices in Lebanese hospitals” Human Resources for Health 7:84 doi:10.1186/1478-4491-7-84
http://www.human-resources-health.com/content/7/1/84
115 Figen Yesilada and Ebru Direktor, (2010). Health care service quality: A comparison of public and private
hospitals, African Journal of Business Management Vol. 4(6), pp. 962-971, http://www.academicjournals.org/AJBM
ISSN 1993-8233 ©2010 Academic Journals
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hospitals fail to offer the expected service quality. They observed that public hospitals
perform poor on the empathy dimension, which is about understanding the specific needs
of patients and giving individual attention. According to this paper private hospitals are
perceived as much better service providers than public hospitals. Authors recommended
that further investigation should be made to find out the underlying causes of the gaps
identified within the organizations and suggest solutions to managers to close the gaps
and provide high quality service to their customers.
8. Muraleedharan (1999)116 examined India's private hospital sector, focusing on urban
hospitals and studied characteristics and structure of the private hospital sector in Madras
City. This study identified strategies to improve the performance and accessibility of the
private hospital market. Author discussed the process of deregulation, the interaction
between the public and private health sectors and the question of over-provision of
services. This paper also emphasized on the importance of estimating adequacy of health
personnel in private hospitals. This paper also showed that assessment is constrained by
lack of norms for staff requirements within individual hospital units as in some categories
of medical staff, the deficiency may be due to lack of adequate number of medical
professionals being trained. It concludes that there is a need for improved data on the
growth and distribution of private sector health professionals and for policies beneficial
to both public and private health sectors. Researcher also recommended that a separate
state agency concerned with the development of the private health sector should be
formed.
9. This HRSA report (2002)117 discusses projected supply, demand, and shortages of
registered nurses. It consists of three sections, first section presents the National Center’s
projections of registered nurses supply and demand, both national and state-specific, for
the years 2000 through 2020. The second section discusses the driving forces and trends
116 Muraleedharan, V. R. (1999). “Characteristics and Structure of the Private Hospital Sector in Urban India: A
Study of Madras City”. Small Applied Research Paper 5. Bethesda, MD: Partnerships for Health Reform Project,
Abt Associates Inc.
117Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA) (2002), “Projected supply, demand, and shortages of
registered nurses: 2000-2020 (2002)” U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Bureau of Health
Professions, National Center for Health Workforce Analysis
82
underlying the projected supply and the third section does the same for the projected
demand. This report has examined the factors affecting the supply of registered nurses
include the declining number of nursing school graduates, the aging of the registered
nurses workforce, declines in relative earnings, and the emergence of alternative job
opportunities. This report also discussed the major factors and trends behind the growth
in registered nurses demand that include the population growth, aging of the population,
increased per capita demand for health care and trends in health care financing.
10. Saini and Singh (2008)118 conducted the research to study the organization structure of
nursing department and nursing service management of three selected hospitals i.e.
autonomous hospital, private hospital and state government hospital. They observed that
all the three hospitals had different organizational structure with different nursing
positions and cadres. They stated that none of the hospital had all the positions as
recommended by the Indian Nursing Council and High Power Committee. This study
reported wide scope for improvement in these hospitals as regards the nursing personnel
is concerned. Researchers recommended that the decision making regarding nursing
should be vested in the hands of nursing administrators for better nursing services which
will help in turn in providing better services to patients.
11. The final report of the Ontario critical care steering committee (2005)119 states about
the critical care transformation strategy that was launched to improve quality of care and
system performance in adult critical care services in Ontario. Critical care transformation
strategy gives emphasis on investments that improve access, quality and system level
resource management. This report aims to reduce barriers for nurses and employers, to
specialty nursing training. This report discusses key barriers that currently exist in nurses
training such as financial, geographical (specialty training available in selected regions,
resulting in nurses having reduced access to training), flexibility and lack of standards
that leads to redundant training of nurses. This report resulted that there is significant
variation in the duration of training both within and across critical care nurse training
programs and there is a lack of college-based training programs in Northern Ontario. This
118 Sushma Kumari Saini, Charanjeev Singh (2008). “Organizational structure and nursing service management of
select Hospitals” Nursing and Midwifery Research Journal, Vol-4, No. 3
119 Critical Care Nurse Training Standards Task Group Final Report (2005).Critical Care Secretariat
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report recommended that the critical care secretariat should create different pathways for
nurses to enter training and should develop strong, flexible, college-based training
program for critical care nurses.
12. Peterson (2004)120 has focused on the worldwide nursing shortage and concerns related
to nurse migration. It discusses that the international nursing community is growing in
strength and sophistication. This report also states that nurses are overcoming boundaries
to solve problems and strengthen the global profession of nursing for quality nursing
services through the international council of nurses and other international health
organization. This report also stated that they are trying to create a world where the
nursing workforce is valued and respected, provided with a safe work environment and
paid at a level commensurate with our experience.
