chapter 24 …. a little anatomy and physiology. levels of organization in the vertebrate body
TRANSCRIPT
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Chapter 24
…. a little anatomy and physiology
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Levels of organization in the vertebrate body
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Organ and organ systems
1. Cells
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Organ and organ systems
2. Tissues - groups of cells with similar structure and function
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Organ
3. Organs - structures composed of several different tissues that form structural/functional unit.
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4. Organ systems - group of organs that carry out major activities of the body.
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Tissues
*epithelial*connective*muscle*nerve
Four Types
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Epithelial TissueEpithelium covers every major surface
of the vertebrate body (inside and out)
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Types of epithelial tissues– simple - one layer thick
• squamous• cuboidal • columnar
– stratified - several cell layers thick
Epithelial Tissue
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Cuboidalepithelium
Simplecolumnarepithelium
Pseudostratifiedciliatedcolumnarepithelium
Stratifiedsquamousepithelium
Simplesquamousepithelium
Epithelial Tissue
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Simple Epithelium
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Cuboidalepithelium
Simplecolumnarepithelium
Pseudostratifiedciliatedcolumnarepithelium
Stratifiedsquamousepithelium
Simplesquamousepithelium
Epithelial Tissue
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Stratified Epithelium
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Collagenous fiber
Looseconnectivetissue
Elastic fiber12
0 µ
m Cartilage
Chondrocytes
10
0 µ
m
Chondroitinsulfate
Adiposetissue
Fat droplets
15
0 µ
m
White blood cells
55
µm
Plasma Red bloodcells
Blood
Nuclei
Fibrousconnectivetissue
30
µm
Osteon
Bone
Central canal
70
0 µ
m
Connective Tissue
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Connective Tissue
Mainly binds and supports other tissues
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Cells scattered embedded in an extracellular matrix
Connective Tissue
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Matrix consists of fibers in a liquid, jellylike, or solid foundation
Connective Tissue
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– Collagenous fibers: strength and flexibility– Elastic fibers: stretch and snap back to their
original length– Reticular fibers: join connective tissue to adjacent
tissues
Connective Tissue3 connective tissue fibers, all protein:
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• Connective tissue contains cells, including– Fibroblasts that secrete the protein of extracellular
fibers– Macrophages that are involved in the immune
system
Connective Tissue
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Loose connective tissue: binds epithelia to underlying tissues and holds organs in place
Cartilage: strong and flexible support material
Fibrous connective tissue: in tendons, which attach muscles to bones, and ligaments, which connect bones at joints
Connective Tissue in Vertebrates
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Adipose tissue: stores fat for insulation and fuel
Blood: is composed of blood cells and cell fragments in blood plasma
Bone: is mineralized and forms the skeleton
Connective Tissue in Vertebrates
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Collagenous fiber
Looseconnectivetissue
Elastic fiber12
0 µ
m
Cartilage
Chondrocytes
10
0 µ
m
Chondroitinsulfate
Adiposetissue
Fat droplets
15
0 µ
m
White blood cells
55
µm
Plasma Red bloodcells
Blood
Nuclei
Fibrousconnectivetissue
30
µm
Osteon
Bone
Central canal
70
0 µ
m
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Collagenous fiber
120
µm
Elastic fiber
Nuclei
30 µ
m
Fat droplets
150
µm
Fibrous connective tissue
Loose connective tissue
Adipose tissue
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long cells called muscle fibers, which contract in response to nerve signals
Muscle Tissue
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3 Types of Vertebrate Muscle
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50 µmSkeletalmuscle
Multiplenuclei
Muscle fiber
Sarcomere
100 µm
Smoothmuscle
Cardiac muscle
Nucleus
Musclefibers
25 µm
Nucleus Intercalateddisk
Muscle Tissue
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Multiplenuclei
Muscle fiber
Sarcomere
100 µm
Skeletal muscle, or striated muscle, is responsible for voluntary movement
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Nucleus
Musclefibers
25 µm
Smooth muscle is responsible for involuntary body activities
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Nucleus Intercalateddisk 50 µm
Cardiac muscle is responsible for contraction of the heart
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senses stimuli and transmits signals throughout the animal
Nervous Tissue
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Nervous Tissue
Neurons (nerve cells) transmit nerve impulses
Glial cells (glia) nourish, insulate, and replenish neurons
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Glial cells
15 µm
Dendrites
Cell body
Axon
Neuron
Axons
Blood vessel
40 µm
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Dendrites
Cell body
Axon
40 µm
Neuron
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Glial cells
Axons
Blood vessel
15 µm
Glial cells
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Muscle contraction
p. 1105
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Bundle ofmuscle fibers
Muscle
Single muscle fiber(cell)
Nuclei
Z lines
Plasma membrane
Myofibril
Sarcomere
Vertebrate skeletal muscle structure
Muscle
Muscle fibers (cell)
Myofibril
Thin filaments
Thick filaments
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Myofilaments
TEM
Thickfilaments(myosin)
M line
Z line Z line
Thinfilaments(actin)
Sarcomere
0.5 µm
*Thin filaments consist of two strands of actin and one strand of regulatory protein*Thick filaments are myosin molecules
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Myosin (thick)
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Actin (thin)
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Bundle ofmuscle fibers
Muscle
Single muscle fiber(cell)
Nuclei
Z lines
Plasma membrane
Myofibril
Sarcomere
Sarcomere
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TEM
Thickfilaments(myosin)
M line
Z line Z line
Thinfilaments(actin)
Sarcomere
0.5 µm
Sarcomere
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Filaments slide past each other longitudinally, producing more overlap between thin and thick filaments
• A muscle contracts and shortens because its myofibrils contract and shorten.
