chapter 2 sociological research methods. chapter outline why is sociological research necessary? ...
TRANSCRIPT
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Chapter 2
Sociological Research Methods
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Chapter Outline Why is Sociological Research
Necessary? The Sociological Research Process Research Methods Ethical Issues in
Sociological Research
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Common Sense and Sociology: Suicide Common sense may tell us that people who
threaten suicide will not commit suicide. Sociological research indicates that people
who threaten to kill themselves may attempt suicide.
Common sense may tell us that suicide is caused by despair or depression. Research suggests that suicide is sometimes
used as a means of lashing out because of real or imagined wrongs.
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Common Sense and Sociology: Suicide Historically, the commonsense view of suicide
was that it was a sin, a crime, and a mental illness.
Emile Durkheim related suicide to the issue of cohesiveness in society. In Suicide, Durkheim documented his
contention that a high suicide rate was symptomatic of large-scale societal problems.
His approach to research still influences researchers.
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How Much Do You Know About Suicide? True or False?
In the United States, suicide occurs on the average of one every 18 minutes.
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How Much Do You Know About Suicide? True
A suicide occurs on the average of every 18 minutes in the United States.
This differs with respect to the sex, race/ethnicity, and age of the individual. Men are four times more likely to kill
themselves than are women.
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How Much Do You Know About Suicide? True or False?
More teenagers and young adults die from suicide than from cancer, heart disease, AIDS, birth defects, stroke, pneumonia, influenza, and chronic lung disease combined.
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How Much Do You Know About Suicide? True.
Suicide is a leading cause of death among teenagers and young adults.
It is the third leading cause of death among young people between 15 and 24 years of age, following unintentional injuries and homicide.
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Question Within the past 12 months, how many
people have you known personally that have committed suicide?
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GSS National Data
Region East Midwest South West
None 91.9% 86.6% 90.2% 85.7%
1 or More
8.1% 13.4% 9.8% 14.3%
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Sociology and Scientific Evidence Sociology involves debunking,
unmasking false ideas or opinions. Two approaches:
Normative Empirical
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The Normative Approach The normative approach uses religion,
customs, habits, traditions, and law to answer important questions. It is based on beliefs about what is right
and wrong and what “ought to be” in society.
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The Empirical Approach The empirical approach attempts to
answer questions through systematic collection and analysis. This is referred to as scientific method,
and is based on the assumption that knowledge is gained by direct, systematic observation.
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Sociology and Scientific Standards
Two basic scientific standards must be met: Scientific beliefs should be supported
by good evidence or information. These beliefs should be open to public
debate and critiques from other scholars, with alternative interpretations being considered.
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Question The scientific method is based on the
assumption that knowledge is best gained by:
a. direct observationb. systematic observationc. the support of good evidenced. the possibility for public debatee. all of these choices
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Answer: e The scientific method is based on the
assumption that knowledge is best gained by: direct observation, systematic observation, the support of good evidence and the possibility for public debate.
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Types of Empirical Studies Descriptive studies attempt to describe social
reality or provide facts about some group, practice, or event. Designed to find out what is happening to
whom, where, and when. Explanatory studies attempt to explain cause
and effect relationships and to provide information on why certain events do or do not occur.
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Theory and Research Cycle A theory is a set of logically interrelated
statements that attempts to describe, explain, and (occasionally) predict social events.
Research is the process of systematically collecting information for the purpose of testing an existing theory or generating a new one.
The theory and research cycle consists of deductive and inductive approaches.
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Deductive Approach Researcher begins with a theory and uses
research to test the theory:1. Theories generate hypotheses.2. Hypotheses lead to observations.3. Observations lead to the formation of
generalizations.4. Generalizations are used to support the
theory, to suggest modifications to it, or to refute it.
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Inductive ApproachResearcher collects information or data (facts or evidence) and then generates theories from the analysis of that data. 1.Specific observations suggest generalizations.2.Generalizations produce a tentative theory.3.The theory is tested through the formation of hypotheses.4.Hypotheses may provide suggestions for additional observations.
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Question The _____ approach begins with a
theory and uses research to test the theory.
a. inductive
b. deductive
c. quantitative
d. qualitative
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Answer: b The deductive approach begins with a
theory and uses research to test the theory.
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Theory and Research Cycle
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Understanding Statistical Data Presentations Sociologists use statistical tables to present a
lot of information in a relatively small space. To understand a table, follow these steps:
1. Read the title. 2. Check the source and explanatory notes.3. Read the headings for each column and
row.4. Examine and compare the data. 5. Draw conclusions.