13. Mary O’Connell 121 carried a research to explore the education and training experiences
of intensive care unit (ICU) registered nurses in using computerized technologies and
assessed the relationship it has with role performance and level of clinical experience.
This paper states that participants identified a range of formal and informal education and
training sources available to them within their ICU setting and expressed both positive
and negative experiences associated with using computerized technologies. This research
has also observed the level of confidence of nurses in using computerized technologies
was clearly related to their years of experience and differentiated clinical nursing roles
and reflected whether they worked in a fully or partially computerized unit.
14. Kumar et al., (2013)122 conducted a cross sectional study on job satisfaction among
public health professionals working in public sector in Islamabad, Pakistan. This study
showed that the majority of the public health respondents were dissatisfied with the
professional and development opportunities they availed during their professional life.
This study documented a relatively low level of overall satisfaction among workers in
120 Cheryl A. Peterson (2004). The Global Impact of the Nursing Shortage. NSNA imprints
121 Mary O’Connell, Beth Reid, Kate O’Loughlin . “An exploration of the education and training experiences of ICU
nurses in using computerized Equipment”, Australian Journal Of Advanced Nursing Volume 25 Number 2
122 Ramesh Kumar, Jamil Ahmed, Babar Tasneem Shaikh, Rehan Hafeez and Assad Hafeez (2013). “Job satisfaction
among public health professionals working in public sector: a cross sectional study from Pakistan “ Human
Resources for Health, 11:2 http://www.human-resources-health.com/content/11/1/2
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public sector health care organizations ; some of the responsible factors discussed were low
salary, lack of trainings opportunities and career structure, inadequate supervision,
insufficient cooperation and professional support, too little financial rewards and freedom
to work.
15. Irfan and Ijaz (2011) 123conducted comparative study on the quality of healthcare
services delivered by the public and private hospitals to gain patient satisfaction in the
Lahore, Pakistan. They observed that private hospitals like the other service organizations
are focusing on their patients demands and developing themselves in order to provide
maximum healthcare facilities to their patients. They also observed that doctors, nurses
and supporting staff in private hospitals are aimed to provide care to their patients,
providing clean and healthy environment. According to this study public hospitals
delivered poor quality of healthcare services to patients as compared to the private
hospitals. The factors which are affecting the service quality of public hospitals are
government funding, lack of government interest in development of new healthcare
projects in rural areas and overburdened public hospitals due to rapid growth in
population and people trends to move from rural areas to major cities. They also found
lack of feedback mechanism in public hospitals which resulted in low commitment level
towards staff responsibilities. This paper recommended that public hospitals require
government attention to improve the existing quality and develop more hospitals in
public sector to maintain the healthcare needs of the people.
16. Jordan and Glennon (2010)124 reported details to develop the vision for post graduate
education and training for non-medical critical care staff. This report includes education
and training framework designed by frontline critical care doctors, nurses and allied
health professionals. This report also provides the framework of National Occupational
Standards for the multidisciplinary non-medical critical care workforce which focuses on
what the person needs to be able to do as well as what they must know and understand to
work effectively and are indicatively linked to the Knowledge and Skills Framework.
123 S. M. Irfan and A. Ijaz (2011). “Comparison of service quality between private and public hospitals: empirical
Evidences from Pakistan”. Journal of Quality and Technology Management Volume VII, Issue I, June, 2011, pp 1 ‐
22
124 Mary Jordan and Jane Glennon (2010). NHS, Cheshire and Mersey critical care network and Skills for health
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They reported that the critical care education and training framework is centered on the
needs of the patient, the competences required by staff in practice and the underpinning
knowledge required. They suggested that in the dynamic environment of critical care,
practitioners must constantly evolve to keep up with new developments.
17. Havva Caha 125 carried a study on the consumer satisfaction in the private hospitals
found in Istanbul, Turkey. This research paper discusses the quality of private hospitals
with respect to the services they give and the satisfaction of their consumers. This study
indicates that satisfaction of the patients seem to be the most important factor for the
private health care providers. This paper reported that the lack of physical and human
capacities of private hospitals seems to be the main reasons behind the quality of their
service. Researcher suggested that employees of the hospital should always be willing to
help their patients and should address customers' questions appropriately. This study
recommended that employees should be polite, visitors should be treated well, and
nurses’ behaviour should be cheerful and very polite to customers.
18. Lekidou et al., (2007)126 examined the quality factors that are important to patients and
their links to patient satisfaction in the context of Greece. Researchers investigated the
relationship of patients’ admission, accommodation aspects, external environment and
the care provided by doctors, nurses and assistant personnel with service quality mirrored
on patients’ satisfaction in a central Greek Hospital. This study revealed that patients tend
to be seriously unsatisfied by provided health services such as unavailability of doctors
when patients need them, improper assistants’ behaviour and especially orderly’s
behaviour, can cause negative patients’ satisfaction. They concluded that, the lack of
communication with nurses, doctors’ impoliteness, orderly improper behaviour and
health deterioration after patients’ hospitalization exert negative impact on satisfaction.