The Sliding-Filament Model of Muscle Contraction
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Z
Relaxedmuscle
M Z
Fully contractedmuscle
Contractingmuscle
Sarcomere0.5 µm
ContractedSarcomere
Sliding filament mechanism of contraction
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Interaction of thick and thin filaments
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Thinfilaments
ATP Myosin head (low-energy configuration
Thick filament
Thin filament
Thickfilament
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Thinfilaments
ATP Myosin head (low-energy configuration
Thick filament
Thin filament
Thickfilament
Actin
Myosin head (high-energy configuration
Myosin binding sites
ADP
P i
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Thinfilaments
ATP Myosin head (low-energy configuration
Thick filament
Thin filament
Thickfilament
Actin
Myosin head (high-energy configuration
Myosin binding sites
ADP
P i
Cross-bridgeADP
P i
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Thinfilaments
ATP Myosin head (low-energy configuration
Thick filament
Thin filament
Thickfilament
Actin
Myosin head (high-energy configuration
Myosin binding sites
ADP
P i
Cross-bridgeADP
P i
Myosin head (low-energy configuration
Thin filament movestoward center of sarcomere.
ATP
ADP P i+
Cross bridge cycle
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• A skeletal muscle fiber contracts only when stimulated by a motor neuron
• When a muscle is at rest, myosin-binding sites on the thin filament are blocked by the regulatory protein tropomyosin
The Role of Calcium and Regulatory Proteins
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• For a muscle fiber to contract, myosin-binding sites must be uncovered
• This occurs when calcium ions (Ca2+) bind to a set of regulatory proteins, the troponin complex
• Muscle fiber contracts when the concentration of Ca2+
is high; muscle fiber contraction stops when the concentration of Ca2+ is low
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Myosin-binding site
Tropomyosin
(a) Myosin-binding sites blocked
(b) Myosin-binding sites exposed
Ca2+
Ca2+-binding sites
Troponin complexActinTropomyosin: that blocks myosin from binding to thin filament
Troponin complex: regulatory proteins which binds to Ca2+
Control of muscle contraction
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SarcomereCa2+ released from SR
Synapticterminal
T tubule
Motorneuron axon
Plasma membraneof muscle fiber
Sarcoplasmicreticulum (SR)
Myofibril
Mitochondrion
Sarcoplasmic reticulum
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Ca2+
ATPasepump
Synaptic terminalof motor neuron
Synaptic cleft T Tubule Plasma membrane
Ca2+
Ca2+
CYTOSOL
SR
ATP
ADPP i
ACh
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Control of Muscle Contraction• When Ca++ concentration of the muscle cell cytoplasm is
low, tropomyosin inhibits cross-bridge formation and the muscle is relaxed.
• Action potentials travel to the interior of the muscle fiber along transverse (T) tubules
• The action potential along T tubules causes the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) to release Ca2+
• The Ca2+ binds to the troponin complex on the thin filaments
• This binding exposes myosin-binding sites and allows the cross-bridge cycle to proceed
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Bundle ofmuscle fibers
TEM
Muscle
Thickfilaments(myosin)
M line
Single muscle fiber(cell)
Nuclei
Z lines
Plasma membrane
Myofibril
Sarcomere
Z line Z line
Thinfilaments(actin)
Sarcomere
0.5 µm