Chapter 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 Chapter 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 Exam ReviewExam Review

Monday, May 25, 2015Monday, May 25, 2015

HydrosphereHydrosphere All of the water on planet EarthAll of the water on planet Earth ““71% of the earth is covered by 71% of the earth is covered by

water and only 29% is terra firma” water and only 29% is terra firma” (University of Florida).(University of Florida).

““Blue Planet” – water is not found Blue Planet” – water is not found on any other planets in our solar on any other planets in our solar system.system.

““It is because the Earth has just It is because the Earth has just the right mass, the right chemical the right mass, the right chemical composition, the right atmosphere, composition, the right atmosphere, and is the right distance from the and is the right distance from the Sun (the "Goldilocks" principle) Sun (the "Goldilocks" principle) that permits water to exist mainly that permits water to exist mainly as a liquid” (U of F).as a liquid” (U of F).

http://ess.geology.ufl.edu/ess/Introduction/Hydrosphere.html

The great variety of The great variety of surface temperatures surface temperatures and pressures allows and pressures allows water to exist in all water to exist in all three states.three states.– Solid = IceSolid = Ice– Liquid = WaterLiquid = Water– Gas = Water VapourGas = Water Vapour

The oceans contain The oceans contain most of the water most of the water (approx. 1.35 million (approx. 1.35 million cubic kilometres)cubic kilometres)

Environment Canada: Satellite Images of North America and the Pacifichttp://weatheroffice.ec.gc.ca/data/satellite/goes_gwdisk11_visible_100.jpg

http://my.opera.com/Mathilda/albums/showpic.dml?album=42812&picture=516117

The high heat capacity of water and the large volumes of water The high heat capacity of water and the large volumes of water “buffers the Earth surface from large temperature changes such “buffers the Earth surface from large temperature changes such as those observed on the moon” (U of F Hydrosphere). as those observed on the moon” (U of F Hydrosphere).

““Water is the universal solvent and the basis of all life on our Water is the universal solvent and the basis of all life on our Planet” (U of F Hydrosphere). Planet” (U of F Hydrosphere).

““Benjamin Franklin to comment[ed] "When the well's dry, we Benjamin Franklin to comment[ed] "When the well's dry, we know the worth of water.“” (U of F Hydrosphere).know the worth of water.“” (U of F Hydrosphere).

Source: University of Florida Hydrosphere Source: University of Florida Hydrosphere

Hydrosphere Cont’dHydrosphere Cont’d Water in the ocean:Water in the ocean:

– Equator = warm water (like a warm bath)Equator = warm water (like a warm bath)– Near Poles = cold (can freeze into icebergs)Near Poles = cold (can freeze into icebergs)

ETE – Hydrosphere ETE – Hydrosphere

http://www.bigelow.org/shipmates/temperature.html

AtmosphereAtmosphere

Contains Nitrogen, Oxygen, CarbonContains Nitrogen, Oxygen, Carbon

dioxide and water vapourdioxide and water vapour Extend 500 km above the surface of the EarthExtend 500 km above the surface of the Earth Climate is determined by the interactions Climate is determined by the interactions

occurring hereoccurring here Ozone protects from UV raysOzone protects from UV rays

Source: University of Florida AtmosphereSource: University of Florida Atmosphere

Image from: http://liftoff.msfc.nasa.gov/academy/space/atmosphere.html

““Since the Industrial Revolution, man has been Since the Industrial Revolution, man has been altering the composition of the atmosphere by the altering the composition of the atmosphere by the burning of fossil fuels” (U of F Atmosphere).burning of fossil fuels” (U of F Atmosphere).

Greenhouse Gases include:Greenhouse Gases include:(concerns include the rising levels of greenhouse gases)(concerns include the rising levels of greenhouse gases)– carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and

chloroflurocarbons chloroflurocarbons – ““these "greenhouse" gases trap heat energy emitted these "greenhouse" gases trap heat energy emitted

from the earth surface and increase global temperatures from the earth surface and increase global temperatures (global warming)” (U of F Atmosphere).(global warming)” (U of F Atmosphere).

– ““In addition, chloroflurocarbons are effective at depleting In addition, chloroflurocarbons are effective at depleting the Earth's ozone shield that protects the earth surface the Earth's ozone shield that protects the earth surface from the harmful effects of ultraviolet radiation” (U of F from the harmful effects of ultraviolet radiation” (U of F Atmosphere). Atmosphere).

Source: University of Florida AtmosphereSource: University of Florida Atmosphere

Climate Change Climate Change and Greenhouse and Greenhouse Gases:Gases:

Atmosphere Review DiagramAtmosphere Review Diagram

Earthguide Diagrams:Earthguide Diagrams:– Atmosphere AnimatedAtmosphere Animated

http://earthguide.ucsd.edu/earthguide/diagrams/atmosphere/index.html

Lithosphere (Geosphere)Lithosphere (Geosphere) Greek for rocky sphereGreek for rocky sphere Solid outermost shell of the Solid outermost shell of the

planet including the crust and planet including the crust and upper layers of the mantle.upper layers of the mantle.

Wikipedia LithosphereWikipedia Lithosphere

Solid earthSolid earth– Oceanic crustOceanic crust– Continental crustContinental crust– Interior of the earthInterior of the earth

““Ninety-four percent of the earth Ninety-four percent of the earth is composed of the elements is composed of the elements oxygen, iron, silica, and oxygen, iron, silica, and magnesium” (U of F magnesium” (U of F Geosphere).Geosphere).