125 Havva Caha, “Service Quality in Private Hospitals in Turkey” Journal of Economic and Social Research 9(1),
pp.55-69
126 Lekidou Ilia, Trivellas Panagiotis, Ipsilandis Pandelis (2007). “Patients’ satisfaction and quality of care: An
empirical study in a Greek central Hospital”, MIBES (Management of International Business & Economic Systems)
Transactions on Line, Vol. 1, Issue 1, pp. 46-59
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19. West et al., (2006) 127carried a research on the role of human resource management in
reducing patient mortality in hospitals in England. This study examined the potential
contribution of organizational behavior theory and research by investigating the
relationship between systems of human resource management practices and effectiveness
of patient care in hospitals. In this paper researchers reported association between high
performance HRM policies and practices and standardized patient mortality rates. On the
basis of findings researchers recommended managers and policy makers should focus
sharply on improving the functioning of relevant human resource management systems in
health care organizations as one important means by which to improve patient care.
20. Maniou (2011) 128studied internal communication and labour relations of personnel in all
branch in the General Hospital of Heraklion “Venizeleio-Pananeio” Greece. According to
this paper the measurement of conflict’s existence between the various professional
teams in the hospital is considered a modern method for the evaluation of relations
between the professional teams and the quality of services that offers. Researcher
observed disturbed relations between the professional teams that compose the personnel
of hospital. According to this paper there exists a need for improvement of these relations
via administration of human resources. Researcher reported the best policies of
incitement for the improvement of the workers professional relations were better wage,
better and more organized operation of the hospitals and better environment of work.
21. Annual Report to the People on Health (2011)129 seeks to inform the people about the
ongoing efforts of the Central Government in the Health Sector and aims to initiate a
discourse and discussion among the people on policies, programs, strategies and
challenges that the Health sector faces in the task of nation building. The Report
examines the progress made in the health sector, identifies the constraints in providing
universal access and provides options and future strategies. This report also focuses on
127 Michael A. West, James P. Guthrie, Jeremy F. Dawson, Carol S. Borrill and Matthew Carter (2006) . “Reducing
patient mortality in hospitals: The role of human resource management”, Journal of Organizational Behaviour 27,
983–1002 Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI: 10.1002/job.396
128 Maria Maniou (2011). Ιntersectorial relations of personnel in the hospital, Health Science Journal,Volume 5,
Issue 3
129 Annual Report to the People on Health (2011). Government of India, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare
87
human resources for health which explains steps taken in Medical Education to overcome
shortage of human resources for health and the initiatives taken in Nursing Education and
Para Medical Education. This report also highlights the status of introduction of a mid-
level health functionary at Sub Centre level through a course of Bachelor of rural health
care, National eligibility and entrance test in the country and progress made in setting up
of National Commission for Human Resources for Health. This report discussed issues
relating to financing of health care.
22. Indian Public Health Standards (IPHS) (2012)130 has provided guidelines for 101 to
500 bedded district hospitals. The overall objective of IPHS is to provide health care that
is quality oriented and sensitive to the needs of the people of the district. This report
states that district hospitals have come under constantly increasing pressure due to
increased utilization as a result of rapid growth in population, increase in awareness
among common consumers, biomedical advancement resulting in the use of sophisticated
and advanced technology in diagnosis and therapies and constantly rising expectation
level of the use of the services. Most of the district hospitals suffer from large number of
constraints. According to IPHS, every district hospital should provide facilities of Special
Newborn Care Units (SNCU) with specially trained staff. It also states that provisions for
patient safety, infection control and health care workers safety have been added. This
report also states that there is a need to provide guidance to those concerned with quality
assurance in district hospitals services to ensure efficiency and effectiveness of the
services rendered.
23. China Health Policy report (2010)131 is based on China health policy notes and it
focuses on the public hospital system in China. This paper has summarized recent
attempts at reform in the Chinese hospital system, described a methodology for analysis
of hospital reform and applied this methodology to the main features of reform in China.
This report has discussed various topics such as key drivers of hospital performance,
framework for analyzing organizational reforms, objectives of organizational reform, and
approaches to reform, impact of hospital reform and lessons from international
130 Indian Public Health Standards (IPHS) (2012). Guidelines for District Hospitals (101 to 500 Bedded)
131 Fixing the public hospital system in China (2010). China Health Policy Notes, The World Bank, Health,
population and nutrition. East Asia and Pacific region
88
experience. This paper states the importance of human resource development and
management reform discussing training programs for health managerial staff which
include short-term training, communication forums, degree course classes and
professional degree education.
