chapter 4 communication2. the client stub builds a message and calls the local operating system. 3....

Tanenbaum & Van Steen, Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, 2e, (c) 2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-239227-5

DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS

Principles and Paradigms Second Edition

ANDREW S. TANENBAUM

MAARTEN VAN STEEN

Chapter 4

Communication


Layered Protocols (1)

Figure 4-1. Layers, interfaces, and protocols in the OSI model.


Layered Protocols (2)

Figure 4-2. A typical message as it appears on the network.


Middleware Protocols

Figure 4-3. An adapted reference model

for networked communication.


Types of Communication

Figure 4-4. Viewing middleware as an intermediate (distributed)

service in application-level communication.

1) Client/Server computing is generally based on a model of

transient synchronous communication: • Client and server have to be active at time of communication.

• Client issues request and blocks until it receives reply.

• Server essentially waits only for incoming requests, and subsequently

processes them

• Drawbacks of synchronous communication:

• Client cannot do any other work while waiting for reply.

• Failures have to be handled immediately: the client is waiting.

• The model may simply not be appropriate (mail, news)

2) Message-oriented middleware: Aims at high-level persistent

asynchronous communication: Processes send each other

messages, which are queued • Sender need not wait for immediate reply, but can do other things Middleware

often ensures fault tolerance

Types of Communication



Conventional Procedure Call

Figure 4-5. (a) Parameter passing in a local procedure call: the

stack before the call to read. (b) The stack while the called

procedure is active.


Basic RPC Operation

Figure 4-6. Principle of RPC between a client and server program.


RPC Operation

Figure 4-7. The steps involved in a doing a

remote computation through RPC.


Remote Procedure Calls (1)

A remote procedure call occurs in the following

steps:

1. The client procedure calls the client stub.

2. The client stub builds a message and calls the local

operating system.

3. The client’s OS sends the message to the remote OS.

4. The remote OS gives the message to the server stub.

5. The server stub unpacks the parameters and calls the

server.

Continued …


Remote Procedure Calls (2)

A remote procedure call occurs in the following

steps (continued):

6. The server does the work and returns the result to the

stub.

7. The server stub packs it in a message and calls its local

OS.

8. The server’s OS sends the message to the client’s OS.

9. The client’s OS gives the message to the client stub.

10. The stub unpacks the result and returns to the client.


Passing Value Parameters (2)

Figure 4-8. (a) The original message on the Pentium.

Passing by Reference

• Like passing a pointer or an array or by reference.

• The pointer or address has meaning within the same

address space.

• Call by reference is replaced by a copy/restore.

• Difference between input and output parameters.

• A remote reference mechanism enhances access

transparency

• Remote reference offers unified access to remote data

• Remote references can be passed as parameter in RPCs

• Note: stubs can sometimes be used as such references



Parameter Specification

and Stub Generation

Figure 4-9. (a) A procedure. (b) The corresponding message.


Asynchronous RPC (1)

Figure 4-10. (a) The interaction between client and

server in a traditional RPC.



Figure 4-10. (b) The interaction using asynchronous RPC.



Figure 4-11. A client and server interacting through

two asynchronous RPCs.


Writing a Client

and a Server (1)

Figure 4-12. The steps in writing a client and

a server in DCE RPC.


Writing a Client and a Server (2)

Three files output by the IDL compiler:

• A header file (e.g., interface.h, in C

terms).

• The client stub.

• The server stub.


Binding a Client to a Server (1)

• Registration of a server makes it possible for

a client to locate the server and bind to it.

• Server location is done in two steps:

1. Locate the server’s machine.

2. Locate the server on that machine.


Binding a Client to a Server (2)

Figure 4-13. Client-to-server binding in DCE.


Berkeley Sockets

Figure 4-14. The socket primitives for TCP/IP.


The Message-Passing Interface (1)

Figure 4-15. Connection-oriented communication

pattern using sockets.

Making sockets easier to work with • Sockets are rather low level and programming mistakes are

easily made. However, the way that they are used is often the

same (such as in a client-server setting).

• ZeroMQ Provides a higher level of expression by pairing

sockets: one for sending messages at process P and a

corresponding one at process Q for receiving messages.

• All communication is asynchronous.

• Three patterns

1. Request-reply

2. Publish-subscribe

3. Pipeline



The Message-Passing Interface (2)

Figure 4-16. Some of the most intuitive

message-passing primitives of MPI.


Message-Queuing Model (1)

Figure 4-17. Four combinations for loosely-coupled

communications using queues.


Message-Queuing Model (2)

Figure 4-18. Basic interface to a queue in a

message-queuing system.


General Architecture of a Message-

Queuing System (1)

Figure 4-19. The relationship between queue-level addressing

and network-level addressing.


General Architecture of a Message-

Queuing System (2)

Figure 4-20. The

general organization of

a message-queuing

system with routers.


Message Brokers

Figure 4-21. The general organization of a message broker

in a message-queuing system.

IBM’s WebSphere MQ



IBM’s WebSphere MQ

Figure 4-22. General organization of IBM’s message-queuing

system.


Channels

Figure 4-23. Some attributes associated with

message channel agents.

Figure 4-24. The general organization of an MQ queuing network using routing tables and aliases.

• By using logical names, in combination with name resolution to local

queues, it is possible to put a message in a remote queue


Message Transfer (1)


Message Transfer (2)

Figure 4-25. Primitives available in the

message-queuing interface.

Application-level multicasting

• To do multicast: two forms are either building an overlay

network or using epidemic behavior.

• To overcome multicast routing usually an overlay network is

formulated.

• There are two main types of overlay multicast networks:

• 1- tree based where there will be a single path between every two

nodes in the multicast group

• 2- mesh based where there will be multiple paths between every two

nodes in the group. More robust, requiring a form of routing



Overlay Construction

• Link stress: How often does an ALM message cross the same physical

link? Example: message from A to D needs to cross hRa;Rbi twice.

• Stretch: Ratio in delay between ALM-level path and network-level path.

Example: messages B to C follow path of length 73 at ALM, but 47 at

network level ) stretch = 73/47.

Flooding • Assume that an overlay network is built per multicast group. Then send a

message m to the set of destination is converted to flooding.

• Flooding in tree is optimal O(M)= N-1

• For fully connected network which has O(N2) = N*(N-1)/2 links.

• If each link exists with probability (none-structured overlay network) Pedge

number of links = Pedge * N * (N-1)/2.


Epidemic (Gossiping)



Anti-entropy

• Anti-entropy propagation model

– Node P picks another node Q at random

– Subsequently exchanges updates with Q

• Approaches to exchanging updates

– P only pushes its own updates to Q

– P only pulls in new updates from Q

– P and Q send updates to each other (push-pull)

Rumor Spreading • A server S having an update to report, contacts other servers. If a server

is contacted to which the update has already propagated, S stops

contacting other servers with probability pstop. It become removed node.

• Fast propagation. But, no guarantee that the message will be delivered to

all nodes.

• Assume s is the fraction of nodes which will not receive updates.


Deleting values

• Removal has to be registered as a special update by inserting

a death certificate.

• When to remove a death certificate (it is not allowed to stay

for ever)

• Run a global algorithm to detect whether the removal is known everywhere,

and then collect the death certificates (looks like garbage collection)

• Assume death certificates propagate in finite time, and associate a maximum

lifetime for a certificate (can be done at risk of not reaching all servers)

• It is necessary that a removal actually reaches all servers.


chapter 4 communication2. the client stub builds a message and calls the local operating system. 3....

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