Is always changing (Plate Is always changing (Plate Tectonics/ Continental Drift)Tectonics/ Continental Drift)

Source: University of Source: University of Florida GeosphereFlorida Geosphere

http://ess.geology.ufl.edu/ess/Introduction/Geosphere.html

Plates of the Earth:

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/Tectonic_plates.png

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Tectonic_plates.png

AsthenosphereAsthenosphere

The fluid layer under the lithosphere.The fluid layer under the lithosphere. Plastic like layer (fluid rock movement)Plastic like layer (fluid rock movement) 100-200 km deep into the Earth (or up to 100-200 km deep into the Earth (or up to

400 km) 400 km) The ridged lithosphere floats on this layer, The ridged lithosphere floats on this layer,

which conducts heat up to the plates.which conducts heat up to the plates. Fault lines and breaks occur in the Fault lines and breaks occur in the

lithosphere because it is brittle.lithosphere because it is brittle. Source: Wikipedia AsthenosphereSource: Wikipedia Asthenosphere

CryosphereCryosphere

All of the snow and ice on earth All of the snow and ice on earth Majority of ice is found at the polesMajority of ice is found at the poles

– Icebergs Icebergs – GlaciersGlaciers– Giant icecaps in Antarctica and GreenlandGiant icecaps in Antarctica and Greenland

12 000 years ago = colder climate = huge ice sheets 12 000 years ago = colder climate = huge ice sheets covered the surface of the earthcovered the surface of the earth– Most of North America and Europe were coveredMost of North America and Europe were covered

During the age of the dinosaurs the climate was warm and During the age of the dinosaurs the climate was warm and much of the ice had melted and disappeared.much of the ice had melted and disappeared.

Earth Floor CryosphereEarth Floor Cryosphere

Antarctic Ice:Antarctic Ice:

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Antarctica_satellite_orthographic.jpg

BiosphereBiosphere

The “life zone” of earth.The “life zone” of earth. Includes all living organisms (all organic matter Includes all living organisms (all organic matter

that has not decomposed.)that has not decomposed.) Food chains govern the transfer of energy Food chains govern the transfer of energy

– Producers Producers Consumers Consumers Secondary Consumers Secondary Consumers Tertiary ConsumersTertiary Consumers

U Of F – BiosphereU Of F – Biosphere

By looking at the surface of the earth you can By looking at the surface of the earth you can readily distinguish the different areasreadily distinguish the different areas– i.e. deserts, forestsi.e. deserts, forests– These areas are called Biomes.These areas are called Biomes.

Earth Floor BiosphereEarth Floor Biosphere

Surface of the Earth from Space - Notice the different colors, which indicated different biomes.

Can you identify the desert? Forests?

http://www.novaspace.com/POSTERS/PHOTO/FOTE.jpeg

1717

The Great Ocean Conveyor:The Great Ocean Conveyor:Thermohaline CirculationThermohaline Circulation

1818

Seawater DensitySeawater Density

The density of seawater depends primarily The density of seawater depends primarily on two factorson two factors– TemperatureTemperature

Cold water is denser than warm waterCold water is denser than warm water

– Salt content (salinity)Salt content (salinity) The more salt that is dissolved in seawater, the The more salt that is dissolved in seawater, the

denser it isdenser it is

1919

Temperature VariationTemperature Variation

The temperature of the world's ocean is The temperature of the world's ocean is variable over the surface of the oceanvariable over the surface of the ocean– Temperature ranges from less than 0°C (32°F) Temperature ranges from less than 0°C (32°F)

near the poles to nearly 30°C (84°F) in the near the poles to nearly 30°C (84°F) in the tropicstropics

Seawater is heated from the surface Seawater is heated from the surface downward by sunlightdownward by sunlight– At depth, most of the ocean is coldAt depth, most of the ocean is cold– 75% of the water in the ocean falls within the 75% of the water in the ocean falls within the

temperature range of −1 to +6°C (30 to 43°F)temperature range of −1 to +6°C (30 to 43°F)

2020

Salinity VariationSalinity Variation

Red Sea = 40‰Red Sea = 40‰ Mediterranean Sea = 38‰Mediterranean Sea = 38‰ Average Seawater = 34.7‰Average Seawater = 34.7‰ Black Sea = 18‰Black Sea = 18‰ Baltic Sea = 8‰Baltic Sea = 8‰

2121

Evolution of a Salty OceanEvolution of a Salty Ocean

The salinity of the ocean has evolved over timeThe salinity of the ocean has evolved over time Early in earth’s history, the oceans were fresh waterEarly in earth’s history, the oceans were fresh water As the result of water circulation within the hydrolgic As the result of water circulation within the hydrolgic

cycle, rainwater falling on land dissolves minute cycle, rainwater falling on land dissolves minute amounts of salt, and carries it slowly to the oceanamounts of salt, and carries it slowly to the ocean

When ocean water evaporates, it leaves salt behind, When ocean water evaporates, it leaves salt behind, gradually increasing the salinity of the oceangradually increasing the salinity of the ocean

Until the solubility limit of some substance dissolved in Until the solubility limit of some substance dissolved in the ocean is reached, this process continues to operatethe ocean is reached, this process continues to operate