24. World health statistics (2011)132 presents data on the resources available to the health
system, including physicians, nurses and midwives, other health-care workers, hospital
beds and select medical devices. This data estimated the numbers and density of the
health workforce. This data is derived from multiple sources, including national
population censuses, labour-force and employment surveys, health-facility assessments
and routine administrative information systems. This report gives number of physicians
and density (per 10 000 population), number of nursing and midwifery personnel and
density (per 10 000 population), number of dentistry personnel and density (per 10 000
population), number of pharmaceutical personnel and density (per 10 000 population),
number of environment and public health workers and density (per 10 000 population),
number of community health workers and density (per 10 000 population). This data is
essential in enabling governments to determine how best to meet the health-related needs
of their populations.
25. AACN (2005)133 discussed that each day, thousands of medical errors harm the patients
because of work environments that tolerate ineffective interpersonal relationships and
does not support education to acquire necessary skills perpetuate unacceptable
conditions. The American Association of Critical-Care Nurses recognizes the inextricable
links among quality of the work environment, excellent nursing practice and patient care
outcomes. This paper puts forth six essential standards for establishing and sustaining
healthy work environments. According to this paper these standards uniquely identify
systemic behaviors that are often discounted, despite growing evidence that they
contribute to creating unsafe conditions and obstruct the ability of individuals and
organizations to achieve excellence. These AACN standards represent evidence based
and relationship- centered principles of professional performance. 132 World Health Statistics (2011).
133 AACN (2005). “AACN standards for establishing and sustaining healthy work environments: A Journey to
Excellence”, American Association of Critical-Care Nurses. www.aacn.org
89
26. Institute of medicine (2001)134 discussed various factors which are essential for
healthcare and for shaping the future for health. Crossing the quality chasm presents a
comprehensive strategy and action plan for the coming decade. This paper focuses more
broadly on how the health system can be reinvented to foster innovation and improve the
delivery of care. This paper states that advances must begin with all health care
constituencies health professionals, federal and state policy makers, public and private
purchasers of care, regulators, organization managers and governing boards and
consumers. According to this paper, a health care system which is safe, effective, patient-
centered, timely, efficient and equitable; would be better at meeting patient needs. It also
states that clinicians and other health workers would benefit through their increased
satisfaction at being better able to do their jobs and thereby bring improved health,
greater longevity, less pain and suffering and increased personal productivity to those
who receive their care.
27. The Health Foundation (2012)135 discussed on quality improvement training for
healthcare professionals by evidence scan. This paper reported that there is an increasing
focus on improving healthcare in order to ensure higher quality, greater access and better
value for money. This paper states that training programs have been developed to teach
health professionals and students for formal quality improvement methods. This evidence
scan explores the types of training and techniques available for health professionals about
formal quality improvement, its impact and the most effective methods for training
clinicians in quality improvement. This paper reported that training in quality
improvement is available for medical, nursing and paraprofessional students in many
parts of the world and continuing professional development courses.
28. Management Sciences for Health (1998)136, is an organization dedicated to providing
management development assistance and training to health and family planning NGOs
134 Institute of medicine (2001). “Crossing the quality chasm: A new health system for the 21st century, Shaping the
Future for Health”.
135 The Health Foundation (2012). “Evidence scan: Quality improvement training for healthcare professionals”.
136 Family Planning Management Development Technical Unit and Management Sciences for Health (1998) .
Human resource development (HRD) assessment instrument for non-governmental organizations (NGO) and public
sector health organizations.
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and public sector health organizations. Management Sciences for Health has developed a
series of organizational self-assessment tools that focus on various management issues.
This paper states that Human Resource Development (HRD) plays a critical role in
creating and sustaining high performance organizations. This paper stated that knowledge
and level of staff commitment in the organization are reflected by HRD system, policies,
practices and procedures that advance the skills and motivation of staff in order to
achieve the highest possible level of performance over time.
In this chapter researcher has tried to review relevant literature. The studies reviewed relate
to different types of industries such as Banking industry, IT industry, private and public
related organizations; in addition to those relating to hospital industry. The studies located
and reviewed include both Indian and foreign studies. Based on the literature reviewed,
researcher came to the conclusion that training and development of employees is very
important for every human service organization. Hospital is social, nonprofit organization
where hospital staff has significant role in patient care and patient satisfaction.
The related literature and studies reviewed on training and development practices identified a
number of factors that are responsible for individual and organizational growth. From the
reviewed studies, it has been made clear that training and development programs helps to
improve knowledge, skills and attitude of employees towards their duties which effects on
work efficiency, effectiveness, motivation, job satisfaction and performance of employees.
Some of the studies reviewed also correlate Quality of work life with training and
development programs. They revealed that training and development programs help to
improve quality of work life in the hospitals. Thus the review of literature helped the
investigator to study the impact of employee training and development programs.