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U.S. Suicides, Sex And Method
Males Females
Method 1970 2000 1970 2000
Total 16,629 23,618 6,851 5,732
Firearms 9,704 14,454 2,068 2,132
Poisoning 3,299 2,792 3,285 2,067
Hanging/strangulation
2,422 4,733 831 955
Other 1,204 1,639 667 578
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Quantitative and Qualitative Research Quantitative research focuses on data that
can be measured numerically (comparing rates of suicide, for example).
Qualitative research focuses on interpretive description rather than statistics to analyze underlying meanings and patterns of social relationships.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WDo7jwikqqI
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Conventional Research Model
1. Select and define the research problem.
2. Review previous research.
3. Formulate the hypothesis.
4. Develop the research design.
5. Collect and analyze the data.
6. Draw conclusions and report the findings.
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Question With _____research, interpretive description
(words) rather than statistics (numbers) is used to analyze underlying meanings and patterns of social relationships.
a. inductiveb. deductivec. quantitatived. qualitative
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Answer: d With qualitative research, interpretive
description (words) rather than statistics (numbers) is used to analyze underlying meanings and patterns of social relationships.
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Definitions Hypothesis - a statement of the relationship
between two or more concepts. The independent variable is presumed to
cause or determine a dependent variable. The dependent variable is assumed to depend
on or be caused by the independent variable(s).
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Definitions In random sampling, every member of
an entire populationbeing studied has the same chance of being selected.
In probability sampling, participants are deliberately chosen because they have specific characteristics, possibly including such factors as age, sex, race/ethnicity, and educational attainment.
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Definitions Validity is the extent to which a study or
research instrument accurately measures what it is supposed to measure.
Reliability is the extent to which a study or research instrument yields consistent results when applied to different individuals at one time or to the same individuals over time.
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Hypothesized Relationships Between Variables Causal Relationship
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Hypothesized Relationships Between Variables Inverse Causal Relationship
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Hypothesized Relationships Between Variables Multiple-cause Explanation\
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Question In a medical study, lung cancer could be
the _____ variable, while smoking could be the ______ variable.
a. dependant, independent
b. independent, dependant
c. valid, reliable
d. reliable, valid
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Answer: a In a medical study, lung cancer could be
the dependant variable, while smoking could be the independent variable.
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Question In the book Suicide, Emile Durkheim used the
_____ as the independent variable to determine its influence on the dependent variable, the rate of suicide.
a. degree of social integration in societyb. proportion of mental illness in societyc. degree of the spread of hysteria in the
late 19th centuryd. degree of religious participation
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Answer: a In the book Suicide, Emile Durkheim used the
degree of social integration in society as the independent variable to determine its influence on the dependent variable, the rate of suicide.
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Qualitative Research Method
1. Researcher begins with a general approach rather than a highly detailed plan.
2. Researcher has to decide when the literature review and theory application should take place.
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Qualitative Research Method3. The study presents a detailed view of
the topic.4. Access to people or other resources that
can provide necessary data is crucial.5. Appropriate research method(s) are
important for acquiring useful qualitative data.
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Research Methods: Survey Research
Describes a population without interviewing each individual.
Standardized questions force respondents into categories.
Relies on self-reported information, and some people may not be truthful.
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Research Methods: Analysis of Existing Data Materials studied may include:
books, diaries, poems, and graffiti movies, television shows,
advertisements, greeting cards music, art, and even garbage
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Research Methods: Field Research Study of social life in its natural setting. Observing and interviewing people where
they live, work, and play. Generates observations that are best
described verbally rather than numerically.
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Approaches to Field Research
Participant observation Collecting observations while part of the
activities of the group being studied. Action Research
Ethnography Detailed study of the life and activities
of a group of people over a period of years.
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Approaches to Field Research Case Studies - An in-depth, multifaceted
investigation of a single event, person, or social grouping. A collective case study involves multiple
cases. An unstructured interview is an extended,
open-ended interaction between an interviewer and an interviewee.
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Grounded Theory Researchers who use grounded theory
collect and analyze data simultaneously. For example, after in-depth interviews
with 106 suicide attempters, researchers in one study concluded that half of the individuals who attempted suicide wanted both to live and to die at the time of their attempt.
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Research Methods: Experiments Study the impact of certain variables on
subjects’ attitudes or behavior. Designed to create “real-life” situations. Used to demonstrate a cause-and-effect
relationship between variables.