2222

Brackish WaterBrackish Water

As water enters the sea, it mixes with salt As water enters the sea, it mixes with salt water from the oceanwater from the ocean

Much of this mixing occurs in estuaries, Much of this mixing occurs in estuaries, such as Chesapeake and San Francisco such as Chesapeake and San Francisco BaysBays

Water in estuaries is brackish, meaning it Water in estuaries is brackish, meaning it has a salinity between fresh water and open has a salinity between fresh water and open ocean seawaterocean seawater

2323

Causes of Salinity VariationsCauses of Salinity Variations

We have seen that salinity is affected by evaporation, We have seen that salinity is affected by evaporation, and by mixing of fresh water with seawaterand by mixing of fresh water with seawater

It is also affected by the formation of iceIt is also affected by the formation of ice As ice forms in salt water, there is no room in the As ice forms in salt water, there is no room in the

crystal for saltcrystal for salt Salt is squeezed out of the ice structure and the Salt is squeezed out of the ice structure and the

resulting ice is less salty than when it began to freezeresulting ice is less salty than when it began to freeze In the polar regions, where seawater freezes to form In the polar regions, where seawater freezes to form

sea ice, the ice is not as salty as the seawater from sea ice, the ice is not as salty as the seawater from which it formedwhich it formed

2424

Layering in WaterLayering in Water

Layers of differing densities can develop in Layers of differing densities can develop in waterwater

If the density difference is primarily due to If the density difference is primarily due to temperature, the boundary between layers temperature, the boundary between layers is known as a is known as a thermoclinethermocline

If the density difference is primarily due to If the density difference is primarily due to salinity, the boundary between layers is salinity, the boundary between layers is known as a known as a haloclinehalocline

2525

Circulation in the OceanCirculation in the Ocean

Currents develop in the ocean for three Currents develop in the ocean for three reason:reason:– Tidal forces – due to gravitational interactions Tidal forces – due to gravitational interactions

between earth, the moon, the sun, and other between earth, the moon, the sun, and other planetary bodies in the solar systemplanetary bodies in the solar system

– Wind – due to pressure differences within the Wind – due to pressure differences within the atmosphereatmosphere

– Density differences – due to seawater density Density differences – due to seawater density differences caused by differences in differences caused by differences in temperature, salinity, or a combination of bothtemperature, salinity, or a combination of both

2626

Thermohaline CirculationThermohaline Circulation

Density driven currents form many of the Density driven currents form many of the main circulation patterns in the oceanmain circulation patterns in the ocean

The following slides use images and text The following slides use images and text from Climatic Research Unit, School of from Climatic Research Unit, School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia, UK  Anglia, UK 

2727

Gulf StreamGulf Stream The The Gulf Stream Gulf Stream

(and its extension, the (and its extension, the North Atlantic DriftNorth Atlantic Drift) ) bring warm, salty bring warm, salty water to the NE water to the NE Atlantic, warming Atlantic, warming western Europewestern Europe

• One of the water sources for the waters of the Gulf Stream is water leaving the Mediterranean Sea through the Strait of Gibraltar at 38‰

• This increases the initial salinity of water in the Gulf Stream

2828

Mixing with Cold Arctic WaterMixing with Cold Arctic Water

The water cools, mixes The water cools, mixes with cold water coming with cold water coming from the Arctic Ocean, from the Arctic Ocean, and becomes so and becomes so dense that it sinks, dense that it sinks, both to the south and both to the south and east of Greenlandeast of Greenland

• Note that red indicates surface flow, while blue indicates sinking or deep water flow

2929

Atlantic Atlantic OceanOcean

If we zoom out, If we zoom out, we see that this we see that this current is part current is part of a larger of a larger system, system, connecting the connecting the North Atlantic...North Atlantic...

...the tropical ...the tropical Atlantic...Atlantic...

3030

Below the SurfaceBelow the Surface

If we look below the If we look below the surface, water from the surface, water from the two main sinking two main sinking regions spreads out in regions spreads out in the subsurface the subsurface ocean...ocean...

...affecting almost all ...affecting almost all the world's oceans at the world's oceans at depths from 1000m depths from 1000m and below...and below...

• Note the sinking of waters off Antarctica

3131

Global Thermohaline Conveyor BeltGlobal Thermohaline Conveyor Belt

• The cold, dense water gradually warms and returns to the surface, throughout the world's oceans• The surface and subsurface currents, the sinking regions, and the return of water to the surface form a closed loop, the thermohaline circulation or global thermohaline conveyor belt

3232

Breakdown of THCBreakdown of THC

If some event occurs to break this self-If some event occurs to break this self-sustaining chain of processes, then there is sustaining chain of processes, then there is the potential for the circulation to break the potential for the circulation to break down rapidly (i.e., over several decades) down rapidly (i.e., over several decades) and to remain in a reduced-circulation state and to remain in a reduced-circulation state for several centuriesfor several centuries

What might cause rapid breakdown?What might cause rapid breakdown?

3333

Direct Greenhouse Warming Direct Greenhouse Warming Effect Effect

If the density of the water in the North Atlantic If the density of the water in the North Atlantic Ocean were lowered by adding fresh water (rain) Ocean were lowered by adding fresh water (rain) and/or by warming, rapid collapse of the THC can and/or by warming, rapid collapse of the THC can be envisionedbe envisioned

Increased rainfall and warming over the North Increased rainfall and warming over the North Atlantic are both expected as a result of increased Atlantic are both expected as a result of increased greenhouse gas concentrationsgreenhouse gas concentrations

This allows an argument that global warming may This allows an argument that global warming may cause a rapid collapse of the thermohaline cause a rapid collapse of the thermohaline circulation to be proposedcirculation to be proposed

Pack Ice and PermafrostPack Ice and Permafrost Pack Ice: Pack Ice: an expanse of large pieces of floating

ice driven together into a nearly continuous mass, as occurs in polar seas.

Permafrost: Permafrost: a thick subsurface layer of soil that remains frozen throughout the year, occurring chiefly in polar regions.

Iceberg: Iceberg: a large floating mass of ice detached from a glacier or ice sheet and carried out to sea.

Glacier: Glacier: a slowly moving mass or river of ice formed by the accumulation and compaction of snow on mountains or near the poles.

The AtmosphereThe Atmosphere

Origin, Composition & StructureOrigin, Composition & Structure

Formation of the Solar SystemFormation of the Solar System

Our sun and the planets originated from a Our sun and the planets originated from a solar nebula that had been enriched with solar nebula that had been enriched with heavy elements from nearby super novaeheavy elements from nearby super novae

Solar system is approximately 5 Billion Solar system is approximately 5 Billion years oldyears old

Composition is 75% hydrogen, 23% helium Composition is 75% hydrogen, 23% helium and 2% other materialsand 2% other materials

4 heavy terrestrial inner planets; 4 lighter 4 heavy terrestrial inner planets; 4 lighter jovian outer planetsjovian outer planets

Origin of AtmosphereOrigin of Atmosphere Atmosphere evolved in 4 steps: Atmosphere evolved in 4 steps:

– primordial gases, later lost due to sun's primordial gases, later lost due to sun's radiation radiation

– exhalations from the molten surface (volcanic exhalations from the molten surface (volcanic venting); bombardment from icy comets venting); bombardment from icy comets

– steady additions of carbon dioxide, water steady additions of carbon dioxide, water vapor, carbon monoxide, nitrogen, hydrogen, vapor, carbon monoxide, nitrogen, hydrogen, hydrogen chloride, ammonia, and methane hydrogen chloride, ammonia, and methane from volcanic activity from volcanic activity

– addition of oxygen by plant/bacterial life addition of oxygen by plant/bacterial life

Volcanic OutgassingVolcanic Outgassing

Atmosphere & Oceans are byproducts of heating and differentiation: as earth warmed and partially melted, water locked in the minerals as hydrogen and oxygen was released and carried to the surface by volcanic venting activity

Vapor Outgassing fromVolcanic fumarole

ATMOSPHEREATMOSPHERE Present CompositionPresent Composition

– 78% Nitrogen; 21% Oxygen; trace amounts of CO78% Nitrogen; 21% Oxygen; trace amounts of CO22, Argon, ect., Argon, ect.

Atmosphere Unique Among Other PlanetsAtmosphere Unique Among Other Planets– Venus & Mars COVenus & Mars CO22

Gaseous planets H, He, CHGaseous planets H, He, CH44

– Pressure in Venus 100x Earth on Mars 1/100Pressure in Venus 100x Earth on Mars 1/100

– Surface Temperature 450-500Surface Temperature 450-500ooC Venus; -130-25C Venus; -130-25ooC MarsC Mars

Atmospheric Gases Controlled by volcanoes and Atmospheric Gases Controlled by volcanoes and interactions between gases and the solid Earth & interactions between gases and the solid Earth & Oceans as well as biotic componentOceans as well as biotic component

Ozone (OOzone (O33): produced by photochemical Rx absorbs ): produced by photochemical Rx absorbs harmful UV radiationharmful UV radiation

Oxygen in the AtmosphereOxygen in the Atmosphere

Earth only planet in solar system with oxygen Earth only planet in solar system with oxygen thus only planet able to sustain higher forms of thus only planet able to sustain higher forms of lifelife

Oxygen produced byOxygen produced by– Photosynthesis- algae and plantsPhotosynthesis- algae and plants– Photolysis-fragmentation of water molecules into Photolysis-fragmentation of water molecules into

Hydrogen and OxygenHydrogen and Oxygen

Oxygen consumed byOxygen consumed by– RespirationRespiration– DecayDecay– Weathering (chemical oxidation)Weathering (chemical oxidation)

Oxygen in the Primitive Oxygen in the Primitive AtmosphereAtmosphere

Photosynthesis NOT important prior to Photosynthesis NOT important prior to advent of microorganisms (cyanobacteria); advent of microorganisms (cyanobacteria); only after 3.5 byonly after 3.5 by

Controlled by rate of Photolysis which was Controlled by rate of Photolysis which was controlled by the outgassing of water from controlled by the outgassing of water from volcanoes, the rate of hydrogen escaping to volcanoes, the rate of hydrogen escaping to space and the losses from weatheringspace and the losses from weathering

Structure of the AtmosphereStructure of the Atmosphere The atmosphere is a reasonably well-mixed envelope of The atmosphere is a reasonably well-mixed envelope of

gases roughly 80 km (54 mi) thick called the gases roughly 80 km (54 mi) thick called the HOMOSPHERE. HOMOSPHERE.