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Question A university asks you to participate in an
interview asking questions about your cheating attitudes, experiences, and behaviors. The researchers assure complete confidentiality. How likely are you to agree to the interview?
a. Very likelyb. Somewhat likelyc. Unsured. Somewhat unlikelye. Very unlikely
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Demonstrating Cause-and-Effect RelationshipsThree conditions must be fulfilled:
1. You must show that a correlation exists between the two variables.
2. You must ensure that the independent variable preceded the dependent variable.
3. You must make sure that any change in the dependent variable was not due to an extraneous variable—one outside the stated hypothesis.
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Correlation Versus Causation A study might find that exposure to a suicide
hot line is associated (correlated) with a change in attitude toward suicide.
But if some of the students who were exposed to the hot line also received psychiatric counseling, the counseling may be the “hidden” cause of the observed change in attitude.
In general, correlations alone do not prove causation.
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Correlation Versus Causation
Observed Correlation
Possible Causal Explanation
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Strengths and Weaknesses of Research Methods
Research Method
Strengths Weaknesses
Experiments (Laboratory,
Field, Natural)
Control over research.
Ability to isolate experimental
factors.Little time and
money required.Replication possible,
except for natural experiments.
Artificial Reliance on volunteers or
captive audiences.Ethical questions of
deception.
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Strengths and Weaknesses of Research Methods
Research Method
Strengths Weaknesses
Survey Research
(Questionnaire, Interview, Telephone
Survey)
Useful in describing features of a large population without
interviewing everyone
Relatively large samples possible
Multivariate analysis possible
Potentially forced answers
Respondent untruthfulness onemotional issues Data that are not
always “hard facts” presented as such
in statistical analyses
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Strengths and Weaknesses of Research Methods
Research Method
Strengths Weaknesses
Secondary Analysis of
Existing Data (Existing Statistics, Content Analysis)
Data readily available.
inexpensive to collect.
Longitudinal and comparative studies
possible.Replication possible.
Difficult to determine accuracy of data.
Failure of data gathered by others to meet goals of current
research.Questions of privacy when using diaries,
other personal documents.
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Strengths and Weaknesses of Research Methods
Research Method
Strengths Weaknesses
Field Research
(Participant Observation, Case Study, Ethnography, Unstructured
Interview)
Gain insider’s view.Useful for studying behaviors in natural
settings.Longitudinal studies
possible.Documentation of social problems of groups possible.
Forum for previously excluded groups.
Problems generalizing results.
Nonprecise data measurements.Inability to test
theories.Difficult to make
comparisons.Not representative.
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Triangulation Triangulation is the term used to describe the
approach of combining multiple methods in a given study.
Triangulation refers not only to research methods but also to multiple data sources, investigators, and theoretical perspectives in a study.
Multiple data sources include persons, situations, contexts, and time.
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ASA Code of Ethics
1. Disclose research findings in full and include all possible interpretations of the data.
2. Safeguard the participants’ right to privacy and dignity while protecting them from harm.
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ASA Code of Ethics
3. Protect confidential information provided by participants.
4. Acknowledge research collaboration and disclose all financial support.
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Quick Quiz
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1. The unmasking of fallacies in the everyday and official interpretations of society is called:
a. defrauding
b. defeating
c. debunking
d. devaluing
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Answer: c The unmasking of fallacies in the
everyday and official interpretations of society is called: debunking.
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2. The approach where the researcher collects information or data and then generates theories from analysis of the data is called:
a. inductive
b. deductive
c. quantitative
d. qualitative
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Answer: a The approach where the researcher
collects information or data and then generates theories from analysis of the data is called inductive.
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3. With _____ research, the goal is scientific objectivity, and the focus is on data that can be measured numerically.
a. inductive
b. deductive
c. quantitative
d. qualitative
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Answer: c With quantitative research, the goal is
scientific objectivity, and the focus is on data that can be measured numerically.
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4. _____ exists when two variable are associated more frequently than could be expected by chance.
a. Multiple causation
b. Regression relation
c. Correlation
d. Spurious relation
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Answer: c Correlation exists when two variable
are associated more frequently than could be expected by chance.
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5. Reliability is the extent to which a study or research instrument:
a. measures the phenomenon it is intended to measure.
b. yields consistent results.
c. approximates a true experiment.
d. relies on other variables to preserve validity.
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Answer: b Reliability is the extent to which a study
or research instrument yields consistent results.
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6. Validity is the extent to which a study or research instrument:
a. accurately measures what it is supposed to measure.
b. yields consistent results.
c. approximates a true experiment.
d. relies on other variables to preserve validity.
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Answer: a Validity is the extent to which a study or
research instrument accurately measures what it is supposed to measure.