Above 80 Km the gases are stratified such that the Above 80 Km the gases are stratified such that the heavier gases decrease much more rapidly than the heavier gases decrease much more rapidly than the lighter ones; this is the HETEROSPHERElighter ones; this is the HETEROSPHERE

In addition, we can identify four layers in the atmosphere In addition, we can identify four layers in the atmosphere that have distinct characteristics.that have distinct characteristics.

The four layers of the atmosphere, in order from lowest The four layers of the atmosphere, in order from lowest to highest elevation, are:to highest elevation, are:– the troposphere,the troposphere,– the stratosphere,the stratosphere,– the mesosphere, the mesosphere, – the thermospherethe thermosphere

The TroposphereThe Troposphere

The density of the atmosphere decreases rapidly The density of the atmosphere decreases rapidly with increasing height. with increasing height.

The troposphere has the following The troposphere has the following characteristics:characteristics:– it is about 12 km (7 mi) thick,it is about 12 km (7 mi) thick,– the temperature decreases rapidly with altitude,the temperature decreases rapidly with altitude,– the mean temperatures at the bottom and top are the mean temperatures at the bottom and top are

16°C & -60°C,16°C & -60°C,– it is heated from below by conduction and from it is heated from below by conduction and from

condensation of water vapor,condensation of water vapor,– it is the region where you find precipitation, it is the region where you find precipitation,

evaporation, rapid convection, the major wind evaporation, rapid convection, the major wind systems, and clouds, andsystems, and clouds, and

– it is the densest layer of the atmosphere.it is the densest layer of the atmosphere.

The Tropopause/StratosphereThe Tropopause/Stratosphere Above the troposphere is a region of relatively constant Above the troposphere is a region of relatively constant

temperature, -60°C, about 10 km (6 mi) thick called the temperature, -60°C, about 10 km (6 mi) thick called the tropopause. tropopause.

This is where high velocity winds (jet streams) occur.This is where high velocity winds (jet streams) occur. The stratosphere has the following characteristics:The stratosphere has the following characteristics:

– it is about 28 km (17 mi) thick,it is about 28 km (17 mi) thick,

– the temperature increases with altitude from about -60°C to 0°C,the temperature increases with altitude from about -60°C to 0°C,

– this is where ozone, an unstable form of oxygen, appears, this is where ozone, an unstable form of oxygen, appears,

– it is heated as the ozone absorbs incoming ultraviolet radiation.it is heated as the ozone absorbs incoming ultraviolet radiation.

Stratosphere/StratopauseStratosphere/Stratopause

The stratosphere offers clear, smooth The stratosphere offers clear, smooth conditions for flyingconditions for flying

No air exchange between it and No air exchange between it and tropospheretroposphere

Gases and aerosols can persist for Gases and aerosols can persist for months or years triggering short term months or years triggering short term climatic variationsclimatic variations

A constant temperature condition is A constant temperature condition is described as described as isothermalisothermal

The stratopause is at 0The stratopause is at 0ooCC

Mesosphere/Mesopause/ThermosphereMesosphere/Mesopause/Thermosphere

MesosphereMesosphere temperatures fall with temperatures fall with increasisng altitude until they reach the increasisng altitude until they reach the MesopauseMesopause at at 80Km80Km and and -95-95ooCC

Above the mesopause is the Thermosphere Above the mesopause is the Thermosphere where temperatures are isothermal for where temperatures are isothermal for 10Km then rise rapidly with increasing 10Km then rise rapidly with increasing altitudealtitude

The thermosphere is very sensitive to The thermosphere is very sensitive to incoming solar radiation incoming solar radiation

The IonosphereThe Ionosphere

From between 70 and 80Km in the From between 70 and 80Km in the Thermosphere to an indefinite altitude in the Thermosphere to an indefinite altitude in the ThermosphereThermosphere

High concentration of ions of Oxygen and High concentration of ions of Oxygen and NitrogenNitrogen

Solar wind strips electrons from these atoms Solar wind strips electrons from these atoms and moleculesand molecules

IonosphereIonosphere

Aurora AustralisAurora Australis

NASA Images from Space

The BiosphereThe Biosphere

Chapter 8Chapter 8

What is What is ECOLOGYECOLOGY 1866 German Biologist Ernst Haeckel first 1866 German Biologist Ernst Haeckel first

coined the term coined the term ecology.ecology. Came from the Greek word Came from the Greek word oikosoikos meaning meaning

“house”“house” Defined today as Defined today as the study of interactions the study of interactions

among living organisms and their among living organisms and their environmentenvironment

Energy FlowEnergy Flow The sun is the main The sun is the main

source of energy for source of energy for life on earth.life on earth.

< 1 % of all sunlight < 1 % of all sunlight that reaches earth that reaches earth is used by living is used by living organisms.organisms.

What happens to What happens to the rest?the rest?

Most is reflected off Most is reflected off as heat energy.as heat energy.

Producers or AutotrophsProducers or Autotrophs

Use sunlight or chemicals to make their Use sunlight or chemicals to make their own food.own food.

Examples:Examples:

6CO6CO22 + 6H + 6H22O CO C66HH1212OO66 + 6O + 6O22

Performed on land by plants and in water by Performed on land by plants and in water by algae.algae.

Can organisms make their own Can organisms make their own food without the aid of sunlight?food without the aid of sunlight?

Chemosynthesis: using chemical energy to Chemosynthesis: using chemical energy to make carbohydrates.make carbohydrates.

Usually performed bacteria found in harsh Usually performed bacteria found in harsh environmentsenvironments– Ocean vents, volcanoes, hot-acidicOcean vents, volcanoes, hot-acidic

Consumers or heterotrophsConsumers or heterotrophs

HerbivoresHerbivores CarnivoresCarnivores OmnivoresOmnivores DetritivoresDetritivores DecomposersDecomposers

HerbivoresHerbivores CarnivoresCarnivores OmnivoresOmnivores DetritivoresDetritivores DecomposersDecomposers

Food ChainsFood Chains

te rt ia ry co n su m er(la rg e f ish )

se co nd a ry co n su m er(sm a ll f ish )

p rim a ry co n su m er(p la nk to n)

P ro du cer(a lg a e)

te rt ia ry co n su m er(la rg e f ish )

se co nd a ry co n su m er(sm a ll f ish )

p rim a ry co n su m er(p la nk to n)

P ro du cer(a lg a e)

Food WebsFood Webs More complex than food chainsMore complex than food chains A complex net of interactions among A complex net of interactions among

organisms. (organisms. (interdependenceinterdependence))

Trophic LevelsTrophic Levels Each location or step in a food chain or food Each location or step in a food chain or food

web represents a trophic level.web represents a trophic level. Examples: producers, primary consumers, Examples: producers, primary consumers,

secondary consumers, etc.secondary consumers, etc.

Ecological pyramidsEcological pyramids Only about ten Only about ten

percent of the percent of the energy available energy available within a trophic within a trophic level is transferred level is transferred to oragnisms at the to oragnisms at the next higher level.next higher level.

Other pyramids:Other pyramids: Biomass and numbersBiomass and numbers

Cycles of matterCycles of matter Unlike energy, matter is constantly being Unlike energy, matter is constantly being

recycled in an ecosystem.recycled in an ecosystem. Known as Known as biogeochemicalbiogeochemical cycles cycles

TranspirationTranspiration The release of water from the leaves of The release of water from the leaves of

plants.plants. Water is exchanged through a plant’s Water is exchanged through a plant’s

stomata.stomata. Evaporation is the second process that Evaporation is the second process that

releases water into the atmosphere.releases water into the atmosphere.

Carbon CycleCarbon Cycle1.1. Biological processes (photosynthesis, Biological processes (photosynthesis,

respiration, decomposition)respiration, decomposition)

2.2. Geochemical processes (volcanoes)Geochemical processes (volcanoes)

3.3. Biogeochemical (fossil fuels)Biogeochemical (fossil fuels)

4.4. Human activity (factories, deforestation, Human activity (factories, deforestation, car exhaust)car exhaust)

Nitrogen CycleNitrogen Cycle All organisms need nitrogen to live.All organisms need nitrogen to live. Most abundant gas in atmosphere (80%)Most abundant gas in atmosphere (80%) Nitrogen gas is unusable for plantsNitrogen gas is unusable for plants Must be “fixed” or changed into the nitrate or Must be “fixed” or changed into the nitrate or

nitrite form by bacteria in the soil. Known as nitrite form by bacteria in the soil. Known as nitrogen fixationnitrogen fixation

Phosphorus cyclePhosphorus cycle P is important in the production of DNA and P is important in the production of DNA and

RNA.RNA. Unlike water,oxygen, and nitrogen, Unlike water,oxygen, and nitrogen,

phosphorus is NOT found in the phosphorus is NOT found in the atmosphere. Found in rocks and minerals.atmosphere. Found in rocks and minerals.

Nutrient LimitationNutrient Limitation When a single nutrient is scarce for a When a single nutrient is scarce for a

particular ecosystem and limits the growth of particular ecosystem and limits the growth of organisms in that ecosystemorganisms in that ecosystem

Populations and CommunitiesPopulations and Communities

Chapter 9Chapter 9

A little vocab…A little vocab… EcologyEcology - the study of - the study of

how organisms interact how organisms interact with their environmentwith their environment

OrganismOrganism - a living thing - a living thing

HabitatHabitat - the specific - the specific environment that provides environment that provides the things an organism the things an organism needs to live, grow, and needs to live, grow, and reproducereproduce

Living or Nonliving?Living or Nonliving?

Biotic FactorBiotic Factor - living parts of a habitat - living parts of a habitat

– ExamplesExamples - flowers, worm, frog - flowers, worm, frog

Abiotic FactorAbiotic Factor - nonliving part of a - nonliving part of a habitathabitat

– ExamplesExamples - water, sunlight, oxygen - water, sunlight, oxygen

The Line-UpThe Line-Up SpeciesSpecies - group of organisms that - group of organisms that

mate and reproducemate and reproduce

PopulationPopulation - all members of - all members of oneone species in a particular areaspecies in a particular area

CommunityCommunity - all - all differentdifferent populations that live in an areapopulations that live in an area

EcosystemEcosystem - a community - a community including its surrounding including its surrounding environment (abiotic factors)environment (abiotic factors)

Types of ObservationsTypes of Observations

Direct ObservationDirect Observation - counting all - counting all individuals by onesindividuals by ones

Indirect ObservationIndirect Observation - counting the “signs” - counting the “signs” of an individualof an individual

Methods of StudyMethods of Study SamplingSampling - taking an - taking an

estimate of a type of estimate of a type of organism in an areaorganism in an area

Mark-and-Recapture Mark-and-Recapture StudiesStudies - catch an - catch an organism, mark it, then organism, mark it, then releaserelease

Population FluctuationPopulation Fluctuation Birth RateBirth Rate - # of births in a population during a - # of births in a population during a

specific timespecific time

Death RateDeath Rate - # of deaths in a population during a - # of deaths in a population during a specific timespecific time

If birth rate is > than death rate, then population is If birth rate is > than death rate, then population is ________________________

If birth rate is < than death rate, then population is If birth rate is < than death rate, then population is ________________________

Population FluctuationPopulation Fluctuation

ImmigrationImmigration - organisms moving - organisms moving intointo a population a population

EmigrationEmigration - organisms moving - organisms moving outout of a of a populationpopulation

Population Growth Equation:Population Growth Equation:

(B - D) + (I - E) = N(B - D) + (I - E) = N

*If N is a positive #, the population is increasing*If N is a positive #, the population is increasing

Population FluctuationPopulation Fluctuation

Population DensityPopulation Density - # of individuals in - # of individuals in a specific areaa specific area

Population Density Equation:Population Density Equation:

# individuals# individuals

Unit areaUnit area

Population FactorsPopulation Factors Limiting FactorLimiting Factor - an environmental factor that - an environmental factor that

causes a population to decreasecauses a population to decrease– Examples:Examples: food and water, space and weather food and water, space and weather

Carrying Capacity (K)Carrying Capacity (K) - the largest population that - the largest population that an area can carryan area can carry

The TheoryThe Theory Natural SelectionNatural Selection – –

individuals who have the individuals who have the best characteristics are best characteristics are more likely to survive and more likely to survive and produce offspringproduce offspring

– Charles DarwinCharles Darwin – (1809 – – (1809 – 1882) father of evolutionary 1882) father of evolutionary biologybiology

A Place in the WorldA Place in the World AdaptationsAdaptations – a physical characteristic – a physical characteristic

that helps an organism live in an area that helps an organism live in an area – Example:Example: cacti in the desert cacti in the desert

NicheNiche – the role of an organism in its – the role of an organism in its habitat, or how it makes its livinghabitat, or how it makes its living– type of food I eattype of food I eat– Who else eats youWho else eats you– Whether you need to surviveWhether you need to survive

The FightThe Fight

CompetitionCompetition – the struggle (fight) between – the struggle (fight) between two organism to get the same thingtwo organism to get the same thing

Let’s Eat!Let’s Eat! PredationPredation – when one organism kills – when one organism kills

another for foodanother for food

– PredatorPredator – dominant organism – dominant organism Predator AdaptationsPredator Adaptations – help them catch and kill – help them catch and kill

their preytheir prey

– PreyPrey – inferior organism – inferior organism Prey Defense StrategiesPrey Defense Strategies – certain adaptations to – certain adaptations to

prevent being killed by predatorsprevent being killed by predators– Skunk, poison ivy, porcupinesSkunk, poison ivy, porcupines

RelationshipsRelationships MutualismMutualism – both species benefit – both species benefit

– ExampleExample – hippo and bird – hippo and bird

CommensalismCommensalism – one species benefits and the – one species benefits and the other is neither helped nor harmedother is neither helped nor harmed– ExampleExample – clown fish and sea anemone – clown fish and sea anemone

ParasitismParasitism – one species is benefited and the – one species is benefited and the other is harmed. Doesn’t kill because it needs other is harmed. Doesn’t kill because it needs the host to livethe host to live– ExampleExample – head lice, ringworm, tape worm, ticks – head lice, ringworm, tape worm, ticks

RelationshipRelationship Species OneSpecies One Species TwoSpecies Two

MutualismMutualism ++ ++

CommensalismCommensalism ++ OO

ParasitismParasitism ++ --

Populations and CommunitiesPopulations and Communities

Changes in CommunitiesChanges in Communities

Primary SuccessionPrimary Succession Where no soil or organisms existWhere no soil or organisms exist

– Example: rocks after volcano erupts or Example: rocks after volcano erupts or glaciersglaciers

Pioneer SpeciesPioneer Species – the very first – the very first organisms that inhabit an areaorganisms that inhabit an area– How do they get there?How do they get there?

wind, water, other organisms carry themwind, water, other organisms carry them

– What are they?What are they? Lichens and mossLichens and moss

Secondary SuccessionSecondary Succession

A series of changes in an area where the A series of changes in an area where the ecosystem has been disturbed, but the soil ecosystem has been disturbed, but the soil and organisms still existand organisms still exist– Example – tornadoes, hurricanes, fires, Example – tornadoes, hurricanes, fires,

logging, and farminglogging, and farming– Faster rate of successionFaster rate of succession

Succession DiagramSuccession Diagram

ECOSYSTEMS?ECOSYSTEMS?Chapter 10Chapter 10

Where Things LiveWhere Things Live

Living things need a place to live and grow.Living things need a place to live and grow.

Fish live in water.Fish live in water.

Birds live in trees and fly through Birds live in trees and fly through the the air.air.

Plants grow where there is soil, Plants grow where there is soil, water water and sun.and sun.

Main Idea and DetailsMain Idea and Details

Living things need a place to live

and grow.

Fish live in water.Birds live in treesand fly in the air.

Plants grow where there is soil, water

and sun.

ENVIRONMENTENVIRONMENT

The living and The living and nonliving things that nonliving things that surround a living thing surround a living thing make up its make up its environment.environment.

What do living things get from their What do living things get from their environments?environments?

Many living things share their Many living things share their environments and its resources.environments and its resources.

1.1. FoodFood

2.2. WaterWater

3.3. OxygenOxygen

4.4. SpaceSpace

Parts of an EcosystemParts of an Ecosystem

An An ecosystemecosystem is made up of all the living is made up of all the living and nonliving things in an and nonliving things in an environmentenvironment..

Different types of organisms live Different types of organisms live in an in an ecosystem.ecosystem.

A group of organisms of the same kind living in the same place is a population.

All the population that live in an All the population that live in an ecosystem at the same time form a ecosystem at the same time form a community.community.

All members of a community All members of a community live in the same ecosystem but live in the same ecosystem but they do not all live in the same they do not all live in the same

part of the ecosystem.part of the ecosystem.

Where Plants and Animals Where Plants and Animals LiveLive

HabitatHabitat is a place where plants and is a place where plants and animals lives.animals lives.

It is a place where they can meet It is a place where they can meet their needs.their needs.

Animals get Animals get foodfood,, water water, and , and sheltershelter from their habitat,from their habitat,

Organisms and their HabitatsOrganisms and their Habitats

Some organisms can survive only in certain Some organisms can survive only in certain habitats.habitats.

For example, a polar could not find the For example, a polar could not find the water it needs in a desert.water it needs in a desert.

Classify Living and Nonliving thingsClassify Living and Nonliving things

Living ThingsLiving Things Non Living ThingsNon Living Things

Air

Rocks

Cave

Soil

water

Fish

Water lily

Plants

Animals

People

Use the following tree map to Use the following tree map to write a lesson summary. write a lesson summary.

Parts of an

Ecosystem

Populations Communities Habitats

Types of EcosystemsTypes of Ecosystems

Deserts are very dry Deserts are very dry ecosystems.ecosystems.

Desert plants and Desert plants and animals can survive animals can survive with very little water.with very little water.

Desert PlantsDesert Plants

Desert plants, such as Desert plants, such as cactus, have thick cactus, have thick stems that store water.stems that store water.

The roots of a cactus The roots of a cactus lie just below the soil lie just below the soil and spread far from and spread far from the plant. the plant.

Grassland EcosystemsGrassland Ecosystems

Grasslands are dry, Grasslands are dry, often flat areas of land often flat areas of land that are hot in the that are hot in the summer and cold in summer and cold in the winter.the winter.

They get more rain They get more rain and snow than deserts and snow than deserts but less that most but less that most other ecosystems.other ecosystems.

Plants Plants

The main plant in a The main plant in a grassland ecosystem grassland ecosystem is grass. is grass.

There are not many There are not many bushes in the bushes in the grassland. grassland.

Trees are found only Trees are found only by rivers and streams. by rivers and streams.

Saltwater EcosystemsSaltwater Ecosystems Saltwater ecosystems are oceans.Saltwater ecosystems are oceans. Oceans cover about three –fourths of Oceans cover about three –fourths of

Earth’s surface, so there are more Earth’s surface, so there are more saltwater ecosystems than any other.saltwater ecosystems than any other.

Sharks, sea turtles, corals and Sharks, sea turtles, corals and octopus are all ocean animals.octopus are all ocean animals.

So are whales and seals.So are whales and seals.

Freshwater EcosystemsFreshwater Ecosystems

Rivers, ponds, lakes and Rivers, ponds, lakes and streams have fresh water.streams have fresh water.

Lakes and rivers are closely Lakes and rivers are closely tied. Some lakes are the source tied. Some lakes are the source for some rivers. Important rivers, for some rivers. Important rivers, most often, originate from lakes. most often, originate from lakes. Some rivers end in lakes. Some rivers end in lakes.

Since both rivers and lakes are Since both rivers and lakes are freshwater and flow in and out freshwater and flow in and out of each other, they share similar of each other, they share similar characteristics and many characteristics and many species reside in both habitats. species reside in both habitats.

Forest EcosystemsForest Ecosystems

Forest are ecosystems in which many trees grow.

Tropical Rain ForestTropical Rain Forest

A tropical rain forest A tropical rain forest grows where it is hot grows where it is hot and wet all year long.and wet all year long.

Animals such as Animals such as jaguars and monkeys jaguars and monkeys live there.live there.

Deciduous ForestDeciduous Forest

What's A Temperate Deciduous What's A Temperate Deciduous Forest Like?Forest Like?

OOne of the most interesting ne of the most interesting features of the temperate features of the temperate deciduous forest is its deciduous forest is its changing seasons. .

The word "deciduous" means The word "deciduous" means exactly what the leaves on these exactly what the leaves on these trees do: change color in autumn, trees do: change color in autumn, fall off in the winter, and grow back fall off in the winter, and grow back again in the spring. This adaptation again in the spring. This adaptation helps trees in the forest survive helps trees in the forest survive winter. winter.

Drawing ConclusionsDrawing Conclusions

Suppose all the plants in one ecosystem Suppose all the plants in one ecosystem died.died.

What do you think would happen to that What do you think would happen to that ecosystem?ecosystem?

Why?Why?

EcosystemEcosystem What I look like What I look likeDesert

Rain ForestRains every day and has many trees and plants

Hot and dry

Deciduous Forest Enough rain for trees to grow. They lose their leaves in the fall.

Made up of rivers, ponds, lakes and streams and my water does not have much salt

Freshwater Ecosystems